Cultural Tourism Development and the Mosuo People in Lugu Lake

CULTURAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

AND THE MOSUO PEOPLE IN LUGU LAKE, CHINA

ZIWEI LIU

Thesis

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the Degree of Master of Recreation Management

Acadia University

Fall Graduation 2013

This thesis by ZIWEI LIU was defended successfully in an oral examination on June 26, 2013.

The examining committee for the thesis was:

______Dr. Brenda Trofanenko Chair

______Dr. Glyn Bissix for Dr. Thomas Hinch External Examiner

______Dr. Alan Warner for Dr. Ann Marie Powers Internal Examiner

______Dr. John Colton Supervisor

______Dr. Susan Markham-Starr Director’s Delegate

This thesis is accepted in its present form by the Division of Research and Graduate Studies as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree MASTER OF RECREATION MANAGEMENT.

………………………………………….

I, ZIWEI LIU, grant permission to the University Librarian at Acadia University to reproduce, loan or distribute copies of my thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats on a non-profit basis. I, however, retain the copyright in my thesis.

______Author

______Supervisor

______Date

iii

Table of Contents

List of Tables ...... vii

List of Figures ...... viii

Abstract ...... ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... x

Chapter One: Introduction ...... 1

1. An Introduction to Tourism in China ...... 1

2. Study Purpose and Objectives ...... 3

3. Study Area ...... 4

4. Theoretical Approach ...... 5

5. Definitions ...... 6

6. Personal Note ...... 7

Chapter Two: The Context of Tourism in Lugu Lake ...... 9

1. The Natural, Geographical and Cultural Environment ...... 9

2. The Culture of the Mosuo People and Their Matriarchal System ...... 10

3. Tourism at Lugu Lake ...... 12

4. Challenges in Tourism Development at Lugu Lake ...... 16

Chapter Three: Literature Review ...... 23

1. Cultural Tourism ...... 23

2. Defining the Cultural Tourist ...... 25

3. Key Issues in Cultural Tourism ...... 26

4. Tourism Development in China ...... 32

5. Cultural Tourism Development in China ...... 36 iv

6. Cultural Tourism Development in Yunnan Province ...... 38

7. Discussion and Conclusion ...... 39

Chapter Four: Research Approach and Methods ...... 41

1. Research Paradigm ...... 41

2. Methodological Approach ...... 41

3. Trustworthiness ...... 42

4. Methods ...... 44

5. Data Analysis ...... 48

6. Ethical Considerations ...... 49

Chapter Five: Results ...... 50

Theme 1: Mosuo Culture ...... 51

Theme 2: Government Organizational Management and Political Influence ..... 62

Theme 3: Tourism Development in Lugu Lake ...... 70

Theme 4: Impacts on Lugu Lake ...... 78

Theme 5: Youth and Future Community Development ...... 88

Chapter Six: Discussion ...... 95

1. Introduction ...... 95

2. Discussion ...... 96

The Role of Cultural Tourism in the Community’s Development ...... 96

The Role of Government in Mosuo Community Cultural Tourism

Development ...... 101

Impacts of Tourism on the Community ...... 104

Chapter Seven: Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 108

1. Key Insights ...... 108

2. Recommendations ...... 110

3. Final Word ...... 112

References ...... 114

Appendix ...... 131

Appendix A: Interview Guide ...... 131

Appendix B: Invitation to Participate in Study ...... 133

Appendix C: Informed Consent ...... 137

List of Tables

Table 1: Definitions ...... 6

Table 2: Results Summary: Major Themes and Sub-Themes ...... 51

Table 3: The Comparisons of Two Models of Tourism Participation in Lugu Lake

Area ...... 102

vii

List of Figures

Figure 1: Study Area: Lugu Lake, Yunnan Province, China ...... 10

Figure 2: The Lugu Lake ...... 19

Figure 3: The Grass Sea ...... 19

Figure 4: The Lugu Lake with a Traditional Boat ...... 20

Figure 5: The Lige Peninsula ...... 20

Figure 6: A Local Girl Selling Sunflower Seeds ...... 21

Figure 7: The Bonfire Party ...... 21

Figure 8: A Traditional House ...... 22

Figure 9: A Local House Inn ...... 22

Figure 10: Indigenous tourism defined ...... 30

Figure 11: Culture: a driver and an enabler for sustainable development ...... 98

Figure 12: Hypothetical evolution of a tourist area ...... 105

Figure 13: Governmental issues and tourism impacts at Lugu Lake ...... 109

viii

Abstract

Cultural tourism is an increasingly attractive economic development opportunity for many communities throughout China. Many different cultures exist throughout China, offering a wide range of opportunities for developing cultural tourism programs. Areas rich in culture with significant natural attractions are particularly well positioned to attract cultural tourists. This thesis provides insights on how the Mosuo community utilizes their natural and cultural resources to develop cultural tourism and how tourism impacts the overall development of the

Lugu Lake area. Since the establishment of the Lugu Lake Management Committee in

2004, tourism development has changed in this area. As the local highest government body, the committee plays a significant role in promoting the development of the whole community.

