Duncanrig Secondary School Dept. of Design, Engineering & Technology

National 4 / 5

Design & Manufacture - Revision Notes Contents

01 Exam Preparation Technique 02 The Design Process 03 The Design Team 04 Design Brief and Design Brief Analysis 05 Initial Research and Specifications 06 Design Factors Overview 07 Function and Performance 08 Fitness for Purpose 09 - 10 Ergonomics and sample answers 11 – 12 Aesthetics and Sample answers 13 – 14 Market 15 Society and the Environment 16 Idea Generation Techniques 17 Idea Development and Modelling Techniques 18 Graphics and Illustration Techniques 19 Evaluation Techniques 20 Materials Properties 21 Selecting Materials 22 Planning for manufacture, seq. of operations and cutting lists 23 Wooden Materials 24 – 25 hand 26 – 27 Wood Carcase and Flat Frame Joints 28 Sample answer for answering manufacture type questions. 29 Wood finishes 30 – 31 Wood Lathe 32 – 33 Metal Materials 34 Metal and Plastic Hand Tolls 35 Metal Joining Techniques 36 Metal Finishes 37 Sand Casting 38 Die Casting, Piercing/Blanking and Shearing/Notching 39 – 40 Metal Lathe 41 Threading Metal 42 Hot Forming Metal 43 Cold Forming Metal 44 Extrusion of Metal and Plastic 45 Plastic Materials 46 Forming Plastics, Injection Moulding and Vacuum Forming 47 Rotational Moulding, Joining and Finishing Plastics 48 Vices, Clamping and Gluing 49 Screws, Nails and Knock down fittings. 50 51 Power Tools 52 Computer Aided Manufacture 53 3D Printing and Laser Cutting 54 Manufacturing affecting Society 55 Safety in the Workshop Exam Preparation What makes up my grade in Design and Manufacture? The exam has written questions to test Knowledge and Understanding in Design and Manufacture. A grade A, B, C or D is awarded at National 5. 55% of your course award is made up of the practical assignment where you design and manufacture an item for a task set by the SQA. The exam is worth 45%. All of these elements are equally important and are combined to give you an overall grade for Design and Manufacture Study Tips • Start revising as early as possible inS3 and S4 • Choose a study room that is quiet and comfortable • Use study methods that suit you and check with your teacher to get ideas on how to do this. Similarly research study techniques online. • Make a study timetable and keep to it. Short revision periods with regular breaks are better than all day cramming. • Use your revision notes and past paper questions to prepare for Knowledge and Interpretation Exam Technique • Make sure you know the time and place of each exam Read over all the questions on the paper • Answer easier questions first. Don’t get bogged down on difficult questions—come back to them later • Answer all the questions even if you're not sure. writing something is better than nothing. • Keep drawings and written answers neat and tidy • Take all the time that is allocated for the exam—try to allow time to read over/checkall your answers at theend. • Make sure you read the question carefully and that you answer what has been asked.

Answering State, Describe and Explain type questions 1. State Present in brief form. Similar words: give, identify, list, state. Example: Q: State the colour and shape of the following diagram. A: Blue,

2. Describing Give details of characteristics and/or features of something. More detail is required than what you would give for state. For example you may describe the process/stages for a concept, process, experiment, situation or facts, but do not simply list words, you must write descriptive sentences. You should outline a description but do not require justification.

Example: Q: Describe the colour blue. A: Blue is a cold, sophisticated colour which can also create emotions of sadness.

3. Explaining: When you explain, you don't just write information - you also need to give reasons that backup/justify what you are saying – the “because” part.

Example: Q: Explain the geometric form of a square. A: A square is considered geometric because it is made from straight lines, has four equal sides and all corners are at 90 degrees.

1 Design and the Design Process WHAT IS DESIGN? •It is how we as designers solve everyday problems in our environment but, it is much more than simply problem solving. •It helps us to realise and create many ideas that will lead to innovative new products that will help people in their daily lives. •Through continuous design, new and innovative products are constantly being created. •It is a large process that involves many steps to create effective working products from initial thoughts through to testing, manufacture and evaluation. •It affects our society and ourselves. Imagine life without transport, iPods, television and computers. How do some of these designs affect you? •Outside factors affect design such as current technologies and fashions etc. •Designers can gives us good and bad design that can help or disrupt our way of life/working. •Every product you use, from clothes to food and entertainment has been designed using a common design process.

The Design Process 1. PROBLEM/BRIEF

10. MANUFACTURE 2. ANALYSIS

9. EVALUATION 3. RESEARCH AND INVESTIGATION /TESTING

DESIGN CYCLE 8. PLANNING FOR 4. REQUIRED SPECIFICATION MANUFACTURE

7. SOLUTION 5. INITIAL IDEAS

6. IDEAS DEVELOPMENT

STAGE WHAT IS IT? WHAT HAPPENS HERE Problem/Brief At this stage a problem is realised and a design brief written up which explains 1. the problem and 2. gives an indication of a very early solution (the brief). Analysis At this stage the designer will consider the various design factors that may affect the products design (e.g. (See next page for design materials, manufacture, economics and so on). A mind map/brainstorm/bubble diagram is usually drawn to factors/considerations) show your line of thought. (See the next page for design factors/issues that should be considered).

Research/Investigation More detailed than analysis. At this stage you will begin to focus your research based on what design considerations you feel are the most important from your analysis. Required Specification A specific list of all of the things that your design must achieve to ensure that the problem/brief is solved.

Initial Ideas Begin sketching ideas of possible solutions to your problem and evaluate each to find the best poten- tial solutions. Ideas Development Develop your best idea or ideas to determine the final solution and continue to evaluate these ideas in relation to your specification. Solution Draw up your final solution and evaluate it. Planning for manufacture A list of the steps you will take to construct your solution. This will also have to consist of working drawings and a cutting list. Evaluation and Testing The client, consumers, design team and safety technicians can begin testing the product to see if it is fit for purpose. Any problems that arise will have to solved. The design team will go back to previous stages of the design process to evaluate how best to resolve these problems. After which, they will apply these changes and test the product again until it is right. Manufacture Once the product is finished and everyone involved is completely satisfied the product can go into final production, ready to be sold to the consumer.

2 The Design Team People often think of design as being the product of one person. However, working alongside the designer is a number of people that make up a design team. Each person has a specific job to do and is a specialist in their area. Although the designer will normally provide the vision for the solution the rest of the design team must advise them on matters such as costing, manufacture and market to ensure the product is feasible and will appeal to consumers. Good design teams communicate effectively and will capitalise on the skills of each member to ensure the best design is achieved. The following members of the design team listed below are instrumental in ensuring successful product development.

Designer: Person who designs a product for a client. The designer will have a wide area of knowledge ranging from: market, manufacture, consumer wants and needs. This allows the designer to design a product that satisfies a particular clients needs.

Market Team: Marketing teams research the market, compiling data from consumers. The team will then inform the design team to ensure a successful end product can be made.

Ergonomist: Person who specialises in ergonomic data such as anthropometrics etc.

Economist: Person who deals with market economics. This may involve looking at the current cost of certain products on the market, costing of competitor products and the cost of materials.

Engineers: Person who deals with the technical aspects of building and producing a product. The engineer will have specialist knowledge of materials and how to construct any given product.

Manufacturer: Person who deals with manufacture. Unlike the engineer, the manufacturer will focus specifically on the processes required to make a product and what machinery/processes can be used to do this.

Accountant: Person who deals with costing and budgeting. The accountant will look over project finances and ensure that the project stays within its budget.

Retailer: A company or business that will stock and sell the end product.

Consumer: The end user of a product, the person who buys and uses it.

How do members of the design team link together?

The following diagram shows how each member of the design teams links with another during the product design process.

Designer: •Has to work with everyone to ensure the best possbile outcome is reached. Market Researcher: •Designer, Marketing Team, Consumer, Retailer. Accountant: •Designer, Manufacturer, Economist, Retailer. Engineers: •Manufacturer, Designer, Economist. Manufacturer: •Designer, Accountant, Engineer, Economist. Ergonomist: •Consumers, Designer, market researcher. Economist: •Manufacturer, Designer, Accountant. Marketing Team •Retailer, Designer, Consumers, Market Researchers. Retailer: •Marketing Team, Designer, Consumers, Market Researchers. Consumer: •Retailer, Marketing Team, Market Researcher.

3 Design Brief and Brief Analysis Once a problem has been identified, a design brief is produced. A design brief is often the starting point of the design process. A design brief will outline the problem, provide the designer with an indication of what must be done, and set down any restrictions that must be adhered to in the design. Design briefs often take two forms:

• Open briefs are very open to interpretation and will have few restrictions placed upon the designer. Open briefs allow the designer to be more expressive and have more say over the final design.

• Closed briefs are restrictive. They will normally tell the designer what must be adhered to and will limit the amount of say a designer will have in the final design.

Design-brief analysis After the design brief is produced, the design team will analyse all of it. This normally takes the form of a mind map and seeks to identify everything to be done, including areas for further research. Here is an example design brief:

Problem: We are a popular restaurant chain looking to expand into the student market, offering fast-food restaurants with affordable produce and a relaxed setting.

Brief: We would like you to design seating and tables that would be suitable and appealing to the student market.

The analysis of this brief may include the following:

This basic example shows some of the questions or aspects the design team will have to consider. Once these are identified, research can begin to find answers to these aspects so that an effective solution can be developed. RESEARCH After a brief has been written up, the design team will begin conducting research. Note that research can also be carried out before the brief to help to establish new markets and products for development. Market research helps to: • establish what it is consumers need/want • find potential gaps in the market • assess current products on the market to see what they offer • establish areas for improving these products • gain data on how to best design your product. During the design process, designers will also look for research to be carried out during the ongoing development of ideas. This ensures that any products being developed will meet the requirements of the client, consumer and design specification. There are many evaluation techniques that can be used to conduct research. (see next page). 4 Research Techniques The following two research techniques are often used to conduct research as part of a design brief analysis.

Questionnaires/surveys Questionnaires/surveys are a good way of collecting a large number of responses quickly. They are useful when evaluating factors such as aesthetics, where pictures can be shown and questions asked to determine the consumer’s preferences with regard to appearance and styling. We can also evaluate factors like function; however, doing this in depth would be difficult via a survey, as the user cannot physically use the product and can only guess how it works from a picture and questions.

Once the design brief has been analysed and key areas of research considered, the marketing team will write up questions to distribute to consumers. These questions will seek to answer the issues outlined in the brief analysis. Survey questions must be well considered to ensure the responses collected are useful and give us the information we require. For example:

• Do you like the kettle shown? Yes or No. This only tells us whether or not a user likes the kettle and nothing specific about its aesthetics therefore our results are limited. • To improve responses and get more information, we may include pictures of several kettles and ask the consumer: On a scale of 1–5, with 5 being excellent, how would you rate the colour scheme of each of the following kettles? • We could go further by asking the user to provide reasons to the previous question to gain more insight into consumer opinion. • This response will ensure the data generated from the survey provides us with useful information we can take forward into the design stage.

User trips A user trip involves the designer physically using and testing a product. This design analysis can relate to points highlighted from a brief analysis and will help the designer to determine potential issues/areas for improvement for the product in question. User trips can also be used to identify market opportunities for new product developments.

To carry out a user trip, the designer will outline specific activities that are to be carried out in relation to the users in question. The designer may then consider questions such as:

• Who will be using the product and what issues may occur for different types of users? • What does the user want the product to do? • How will the product be used? • How will the product perform when carrying out specific functions before, during and after use? • In what sort of environment will the product be used? • What are the priorities when using the product? For example, which functions will be used most often?

The designer can record this information in several ways such as note taking, audio recordings and/or photographic and video evidence. The data can then be used to drive the design of the product during the design phase. Specifications After research has been carried out and decisions made, a design specification is written up. A specification is a list of the things the product must do. This will then be discussed with the client to ensure they are happy with what the specification sets out to achieve. Once agreed, the specification can then be used to begin generating ideas that solve the brief. The specification may provide specific information on a variety of design factors such as function, styling (aesthetics) and materials to be used. For example, a specification produced for the design of a new child’s garden play zone may include the following specifications:

1. Function 2. Aesthetics 1.1 must fit within the average back garden. 2.1 must be colourful and appealing to children. 1.2 must include slides and climbing areas. 2.2 must use simple shapes that are easily understood and appealing to children.

3. Materials 3.1 must be durable, hardwearing and withstand varying weather types. 3.2 must be suitable for children to ensure the product is safe.

Obviously, the above specification is a basic example and specifications in the real world will be much more detailed. They will likely consider many more design factors and include information that details key decision made from research that has been carried out. 5 Design Factors Design factors are extremely important in design. They allow designers to consider the many aspects and issues that will affect the outcome of a solution for any given product. Effective consideration of these factors will ensure that the end product is a success. No one factor is more important than another as each and every product will require specific factors to be considered. For example if we take a high end, high spec one-off design for a sports car, cost will not be an important issue. Whereas, if we were to consider the design of a more affordable mid-range sports car, cost will be a very important factor in ensuring the consumer will pay for the end product.

There are several factors that must be considered during the design process. There are five key factors that you must learn for your National 5 exam including the individual aspects of each. These are as follows:

 Function  Performance  Aesthetics  Ergonomics  Market

These are all explained in more detail later in this chapter and you must be familiar which the key aspects of each. Aside from these five key factors you must also be able to discuss safety, cost, sustainability and the environment in relation to design and manufacture.

Function - What is the primary and secondary function of the design. The primary function is the main thing that the design will need to do i.e. a coffee table is made to sit cups/mugs/glasses on. The secondary function is any extra functions that the design could have i.e. a coffee table may also have a magazine rack underneath. It may be that style is as important as a secondary function. (Further information on page 04).

