History 2 / Unit 1 / Visual Evidence 1D Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
The trans-regional, cosmopolitan Roman Empire fostered cultural exchanges across borders, includ- ing the creative cross-fertilization of religious art and ideas. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-1 Model of Roman Jerusalem
The massive development of the Temple complex by King Herod followed Hellenistic and Roman conventions for imperial urban design and architectural details. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-2 Theater, Roman Jerusalem
An example of the infusion of Hellenistic culture into Roman-controlled Palestine. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-3 Roman Jerusalem, City Plan
In what ways has the city been transformed by the Roman presence? Compare with ear- lier city plans? Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-4 The Spoils of Jerusalem Relief panel from the Arch of Titus Rome, Italy, after 81 CE.
Relief from the Arch of Titus showing the em- peror Titus after the destruction of Jerusalem. Spoils from the temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah, a seven-branched candlestick, are carried in the triumphal procession.
The Roman destruction of Jerusalem began the Jewish diaspora that planted Jewish com- munities throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-5 Wall Painting featuring the Ark of the Cov- enant and Menorah
Wherever the Jews went in the course of their wanderings, they endeavored to pre- serve this custom of their fathers as far as permitted; and they did so at Rome, in lower Italy, Carthage, Cyrene, etc. The Talmud gives a detailed description of this kind of tomb, the chief characteristic of which is that the bodies were placed in niches in the subterranean vaults. The Christian catacombs doubtless originated in imitation of this Jewish custom.
The underground burial sites feature tombs carved into the volcanic stone. During the 3rd and 4th century CE the catacombs were fully developed and contained several thou- sand burial sites. Some sites have decorations such as flowers and animals, and also Jewish faith subjects such as the Ark of the Cov- enant and the Menorah. Visual Evidence 1D ~ Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire History 2, Unit 1
Image # 1D-6 From a sarcophagus in the Jewish catacomb of the Vigna Randanini in Rome, 4th century, C.E. The Jewish menorah co-exists here with motifs of Hellenistic Hellenization of Judaism pagan art, such as personifications of the seasons and the three putti (cubby child figures) treading grapes. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-7
(Left) Bronze statue of Isis nursing Horus Egypt, 600-30 BCE
The Egyptian god Isis was worshipped as the mother goddess, the goddess of fertility, and was married to Osiris. Osiris was murdered by Isis’ brother but was brought back to life long enough to conceive a son, Horus. Horus avenged his father’s death and became king.
(Right) Isis Nuring Horus
Egyptian, Third Intermediate Period, Dynasty 21–25, 1070–656 B.C. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-8 Roman Isis Ritual
A fresco from the buried Roman city of Herculaneum, destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 C.E., depicts a ceremony at a temple of Isis. In the center, at the top of the steps, a priest holds a covered urn. The priestess to his right shakes a rattle, and to his left a Black priest holds a staff. The multieth- nic worshipers gather below, where another Black priest watches over a priestess sacrific- ing ducks, joined by one musician playing a flute and others shaking rattles.
This and other polytheistic (or “pagan”) religious ceremonies were held in full public view, consistent with the policies of ancient governments that generally forbade secret meetings of any kind of organization. Why do you think there might have been Black par- ticipants at religious rites honoring the god- dess Isis? Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-9 Parthian Mithras Provenance: unknown but apparently from Roman Syria.
Mithraism, the worship of Mithra, the Persian god of the sun, justice, contract, and war in pre-Zoroastrian Iran. Known as Mithras in the Roman Empire during the 2nd and 3rd centuries C.E., this deity was honored as the patron of loyalty to the emperor.
The most important Mithraic ceremony was the sacrifice of the bull. The central scene shows Mithras, in Parthian-style clothes, and wearing boots, killing the bull. On his belt hang two sheaths containing daggers or swords, and he holds a third in his right hand.
The central scene shows a conventional Mithras, in Parthian-style clothes, and wearing boots, killing the bull. On his belt hang two sheaths containing daggers or swords, and he holds a third in his right hand. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-10 Roman Mithras 2nd or 3rd century found at Fiano Romano, near Rome.