This study provides a better understanding of the relationship between cultural tourism development and the Mosuo people in Lugu Lake. The qualitative data were gathered from eighteen formal interviews, participant observation, and field journals.

The results reveal (1) how Mosuo culture is represented in tourism; (2) how the local government impacts tourism development; and (3) how tourism impacts the whole community’s development. The discussion provides further insights about how these factors are important for the community’s development. The conclusions and the recommendations reflect the importance of the environment and the unique culture to the development and sustainability of cultural tourism, and its continued role as the driver of development in Lugu Lake.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to thank several people who helped me accomplish my academic goals. First, I really want thank John Colton; two years ago he accepted me as his student, giving me a chance to study abroad in Canada. During these two years, I had many good experiences as a visiting student. John Colton has been my supervisor and friend. For both my studies and daily life, he has supported and inspired me. Due to my international student status and the language barrier, he also helped me to revise this thesis again and again. Thank you.

For my family and friends, who encourage and support me, especially for my parents who support me and help me to chase my dream, I ask them to forgive me for not accompanying them for these past two years. Thank you.

Last, I want give my greatest appreciation to the amazing Mosuo people at Lugu

Lake. Throughout the one month of on-site research in Lugu Lake, you have been so enthusiastic and patient as interview participants. I thank all of you for helping me and being so warm-hearted. I had a wonderful time in this community and the experiences I shared from joining in the tourism activities will be deep in my heart, thank you.

Upon successful completion of this thesis, the intent is to deliver a copy to the officer at the Lugu Lake Management Committee for providing a summary to interested members of the community.

Thank you

Chapter One

Introduction

1. An Introduction to Tourism in China

Tourism is one of the fastest growing and most lucrative industries, contributing to the promotion of sustainable development in cities around the world (The

Investment Advisory Industry Research Center, 2008). In China, tourism has generated significant economic growth in many cities and has positively affected many industries connected to hospitality, including hotels, food services, and transportation. Tourism often drives the development of communities, creating a variety of local employment opportunities, as well as promoting the protection of culture and the natural environment ("State Council", 2009). Tourism has become increasingly important in developing the economy, and has, therefore, become a prominent industry in China (The Investment Advisory Industry Research Center,

2008).

China is a vast territory with world-class scenery, a rich five thousand-year old history, a variety of cultural and historical artifacts, and many unique minorities and ethnic groups. Collectively, these resources are a powerful attraction for tourists, and as a result, tourism has become a strategy for improving Chinese economic growth (Chen, 2007). China has many great opportunities for developing tourism, and is still searching for new and better methods to develop a strong tourism industry that can succeed in both regional and global markets (Yu, 2007).

Tourism is a mechanism through which China has an opportunity to strategically

brand itself. The branding should be simple and clear, in order to fully represent the unique image and attractiveness of China’s tourism product (Yu, 2007). China’s image was bolstered by the 2008 Beijing Olympics, which successfully introduced the rich culture of China and showcased its state-of-the-art stadiums and facilities, clean streets, skies clear of pollution and friendly people. This showed foreigners the impression that China is a peaceful, civilized and enlightened country (Chen, 2007).

China has the world’s largest domestic tourism market, and by 2020 it is predicted to be the world’s largest tourist destination country (World Tourism

Organization, 2002) as well as the fourth largest market of outbound tourists

(Frangialli, 2005). Even so, the outbound tourism market in China has much room for development, especially the extension of paid leave so that the Chinese people have more leisure time. China’s per capita revenue and the growth of disposable income have created more opportunities for travel (Chen, 2007). Thus, with the gradual development of China’s tourism industry, tourism consumption has become personalized and diverse (Du, 2009). This two-way interaction between supply and demand has allowed China’s tourism market to increase dramatically.

