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Structures of Personality and Their Relevance to Psychopathology Journal of Abnormal Psychology Copyright 1994 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1994, Vol. 103, No. I, 18-31 0021-843X/94/S3.00 Structures of Personality and Their Relevance to Psychopathology David Watson, Lee Anna Clark, and Allan R. Harkness Trait concepts are used extensively in psychopathoiogy research, but much of this research has failed to consider recent advances in the dimensional structure of personality. Many investigators have discounted the importance of this structural research, arguing that (a) little progress has been made in this area, (b) structural models have little direct relevance for psychopathoiogy research, and (c) the principal methodological tool of structural research—factor analysis—is too subjective to yield psychologically meaningful results. We dispute each of these objections. Specifically, we offer an integrative hierarchical model—composed of four higher order traits—that is congruent with each of the major structural subtraditions within personality. We also discuss the implications of this integrative scheme for basic trait research, for the conceptualization and assessment of psychopa- thoiogy, and for the etiology of disorder. Personality is a concept whose meaning is readily apparent to application of trait concepts to their area of research, arguing the average person. Indeed, all of us use personality trait con- that (a) personality is too complex to study scientifically, (b) per- cepts regularly in our daily lives both descriptively ("She's warm sonality research is confusing or chaotic, or (c) the principal and friendly") and explanatively ("He didn't finish the job on method of structural research in personality—factor analysis— time because he's disorganized"). Moreover, trait concepts have is either too rigorously mathematical to capture the richness of long played an important role in many areas of psychology, in- personality (the complaint of phenomenologists and psychody- cluding psychopathoiogy, organizational research, and health namicists) or involves too many subjective judgments (e.g., the psychology. For example, within this decade alone, studies pub- number of factors to extract) to yield meaningful results. There- lished in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology have examined fore, a second goal of this article is to clarify these misun- such traits as self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, asser- derstandings. Specifically, we hope to demonstrate that the re- tiveness, perfectionism, dependency, self-criticism, sociotropy, sults of personality research are both rich and systematic and autonomy, impulsivity, novelty seeking, harm avoidance, self- that they are neither chaotic and confusing nor sterile and un- consciousness, alexithymia, guilt proneness, shame proneness, interesting. and empathy. Common usage and professional familiarity, however, have Defining Personality, Personality Traits, and fostered a deceptive sense of understanding regarding personal- Trait Structure ity. In reality, a scientific definition of personality is more elu- sive—and the systematic study of personality traits is more As far back as 1937, Allport collected more than 50 defini- complex—than their widespread usage may suggest. Conse- tions of personality as well as offering one of his own: "Person- quently, research applications of trait concepts often have been ality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those somewhat haphazard and have yielded inconsistent results. One psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments goal of this article, therefore, is to provide psychopathoiogy re- to his environment" (p. 48). Key aspects of this definition that searchers with an integrative summary of the progress that has are shared by most formal attempts to define personality are been made in the scientific study of personality over the past that it is internal, organized, and characteristic of an individual several decades, so that they may use trait concepts more sys- over time and situations; also mentioned frequently is the idea tematically and thus obtain clearer, more consistent findings. that personality traits are motivational or have adaptive signifi- Furthermore, although some scientists have a false sense of cance (Staub, 1980). Initially, Allport emphasized intraindivid- understanding regarding personality, others have rejected the ual or idiographic trait organization, whereas the more recent personality research that we discuss in this article has focused on nomothetic structures that are highly generalizable across David Watson and Lee Anna Clark (both now at the Department of individuals. Psychology, University of Iowa), Department of Psychology, Southern Note that both the idiographic and nomothetic viewpoints Methodist University; Allan R. Harkness, Department of Psychology, distinguish enduring personality traits from more transient University of Tulsa. states, which themselves may be manifestations of associated John F. Kihlstrom was the Action Editor for this article. traits. That is, it takes more than an occasional fit of pique for We wish to thank Paul Costa, Oliver John, and Jeff McCrae for their someone to be called a hostile person, whereas frequent displays helpful comments. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to David of temper in a variety of situations could warrant that inference Watson, Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (Chaplin, John, & Goldberg, 1988; Watson & Clark, 1984). Tra- 52242-1407. Electronic mail may be sent via Internet to david-wat- ditionally, talents and abilities also have been excluded from [email protected]. personality, although the inclination to engage in skill-related 18 PERSONALITY STRUCTURE AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 19 behaviors has not. Thus, personality descriptors typically have cerning the existence of traits but, in addition, a great deal of included intellectual but not intelligent, aesthetically oriented empirical research has provided much information regarding but not artistically talented, and sports nut, but not skilled ath- the nature of these traits. To summarize this large body of re- lete. search: It is well established that personality traits (a) can be As helpful as these definitional features are in understanding reliably measured (e.g., Epstein, 1979; Jackson & Paunonen, personality as a broad construct, they do not directly address 1985); (b) are quite stable over time (e.g., Costa & McCrae, the question of how specific trait inferences are made, that is, 1988b); (c) can be consensually validated (e.g., Funder & Col- how one determines that certain behaviors can be considered vin, 1988; Norman & Goldberg, 1966); (d) are not artifacts of exemplars of a characteristic trait. In other words, what data interrater agreement due to language, base-rate accuracy, does one use to infer the existence of behavioral dispositions? shared stereotypes, discussion between observers, or situation- Quite briefly, traits are inferred from systematic covariation. As based consistencies (Kenrick & Funder, 1988); (e) can account Cattell (1946) noted, "the unity of a set of parts is established for respectable portions of the variance of interest (Funder & by their moving—i.e., appearing, changing, disappearing—to- Colvin, 1991); (f) arise from the joint influence of genetic and gether, by their exercising an effect together, and by an influence specific environmental causes (e.g., Tellegen et al., 1988); and on one being an influence on all" (p. 71). Thus, trait concepts (g) can be linked to important life outcomes (e.g., Block, 1971; emerge from patterns of measures (items, scales, behavioral rat- John, Caspi, Robins, Moffitt & Stouthamer-Loeber, in press; ings, or other indicators) covarying together with—or apart Watson & Clark, 1984), such as illness, fitness and health-re- from—one another. This covariation is the essence of structure, lated behaviors (e.g., Clark & Watson, 1991 a; Costa & McCrae, and the more general structure of personality, which we argue 1992; Watson & Pennebaker, 1989), job stress, job performance, later is hierarchical, begins with the basic unit of the individual and job satisfaction (e.g., Barrick & Mount, 1991; George & trait. Brief, 1992), and academic achievement (e.g., Digman & Tak- The substantive interpretation of traits and trait structure emoto-Chock, 1981). also has been a subject of discussion (Messick, 1981). For exam- ple, one approach has been to view personality traits as conve- Discovering the Structure of Personality Through nient summary labels for observed consistencies in behavior Factor Analysis (see Buss & Craik, 1983). In contrast, the constructive realist position (Messick, 1981) asserts that traits and trait structures What Is Structure? are fundamental causal variables that provide cogent explana- tions for consistencies in both test and extratest behavior (Loe- As mentioned earlier, the essence of structure is covariation; vinger, 1957;Tellegen, 1988). The essence of this latter position for example, the specific behavior of hitting covaries with both is that consistencies in observed behaviors (i.e., surface traits or kicking and yelling, so we infer a broader dimension of aggres- structures) are indicators or signs of latent psychological struc- sive behaviors. The lower order covariance thus forms the vari- tures that have a positive ontological status. ance of a higher level dimension of aggression. Variability in It is important to emphasize that the identification of system- these behaviors
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