Performance – How well does a product perform its functions. Performance is all about how well products perform in doing there jobs. There a number of things that will affect this such as materials, quality of manufacture, can it be maintained easily, is it durable to withstand constant use.

Aesthetics - See Aesthetics revision sheet. (Page 06)

Ergonomics - See Ergonomics revision sheet. (Page 05)

Materials - Consider the range of materials available to you and research how these could effect your final design in terms of strength, aesthetics, properties and suitable processes. (See bottom of page 13 for material properties).

Manufacture - Consider how you will actually manufacture the design. Look at different ways in which the design can be constructed and how difficult each manufacturing method would be. How durable, strong, will the design have to be?

Cost - Consider issues relating to cost. How much will materials be? How much will it cost to construct? How much will it cost to transport? How much will it be sold for? These factors will effect what you can do with your design.

Market - Who will be buying the product? Will this affect the final design? Market research is very important to a designer, as it helps them to focus on what a particular client wants or identify a gap in the market. (Page 07)

Safety - What are the safety considerations? Will it conform to Britishstandards?

Environment - Will it be used indoors or outdoors? If indoors where? If outdoors where? Should it fit in or stand out from its environment. Could the design be more environmentally friendly? What extreme conditions might it have to withstand? What about sustainability and recycling?

6 Function Primary and secondary functions What does the product do? Does it only do one thing, or does it do many things? Normally products have one main function, this is called the Primary Function and it is usually decided early in the design cycle when the design brief is being written. Along with the Primary function, the product may also have many other functions that are less important. These are called Secondary Functions. The Primary function of the desk pictured on the right is to provide the user with a work area. The Secondary functions are Storage (it has storage areas within the legs) and to be aesthetically pleasing (it is not your average flat pack desk). Performance Performance determines how well a product performs its primary function. Consumers often want products that have a good life expectancy and perform their jobs well. However, a product’s success in relation to performance can differ based on its cost and value for money. Cheap sunglasses, for example, may be purchased for a holiday where the user only requires the product for a short period of time. We would not expect these to last as long as a designer pair, to be as comfortable to wear or to perform as well in terms of blocking out sunlight. Various aspects affect a product’s performance, and the designer must consider thes

Durability Ease of Maintenance Durability is the life expectancy of a product, or Ease of Maintenance is how difficult it is for a user to how long it is expected to last. This is decided by keep a product in good working order throughout its the materials that the product is made from and life.A cheaper product is probably intended to be planned obsolescence. thrown away after use and will need no maintenance. A more expensive product is likely to last much longer and will require periodic maintenance to keep it in For example, washing machines are designed to good order. be replaced after about six years, this allows the manufacturer to constantly sell new models, bringing in more business by continuing to satisfy Materials the buyer’s desire to have the latest, most fashionable model. In order to decide which materials to use we musthave an idea of what properties we wish them to have. For instance, a car wing-mirror must be water-proof, Ease of Use resistant to sunlight, impact resistant, chemi-cally Ease of use or ‘Usability’ is how easy the final resistant and corrosion resistant. On top of this, the user finds the product to use. Is the product self shape of the wing mirror must be able to be formed explanatory or does it require an instruction easily as it is a mass produced’ product. manual ? Choice of Materials will have a direct effect on sever-al Construction aspects of the design, including: The manufactur-ing When designing a product, various construction processes that can be used, The finishes that can be methods and materials must be evaluatedbased applied, The disposal of a product at the end of its life, onhte desired properties of the finalitem. The cost of the product, The lifespan of the prod-uct, The product’s performance in terms of strength, weight etc. .

7 Performance - Fitness for Purpose

FITNESS FOR PURPOSE Another important aspect of function and performance is fitness for purpose. Fitness for purpose describes how well a product carries out its intended job. It is obvious that a product should carry out its job; but how well should a product do its job? Some products do not perform as well as intended due to poor design, and this can also depend on whether or not the product is being used in the correct situation.

Case study The primary function of a vacuum cleaner is to remove dirt, and its secondary functions are to be easily emptied and easily manoeuvred. Look at the three vacuum cleaners shown:

If we consider the primary and secondary functions, each of the vacuum cleaners performs well. However, if we swap each vacuum cleaner’s recommended place of use, we will quickly find that each product no longer performs in the way it should do.

Handheld vacuum cleaner: This is used for small jobs such as vacuuming the seats of a car. If we tried to clean an entire house with this device, it would no longer be fit for purpose, as it would not be able to hold as much dirt as the household vacuum cleaner. It would take far too long to clean an entire house with such a small product.

Household vacuum cleaner: If we were to try vacuum-cleaning an industrial site containing large amounts of debris, then the household machine would not be fit for purpose. A household vacuum cleaner is designed for lifting general domestic dirt and would not be able to cope with lifting large debris, which could damage its workings.

Industrial vacuum cleaner: If we were to use the industrial vacuum cleaner in our homes, it would no longer be fit for purpose. It would be awkward to manoeuvre around the house and to take upstairs due to its size. Also, the power of suction from the vacuum could lift and damage carpets, making it impractical.

8 Ergonomics Ergonomics can be described as the study of how we as Physiology humans interact with products in everyday life. Every Physiology is the area of ergonomics that deals with the well designed product must be easy, comfortable and physical capabilities of the human body. This can involve safe to use. looking at strength, posture, movement, flexibility, Not every part of a product needs to be ergonomically reaction speed and muscle control. The data collected designed however. Things like the inside components of in this study will define any constraints a designer has a DVD player would not need to be, as we would not to apply to make any given product easy to use. For have to operate them or touch them. It can be said that example, think about a standard games controller. How the parts of products we need to operate and touch need much effort must a user apply to press its buttons? How ergonomic design. heavy should it be so that it is easily lifted and balanced Anthropometrics in the hand? Should there be finger indents, curvatures When designing a product a designer needs to ensure that or materials that make it easier to grip and hold? If any the sizes of the product are designed ergonomically correct. of these issues are overlooked, then users may encounter To do this a designer would look at anthropometric data. several problems when using the product.

This data shows all measurements from different parts of the We should also consider percentiles in relation to human body for men, women, children and ethnicity of different ages, and is displayed in a range of tables. physiology. For example, the effort required to press a button would be focused at the 5th percentile. If the To help decide on what sizes to use in terms of whether majority of people who are considered to be weaker something is to be designed for a large size or small size than average can press the button easily, then everyone designers use percentiles. else, being stronger, should have no problem pressing it. Considering percentiles will ensure we get the physiological aspects of the design correct.

Psychology Before choosing to use a product, we look at it first. This allows us to assess whether a product appeals to us. It makes us consider the functionality of the product, and it allows us to assess any safety issues that the product may present. If a product looks good, easy to use, safe or interesting, we will be more likely to interact with it. Therefore, it is very important that designers consider human psychology when designing products. Designers must know how we will perceive a product and process information when using it to ensure that we understand what to do when operating it. Thorough consideration of this allows users to operate the product correctly and safely, while also saving us > 5th percentile shows us the extreme range of from becoming frustrated by the product if we can’t work out how smaller sizes in people. to use it. When considering psychology, we should think about > 50th percentile shows us the mean average of sizes how colour, symbols/images, sounds and our sense of touch will in people. help us to understand the product better. If you consider a power > 95th percentile shows us the extreme range of larger switch, the fact that it lights up green tells us that it is on. The sizes in people. colour green also represents ‘go’ or ‘on’. The power symbol is a common symbol that we understand as a power switch. The Designers tend to design somewhere in between the 50th button may also make a clicking noise when pressed, or we may and 5th percentiles or 50th and 95th percentiles. That feel a click when we press it. These psychological aspects of design means the 5% of extreme sizes are normally not catered for and need specialist products made for them. For example are extremely important when considering how we understand someone with a size 15 shoe will have to go to a specialist and interact with products. shoe maker. In the exam Determining critical sizes Ergonomics is guaranteed to come up in the exam and therefore If we were designing a chair and determining what width you must be able to discuss products in relation to this. the seat should be, we would consider hip breadth. An anthropometric data table would help us determine the Over the page is a an example answer of how you can attempt required size. these questions and what kind of things you can say about a product in relation to ergonomics.

User group to be considered

From this data, we can establish that the 95th percentile size for females gives our required width. If we design the chair to be no less than 435 mm wide, then the majority of users could sit on it comfortably.

9 Ergonomics – Sample Answers

Q: Describe the ergonomic considerations for the design of the kettle below

Possible answers: the following demonstrates the various answers you could give for this question using your knowledge of ergonomics.

REMEMBER – unless directly asked to discuss anthropometrics, physiology and psychology, make sure you make reference to each of these in your answer.

Anthropometric Considerations: Size to be determined Percentile Reason range

1. Diameter of the 5th – 50th If the smallest hand can comfortably grip the kettle, then so can the largest. handle 95th If the largest hand can fit through the gap comfortably then so can the smallest. 2. Gap between the handle and kettle 50th If the buttons are designed for the average finger width, then the majority of users could 3. Size of the switches press them comfortably as they will not be too big or too small.

5th The switch that operates the lid cannot be too far from the users thumb when gripping 4. Position of the lid the handle, as this may require the user to overstretch. switch on the handle.

Physiology: • Weight: 5th percentile. The kettle must be easy to lift and tip in relation to its weight when empty or full. • Grip: The materials and shape of the handle must be easy to grip in relation to weight, to limit the possibility of dropping the kettle. • Pressing switches. 5th percentile. The user would expect this to be easy and therefore they should not require significant force to operate the kettle.

Psychology: • Colour: The parts the user must operate are silver in colour. This makes it easier for the user to identify how to use the product. • Sound: When switches are pressed they make a clicking sound. This noise tells the user that something has been switched on. • Light: The filling indicator turns blue when the kettle is on indicating that the kettle is in use. Some kettles do this in even more intuitive ways where the colour of the light changes from blue to red as the water temperature increases. • Symbols: The filling indicator has a key that tells us how many cups can be made in relation to the water level. This saves the user from over or under filling the kettle which could lead to damage.

10 Aesthetics Aesthetics is an important consideration for the designer because it concerns the way things look. Consumers are more likely to buy products based on their appearance. The following are the main considerations that a designer would make when considering aes-

Colour and Shape • The two aesthetic properties that are easiest to understand. • Both colour and shape can be used to create contrast or harmony. • Colour can be used to target specific markets i.e. bright colours would be used for children's toys, sophisticated colouring for high class products and so on.

Harmony Balance • This is where parts of a design work well together or the • Most products are designed to be symmetrical. design fits in with a specific environment Others can be designed asymmetrically. • It creates a sense of peace and relaxation. • Experimenting with different shapes or colours can add • Simple shapes and colours that work well together interest to your design. should be used to achieve this.

Contrast Proportion • The opposite of harmony where designs are made to • Small changes to the proportion of a shape can make it stand out and be bold. look more elegant, classy, stable or sleek. • This can sometimes make a design more • This example of a 1980’s BMW 3 series and a eye-catching. modern 2007 BMW 3 series shows how simple changes • Contrasting colours (purple/yellow) and a mixture of to proportion can make designs more modern sleek shapes can make designs bold and contrasting. and elegant.

Shape and Form Fashion and Style • This describes the shape of a design. Will it be • A fashion is something that is current. It is something geometric (squares, triangles, circles and so on) or that has been accepted by consumers are will remain will it be organic (free flowing curves, natural popular for a period of time. designs). • Form is also 3D and is developed from initial 2D shapes. • A style is more distinct and can be classed as a mode of expression. Styles remain constant and can be popular at different times. A style will always come back into fashion or design and can be used when designing product to achieve a certain theme.

It is important that designer design within current fashions whilst also utilising popular stylising when producing products.

Texture Pattern Different textures can make Repeating a design feature to designs look more stylish or create a pattern can create a interesting. Effects such as glass, unified and organised looking concrete, , hard, soft, design. glossy (shine), Matt (flat dull finish). colour) and so on.

11 Aesthetics – Case Study In the exam you will be asked to consider the aesthetics of various products. To help you prepare for this, we will consider the aesthetics used in the design of this .

Question: Describe the aesthetics of the drill shown – 3 marks

Possible answers: the following demonstrates the various answers you could give for this question using your knowledge of aesthetics.

REMEMBER – if it’s worth three marks then give three points

The colour scheme uses a bold black and yellow design that would normally alert us to a hazard. However, in this case it forms an industrial looking design, strong brand identity, fits the environment and makes it easily seen. Notice also, that all of the parts we would operate are black, helping us in understanding how to operate the drill.

The shape is geometric again relating to the structural nature of the products environment. The handle and button shape consider the contours of the hand and shape of the fingers. This makes it easy to identify where to hold the drill and what to press.

The asymmetrical proportion of the drill allows us to easily identify the front and back. The drill is well balanced proportionally and the base of the drill looks stable.

The textured grip on the handle make it easy to grip as does the rubber material selected.

Being able to evaluate a products aesthetics in this way will help you in completing your exam and coursework.