As trends change in the world of tourism, the purpose and manner of travel has gradually changed from leisure travel, such as holiday sightseeing and visiting friends and relatives, to more meaningful travel, such as indigenous tourism, business travel, religious tourism, and cultural tourism (Zhang, 2005). Cultural tourism provides opportunities to learn about other cultures, experience new places with historic significance, and provide meaningful engagement opportunities for tourists as they

interact with local people (Ooi, 2002). Yunnan province, for example, is the most multinational province of China, with colourful ethnic customs, several distinct cultures and a rich history, which combine to generate satisfying and unique cultural tourism experiences (Zhang, 2005).

Since 1986, Yunnan province has had an official Tourism Administration, and the tourism industry has developed dramatically as a result (Li, 2010), attracting more than 77 million travelers annually (Ma, 2009). Yunnan has the largest number of ethnic groups in China, with 25 groups distributed throughout the province (Luo,

2005), each with different cultures and customs. The most unique culture is the Naxi

Mosuo people from Lake Lugu, Yunnan, whose social system is matriarchal, whereby females dominate households and economic activity and choose a continuous series of ‘temporary husbands’ with whom to cohabitate (Walsh, 2001). It is because of its close proximity to the ancient city of Lijiang, a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site, that the Naxi Mosuo people and their home, Lugu Lake, have become a major tourism attraction. The increase in tourism coupled with the unique culture of the Naxi Mosuo provides an opportunity to research the role of cultural tourism in this area.

2. Study Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this study is to better understand how the Mosuo people utilize their natural and cultural resources to develop tourism. More specifically the research explores how:

• the Mosuo people’s unique culture is represented in tourism;

• the mosuo people utilize their cultural and natural resources to develop

tourism;

• tourism impacts the Mosuo people and their culture.

The objectives of the research will be carried out in Lake Lugu, Yunnan, using a case study method (Yin, 1994) that includes interviews and participant observation.

Through a one-month field visit and work experience at Lugu Lake, a more in-depth understanding of how tourism shapes and impacts Mosuo society was achieved.

3. Study Area

Lugu Lake (Chinese: 泸沽湖; Pinyin: Lúgū Hú) is located in the northwest of the

Yunnan plateau, in the centre of Ningliang Yi Autonomous County in the People's

Republic of China. Lugu Lake is currently a famous tourist area, which lies at the juncture of the provinces of Sichuan and Yunnan. The lake area is 50.11 square kilometers with 20 villages surrounding the lake; some of these villages are inhabited by Mosuo, Han, Yi, Tibetan and Pumi people (Li & Luo, 2003). The most numerous cultural group is the Mosuo people, who can be classified as a branch of the Naxi ethnic group, even though their cultural identity is quite different from that of the

Naxi (Standing Committee of Yunnan Provence, 1990).

Lugu Lake is not only renowned for its beautiful landscapes; even more attractive is the ancient and mysterious Mosuo culture and its unique social organization. Its matriarchal society has become a ‘living fossil,’ worthy of scientific study (Bai, 2003). The natural landscape and unique culture have provided a good basis for developing tourism. Since 1996, the lake has been classified as a provincial

tourism area, and with the development of better roads and infrastructure, tourism development has increased (Lu, Duan, & Xu, 2009).

4. Theoretical Approach

The study’s focus is on cultural tourism as opposed to indigenous tourism, but cultural tourism is sometimes difficult to distinguish from indigenous tourism in

China, as will be explored in the following paragraphs.

Creative Nation, (Australia. Dept. of Communications and the Arts, 1994, p.1), describes cultural tourism as “embracing the full range of experiences visitors can undertake to learn what makes a destination distinctive – its lifestyle, its heritage, its arts, its people - and the business of providing and interpreting that culture to visitors.” The Tasmanian Strategies for Growth, (Tourism Western Australia

Destination Development Coordinator, 2006, p. 1), notes that cultural tourism

“covers products which authentically reflect the culture of the destination (e.g. lifestyle, heritage and industrial activity) and visitors who seek an understanding of that culture.”

Indigenous tourism, in contrast, is defined as “Tourism activities in which indigenous people are directly involved either through control and/or by having their culture serve as the essence of the attraction” (Butler & Hinch, 2007, p. 5). There are

56 different nationalities identified in China, so it is difficult to ascertain which peoples are truly indigenous. Based on these definitions of cultural tourism and indigenous tourism, this study will focus on cultural tourism, as tourists are motivated to travel to Lugu Lake to experience the culture of the Mosuo culture.