Roman Mithraism, like Iranian Mithraism, was a religion of loyalty toward the emperor. It seems to have been encouraged by the emperors, especially Commodus (180–192), Septimius Severus (193–211), and Caracalla (211–217). Most adherents of Mithra known to us from inscriptions are soldiers of both low and high rank, officials in the service of the emperor, imperial slaves, and freed- men (who quite often were very influential people)—persons who probably knew which god would lead them to quick promotion. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-11 Mithratic Banquet Hall Underneath the Basilica of San Clemente Rome, 2nd century
The main way of celebrating in this religion was to have great banquets. In the lower level of the San Clemente diggings there’s a fine Mithraic dining room. The Bull in this myth was the symbol of fertility, and the religion was a cosmic, seasonal one. The banquets and ceremonies usually took place underground, in grottoes. Stars were often painted on the ceiling to represent the heavens.
The religion was severely moral, loyalty and fidelity being extolled above all else. Conse- cration to Mithras guaranteed salvation, for Mithras had won life for the world and was himself in heaven as reward for his obedience to the message of Apollo.
After the acceptance of Christianity by the emperor Constantine in the early 4th century, Mithraism rapidly declined. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-12 Hellenization of Early Christianity: Jesus as Roman Shepard Boy
12a This graceful statue blends Greek and Ro- man influences with a Christian subject. The casual pose of the shepherd with his easy contrapposto and dreamy gaze shows that the influence of Praxiteles, the fourth-century B.C. Greek sculptor, was still strong in Roman art after more than five centuries. The short cloak worn by the figure was a typical cos- tume of shepherds in the art of the times.
12b Jesus as Shepard Eastern Mediterranean, probably Anatolia (Turkey). Second half of the 3rd century. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-13 Jesus as Greek Philosopher Cubiculum of Leonis, Catacomb of Commodilla, Rome, late 4th c.
In this Roman catacomb painting, Peter strikes a rock and water flows from it. Peter became rock on which Jesus founded the church. In the right niche, two martyrs flank Jesus who is consid- ered a teacher. On the ceiling star-stud- ded heavens are painted and the face of Jesus floats above, with the inscriptions for alpha and omega. Jesus takes on the role of a greek philosopher. The halo around his head indicates his divinity. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-14 Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, 359 C.E.
The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus is a marble sarcophagus from the early Christian era used for the burial of Junius Bassus, who died in 359 in Rome. It has been described as “probably the single most famous piece of early Christian relief sculpture.” The sarcoph- agus is decorated with elaborate carvings of Christian themes, and a complicated icono- graphic program embracing the Old and New Testaments. The sarcophagus has been seen as reflecting a blending of late Hellenis- tic style with the emerging Roman style. top register: Sacrifice of Isaac, St. Peter taken Prisoner, Christ Enthroned between Peter and Paul, Jesus before Pontius Pilate (two compart- ments) bottom register: Suffering of Job, Temptation of Adam and Eve, Jesus’ Entry into Jerusalem, Daniel in the Lion’s Den, St. Paul led to his martyrdom. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-14a Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (detail)
The detail shown here depicts Christ enthroned between Peter and Paul, with his feet on the head of Caelus, the classical personification of the heavens, symbolizing his displacement of the pagan gods. Christ is presented a youthful, beardless figure with shortish hair (though longer than that of other figures), which is typical of Christian art at this period. Christ appears in the center, between his chief followers, Peter and Paul. Christ hands Peter a scroll, probably representing the Gospels, as em- perors were often shown doing to their heirs, ministers or generals. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire Image # 1D-15 Madonna and Child, Ethiopia
Christianity took root slowly in Ethiopia from the third decade of the 4th century. Some 150 years later, missionaries from Syria translated the Bible into Ethiopic. The Islamic conquest of neighbor- ing Egypt in 640-641 isolated Ethiopia from other Christian countries for the best part of a millenni- um. The Ethiopic Church was able to maintain only tenuous links with the rest of Christianity through the Coptic Church in Egypt, which managed to survive under its country’s Islamic rulers.
This particular icon features Mary, called the Holy Mother of God by Ethiopian Christians, with the Christ child on one side. On the other, the Cov- enant of Mercy is depicted. Like many icons pro- duced at the Gondar workshops, this one is a diptych. Comprised of two panels hinged together, diptychs were often small in size and could be folded in half for greater portability, a quality that made them a favored form of devotional art in Europe as well as Africa. Although the primary func- tion of icons was the facilitation of communication with the divine, in Ethiopia, icons were also believed to have the power to ward off evil. Objects such as the one pictured here were often worn about the neck as amulets. Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-16 Madonna and Child Ethiopia Visual Evidence 1D History 2, Unit 1
Cultural Exchanges in the Roman Empire
Image # 1D-17 Jesus and John the Baptist Ethiopia