12 Market A market can be described as any place where businesses Target Market and consumers trade products. Markets constantly change, The target market is the group of users you are aiming your and businesses must be aware of current market trends as product at. It is important that the marketing team carries out well as of the changing needs and wants of consumers. effective research to understand the target market and This keeps businesses competitive and allows for the provide the design team with the relevant information that development of new products and markets. will allow them to produce a final design that meets the need/wants of the target market. There are several aspects of market that you must learn for your National 5 exam. Niche Marketing Niche marketing describes the process of targeting specific MARKET PULL VS TECHNOLOGY PUSH (MARKET PUSH) groups of people within a market segment and finding a Market pull and technology push are two of the main driving product to suit their particular needs. Products developed forces for new product development. Market pull is where through niche marketing will not readily appeal to the wider demand on the market is pulling designers towards designing marketplace and will instead focus on a profitable area of the new products, and technology push (market push) is where market. If a company identifies a niche market, it can new product developments are pushed upon us, creating a capitalise on this – and quickly, gaining a majority hold over demand for them. the market, where no one else will have developed the product yet. A good example of this is camping stoves. Market pull Camping is a specific market, and the need for a small portable Market pull happens when a demand is created for a product camping stove is something consumers in this market to fulfil a need or want. A good example of this is the demand. Various designs have been created to capture this development of filmless cameras. The first portable cameras market niche. required a film to capture photographs, which then had to be Market Segments developed before the photograph could be produced. This was a time-consuming process for the consumer, and the Market segments can be thought of as groups of people who have something in common that will affect their choice of product. There market demanded a more efficient way to capture and are many ways to define a particular market group but generally they produce photographs. This eventually led to the can be grouped into four categories: development of the digital camera. This sort of demand forces designers and manufacturers to continually seek to GEOGRAPHIC: such as countries, regions, cities improve products for their market, satisfying the consumer. DEMOGRAPHIC: such as age, sex, income, education, race Technology push (market push) PSYCHOGRAPHIC: such as personality, lifestyle, social class. Technology push can be achieved through product evolution, where existing products are continually updated Market Mix and improved to create demand for the latest version. Once the market has been defined and the target group has been Alternatively, a new product can be developed that hasn’t identified and researched, the company is ready to begin planning the been seen before due to scientific research, advances in details of the marketing mix. The marketing mix consists of technology and new materials and advances in everything that can be done to influence the demand for the product. manufacturing processes. Designers can then use these There are many factors that can influence the demand for a product developments to create new products. Once a product has but these can all be grouped together under four headings known as the been developed, it is then combined with a high-quality Four P’s marketing campaign to create demand for the product, Product: anything that can be offered to the market in order to pushing it onto the consumer. This is a risky strategy, satisfy a want or need. however, as product development costs a lot of money. For Price: the amount charged by the company or exchanged by the example: The development of miniature electronics has consumer for a product. revolutionised the size of our electronic devices such as Place: all the company’s activities that make the product available to phones, cameras, televisions and computers. Touch-screen the consumer. technology has also revolutionised the way we use these Promotion: any activity which will advertise the product and its products. Smart watches, touch-screen TVs, tablet benefits to potential buyers. computers and e-readers that were once new products are now commonplace in society. The development of smart The four P’s sets out the marketing tools which can be used to influence potential buyers eyeglasses, however, is an example of technology push that hasn’t quite worked. Although these products have utilised good marketing campaigns, consumers and society have not seen the need for such a product, and this has stunted the product’s development and growth, costing companies money and time.

13 Market WANTS VS NEEDS

Consumer Needs BRANDING Branding tells us who a company is and what they are about. Human needs can be described as the feeling of being It plays a crucial part in influencing our purchasing decisions deprived. There are many human needs such as the basic and our expectations of a product. A company’s name and physical need for food and clothing. There are other more logo are two of its biggest assets, as they allow consumers to socially interactive needs such as the needs to belong and identify the brand. Branding can influence the consumer in for affection. There are also private individual needs for the following ways: knowledge and self-expression. These needs are a basic part of human make-up and are not created by design • It creates loyalty to a product, where we believe in it and companies or advertising campaigns. When any of these define it as a reliable, successful and good brand. needs are not satisfied the individual may do one of two • It makes us feel part of something, as our family and friends things: Look for an object or a product to satisfy the need; may have the same brands, or because it is a popular choice or try to reduce or eliminated the need. among the majority of consumers. • It can satisfy our needs and wants. A person will try to satisfy the most important need first. • It can affect how we see a product. We associate brands When that is done the individual will move on to look to that we like with quality regardless of other people’s satisfy the next most important need. Market researchers perceptions. and designers often use this when marketing products to consumers. CAPTURING CONSUMERS THROUGH ADVERTISING Consumer Wants / Demands Promotion of a product is vital to its success. Products are advertised in various ways Products too can fulfil different needs. Toys provide to heighten interest in the product and to make us want it. children with the opportunity to learn, relax and interact Companies can do this in the with their peers. following ways: However, children living in advanced economies would • TV and internet adverts find it socially unacceptable to play with primitive toys • promotional adverts such as billboards, magazines and that might be found in third-world cultures. They posters • celebrity endorsement of a product expect the latest toys and even at an early age they become image conscious, using • special discounts, such as discounts for buying a product material things to fulfil their needs for social acceptance, within a certain time, or ‘buy one, get the other half-price’ respect and friendship. SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS Customers view products as providing a social benefit. Consumers now, more than ever, are aware of design and They will choose the product that gives them the greatest how it affects us – so much so that we have now created benefit for their money. Given their wants, resources and expectations of what specific products should be like. For interests, people will demand products that provide them example, we expect modern mobile phones (i.e. with the greatest benefit. smartphones) to do more than just make calls and send texts. Designers therefore cannot simply design a similar If a designer can tap into the needs or wants of the target smartphone or one with fewer features than the previous market then they can effectively produce new designs or model. Due to the continual development of products and improve on existing ones, allowing them to capture the the social expectations placed upon them, we expect new market. products to:

• perform better • have better aesthetics • be more environmentally friendly • represent better value for money • give us more choice • come with newer technologies and more features.

The designer must therefore consider market research to ensure that new products meet consumer expectations.

14 Society and the ENVIRONMENT Key considerations of the environment should be kept in mind: Pollution, Aesthetics, Sociology Environment. Pollution is created by the manufacturer – during the making of the product, its use and/or its disposal at the end of its life. Designers have a large responsibility to the environment and must try to keep pollution to a minimum in their designs.

Product lifespan and the environment During each stage of a product’s life, its human, environmental and economic needs should be considered and investigated. Products that function/perform poorly in these areas and those that are not fit for purpose are likely to be discarded more quickly, meaning they will end up in landfills. This is often referred to as the cradle to the grave approach which examines the environmental impact from the production of the raw materials all the way through to the disposal of the products at the end of its life. This is highlighted on the diagram

In addition to this, obsolescence will also determine a product’s life span. For example, products are often discarded for the next ‘best thing’ because of:

• ordinary obsolescence, where products naturally go out of fashion or become obsolete due to changes in consumer demand and new technologies. Or

• planned obsolescence, where designers/companies design products to wear and brake down over a period of time, so that new products which utilise new manufacturing technologies, styling and technologies can be introduced to the market.

With this in mind, it is now more important than ever that designers and manufacturers consider the implications of the decisions they make when designing products. We, as consumers, also have a responsibility to consider how we use and recycle products at the end of their useful life. If we continue to fail to design, use and recycle products effectively, we are at risk of continuing to damage and destroy our environment.

The impact of design on the environment and society With new developments in technology and manufacturing, new products are constantly being produced. As consumers, we are continually buying and demanding these to improve our lives and satisfy our needs and wants. This is the rise of consumerism. In addition to this, we are demanding newer products that represent value for money and that are lower in cost. We often buy these products without any consideration for the environment or our society. Demanding continual product development and cheaper products can result in many issues such as:

• products being made in sweatshops using lower-paid workers with less access to workers’ rights and safe working conditions; • products being made in countries with limited regulations over waste disposal from manufacturing; • old products being replaced unnecessarily; • newer versions of products being made because technology is constantly changing.

Not every new version marks a significant development in the product, so do we need to buy it? It could be that our only reason for purchasing it is because of social and peer expectations.

As consumers, we must consider these issues when making purchasing decisions. Furthermore, we must also consider the sustainability issues with products. Products that are sustainable are produced on an understanding that they will not damage the environment unnecessarily. This can include:

• using materials that are sustainable, and can be recycled or upcycled • using transport logistics that reduce carbon emissions (for example, flat-packed furniture allows more furniture to be loaded onto lorries etc., meaning fewer journeys have to be made to deliver the product); • recycling our products at the end of their useful life to ensure they do not end up in landfill.

Designers and consumers therefore have a responsibility to ensure that the products they design and use do not impact on our society and environment. If we do not consider the issues outlined above, we will only further damage our environment and create more problems for our societies across the world.

15 Idea Generation After research has been carried out a designer will have to begin producing ideas to solve the problem and brief. To develop ideas a designer may choose to use any of the following idea generation techniques: Thought Showers (brainstorming, mind mapping) Lifestyle Board Mood Board Probably the best known and most widely used technique. Analogy A lifestyle board is used to build This is similar to a lifestyle board works best when carried out in a group. It works by writing the an idea of the target market. It however unlike a lifestyle board, name of a product/task in the middle of a blank sheet. Then, from focuses on the intended market the aim of creating a mood that word/title the designer creates branches of potential solutions looking at pictures that relate board, is to focus primarily on an to the problem, writing down ideas centred around design factors. to their lifestyle. This allows atmosphere/emotion. This can the designer to ensure they help the designer produce a design a product that fulfils the product needs of the target market. that conveys a certain style, There are no them or mood to enhance the rules for creating a lifestyle board overall image of a product, and it takes the form of a page of giving it a unique appeal. collated images.

Design Stories This method requires the designer to write a story surrounding the Morphological Analysis This is a very structured way of generating ideas. It is a visual design problem. To do this the designer do the following: method where a list of headings for design factors are created. Then • Imagine that you are the product. What would life be like? underneath each heading, a range of potential solutions are written. • Imagine what life would be like without the product. The designer can then mix and match these to begin generating • ideas for potential solutions. Each unique mix of words from each Imagine that you are in a shop trying to sell the product. heading will allow the designer to create diverse ideas. How would persuade the consumer to buy it? • Imagine you are trying to explain the product to an alien or someone who has never seen it.

By doing this, the designer may discover solutions that they hadn’t though about, as they get their head inside the idea of product.

Technology Transfer New products, new ideas and inventions are often the result of a process called associative thinking. This means that a designer will make an association with technology, manufacturing process or material in one area or field of design and use it to provide a new idea or solution in another. Lateral thinking This method is used to stimulate the imagination. Lateral thinking For example: uses each of the other idea generation techniques in a way that Laser technology, which was developed for space and defence allows the designer to create less obvious solutions to a problem. programmes is now used in domestic applications such as DVD/Blu- For example. The book shelving unit designed below created by Ray players games consoles and stereo systems to play data held Mark Newson, was based on a bee hive honeycomb. The lemon on discs. Memory foam was developed by NASA when they were squeezer designed by Philippe Stark was based on insects . designing soft material to reduce the impact of crash landing on astronauts. Designers then used this technology to produce memory foam mattresses.

16 Idea Development Once ideas have been generated, the next stage is to develop the best ideas towards a final design proposal. Many of the graphics techniques outlined previously are used when developing ideas to effectively communicate what changes are being made and how this will improve the design. Annotations should also be included, as well as justifications that explain exactly why you have decided to develop an idea in a certain way. This may be a justification that explains how the development fully meets the specification or further solves/improves design issues such as ergonomics or function.

What ideas to develop? Developing ideas requires you to evaluate and think about what improvements or modifications are required to improve your design ideas and turn them into potential solutions. A good way to do this is to review all of your ideas, including your annotation of design issues, and then use an evaluation technique to assess how well each idea solves each specification point from your specification. One technique is to use an evaluation matrix such as the one shown here.

An evaluation matrix allows you to quickly identify the strengths and weaknesses of each idea, where a tick or cross is used to indicate whether the idea satisfies each specification point. Evaluation matrices also display the overall total for how well an idea meets the specification, allowing you to see which ideas are the strongest to take forward. It is important to note, however, that even though an idea doesn’t meet all of the specification points, you can still take it forward. This may be because you feel the idea has good potential and that, with further development, it could become a viable solution that fully meets the specification.

Beginning design development You should think of development as an exploration of your chosen ideas. This can include:

• Synthesis of ideas: the combination of the strongest elements from different ideas to produce a new idea that fully solves the specification. However, great care has to be taken when doing this to avoid making random developments that are actually worse than the original idea. All synthesis should be based on solid reasoning that has come from your evaluation of ideas.

• Idea exploration: exploring an individual idea to improve its areas of weakness, looking at potential ways to solve design issues. Further research may have to be carried out to help you find solutions.

• Refinement: refining the idea, looking at enhancements you can make with regard to design issues to ensure the idea fully satisfies the brief and specification.

Modelling Techniques To help further communicate the development process, designers will often use models. This can help the designer to physically see and gain a better idea of the proportions of the design. It can also allow testing to be carried out, testing materials, function, ergonomics and safety. It is important to note that modelling can also be used during the initial ideas stage. There are various types of models, and you must be aware of each and when they are used: • Sketch model: a quick, easy to make and inexpensive technique where a 3D model based on your initial sketches is produced to help you visualise the shape and form of an object in physical 3D. Sketch models are rarely to scale and are often made from paper, card or thin foam boards. They allow you to quickly communicate and evaluate aesthetics making edits as required to improve designs. • Block model: a model, as its name suggests, made from one block of material. Unlike the sketch modelling, a block model is more accurate and focuses directly on the physical appearance of the product. A block of material is shaped and prepared to represent the physical appearance of the product and will contain no internal components. Block models are very useful in evaluating and editing aesthetics and function to improve your designs. • Scale model: a physical model made full-scale or to a portion of the actual size of the final design. These allow the designer to evaluate and determine final sizes and also see how the model works ergonomically to ensure the design will work for the intended end user. Scale models require a reasonably good level of skill to make, and the cost can vary depending on material choices. • Computer-generated model: a 3D computer model made using CAD software. This can be used to accurately reflect aesthetic choices, to test safety issues through computer simulation and to determine sizes for the final design. A software specialist is required to design the computer model. The cost of making the model is low, but the computer hardware and software required are expensive. The downside to computer models is that they are not physical, which limits some of the testing that can be carried out. • Prototype: a physical full-scale working version of the final design using exact or as close to the final material choices as possible. Prototypes function exactly as the final product would and allow full testing of the final design. These are very expensive to make and require the expertise of manufacturers and engineers to create a working final design.