5. Definitions

The following definitions will serve to guide the discussion and provide context to some of the major concepts within this study. Table 1: Definitions Cultural A commercial tourism activity with a strong cultural component tourism involving unique cultures, literature, music, arts and crafts, and ethnic customs (China National Committee for Terms in Sciences and Technologies, 2004). Indigenous/ “The concept of indigenous/aboriginal tourism may simply refer to Aboriginal aboriginal people’s involvement in the tourism industry as owners tourism of tourism businesses such as hotels, campgrounds, golf courses or casinos, but is more commonly understood as referring to a tourism product whose focus is native culture, i.e. aboriginal cultural tourism or cultural ecotourism” (Notzke, 2004 p.29). Sustainable "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of development the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs" (United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987,p. 1). The Reform With the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the and Opening communist party decided to close the door to the outside world – up Policy and become ethnocentric. In 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China proposed a strategy of ‘internal reform and opening up to the outside world’. This strategy gradually reversed the situation that closed the door and ended its isolation, allowing China to enter a period of rapid economic development (“Reform”, 1978). Socialism with Socialism with Chinese characteristics is the official and central Chinese ideology of the Communist Party of China. This means in mainland characteristics China, after the 1978 Reform and Opening – up Policy, China took a new direction, which introduced capitalism while maintaining its socialist roots that allow it to retain control over all markets; this new economic policy still retained the socialist market economy in the public sector. The Communist Party of China is the sole ruling party of the People’s Republic of China. However there are 8 other political parties that act as consulting bodies that provide input to party decisions (Xinhua NET, 2001). 6

6. Personal Note

I have always been motivated to explore different cultures. A cultural group that has always held significant interest for me is the Mosuo people of Lugu Lake,

China. As a child I learned about this unique culture through classical Chinese literature. Journey to the West (Wu, 1592), one of the four great classical novels of

Chinese literature, describes the Mosuo people and their culture. In this story, the

Mosuo women are held sacred and maintain control of the community though matriarchal structure. The story also describes how women become pregnant. It is by drinking the water of the scared river. As a child growing up in China, we only knew the stories of this unique and mysterious culture but never knew the place or the actual name of the culture group from which the story emerged.

It was not until I was older that I learned that this place really existed and that there was a cultural groups called the Mosuo from which the stories were based. In this Mosuo society, I learned that it was true that woman were held in high regard and that they were the centre of the community, especially the grandmother. It’s only been in the last decade that people in China have learned more about this unique culture through things such as popular magazines and televisions programs.

Because of this, Lugu Lake and the Mosuo people have started to become a popular destination for Chinese tourists.

In my university studies, I began to understand the alarmingly high pace of cultural assimilation in China. When I studied tourism management for my bachelor degree I noticed that many Chinese ethnic cultures have been assimilated by Han

people during the development of tourism. Because of my earlier interests as a child and my new understandings as an adult of the Mosuo people, it was important to extend my understanding through exploratory research that examines the impacts of tourism on this unique culture. Through my research and field experience with the

Mosuo people, I hope to provide a better understanding of how to manage tourism development so that the unique culture of the Mosuo people can be sustained into the future.

Chapter Two

The Context of Tourism in Lugu Lake

1. The Natural, Geographical and Cultural Environment

This chapter will provide an overview of Lugu Lake and explore the culture, history and customs of the Mosuo people. It will describe the extent to which the

Mosuo people have been engaged in tourism, as well as discuss what is currently known about tourism’s impact on the community.

Geography

The unique Mosuo culture and the beautiful scenery and landscapes of the Lugu

Lake region have resulted in its classification as a nation-wide tourist destination and provincial nature reserve (Li & Luo, 2003). The lake covers territory in both Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, with two-thirds of its area being in Sichuan, and the remaining one-third in Yunnan. The lake basin area is 50.3 square kilometers at an elevation of 2690 meters. The maximum lake depth is 93 meters, while the average depth is 45 meters, and the maximum visibility in the water is 12 meters (Lv

& Guo, 2001). Lugu Lake is China’s third largest deep-water lake, and it is famous for its pure water, which boasts a mirror-like transparency. It is known as both the most

‘pure and untouched water in southwest China,’ and as a ‘high quality, world-class tourism resource’ (Lu et al., 2009, p. 564).

The climate of the area is classified as China’s north temperate plateau monsoon climate, which is characterized by a long spring and a short summer, with little variation in seasonal temperature. The winter and summer are mild, and the

annual average temperature is 12 °C, with clear weather for nearly 10 months of the year. There are three months when snow covers the peaks of the mountains, but the lake never freezes (Li & Luo, 2003). Figure 1: Study Area: Lugu Lake, Yunnan Province, China

(http://www.travelchinaguide.com/images/map/yunnan/lijiang-lugu-lake.jpg)

2. The Culture of the Mosuo People and Their Matriarchal System

The culture of the Mosuo people is the main reason that tourists flock to Lugu

Lake (Zheng & Liu, 2010). The Mosuo people have their own language, but most can 10

speak Mandarin, while a smaller number of people also speak Tibetan and Yi. They are gifted performers, and singing and dancing is a traditional way of expressing their culture (Xu, 1998). The Mosuo live in unique architectural buildings called

“Muleizi,” and have their own clothing style and eating habits (Feng, 2007). The culture of the Mosuo people is especially famous for its matrilineal social structure, which holds that the female is the head of the family and the core of its society. The

Mosuo society is also unique due to its marriage practices, whereby men and women do not traditionally marry (Peng, 1998). The Mosuo culture believes that women are sacred beings, and as such have the highest power in society, while the male’s role is that of laborer (Xu, 1998). As the leader of the family, the mother controls the family’s finances and daily routine, and through maternal lineage the girls in the family inherit the family property (Peng, 1998).

The Mosuo cultural tradition includes a Walking Marriage system that they refer to as an Assia Marriage, which is characterized by a shared economic life and the bearing of children, but without an official marriage ceremony or certificate

(Peng, 1998). In the Assia relationship, men do not have parenting obligations, but must support their matrilineal families, usually by working as laborers. They may spend the night with their lover or “Asha,” which means dear one; returning home in the morning (Xu, 1998). Though the Mosuo society has experienced a series of social reforms, the matriarchal system has endured (Yang, Yang, Meng, Hui, Feng, & Xue,

2009). The myths and legends pertaining to their customs and daily routines help us to understand the strong vitality of the matrilineal system (Xu, 1998). In their

festivals and religious activities, the Mosuo tradition of female worship is a direct and clear expression of their matriarchal culture (Zhong & Jing, 2000).

During the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese central government forced the

Mosuo people to implement a patriarchal society and monogamous marriages

(Huang, 2009). To the outside world, it appeared that the traditional systems had been crushed, but the Mosuo were biding their time, holding fast to their culture and their traditions (Li, 2005). After the Cultural Revolution, local autonomous laws were passed in order to preserve the Assia Marriage and matriarchal system, which exemplifies the matriarchal families’ cohesion, as well as its ability to bend but not break against the pressures of contemporary society.

3. Tourism at Lugu Lake

The Local Government

The local government is named Lugu Lake Management Government (LLMC).

The LLMC has played a significant role in promoting the development of infrastructure and positioning the local economy as one driven by tourism investment. Prior to the establishment of the Lugu Lake Management Committee, tourism developed freely in this area. Since 2004, the committee has invested money to organize several subsidiary bodies including: the Lugu Lake Tourist Area

Ticket Station, and an inspection team to supervise and prevent the establishment of illegal businesses. Also newly created are the Lijing Lugu Lake Tourism Development

Company; a group that provides guidance and organizes tourism development, the

Lugu Lake Environment Management Company, and the Travel Services

Management Company for providing tours or tour guide services.

In December 2006, the committee completed the reconstruction of Lige Village project; the entire project cost $2.4 million (USD). This project involved the moving of the village away from the lake in order to allow the building of infrastructure and tourism service facilities. In 2007, the committee also constructed an airport (Field

Journal, 2010). By December 2007, there were 75 hotels, restaurants and inns providing a total of 1848 rooms and 3800 beds in the Lugu Lake Tourist Area. The same year, the region welcomed five hundred thousand tourists. Ticket sales to enter the lake area for tourists reached $2.4 million (USD) and the revenues from tourism reached $28.89 million USD (Luo & Wang, 2010). In 2008, the committee constructed the AAAA level Lugu Lake Tourist Area, investing more than $1.6 million

USD to improve tourism service facilities. The construction included the Lugu Lake

Observation Deck, 3 environmental friendly parking lots, 3 qualified tourist toilets, a tourist reception center, a catering reception center, a travel goods shopping center,

2 tourist boat docks, a first aid station, a guide service station, a Mosuo Cultural

Museum, a Mosuo Cultural Exhibition Center, as well as funds for scenic beautification and greening projects (Field Journal, 2010). On December 28th 2009,

China’s National Tourism Administration approved Lugu Lake as a national AAAA level scenic site. The Lugu Lake tourist reception services and management had improved to a new commercial level.