Modelling materials Models can be made from almost anything. The key to modelling is to try to create a model that accurately represents the design you are modelling. Obviously, the materials chosen should reflect the intended purpose of the model, as is outlined above. The following materials are commonly used in model-making due to their good workability:

> paper > card > corrugated card > metal wire > pipe-cleaners > foam > expanded foam > plastic sheets > MDF > balsa wood > modelling compound > modelling clay > smart materials > construction kits.

17 Graphic Techniques

When producing ideas, developing ideas, drawing final solutions and producing manufacturing drawings the designer may employ a variety of the graphics techniques outlined below. Sketching Sketching is the basis for all ideas. The designer will utilise sketches Illustration and Presentation to quickly produce visual design for a problem. These can be shown This technique is utilised to apply colour to design sketches or to the client and manufacturers, allowing them to assess potential drawings. This allows the designer to give a drawing realism ideas before deciding where to go next. focusing on potential colour schemes or materials. This will allow the client to fully visualise what the final solution could look like. Often used when generating ideas and developing designs to Various methods can be used, with the most common being pencil visually communicate your thoughts. rendering, marker pen rendering and pastel rendering as shown below.

MARKER: Bold and highly effective

Working Drawings This style of drawing is used when a design is being prepared for PENCIL: General application but quick and effective production. Working drawings will detail specific information such as dimensions, cutting lists, materials required, individual components and working/moveable parts. These drawings allow manufacturers and engineers to communicate the construction requirements for a design. They normally take the format of an orthographic drawing. This 2D method consists of various views of a product from the front (elevation) side, (end elevation ) and top (plan).

Often used during the manufacture planning phase of a design project.

PASTEL: Soft tones and delicate

18 Evaluation Techniques

As part of detailed research it is very important to carry out Measuring and Recording EVALUATIONS and TESTS, to ensure the product is When designing products it is useful to establish how the user will satisfactory for the market. interact with the product. So far we have discussed designing things to suit our needs i.e. ensuring anything which we design will fit us. This is very important, if we want the customer to buy the product being designed we need to ensure it is what they want/ Anthropometrics is the study of the size of individual body parts and need and that the product is fit for its intended purpose. allows us to establish required sizes of products based on the human body. A designer will record and use these sizes to effectively design a Search engines product that suits our body ergonomically making it easier for us to From the advent of the internet in use. More info on this is available in the Ergonomics section of this the mid 1990’s search engines have book. been used to collect and view data as part of a research process. Product Measurement: The design team may also measure parts of Google, Yahoo, Wikipedia and other products that will be used along with the product they are Facebook all collect vast amounts of designing. This will ensure the product functions correctly. For example data about their users. This can then if designing a bookshelf we may need to investigate the sizes of a be sold on to marketing companied variety of books to ensure our bookshelf can hold and store them for large sums of money. effectively.

When using the internet for research you have to be very careful about the source of the information you are using. It is Test Rigs very easy to use false information if you don’t check sources. A test rig is a machine used Focus Groups to test a product before it is put on sale. In the example This method of research is similar to questionnaire/surveys, shown, a machine has been however it provides the designer with face to face feedback. Users devised to simulate a person are put into a group and asked to discuss a product based on sitting down in a chair various questions surrounding different design factors. They will several times. The also be able to get “hands on” with the product and this allows the advantage of using a designer to easily see how users interpret using a product. machine to do this task is During these discussions the designer will not influence the users that the opinion but record everything they say to establish what needs to machine can exactly be done to improve or effectively market the product. replicate the same actions continuously without error. Product Use Diary This involves getting a user to live with a product for a number of A proportion of the products produced are selected and tested as it days weeks or months. As they live with the product they are would not be feasible to test every item that was produced in a expected to keep a diary that details how fit for purpose they have production batch. found the product to be. They should record both what they found to be good and what they found to be bad. The results of each test are catalogued by the production company and are kept as a record of quality assurance . This sort of data, allows the designer to assess a product over a longer period of time and provides good consumer feedback on how to User trials improve or develop a product. Different from ‘user trips’, user trials require the consumer to Product comparison test a product. This is an excellent method for evaluating A product comparison compares similar products within a similar market area and price range. This can be useful for evaluating many function and ergonomics. The person completing the factors such as function, product features and aesthetics to establish user trial is usually given a series of tasks to complete. For what is currently on the market and what our competitors are doing. example, if we were testing a kettle, the user may be asked to However, it is particularly effective in evaluating value for money and evaluate: cost. For example, if we compare toasters, we could conduct the following evaluation: • How easy it is to understand and use? • How easy it is to lift and move? • How easy are the buttons to press? • How comfortable is the handle to grip?

The results would then be recorded and conclusions drawn.

From the comparison, we can conclude that toaster 3 is the best option based on cost and value for money, as it clearly has more attractive features at a lower price. It is important, however, that we do not compare products designed for different markets. 19 Material Properties Wood: Warping - This is the name given to any defect in the shape of a piece of wood. Wood warps in the following ways:

Cupping - A curve across the grain.

Bowing - A curve along the grain

Twisting - curved in a spiral shape.

Metal and Plastics: Property Description Tensile The maximum force material can withstand before breaking when pulled apart, Strength crushed or twisted.

Ductility The length to which material can be stretched before breaking.

Hardness How hard it is to cut or mark the metal.

Toughness The amount of energy a material can absorb before it breaks when hit with something like a .

Malleability The amount of shaping that can be done with a material before it breaks in terms of bending, twisting and so on.

Brittleness The material will break very easily when any stress or pressure is applied to it.

Elasticity The length to which material can be stretched and still return to its original shape.

Conductivity How well does the material conduct heat or electricity.

Corrosion Does the material corrode (rot, weaken, discolour etc.) easily due to rusting or exposure to chemicals

20 Selecting Materials MATERIALS WHAT MATERIAL? During the ideas stage of the design process, product designers attempt to be as innovative and creative as possible. As designers develop these ideas towards manufacture, they must consider how an item will be manufactured with specific regard to material choices and manufacturing processes. Different materials offer designers all sorts of properties that can affect the aesthetics, cost, production and functionality of items.

When selecting a material, designer and manufacturers must consider the following: • Is the material readily available? • What properties should the material possess? • Where will the product be used? How will this affect the choice of material? • What is the environmental impact of using this material?

MATERIAL AVAILABILITY, STANDARD LENGTHS, SIZES AND COMPONENTS

Readily available is a term used to describe how easily accessible a material is and if there is a sufficient stock of it. Materials that are readily available will be cheaper and will allow manufacturing to begin more quickly. However, where materials are not readily available, order times can slow the manufacturing process and can also raise costs.

Standard lengths and sizes refer to materials or parts that are easily available and cut to a specific size. For example, wooden manufactured boards can come in standard sizes of 2400 mm by 1200 mm, or 1200 mm by 600 mm. They also come in different thicknesses such as 12 mm, 16 mm and 22 mm. Metal and plastic sheets also come in readily available sizes similar to these. Solid timber, metal and plastic bars/rods also come in pre-cut lengths and thicknesses. These standard lengths and sizes reduce the cost of manufacture, as materials do not have to be cut to a specific size. Manufacturers can also calculate exactly what they need, working with the given sizes to reduce both cost and waste. This also makes it easy to order materials for a particular job.

Standard components are common parts that are used in products such as screws, brackets, wheels, handles, circuits and so on. Using standard components makes design and manufacture easier. It also benefits the consumer, as replacement parts can be bought when items break.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT We should also consider a material’s practicability in terms of where it will be used and its impact on the environment. For example:

• Is the choice of material suitable for its intended use and place of use? Metals that rust would be no good in environments where they are constantly exposed to water. This could result in them corroding if not properly maintained, which means they will eventually be discarded.

• Is the material sustainable or renewable? For example, can trees be replanted and grown quickly to reduce the impact of logging for timber and deforestation on the environment? are a good example of this when compared with . Metals, on the other hand, cannot be replaced once mined from the earth.

• Can the material be recycled or reused? Recycling materials means that products do not end up in landfill at the end of their useful life. However, recycling alone creates by-products such as gases and chemicals that can be harmful to the environment. Also, some materials can only be recycled so many times before they become unusable. Upcycling, where we reuse materials and components that are still in good condition, is a much better way to reduce environmental impact. Glass bottles are a good example of this, as they can be cleaned and reused without being wasted.

If products are designed without any consideration of the materials we use, then we risk further damaging our environment, where products are simply discarded at the end of their life. Taking the time to look at alternatives is therefore very important in ensuring that materials can be replaced and reused as much as much as possible, to reduce the impact of waste.

21 Planning for Manufacture STAGES OF PLANNING Before manufacturing a product, it is extremely important that you are well prepared. This will limit mistakes during the manufacturing process, reducing waste and ensuring the project is completed to the correct standard, and on time.

Selecting materials This stage involves selecting the best materials for the job. Once the designer has decided on which materials to use, the next stage is to source them. Working with an engineer, a cutting list will be produced such as the one given here used to design the wooden box shown.

A cutting list outlines the number, size and type of materials required for each part. The box shown will also require standard components such as the locking mechanism and hinges. Preparing the material Once the materials are purchased, they may need to be prepared. This varies for differing materials and includes cutting materials to size, smoothing surfaces, removing marks, cutting the material to required shapes/ patterns using templates and removing any imperfections where possible. Planning: sequence of operations This may be done before the materials are prepared, but you must already know what materials you are using before you can accurately decide on suitable manufacturing processes and techniques. Planning a sequence of operations requires manufacturers, in consultation with designers and engineers, to list all of the steps required to manufacture the product from start to finish. It is important to establish the most efficient and cost- effective way to build the design.

Planning includes: • how the materials will be prepared • what tools, moulds, jigs or templates will be required for the chosen processes • how the manufacturing processes will be carried out • how the materials will be assembled • what finishes will be applied.

Working drawings and diagrams To help manufacturers understand how the product will be made, engineers will create production engineering drawings, also known as working drawings. One of the key types of graphic produced at this stage is an orthographic drawing. Two main types of orthographic drawing are often drawn, namely component and assembly drawings. Component orthographics are produced to show specific details for each individual component of a product. These will include detailed sizes and manufacturing notes. Assembly orthographics are used to show how the product is assembled and will not contain many, if any, dimensions. Orthographic drawing is a graphics technique where views of a 3D object are drawn in 2D, looking straight on at every side of the object. The most common views are the elevation (front), end elevation(s) (side(s)) and the plan (top). The elevation is the first view to be drawn, with the end elevations positioned directly to the side of this and the plan view directly above it. This layout method is known as third-angle projection. Orthographic drawings are extremely useful in providing a working drawing, as engineers can easily show key features of the product and include precise dimensions (sizes). To further explain the working of the drawing, engineers will also use pictorial views, exploded views and sectional views and will also include assembly/production notes detailing what has to be done. 22 Materials - Wood There are three categories of wood:

Softwoods: Choosing : These come from coniferous trees Name Properties Uses Cost (trees that have needle like leaves and last throughout the year). Unlike Red Straight grained, but knotty, Building Low hardwoods these grow quickly and can be replaced quickly after being quite strong and easy to work. construction. Needs good cut down. Softwoods are cheap. Red/orange in colour protection when used outside. Parana Pine Straight grained with few High quality High knots. Quite strong and interior durable but warps easily. construction and furniture. Quite strong with few knots. Fitted furniture e.g. Kitch- Low (whitewood) Resistant to splitting but not en cabinets. durable. Cedar Straight grained and knot free. Shed High Very light and durable. Quite construction and good soft quality fencing.

Hardwood: Choosing Hardwoods: These come from deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves every Name Properties Uses Cost winter). They grow slowly and Ash Light in colour, flexible, handles, cricket/ Med sometimes have twisted trunks. They are often not replaced when tough bends well and baseball bats, snooker cues, cut down and take a long time to well. ladders and veneers. grow. Their wood is expensive and used for high quality products. Mid-brown colour, hard, High quality Med strong, tough, tends to warp furniture, toys, tool handles but bends well. and veneers.

Oak Light brown, hard, tough, high quality High heavy and durable outside. furniture, garden furniture, Gets harder with age. boats and veneers.

Mahogany Red in colour, medium high quality High weight, quite strong, durable furniture, shop furniture, but warps easily. boat fittings and veneers.

Manufactured Boards: Choosing Manufactured Boards: These are made from waste wood Name Properties Uses Cost left over from machining or working. All excess such as thin sheets Strong, stable, warps easily. Bases of drawers Med (plywood), small strips/blocks Made by gluing layers of thin sheet or boxes. Backs (block board), wood chips (chipboard) and saw dust (MDF) wood together. It is important that the of cabinets and are used to make boards. grain of each layer goes in a different wardrobes etc. direction to ensure maximum strength. MDF Very strong and doesn’t warp. Made Furniture and Med from gluing and tightly compressing toys. excess together. Blockboard Very strong and rigid and doesn't warp. Quality furniture, High Very heavy. Made from gluing strips/ stage flooring and blocks of wood together. fire doors.

Chipboard Heavy, warps easily and needs a good Kitchen cabinets Low finish. Made by gluing and tightly and worktops, compressing wood chips together. roofing boards.

Hardboard Not very strong, warps easily and Door panels, Low needs a good finish. Made similar to drawer bottoms plywood. and cabinet backs 23 Woodwork Tools Tools

Try Square Steel Rule For marking lines For measuring sizes at right angles to on wood, metal and an edge of a plastic. Measures in piece of wood. Millimetres (mm)

Marking For marking lines Mortise Gauge For marking out parallel to an edge of a the width of a piece of wood. joint. Spur

Stock Spur Stem Adjustment Screw Thumb Screw Stock Stem - Adjusts width of the mortise joint. Cutting and Shaping Tools Thumbscrew and Sawing It is important to note that there are two categories of Saw: Rip Saws and Cross-cut Saws. Rip Saws are used for cutting along the grain and Cross-cut saws are used for cutting across the grain.

Kerf The term Kerf refers to width of the cut that a saw blade makes.

Bench Hook/Sawing Board Makes it easier to Mainly used for secure and saw small making straight cuts pieces of wood. in large pieces of timber. ()

Tenon Saw Mainly used for cutting Saw out joints in wood. This A thin saw used for is because the blade is making curved cuts. very rigid (stiff) due to The blade can be set to the brass back at the almost any angle and top of the saw. is very flexible. Planes (Cross-Cut Saw)

Smoothing and Jack planes Although both Jack and Smoothing Planes look similar they are used for different jobs:

5 Jack planes are used to make long edges straight and square and are 4 longer than smoothing planes. 6 1 Smoothing Planes are used to make surfaces smooth. 8 2 Parts 1. Blade Depth adjustment Screw. 2. Blade 77 3. Sole 4. Blades lateral 3 adjustment lever. 5. Lever Cap 6. Cap iron 7. Toe 8. Heel

24 Plough plane 1. (For measuring how far in you want to cut). 6 2. Fence adjustment screw. 6 1 3. Toe 7 4. Heel 4 4 5. Blade 2 6. Blade adjustment screw 1 3 7. Depth gauge 5 3 2 5 Plane Safety Used for cutting grooves - Always ensure that the blade is set correctly to ensure that there is no risk of accident or damage to your wood/plane. Used for cutting grooves on the inside of a face on an edge of a piece of on a piece of wood. - Always place your plane side up on the work bench to wood. ensure that the blade is not damaged.

Router Plane Small Plane (Granny's Tooth) Bullnose Plane

Blade Blade adjustment adjustment Screw Screw

Blade Blade Same job as Router Used for smoothing Used for cutting or Plane only on a smaller faces or edges of wood. tidying joints such as a scale. housing joint. Plane

Blade adjustment Screw Used for smoothing faces Blade or edges of wood. Chisels are used for chopping away waste wood when cutting a joint. Beech/Wooden -Edged The blade is sloped at the edges. This chisel Used for driving a chisel is normally used for pairing wood or through wood. cleaning/tidying up joints.

End view of a firm- End view of a bevel- Chisels er chisel in use. edge chisel in use. The handle on a chisel is normally made from Ash which is a very strong or polycarbonate plastic so that it will offer resistance from splitting when being used. Chisels will always have some type of ferrule Mortise that helps stop the wood from splitting. Used for cutting the mortise (hole) in a mortise and tenon joint. Note: that mortise Firmer Chisel chisels normally have a leather washer that Used for cutting away waste wood when helps to absorb the shock from hammering cutting out joints. when

Blade Handle Leather washer

Ferrule Steel Ferrule

25 Woodwork Joints

Carcase/Box Construction Joint

Corner Joints This looks like a but is a lot stronger. It is Housing Joints difficult to line up (for shelving) the holes without using a dowelling .

Corner Joints Housing Joints

Butt Joint Through Housing

This is a very weak Used for fitting shelves into joint unless it is cabinets or units and strengthened with partitions in boxes. pins or screws.

Lap Joint Stopped Housing / Corner Rebate Joint Can be either a plain or dovetail housing. It has the Although stronger advantage of not showing than a butt joint, the the joint workings at the is best when front, which improves a reinforced with products aesthetics. dovetail pinning or screws.

Comb or

A strong joint (a lot of side-grain to side-grain contact). The joint can be considered a design feature because, if it is well fitted, it adds to the Base and Back Joints appearance of the furniture. Rebate Joint

This joint provides a for a / plywood base/back for a carcase construction It is A very strong joint. easily cut using a rebate Used for drawers where plane. the front is pulled every time the drawer is used. It is difficult to mark out and cut. This joint can also be used as a design feature

26 Woodwork Joints

Frame Construction Tee Joints Corner Joints Tee Halving

Used for lightweight frames, especially those to be covered Crossover Tee joints Joints with boarding. The joint is quick and easy to cut.

Dovetail Halving Corner Joints Corner Halving A stronger version of the Tee Used for lightweight Halving. Used for medium frames and frames that weight frameworks. are to be covered by boarding e.g. a door. The joint is quick and easy to cut.

Corner Bridle Mortise and Tenon Used for heavier, stronger frames because it has a large A strong joint that is quite area of contact and cannot be difficult to cut and fit by twisted apart unlike the hand. Used for heavier halving joint. The joint is quite frameworks and difficult to cut. uncovered frameworks.

Dowel

Used for lightweight Mitre Joint frames. The holes are Used to join corners only, a mitre joint is difficult to line up unless a dowelling jig is used. created by cutting both adjoining pieces at 45° Can also be used as a to each other and then butting and gluing Tee joint. them together. It can be further strengthened using pins, heavy-duty staples or screws.

Crossover Joints Cross Halving This joint is quite strong and resists twisting. This is the only crossover joint that is flush (flat) on both sides

27 Answering questions on In the exam you are likely to be asked questions on how particular joints are manufactured. The question will normally refer to a specific product and indicate what joints have been used. You will have to be able to describe how the joint is cut. To answer these questions effectively ensure that:

• Know your woodworking joints. • You know the common woodworking tools required to cut the joint. • You have prepared answers that describe how each joint can be manufactured.

An example question and answer is given below to help you in preparing for these types of question.

Question: A toy truck manufactured from wood is shown below.

Corner joint

(a) Name a suitable corner joint for the construction of the back trailer. (1 mark)

Advice: You could select a butt joint however this would not be durable enough to survive the kind of use it would be subjected to by a child. You could also select a finger joint which would offer good durability, however this could increase cost of manufacture and the aesthetic value offered would not be of high importance to a child.

Best answer: Lap Joint. This would be suitable as it is relatively cheap and quick to produce, reasonably strong and can be further strengthened by pins or screws to increase its durability.

(b) Describe how the joint you selected previously would be manufactured. (4 marks)

Advice: if the question is worth three marks then try to make three or more points that explain how the joint would be manufactured. Remember that every joint will require: • marking out • cutting • finishing and gluing

You can use these three points to build your answer and refer to tools as you do so.

1. Mark out the area to be removed on the end of the required piece of wood using a rule, and . You should ensure the markings are: no more than half the depth, the correct width of the wood to be joined, square and parallel to the edges. 2. Using a tenon saw, cut out the area to be removed by firstly sawing down no more than half way. Then saw down the line used to mark the length of the joint, to remove the waste material. 3. Using a bevel edged chisel, remove any excess material to ensure the joint surface is flat. 4. Finally assemble, glue and the joint.

28 Wood Preparation and Finishes Wood Preparation

The wood must be clean and smooth before any finish is applied.

Important Note: Always ensure that all of the faces that will be on the inside of your project are completely clean and sanded as these will be awkward to sand once you have glued your model together.

Sanding Wood Wax

Glass paper comes in various grades of coarseness. Waxing wood gives a satin The higher the number the smoother the paper. The finish and like , it lower the number the rougher the paper. allows the grain of the wood to show through. Wax must only be applied to wood that has been sealed with a wood sealer, otherwise it soaks in and never shines.

Wax is normally applied by rubbing it into the Coarse Fine surface using a dry cloth. A rough paper should always be used first and then a smooth paper for finishing off. Once dry you should buff it up with a separate dry cloth. This is done a couple of times until a good finish is achieved. Important Note: Always sand in the direction of the grain as sanding against the grain will only scratch the face of the wood. Always sand in the direction of the grain. All provide a water resistant, coloured protective coating.

Paint will only give a good finish if a number of thin coats are applied rather than one thick coat. Varnish This is available in three finishes: (Shellac) Matt - Dull finish Satin - Slight Shine This is a traditional polish made from shellac and used Gloss - High Shine on high quality furniture and antiques. It provides a very high quality finish but is difficult to apply and is not water Clear varnishes allow the pattern or heat resistant. of the grain to show through and usually darken the colour of the wood. This gives the wood a nice and interesting depth whilst being water and heat Stains resistant. Stains are used to change the colour of light woods to make them more interesting or to blend in better with Varnish is applied with a brush. A 1st coat should be darker woods. It does not hide the grain. A stain is applied and then left to dry. Once dry, a light sand paper normally applied by rubbing it into the woods surface should be used to smooth the rough surface that the 1st using a dry cloth. Stains will not protect the wood and coat normally leaves. Then a second coat should be will need a protective finish applied on top of them. applied and left to set.

Oils Vegetable Cooking Oil or special Oil can both be used to give a water and heat resistant, satin finish. An oil finish will not crack or peel of as it soaks into the grain of the wood.

Oil is applied using a dry cloth and rubbing it into the grain .Three coats is normally sufficient for a good finish ensuring that each coat is left to set and dry.

29 Wood Lathe Natural wood products such as bowls, legs, spindles Exam Type Diagram and lamp stands are made using a wood lathe. Fork Tailstock Headstock Fork Tailstock Tool Rest Tool Rest Running Centre

Bed Running Centre Turning Between Centres This is the method used for turning legs and Fork Running Centre spindles. The wood is held as shown.

Secures the Secures the wood in the wood in the Running Headstock Tailstock which Centre Fork which hosts helps support the (Held in (held in the the gears that wood when turning between the head Tailstock) drive the lathe. stock) centres.

Turning Tools Tool Rest Turning is carried out using special chisels that have long blades and handles (so they can be held safely To prepare wood for turning you must: and give good leverage). 1. Mark the diagonals on Gouge - for shaping the wood and clearing waste. either end of the wood to find the centres.

Scraper - for general shaping but leaves an untidy finish.

2. Use a marking gauge to mark out the corners that Parting - For cutting the job away from the excess are to be planed off. wood.

Skew - For smoothing the wood. 3. Plane the sides of the wood from corner to corner to turn Bowl Turning the wood into the The wood to be turned needs to be prepared by hexagonal shape cutting it into an octagonal shape. This reduces the shown. This will help friction when turning. A face plate is then centred and reduce friction when screwed onto the wood. The face plate with wood turning attached is then secured to the headstock and then turning can begin. Faceplate or Turning Chuck 4. At one end a saw cut should be made along one of the diagonal lines. This allows the teeth of the fork to grip the wood.

30 Wood Lathe

SETTING UP THE LATHE When setting up a wood lathe, the following must be done:

• Wood prepared for turning (explained later in this chapter). • Ensure you have marked out ‘dead areas’ at the ends of the wooden blank. These are areas that will not be worked (cut) and will ensure safety in stopping the chisels from coming into contact with the fork or centre. • Secure the prepared wood centrally to the fork and centre. The fork has four prongs that grip the wood and a centre point to ensure the wood is centred. The fork is held in the headstock. Centres are held in the tail stock and two types can be used. A revolving centre spins, reducing the friction on the wood meaning that turning can be carried out at higher speeds. A dead centre does not spin and creates significant friction. A lubricant should be used when using a dead centre. • Set the vertical height of the tool rest to the correct height for the type of chisel and process being used. This is often just below the centre of the wood’s width. • Set the position of the tool rest in between the centres of the lathe and ensure it is kept at a safe distance away from the wood. • Ensure the lathe speed is correct for the type of wood being used and the process being carried out. • Ensure you have the correct safety equipment on i.e. apron and face shield, and that you adhere to all safety requirements such as tying long hair/loose clothing back.3

WOOD LATHE PROCESSES You must know and be able to describe the following processes on the lathe:

Parallel turning: Parallel turning is often carried out with a skew chisel for accuracy and quality of finish. To parallel turn, the chisel (rested on the tool rest) is kept at a steady and constant distance from the wood when taking the cut. The chisel is then moved from left to right and right to left at a steady/constant speed taking parallel cut from the wood.

Parting off: Parting off is a process used to: square off the end, or features of wood turning, cut square edges grooves(trenches) and separate the finished job from the wooden blank dead areas. This process is carried out with a parting off chisel. The chisel is held at a right angle to the wood and the cut taken by feeding the chisel directly into the wood.

Finishing Sanding: Due to the complexities of the turned piece of wood, finishing by sanding can be difficult. Therefore, sanding is often carried out on the lathe. To do this, the tool rest is removed from the machine and a piece of sand paper, held firmly in the hand, is pressed against the wood whilst it is turning. The sand paper is then moved left to right/right to left, creating a smooth finish. Waxing: To complete the finish turned pieces of wood are often waxed using a hardened block of wax. The wax is pressed into the wood whilst the lathe is turning and moved left to right/right to left creating an even finish. Wax can also be applied with a cloth using the same method for sanding.

Overview Materials used Turning can be carried out using a variety of solid woods. It is important that the wood being used does not have any cracks or previous damage, as this could cause the wood to split during turning.

Products made Products made on a wood lathe include handrail spindles, tool handles, candlesticks and bowls.