Because tourism development in Lugu Lake started relatively recently, it is still in an introductory stage (Lugu Lake Management Committee, 2008). Even in these

early stages, since the committee was established; tourism development has experienced rapid growth as a result of the significant investment made by the local government. However, the region’s tourism industry and tourism products have a low level of maturity in terms of their growth (Lugu Lake Management Committee,

2008). Lugu Lake can provide various services, including tourist reception, tour guides, hotels, restaurants, shopping areas and entertainment venues. Most of these services are in a very basic format, without significant development into a modern tourism industry model. The majority of services are provided by local people; these services are spontaneous, decentralized, operating on a small scale, and primarily concentrated in the areas around the lake.

The Local Culture

A matriarchal system is a very rare cultural practice in the contemporary world.

As a result of this unusual tradition, many academic researchers have been motivated to study the Mosuo people (Chen, 2009). These studies focused on various subjects such as: the Mosuo people’s history, geography and traditions (Rock,

1948; Goullart, 1957), language (Li, Zhang, & He, 1944), the relationships in the

Mosuo Matriarchal Family(Song, 1962), the Walking Marriage (Zhan, Wang, Li, & Liu,

1979), and the meaning of gender within Mosuo culture (Weng, 2006).

It is because of this rare culture that Lugu Lake has become a major tourist destination, with many eager to experience the Mosuo culture (Lv & Guo, 2001).

However, tourism is not evenly balanced between the two provinces which play host to Lugu Lake. The Yunnan tourism industry started early and developed rapidly as a

result of their superior infrastructure, which allowed domestic and foreign tourism to increase to more than one hundred thousand visitors per year (Gan, 2011). In contrast, mostly due to poor infrastructure, Sichuan’s provincial tourism started later and has developed more slowly. In 1995, just three to four thousand domestic tourists, and only several dozen foreign tourists visited that part of Sichuan province

(Gan, 2011). The overall development of the tourism industry has been largely beneficial to the people of the area, but there have also been some negative impacts for Lugu Lake (Lv & Guo, 2001).

Each year, the Mouso community votes for a manager who can organize and lead tourist activities (Yang, et al., 2009). Every household must offer a family member to work in the tourism industry, while the rest of the family members farm their land. The people who participate in tourism activities are divided into two groups, with one group responsible for providing boating services, while the other group holds bonfire parties and dances.

Tourist Attractions

In the Lugu Lake region, most tourists prefer to stay in family-style accommodations run by the local people, so that they can have a direct connection with the Mosuo and experience their culture in direct and tangible ways. Tourism activities at Lugu Lake include mountain climbing, horseback riding and participating in a nightly cultural dances native to Guozhuang (Zhong & Jing, 2000). Trying to meet the tourist needs has led to the development of more varied tourist attractions, including boating on the lake, horseback riding, hiking, bonfire parties, visiting

traditional houses, singing folk songs, forest exploration, climbing Gemu Mountain, and participating in activities at the famous Buddhist temple (He, 2001).

During the big festival period, local residents provide other services, such as wagon rides, cooking, selling fresh fish, and organizing Mouso-style wrestling demonstrations. Each week, the two groups of local people who are responsible for tourism activities exchange jobs, so that everyone has experience working in both areas (Li & Luo, 2003). Visitors can also visit the Mosuo and Pumi farmers’ family homes in order to better understand their matriarchal society, and participate in making and tasting local wine (He, 2001). The most popular tourism experience at

Lugu Lake is the community bonfire, where community members and tourists gather to dance and sing Mosuo-style songs (Xu, 1998).

4. Challenges in Tourism Development at Lugu Lake

Tourism development in Lugu Lake has certainly made progress, but it still faces many challenges which restrict the further development of tourism (Li & Luo, 2003).

Poverty

Poverty is still a major problem for most people living around the lake, especially in places where tourism is not prevalent (Li & Luo, 2003). The causes of poverty are threefold: 1) a high population density and a scarcity of arable land, yet most local people depend on farming to sustain their households, 2) a small Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) coupled with high unemployment, 3) relatively infertile land capable of supporting a limited number of crops, such as potatoes and buckwheat

(Qumuwuniu, 2006). The infertile soil and meager harvest mean a low average

income for farmers who do not have other sources of income (Lv & Guo, 2001).