Identification Products turned on a wood lathe will be cylindrical.

31 Materials - Metal

There are two classes of metal: Metal is available in the forms shown here: Ferrous - metals that contain iron. This means that they will rust easily and are magnetic, (except for stainless steel).

Non-Ferrous - do not contain iron. Therefore do not rust and are not magnetic.

Metals can also be grouped as:

Pure Metals - metals made up from only one chemical element.

Alloys - Metals made up from a mixture of elements.

Why do we alloy metals? - to improve the qualities of metal to suit particular jobs. Alloying improves strength, durability and many other material properties. For example, copper and tin are metals that are easily bent and scratched. When mixed together they produce Bronze which is strong, rigid and doesn't scratch.

Ferrous metals:

Name Composition Properties Uses Cast Iron Iron + 3.5% Carbon Smooth, soft core, strong when Vices, lathe beds, garden bench compressed, cant be bent or ends and car brake drums. forged. Mild Steel Iron + 0.15 - 0.35% Carbon Ductile, malleable, tough, high Car bodies, machine bodies, nuts tensile strength, corrodes easily. and bolts, screws, nails and Easily welded. girders.

High Carbon Iron + 0.8 - 1.5% Carbon Very hard, rather brittle, difficult Tool blades e.g. Saws, chisels, Steel (tool to cut, poor resistance to screwdrivers, centre punches steel). corrosion. and so on.

High Speed Iron + Tungsten, chromium Very hard, heat resistant, re- Drills, lathe cutting tools, Steel vanadium. mains hard when red. cutters, power hacksaw blades and so on. Stainless Alloy = Iron + chromium, Tough, hard, corrosion resistant, Cutlery, sinks, teapots, kitchen steel nickel, magnesium. wears well, difficult to cut, bend ware, saucepans and so on. and file.

Non-Ferrous metals:

Name Composition Properties Uses Aluminium Pure Metal Strong, light, malleable, ductile, Kitchen foil, drinks cans and difficult to weld, non-toxic, resists saucepans. corrosion, conducts electricity and heat well and polishes well. Duralumin Alloy = Aluminium + Stronger than pure aluminium Greenhouses, window frames Manganese, magnesium. and nearly as strong as mild steel and aircraft bodies. but only one third the weight.

Copper Pure Metal Tough, ductile, malleable, Electrical wire, central heating conducts heat and electricity well, pipes, circuit boards, saucepan corrosion resistant, solder and bases. polishes well.

32 Metal (Continued) Name Composition Properties Uses Brass Alloy = Copper + Zinc Quite hard, rigid, solders easily, Water taps, lamps, boat fittings, good conductor of heat and ornaments and door handles. electricity and polishes well. Bronze Alloy = Copper + Tin Tough, Strong, good corrosion Coins, wheel bearings, statues resistance. and boat fittings such as propellers.

Tin Pure Metal Weak, soft, malleable, ductile, Solder (with lead), coating over excellent corrosion resistance mild steel and tin cans. and low melting point.

Lead Pure Metal Soft, malleable, very heavy, Roof covering, Solder (with tin) corrosion resistant, low melting and car battery plates. point, casts well and conducts electricity well. Zinc Pure Metal Poor strength/weight ratio, weak, Coating over mild steel ductile and malleable, low melting (galvanising), die castings used point and casts well. in cars and roofing panels.

33 Metalwork Tools Marking out Tools Scriber Centre punch Engineers square For marking out For accurately dimensions etc. punching on metal. holes before drilling. For marking lines at right angles to an edge of a piece of metal. Odd-leg callipers Spring dividers

For marking For marking circles straight lines on a piece of metal. parallel to the edge of a piece of metal.

Measuring Tools

Outside and inside callipers Micrometre Outside: For measuring outside widths and diameters on metal.

Inside: For very accurate measurement of For measuring inside widths and outside diameters on metal especially diameters on metal when using the metal lathe.

Can also be used with wood and plastic Can also be used with wood and plastic

Cutting and Shaping Hacksaw Junior hacksaw Power hacksaw

Used for cutting Used for cutting thick and large small pieces of pieces of metal metal such as sheet metal and wire. Band saw type machine used Files for heavy cutting of large There are many different files that are used for filing metal to shape and filing rough pieces of metal such as round edges smooth. Files also come in a range of sizes for different jobs. bar or square bar.

Flat Round Triangular

Half Round Square

Filing metal/plastic

Cross Filing: Files across the metal to cut away any excess materials and to get rid of bad marks.

Draw Filing: Filing back and forward along the edge of a piece of metal to smoothen in.

34 Joining Metals Rivet set and snap Types of rivet

This tool allows us to ensure that the Snaphead Panhead Mushroom Countersunk metal being joined and the rivet are all held together firmly. A ball pein hammer is then used to flatten the rivet and secure it.

Ball Pein Hammer Joined snaphead Joined countersunk The Snap The set Hollow hole Rivet Start of rolled edge

Pop riveting Ball pein hammer Pop rivet gun Used for Used to secure a general pop rivet. metalwork where a hammer is required.

When Pop Riveting the rivet is placed in the holes of the metal being joined. The Rivet gun is then placed over the rivet and the handles squeezed together. As you apply more pressure the rivet expands in the hole until Pin the pin eventually breaks away. Breaks away Welding Spot / resistance welding Arc welding Used for joining thin sheet Used for joining thick metals including bar form and round metal. An electric current is form. Basically a metal filler is pushed through the electrode passed through the copper holder using gas. As this is happening electricity is used to rods and the metal being produce heat which melts the metal being joined. The metal joined, which causes heat to filler then fills gap to create a solid weld. build up and melt the metal 1 together. 2

Soldering and brazing Soldering: Used for 3 joining thin sheet metal and thin bar. A solder Solder Bolt bolt is heated in the forge. Once hot enough it is used to melt a filler 1. Electrode Holder 2. Metal Filler 3. Ground Clamp metal along the joint of the metal parts being Safety: Ensure that you always wear a welding mask as your eyes can be damaged and ensure that you are working Brazing: Used for joining in an area away from others. sheet metal and thin metal bar/rod. A gas air torch Nuts and bolts such as those seen at the forge, is used to melt the Bolt metal filler along the joint where the metal is being joined. Washer

Gas air torch Nut

Filler Metal A nut and bolt is a non permanent fixing and therefore is suitable for jobs where parts need to be free to come apart.

35 Metal Preparation and Finishes Metal preparation Plastic dip coating A plastic coating is a tough and waterproof finish that comes It is important that the surfaces are up by removing any grit, in arrange of colours. The steps are as follows: grease and tarnish. The most common way of doing this is by using emery cloth. The cloth can be wrapped around a file 1. The metal is heated in an oven or blow torch (forge). and then rubbed over the surface, up and down in one 2. Once hot enough it is dipped into a plastic fluidising direction, to give a clean looking finish. tank filled with plastic powder for a few seconds. 3. It is then taken out and left to cool. The plastic will Metal Emery Cloth now have stuck to metal leaving a plastic coating.

Fluidising: A process where cold air is blown through the powder causing it to bubble like boiling water. This makes it easier for the plastic to stick to the metal.

Product Fluidised Powder

Stages for finishing metal

1. Clean and prepare removing oil or grease. 2. Cross file to remove bad marks or rough cuts 3. Draw File to smooth cross filing. 4. Use Emery Cloth to further smoothen. 5. Use Steel Wool to smoothen again. 6. Apply a finish or polish using oil. Cloth Base 7.

Blown air Inlet Polishing

Further prepare the surface by using a finer grade of emery cloth to get a smooth matt finish. The other ways are to Enamelling polish the metal using metal polish and a dry cloth or, using Enamelling is powdered coloured glass, a buffing machine coated with wax. which is melted, flows over the metal surface and then bonds to it. It is normally used for jewellery or a decorative finish on copper.

Anodising Used on aluminium and is a method Product Being of producing a dense, clear oxide Polished layer that resists corrosion. The layer can be dyed with coloured inks. Painting The surface should be thoroughly de-greased using white spirit. A base coat primer should then be applied to the met- Electroplating al. Finally an enamel gloss should be used for the second This uses a process called electrolysis to coat one metal with coat. a thin layer of another metal. For example covering brass with chromium for bath taps. The toughest paint finish for metal is ‘Hammerite’ which offers good protection against corrosion and rusting. This is the best finish for metal that will be used outdoors.

Lacquering This is similar to varnishing wood. A thin layer of cellulose gum is brushed on the cleaned surface, giving a clear protective coat.

36 Metal Processes

Sand casting is a cast part, which is produced by forming a mould out of a sand mixture and pouring a casting liquid (often molten metal) into the mould. The mould is then air-cooled until the metal solidifies, and the mould is removed. Sand Casting is basically done in these steps:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mould 2. Incorporate a gating system 3. Remove the pattern 4. Fill the mould cavity with molten metal 5. Allow the metal to cool 6. Break away the sand mould and remove the casting.

Why use Aluminium when casting?

There are two main reasons for this: 1. Low melting point therefore it will melt quickly and easily. 2. Provides a nice aesthetic finish.

Identifying features:

Poor surface texture or porous surface. Draft angles, fillets and rounded corners. Fettle marks due to the removal of the runner and riser.

Removing the waste material from the finished mould

Riser Remove the Riser and Runner Runner (waste material Casting of the casting mould using a Hacksaw)

37 Die Casting Where large numbers of identical components are required, Stage 1 sand casting is not appropriate because the mould has be A measure of molten metal is poured into the charge chamber. broken up each time.

Die casting is a method using a permanent mould (called a die). The moulds are made of tough alloy steel and are split into two or more parts to allow the casting to be removed. The initial cost of producing the moulds is high however once man- ufactured the moulds can be kept and reused.

The holes to allow the molten metal into the die (the sprues) are normally too small for metal to fall through under gravity. A Stage 2 ram system is normally used to force the metal in under pres- An injection piston, or plunger, then forces the metal into a sure, so the system is often known as Pressure Die Casting water-cooled die through a system of sprues and runners. This method is normally automated and can produce over 100 castings per hour.

Materials Common materials used in the die casting process include low temperature alloys, lead, zinc, aluminium and brass alloys. Stage 3 The metal solidifies rapidly and the casting is removed, complete with its sprues and runners. Identification Several common features appear on all die cast items these include; section lines (where the two half of the mould separate), sprue marks (where the ejector pins are separated from the Casting) and runner and riser marks (where the molten metal is injected into the mould).

Piercing and Blanking Shearing and Notching Piercing and blanking are essentially the same process. This Shearing and notching refers to cuts taken on sheet metal. process involves stamping shapes out of sheet metal. These types of cut are normally done using a metal workers guil- lotine, as shown o the right. Piercing In piercing a hole is stamped out of the metal.

Blanking In blanking a shape is stamped out of the metal and used. Shearing This refers to taking a straight cut across a sheet of metal. This is used to cut metal to size.

To stamp into the sheet metal, a hardened steel die is used. IT is then forced through metal with high pressure.

Identification A sheared surface will Notching show two This refers to cuts (notches) distinct areas that are removed around the of defor- edge of sheet metal. The cuts mation and taken can be a variety od fracture. This shapes and sizes. is visible as a rough edge that looks snapped or broken and a slightly curved edge where pressure was applied. Where the correct set up is used this can be avoided.

38 Metalwork Lathe Centre lathes are used for turning cylindrical forms of varying diameters from metal and plastic. Lathe work can be carried out manually or as a fully automated process using CNC lathes controlled by computers. The process can vary in cost due to labour and machine parts. If turning is carried out manually, it is only suited to low-volume production, whereas if it is automated it can be used for much higher volumes. When turning, it is important that the speed of lathe is correct for the size and type of material being turned, as well as the process being undertaken. This ensures a good-quality finish and limits any potential risks.

LATHE PROCESSES You will need to be able to describe all of the following lathe processes. This page gives you an overview and exam answers are given on the next page. Learn these and use them in the exam for lathe questions.

Parallel turning Facing off Chamfering

45°

tool feed

tool feed tool feed

This means cutting parallel to a This means cutting across the A is a slope on the job. The process allows you to end of a work piece. It is one of edge of a piece of material. turn the metal to smaller diameter the first things normally done at It is made by cutting at an as you can see in the diagram the start of a new job. The angle on a job. above. process allows us to tidy up the face and ensure that it is flat. Lathe tools Knurling The tool post Finish Indexing and 1. 3. locking lever

Set-screws clamp tools 4. This process is used to 2. engrave a diamond shape pattern onto the metal. This 1.Facing/Parallel Turning 2. Roughing. pattern acts as a grip for 3. Parting-Off. 4. Screw cutting. handles and screws.

tools Centre Drill Work piece Drilled The tool post can be Centre This particular drill is used to Centre Drill arranged to hold just one drill a centre hole before you tool, or up to four. By go ahead and drill the main loosening the screw-lever, hole. It is used with the the tool post can be Tailstock. rotated to each tool in turn.

39 Metalwork Lathe – Process exam answers

40 Screw Threads Threading Threading describes the process of cutting the external (male) thread. A split die is held in a die stock.

Circular split die Die stock

The circular split die is fitted into the Die Stock

The combined die and stock Two outside screws Middle screw is are then used to create a are used for used for thread on a round piece of met- tightening the spreading the al clamped in an engineers circular split die for circular split die vice. NOTE: It is important to a smaller thread. to make it ensure that the bigger. die stock is kept level at all times to ensure a good thread

Tapping Using taps Tapping is used to describe cutting and internal (female) thread. A hole must be drilled to the tapping size for the thread. The work piece must be securely supported. When starting the cutting, the tap must be perpendicular in all planes to the work. Excessive force must not be used, as this will result in breaking the tap. Cutting fluid should be used to help lubricate the job. The threads must be cleared as often as is necessary to pre- vent the flutes from clogging. The cutting sequence involves turning clockwise half a turn and then anti clockwise a quarter turn to break the swarf. Tap Wrench 8 - 10 threads Taper tap is used to start the thread in the Tap tapping size hole. 1st Taper Taper Tap

Taper 3 - 4 threads Tap Intermediate/second tap is used to deepen threads started by taper tap. Engineers Vice 2nd Taper Intermediate Tap Threaded handle adjusts the jaw

Plug tap is used to cut full threads to the bottom of blind holes and to thread right through thick material. Plug Tap

41 Hot Forming Metals - Forging The Forge Anvil Hardy Hole Punch Hole Horn Cutting Face Extractor Face

Bick Tail

Firebricks Throat and Working area. The Anvil is used for working metal. This involves flattening and bending metal. Torch Holding Metal When working with metal at the forge, tongs are used to hold it safely and securely. Hearth Open-Mouth Tongs

For gripping thick flat material. Forging Processes Pick-up Tongs Annealing For gripping awkward shapes including round This process causes the metal to become more malleable and soft bars. making it easier to work. The metal is heated to a dull red colour using the forge and then left to cool naturally. Bending This is done be heating the metal at the forge. Once hot Hardening enough the areas that are not going to be bent should be cooled in cold water. This will ensure that these areas This is the opposite of annealing. Again the metal is heated, this time don't become changed by the forging process. The part however, it is heated to critical - just before melting point. Once that is still hot should then be placed over the corner of ready, it is cooled very quickly in cold water. This processes of the anvil and beaten with a ball-peen hammer to begin cooling the metal quickly causes it to become more hardened but bending the metal. Finally hammer the sides true (flat). brittle meaning it will shatter easily. The metal can then be softened Hammer by TEMPERING to reduce the metals brittleness making it more Hammer sides true suitable for products such as tools.

Tempering Anvil The hardened metal is cleaned firstly to make it bright in appearance. It is then heated gently until it starts to change colour. Twisting The colours it changes to are shown in order on the table below: The first part of this process is exactly the same as bending. Once cooled, one of the cool parts is then clamped in an engineers vice. A twisting wrench should then be placed on the other cool part. You should then start to turn the twisting wrench, causing the hot part of the metal to begin twisting to shape.

Twisting Wrench

Vice Vice Turn Wrench

Drawing down to a point One end of a square piece of metal should be heated at the forge. Once ready the hot end should be place on Looking at this table then, the paler the colour the harder and more the face of the anvil. A ball peen hammer should then be brittle the metal is. The darker the metal the springier and tougher it used to draw the square faces down towards a point as is. This then determines what the hardened and tempered metal can shown below. (See diagram on next page). be used for.

42 Hot Forming Metals (Continued)

for a round point Continue hammering corners to Long Square Taper Short Taper corners to an a round point. octagon. Cold Forming Metals

Bending sheet metal Rawhide mallet Where a long bend is to be, bending Scrap wood Soft bars are used to faced give a straight line. hammer The bending with or the metal inside mallet. should then be clamped in an Used for forming or beating metals. The top of engineers vice. the mallet is made from tough leather which Bend a small bit at a time all the way wont damage the metal in the way that a along the metal to ball-peen hammer would. ensure that it is not over-stretched. A Bossing mallet scrap block of Clamp in Vice Used for forming wood can be used or beating metals. to make it easier to hit the metal and The top is usually keep it straight. made from a hardwood or stur- dy plastic. Hollowing sheet metal Folding / bending bars This is a simple method of making shallow bowls from Bossing Used to secure sheet steel/metal. The mallet long sheet metal small end of a when bending to Bossing Mallet is used to support the entire hammer the edges of the length of the bend. metal on a sand bag and working back to the centre of the metal. This causes the metal to begin curving at the sides. This is done Scrolling metal bar until the metal takes the Scrolling metal bar causes shape of a bowl. Sandbag the metal to take on a spiral shape. To do this a scrolling jig is used. This is a round plate with a serious of holes drilled in a spiral shape. Locating pins/round bars are then placed into these holes Cold bending to create a path for the met- A jig is made to suit the al to be scrolled. The metal angle and shape that we is bent tightly around these want the metal to take. The pins by hand to create a metal is then placed on the spiral shaped bar as shown. jig and bent by hand to suit the shape.

43 Extrusion Metal and Plastic

Extrusion is a process used in both metal and plastic. Extrusion works in similar way to Injection Moulding in plastics and Die Casting in metal. Unlike these two processes, extrusion doesn’t fill a mould to create a formed end product.

Instead the metal/plastic is extruded through a die which can be simply explained as a shaped hole in a piece of metal. This happens in a continuous motion and the outcome is a uniform length of plastic/metal. Extrusion is used to products such as metal/plastic bars, pipes and plastic gutters.

An example of both metal and plastic extrusion is shown below.

Extrusion in metal Extrusion in plastic

1. A metal billet (a piece of metal that has been 1. Molten plastic is fed through a hopper. heated to critical, the point just before the metal becomes molten) is placed into the extrusion 2. A screw then transfers the plastic and a ram forces machine. it through the die.

2. A high pressure ram then forces the metal billet 3. The end product is then cooled. through the die to create the extrusion.

3. The end product is then cooled.

Identification • Continuous cross sections • Flow lines • Long lengths • Simple shapes • Thermoplastics

Extruded products

44 Materials - Plastics

There are three main classes of plastic:

Thermoplastic - cab be re-shaped using heat. For example a piece of thermoplastic has been shaped when we re-heat it will return to its original shape. This is known as plastic memory.

Thermosetting - cannot be reshaped by heat and can withstand higher temperatures than thermoplastics.

All plastics are made from natural resources such as oil, gas, and plant extracts. They are man made and are said to be a syn- thetic material. Plastics are readily available and come in many different forms and colours.

Most property changes are made by adding additives to basic plastic to make them stronger, lighter and so on. The following are common additives:

Plasticisers - makes the plastic less brittle. Pigments - Colour the plastic Fillers - powdered additives e.g. reduces electrical conductivity. Stabilisers - protect plastics from UV light that can make it become brittle. Flame retardants - makes the plastic less likely to catch fire.

Thermoplastics Thermosetting

Used in Schools: Used in schools:

Plastic Properties Uses Plastic Properties Uses Acrylic Rigid, hard, can be Illuminated Polyester Hard, rigid, brittle, Boats, car clear, fluorescent, signs, Resin tough when mixed with bodies. opaque, very durable windows/ glass or carbon fibre. outside and polishes glass, Epoxy/ Strong, good, chemical Adhesive glue, to a high shine. baths. Resin and heat resistant, covering Nylon Tough, self Gears, sticks to other electronic lubricating, resists bearings, materials as well. components wear, good chemical tights, such as resistance clothing. microchips

Polysty- Lightweight, hard, CD cases, Used in Industry: rene rigid, can be clear, packaging, good water model kits. Plastic Properties Uses resistance. Melamine Rigid, scratch Tableware PVC Rigid, quite hard, Formaldehyde resistant, water laminates, top good chemical and stain resistant. coatings on resistance, tough. products.

Used in Industry: Urea Rigid, hard, Electrical plugs, Formaldehyde strong, heat sockets, door Plastic Properties Uses resistant, does not knobs. bend when heat- PET Tough, clear and Bottles. ed, good lightweight. electrical insulator. ABS Very tough, scratch Casings for resistant, good chem- electronic ical resistance. products, kettles, vacuum cleaners.

45 Plastic Processes Hot Forming Plastic Through ine Bending Line where heater Former or Jig Strip Heater bars are located

Thermoplastic When bending plastic along a Heater Bars straight line a strip heater should be used. The plastic is placed over the top of heater bars and heated until soft. Once it is soft enough the Strip heater plastic can be bent and sometimes a former or jig may be used to ensure a square bend.

Moulding Plastic Vacuum Forming Injection Moulding Clamp 5 4 1. Hopper Combined ram and Plastic Sheet 1 6 2. 3 screw 3.Melting area and Heaters Melted Plastic Finished 4. Sprue Part 2 5.Split Mould with injected plastic 6. Finished Plastic

Open Injection moulding is one of the most used plastic processes in manufacture. It is used to make all sorts of products such as TV’s and plastic chairs. It pro- Vacuum pump duces very intricate designs with a high quality finish. Mould Moulded Part It is a costly process that is suited to mass produc- tion (high production volumes). Most thermoplastics can be vacuum formed. This process is used to make trays such as dinner trays, Stages chocolate packaging trays and so on. Plastics used include polythene, PVC, high density polystyrene, ABS 1. In injection moulding plastic granules are and Acrylic. passed through the hopper. 2. The combined screw and ram then pushes the 1. Plastic is secured in the clamp and then heated plastic into the melting area to melt. until soft by the heaters. 3. The molten plastic is then injected through the 2. Once it is soft enough the excess air in the ma- sprue at high pressure into the split mould. chine is sucked out through the vacuum which 4. The mould is opened and the plastic ejected causes the plastic to be sucked into the shape of and left to cool. the mould. 3. The moulded plastic is then taken out and left to cool. It is also important to note that thermosetting plastics 4. Excess plastic is removed and the product cannot be injection moulded because any plastic left trimmed to size. in the machine would set hard permanently and block the nozzle. Identification Thin sheet plastic is normally used. Any patterns or Indetification textures are evident on the plastic. Venting holes Sprue marks, draw angles, mould split lines, ejection caused by pips on the surface. Tapered edges are pin marks and injection pin marks. quite pronounced and there may be evidence on thin- ning on the side surface.

46 Plastic Processes

Rotational moulding

This plastic process is used to create hollow plastic items that are manufactured in one piece.

Stage a At this stage powdered plastic (usually a form of thermoplastic) is poured into the mould. The mould is then sealed and the process of rotating it begins.

Stage b This stage shows the plastic being heated as it is rotated around the mould in all directions. The heated plastic coats the inside wall of the mould.

Stage c The completed plastic part and mould is now cooled before ejection from the mould.

Stage d The moulded shape is ejected from the mould.

Materials Those most commonly used include plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC), the most versatile and easily moulded material. Polypropyl- ene and low-density polythene are also commonly used.

Identification Rigid components may incorporate inserts for fixing. Flexible/ inflatable components may incorporate valves for inflation. Detailed components will have excellent surface detail. Effects such as wood grain, stone, and leather can be produced. Mouldings should be designed to avoid sharp concave sections and thin, weak areas.

Uses Large tanks (10,000 litres) and a range of flexible mouldings have been produced using rotational moulding techniques. Other more common products include balls and hollow plastic toys.

Joining plastic Finishing plastics As plastics can be moulded in one complete shape or product, they often do not need to be joined. However, where they do need to be Firstly it is important that the protective paper on the joined, the following techniques can be used. material is not peeled off as this will protect the material from scratches. Gluing: Plastic can be glued together using or Tensol plastic cement The edges of plastic should be finished by: epoxy resin. Both of these are very strong contact adhesives and fuse the plastic together. Epoxy resin can also be used to help join metal 1. Firstly Cross File all edges. and plastic together, but wood is more difficult to join to plastic. 2. Then Draw File. Plastic rivets: provide a semi-permanent fixing that joins the plastic 3. After this the edges should smoothed using together. There are two main types of rivet. The ratchet rivet uses Wet and Dry abrasive paper. Similar to ‘male’ and ‘female’ parts that snap together when pushed through matching holes on two pieces of plastic. Snap/fastener rivets grip the Glass paper -(Wood) and Emery Cloth - plastic when pushed through a hole using specially designed teeth (Metal). located on the outside of the rivet that stop the plastic from 4. Then smoothen using Steel Wool. separating. 5. Lastly a finishing polish such as metal polish PLASTIC WELDING should be used to polish the edges. There are various forms of plastic welding. The aim of welding is to fuse two pieces of plastic together by melting them along with a filler material that seals the gap. Removing Scratches of the Faces Extrusion welding: is the preferred technique for joining material These can be removed by rubbing metal polish into over 6 mm thick. Thin plastic rod is drawn into a miniature handheld plastic extruder, melted, and forced out of the extruder against the parts being joined, which are softened with a jet of hot air to allow bonding to take place. Speed tip welding: A plastic welder, similar to a soldering iron, is fitted with a feed tube for plastic rod. The speed tip heats the rod at the same time as it presses the molten rod into position. A of softened plastic is laid into the area where the plastic is to be joined, and the melted rod fuses them together. 47 Vices, Gluing and Clamping

Engineers Vice Woodwork Dry Clamping Vice Basically the model is clamped together without glue which allows us check that all parts fit together and that the model is square before we apply any glue. Gluing Checks - Squareness: Use a try square in each corner. A gap will show between the try-square and Secured to a bench Secured to a bench edge of the wood if the job is not square. and used for holding and used for holding metal when working it. wood when working it. OR

Machine Vice Hand Vice Measure the two diagonals

Used for securing Used for holding If they are both the same then the job is square and if not, materials when drilling material such as sheet the job is not square. at the pillar drill. steel when drilling. - Cupping Sash Cramp/Clamp Look along the job at the same angle as the sash cramps. If the job is cupped then the sides will bend up and look slightly rounded.

Used for clamping wood projects together. To fix this - Loosen sash cramps slightly until the cupping is removed or minimized. Weights can also sat on top of the job G Cramp/Clamp to press the wood down flat. Weights Used for clamping or securing materials to a bench when working them. Winding Observe the job at right angles to sash cramps. If the job has winding then it will look twisted.