Farmers do not have the means to invest in new technologies that allow them to do other things, nor do they have anyone to teach them how to earn more income in other ways. They do not want to leave their families or their communities to find better jobs in urban centers. Further compounding the poverty issue is the high rate of illiteracy among the local population (Li & Luo, 2003).

Environmental Issues

Lugu Lake and the surrounding region have experienced significant environmental challenges as a result of the developing tourism industry. First, in order to develop tourism attractions, local people harvested many trees to build roads around the lake. This deforestation has caused serious soil erosion, which threatened both the forest and purity of the lake water (Cao, 2011). Second, with the increase in tourism, the volume of garbage has increased, and although governments and villagers have tried to tackle the problem by building landfill sites, recycling cannot be implemented and the landfills continue to grow (Li & Luo, 2003).

Third, despite establishing a sewage treatment station, it does not have the capacity to deal with the drastic increase in population size (He, 2001). Fourth, there is a problem with access to potable water, as the lake is the only source of fresh water for most locals. Increased tourism has resulted in more waste water being diverted directly into the lake (Li & Luo, 2003). Finally, as the main source of energy for heat and cooking is wood, deforestation surrounding the lake has become a serious problem (Cao, 2011). Income from tourism has increased access to gas, electricity,

biogas and other energy sources, but the majority of the population continues to rely on finite wood resources.

Given the ecological and cultural uniqueness of the Mosuo people, and the importance of conserving the ecological environment of the lake and its biological diversity, the area is under consideration for protected areas status (Zheng & Liu,

2010). Establishing the region as a protected area would not only safeguard the ecological balance, but would further support the development of tourism bringing more economic benefits for the community (Zhou, 2004). This will only occur after comprehensive studies are undertaken to better understand the culture and the ecological significance of the lake.

Figure 2: The Lugu Lake

Figure 3: The Grass Sea

Figure 4: The Lugu Lake with a Traditional Boat

Figure 5: The Lige Peninsula

Figure 6: A Local Girl Selling Sunflower Seeds

Figure 7: The Bonfire Party

Figure 8: A Traditional House

Figure 9: A Local House Inn

Chapter Three

Literature Review

1. Cultural Tourism

Introduction

Cultural tourism is an increasingly attractive economic development opportunity for many communities throughout China. Many different cultures exist throughout China, offering a wide range of opportunities for developing cultural tourism programs. Areas rich in culture with significant natural attractions are particularly well positioned to attract cultural tourists. For example, in Yunnan province there are 25 different minority groups, each having unique and interesting cultural traditions. Such diversity provides a rich resource that can create a wealth of opportunities for cultural tourism. The potential for these opportunities can be explored more completely through a comprehensive literature review.

The purpose of this literature review is to explore the relevant literature related to the development of cultural tourism. Primary areas of focus include:

l An understanding of cultural tourism

l An understanding of the cultural tourist

l Key issues in cultural tourism

• Authenticity

• Commodification

• Indigenous control

l Tourism development in China

l Cultural tourism development in China

l Cultural tourism development in Yunnan province

From a global perspective, the cultural tourism industry is dynamic and appeals to a broad and diverse group of people. Cultural tourism in many regions of the world plays an important role in stimulating economic growth (Thomasian, 2009) and can support greater community pride and identity (Wang, 2009).

Defining and Conceptualizing Cultural Tourism

Cultural tourism is recognized as a type of special-interest tourism (McIntosh &

Goeldner, 1990; Richards, 1996; (Goodrich, 1997)Goodrich, 1997; Christou, 2005), most typically defined as “visits by people from outside the host community, motivated either entirely or to a certain degree by cultural offerings and values

(aesthetic, historical, etc) of a particular destination” (Hausmann, 2007, p. 174).

While the types of activities defined as cultural tourism can vary, they typically share common elements (Hall, 2001), such as experiencing new cultures, gaining knowledge of cultural traditions and customs, and purchasing culture-related services and amenities (McKercher & Du Cros, 2002). Accordingly, cultural tourism incorporates varied activities such as participating in historical-cultural events, visiting historical sites of cultural significance such as museums or castles, attending art exhibits (Richards, 1996) and experiencing the native customs, lifestyles and ceremonies of the host communities and local people (Hausmann, 2007). The diverse nature of the experiences provided by cultural tourism permit the segmentation of cultural tourism into multiple markets, including heritage tourism,

arts tourism, religious tourism and museum tourism (McKercher, Ho PhD, Du Cros, &

Chow, 2002).