Glues GLUE USE To fix this - Loosen the sash cramps, hold down the ends of PVA Non-toxic, white, water the glued job and re-tighten cramps. based glue for gluing the majority of wooden projects.

Epoxy Resin Toxic, two parts 1. Epoxy Laminating Wooden Boards 2. Resin. Both parts When gluing wide boards or strips of wood it is important that needs to be mixed in the grain of the touching pieces of wood go in different equal quantities. Used directions to stop the finish job from warping when it dries. for gluing metals. Correct Plastic Cements i.e. Toxic, Used for gluing Tensol No. 12 plastics. Wrong

48 Screws, Nails and Fixings Drivers

Slotted Screwdriver Phillips Screwdriver Pozi Screwdriver Shank Handle Tip Blade

For screwing in slotted head screws. For screwing in Phillips Very similar to a Philips head screws. screwdriver however this screws in pozi head screws. Countersunk Roundhead Panel pins Warrington Hammer Punch Screw Screw

For pinning plywood For hammering pins and For hammering pins/nails Countersunk General wood and hardboard. Also small nails into wood underneath the face of the in order to be screw that used for wood. hidden under unlike the strengthening joints. the face of countersunk the wood screw shows above the face of the wood.

Screwing in a Screw Before screwing a screw into a piece of wood a number of holes need to be drilled first: End Result Clearance 1. Pilot Hole - This is drilled first to give the screw its Hole location and also to stop the as the screw goes in. 2. Clearance Hole - Secondly, drill a clearance hole to Pilot allow the screw to fit the hole easily before being Hole screwed in. 3. Countersunk Hole - Allows a countersunk screw to screw down into the wood and leaves a flat finish on the surface. Knock-Down Fittings and Flatpack furniture These fittings are perfect for the construction of flat-pack furniture. They are pre-made and designed to be easily fixed, simplifying furniture assembly. They are commonly used for joining manufactured boards. They can be bought in bulk, reducing the cost for the manufacturer while also making it easier to design the furniture, as they can be used in several different designs due to their adaptability. Flat-pack furniture further reduces the cost for the manufacturers, as they can:

• transport more of the item due to it being flat • reduce the cost of manufacture because they do not need to assemble it • improve sustainability due to reduced transport and manufacturing processes.

For the consumer, knock-down fittings mean they can easily assemble the product themselves, giving them a sense of achievement. Flat-pack furniture also reduces the end cost for the consumer due to the manufacturing cost reductions outlined above and the readiness of off-the-shelf furniture that can be fitted into your car for transport home.

49 Drilling Pillar / Pedestal Drill

Jacobs chuck Guard - Secures the drill bit Handle Jacobs chuck key - for tightening or loosening the Pillar/ Jacobs chuck Column Table

Base

Cordless drill Power drill 1. Changeable Drill Bit 2. Speed Setting Switch 5 3. 4. Forward Reverse Switch 4 5. Handle 6. Tells you the batteries power 8 7. Battery 8. Trigger Switch 9. Chuck 10 10. Cable

Advantages and Disadvantages: Cordless: Is easily portable however the battery will eventually run out and need re-charged. Power: Wont run out of power but has to be plugged in at all times to operate which means it is not easily portable.

Hand drill Bit brace (Hand Brace Drill) Used for drilling small Used for drilling large holes in wood. holes in wood. Good where a deep hole is required but Difficult to keep is difficult to keep straight. straight.

Turn handle to drill Crankshaft

Drill Bits Fostner bit Auger bit Twist drill Flat bit Countersink bit Hole saw

Used for drilling Used in hand drills Most common drill For drilling flat For Round saw that is large or flat where a lot of effort is bit for drilling bottomed holes. countersinking used for sawing bottomed holes. required to drill a hole. standard holes in Rough drilling as holes in all holes in various It makes drilling easier all materials. they tend to materials. materials. as the wider spirals cause splinters in remove more waste. the wood.

Phillips, Slotted and Pozi Bits (For Safety when Drilling Cordless/Power drill) • Ensure that your material is properly secured before drilling. • Ensure that the drill bit is properly secured in the chuck. • Ensure that you are using the correct drill bit for the job. • Ensure that all other workshop safety rules are being followed. • Ensure that the Jacobs chuck key has not been left in the Jacobs chuck before starting the drill (PILLAR DRILL). 50 Power Tools

Circular Saw Dust extraction Power planer Revolving blades cut thicker shavings than a hand plane. Used for sawing long straight cuts, especially useful for large manufactured boards. Revolving Blades underneath

Fence Blade and Blade Guard

Orbital The glass paper is moved in a circular Dust extraction The belt (with glass paper) motion to give a revolves similar to the rubbing action. Useful movement of treads on an on smaller areas. army tank. This sands the wood and is useful on large areas. Sand paper Sawdust bag Sand paper

Power router Good for cutting out grooves, slots and joints Guard adjustment such as stopped housings. Comes with a number of different tools that can also Guard be used to apply decorative Fence finishes to the edges of wood. Blade Depth gauge Trigger switch High powered saw for cutting wood. Chuck where the Table cutting tool would be held.

Belt sander (floored)

Used for cutting curved cuts Belt Sander in thin boards. Can be set to cut at any angle up to 45°. Disc Sander

Used for sanding and Trigger Switch shaping wood. Blade Mortise machine Clamp Used for machine cutting the mortise part of a mortise and Angle grinder Tenon joint. It cuts a square hole in the wood. Used for shaping and smoothing metal. Lever

Chisel Wheels for moving Table table left/right or front/back

51 CAD/CAM & Manufacturing CAM AND COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURE Commercial manufacture refers to products being made in an industrial scale/setting using specialist processes from hand manufacture to industrial machinery such as injection moulding. Products in manufacture often fall into one of four categories:

1. One-off production Only one product is made at a time. Every product will be unique, and the manufacturing process is often very labour-intensive, as it will require skilled workers making products by hand and user operated machinery. One-off productions may be commissioned for a ‘bespoke’ one-off design. These products are often expensive.

2. Batch production A small-medium quantity of identical products are made at one time. This process can be labour-intensive and will still require skilled workers. However, jigs, templates and moulds are often used to make the process easier and to ensure that all products are exactly the same. It is called batch production because batches of the product can be made as required, with machinery changed easily to suit the required production.

3. Mass production As its name suggests, this involves making large amounts of identical products. The processes used in this production method are highly automated with few skilled workers. The only workers really required are those who oversee the automated production process to ensure everything is running smoothly.

4. Continuous-flow production This is similar to mass manufacture, but the number of products created is much larger. The key difference here is that machines run ‘24/7’ (24 hours a day, 7 days a week) to maximise production and minimise costs. Often, no skilled workers are required. With both mass and continuous flow production, the price of machinery, tooling, moulds and maintenance is very expensive, meaning they are only viable for large production runs.

COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURE Mass manufacture is run using automated production lines and CNC (computer numerical control) machines/robots. These automated production lines are also known as CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) systems. The advantages to the manufacturer of using CAM systems are that machines can:

• work ‘24/7’ non-stop without requiring breaks or becoming ill • limit mistakes through precise CNC manufacture (quality assurance) • eliminate human error, as machines don’t tire or become complacent • create extremely complex and precise products • reduce waste through precise production and efficient use of exact quantities of materials (clean manufacturing) • reduce production costs, as they require no heating, lighting or wages, and large volumes of the product can be made continuously and quickly. CAM systems ultimately speed up production in comparison to using a human workforce.

However, they come with some disadvantages, as: • CAM machinery is extremely expensive to purchase • set-up (installation) and maintenance costs are also very expensive • malfunction can cause production to stop, costing companies time and money • a reduction in the human workforce leads to the loss of skilled workers.

This said, however, the high volume of products made means that the price per unit can be lowered when sold to the consumer. This is because large volumes of a product can be made on one production run with minimal mistakes. This means that companies can recover the costs of set-up and moulds/dies quickly when selling large quantities to the consumer at a low price while still retaining a profit.

52 3D Printing And Laser Cutting 3D printing is an additive process that creates a physical object from a digital design. There are different 3D printing technologies and materials you can print with, but all are based on the same principle: a digital model is turned into a solid 3D physical object by adding material layer by layer. 3D printers vary in quality but are capable of printing complex and high-quality designs quickly, mainly in plastic and some metals. As this technology continues to develop rapidly however, we now have 3D printers that can print food and cell tissues for organs (bio-printing).

Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to cut various materials such as wood, plastic and metal. Laser cutting works by directing the output of a high-power laser operated with computer numerical control (CNC), to cut out 2D profiles designed on CAD software from a range of materials. Laser cutting is highly accurate and leaves an excellent finish on the cut edge.

As with all CAM processes each of the above comes with advantages and disadvantages:

53 The Impact Of Manufacturing On Society

REDUCTION IN WORKFORCE AND THE LOSS OF A SKILLED WORKFORCE As our demand for high-quality, low-cost products increases, designers and manufacturers have to think about how they can achieve this for us. One way is to use CAM systems, as mentioned previously. More and more, robots and automated production lines are becoming the preferred option for manufacturers, as these ultimately reduce manufacturing costs and speed up the production process. Humans are therefore being replaced by robots, leading to job losses, as a few people can operate an entire robotic production line without the need for specialist skills. This also reduces the need for skilled workers, as computer-control specialists are the only skilled workers required to help maintain the robotic machinery when necessary. Overall, this leads to insecure jobs, the loss of specialist and traditional manufacturing skills, high unemployment rates and the economic decline of industry in villages, towns and countries.

COST OF EQUIPMENT Setting up a CAM production line is not cheap, as was outlined in the previous chapter. Companies planning to switch to this form of industry must ensure they will gain economic return on their investment. Some workers may also need retraining, which costs money; or companies may have to employ specialist staff to maintain the robots. These workers will require higher salaries – and, even if this maintenance work is outsourced, companies will have to pay a high fee for this service. This can ultimately affect the cost of the end product, driving up prices. This may also be the reason for companies to seek cheaper manufacturing in other countries.

Globalisation and social/moral implications in global manufacturing The rise in consumerism due to more affordable products, and an ever-increasing global population that demands more products, has created a worldwide market for designers and their products. This is good for designers and companies; however, there are problems that globalisation has created. Companies are forever looking at ways to reduce manufacturing costs to make more affordable products. As manufacturers look for cheaper ways to build products, they often outsource work to factories in other countries where production costs are lower. Although this is good for companies, it is not always good for the workers and our economy. Some countries have fewer restrictions on health and safety and workers’ rights. Workers in these countries are often subject to lower wages, higher pollution and longer working hours; and sometimes the quality of the end product can suffer, as sufficient regulations are not in place. This also creates a problem for home-based industry. For example, Britain has seen much of its manufacturing industry outsourced to companies in Asia. This has led to the economic decline of Britain’s industry and has caused widespread job losses as well as the loss of skilled workforces. There is a large moral issue here that companies must consider, as well as consumers, in ensuring that people the world over are treated fairly. Globalisation also creates environmental problems due to countries having differing standards for green/clean manufacturing, the disposal of waste, transporting products and recycling products.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND SUSTAINABILITY As consumers, we are now more aware than ever of the need to slow down climate change and protect our environment. This has been a positive change in what we want from products, as we want not only products that are of good quality but also products that are more environmentally friendly. Designers, manufacturers and companies therefore have to think about how they can achieve this.

Transport: • Reducing the size of products and their packaging, or flat-packing products, means that more products can be transported, thereby reducing the number of journeys required. • Using recyclable/reusable packaging creates less waste. • Using energy-efficient vehicles will reduce harmful emissions.

Energy efficiency • Products may be made more energy efficient to consume less electricity or other fuel. • Products often come with an energy efficiency rating to make us aware of this. • Other ways of powering products, such as solar power, may be investigated.

Sustainable materials and manufacturing: • Using more sustainable or recyclable materials • Using recycled materials or components to build new products rather than raw materials. • Reducing the amount of components used in products. • Reducing emissions from manufacturing processes and factories. • Reducing toxic waste from the by-products of manufacturing processes. • Recycling waste, such as waste water, to be reused in production. • Using renewable energies, such as wind and solar energy, to power factories. • Better planning for manufacturing, so that exact numbers of products are made on time without any delays, waste or damage. • Ensuring the product can be easily dismantled at the end of its useful life for easier recycling and reuse.

54 Safety

Safety in the school workshop is the responsibility of everyone who uses it. Accidents usually occur when people are fooling around or being careless.

For your own safety: • Ensure that you follow the workshop code of safety at all times. • Only use machines and tools that you have been given permission to. • Act responsibly and respect your own and others safety in the workshop.

When working in the workshop ensure: • That you are wearing an apron • Long hair is tied back. • Hanging jewellery is removed. • Any loose clothing is secured • Shoe laces are tied up. • You don't run in the workshop. • Wear other safety clothing where appropriate e.g. goggles, face mask etc.

Safety Signs • Red signs (Prohibition Signs) display things that are not allowed e.g. No naked flames.

• Blue Signs (Mandatory Signs) display things that must be done e.g. wear goggles.

• Yellow Signs (Warning Signs) display warnings e.g. danger of electrocution.

• Green Signs (Safety Signs) display where first aid boxes/fire exits are etc.

• Fire Signs show where fire extinguishers/hoses etc. are locat- ed.

Safety Equipment (PPE - Personal Protection Equipment)

Goggles Face shield Safety Gloves Standard eye For use with Standard protection for machinery such protection for use with most as a grinder hands when machines. where there will working with hot be a lot of sparks. materials, sharp sheet metal and machinery.

Welding Mask Apron Protection for body For eye protection and clothes. when welding.

55