2. Defining the Cultural Tourist

Cultural tourists are motivated to travel for many reasons but their primary reason is to learn more about a culture (Richards, 1996; Silberberg, 1995; WTO, 1985;

Schweitzer, 1999; Bachleitner & Zins, 1999). They are generally “people who live outside the host community, although residents are also an important potential visitor segment. All tourists are motivated fundamentally by learning, experiential or self-exploration reasons” (Hausmann, 2007, p.174). Schouten (2007) categorizes cultural tourists into five categories. These categories are:

1. The cultural tourist with a strong desire for learning and experiencing other

cultures.

2. The sightseeing cultural tourist who is interested in visiting the cultural

highlights in a region, but not as interested in cultural specifics.

3. The casual cultural tourist who chooses a destination does not see cultural

experiences as the key element in the process of decision-making. For these

tourists, experiencing culture is just an added dimension to travel, and thus

they do not get as deeply involved in experiencing culture.

4. The incidental cultural tourist who chooses a destination does not consider

the cultural experiences, and once their involvement will be superficial.

5. The serendipitous cultural tourist who does not seek a cultural experience in

choosing a destination, but while there gets involved and has an in depth

cultural experience (McKercher & Du Cros, 2002; Schouten, 2007).

A significant number of tourists can be classified as cultural tourists who are seeking meaningful cultural experiences (McKercher & Du Cros, 2003). The World

Tourism Organization statistics show that over 40 percent of international tourists are cultural tourists (Richards, 1996). Cultural tourists share some common characteristics including high levels of education and income. These tourists generally have extensive travel experience and typically have a good understanding of their own needs and wants. Consequently, they often have higher expectations than the average tourists (ArtsMarket Newsletter, 2004).

3. Key Issues in Cultural Tourism

Key issues in cultural tourism in this study include authenticity, commodification and control.

Authenticity

Authenticity in tourism has been extensively studied (Hughes, 1995; Cohen,

1988; Moscardo & Pearce, 1986; Olsen, 2007; MacCannell, 1973; MacCannell, 1976;

Wang, 1999; Yeoman, Brass, & McMahon-Beattie, 2007). Key concepts emerging from these studies include: definitions of authenticity, an understanding of staged authenticity, and the meaning of authenticity in tourism experiences.

An “authentic” experience is defined as an original experience that is true to reality (Laliberte, 2005). As applied to tourism, authenticity is defined by the extent to which visitors feel they have experienced a different way of life by seeking places that remain untouched by modernism, thus retaining traditional methods and ways

of life (Laliberte, 2005).

Cultural tourists seek authenticity and real life experiences; they seek something outside their daily lives, something innovative and different; in short, an escape. They want to experience new things and enjoy the sensation of sharing in something they perceive as real and original. These tourists are motivated beyond pseudo-experiences and wish to truly experience the culture of their travel destinations and gain a better understanding of it (MacCannell, 1976).

Staged authenticity is a theory developed originally by Erving Goffman

(Goffman, 1959). Goffman reasoned that life can be viewed as a big stage with actors and an audience (Hsu, 1997). ‘’Staged authenticity’’ was first used in a tourism study in MacCannell’s (1973) article, titled Tourism Authenticity. In order to make their tourism products more attractive, host cultures shape and polish the tourist’s experience in their area, thereby selling cultural products and, in many ways, also selling themselves to the tourists. MacCannell explains that through this process, the nature of the hosts’ cultural product has been altered and the tourists’ authentic experience is in fact ‘staged’; therefore the experiences provided for tourists becomes less authentic (MacCannell, 1976).

Commodification

When cultural tourism products and authentic cultural values are placed on the stage and displayed or otherwise sold to tourists, ‘cultural commodification’ becomes the by-product (MacCannell, 1976). The alleged purpose of cultural commodification is to protect what is behind the stage – the traditional culture of

the host communities – from being damaged (MacCannell, 1976).

Tourism anthropologist Graburn believes that based upon the economics of tourism, any cultural factors that can legitimately attract foreign visitors can be packaged, priced, and sold to tourists as a commodity, and cultures as commodities can be traded. Therefore, the process of cultural staging is an important form of commercialization (Graburn, 1976).

In contrast, the renowned tourism anthropologist Greenwood (Greenwood,

1989) believes that commercialization of national culture causes local ethnic groups to lose their unique appeal and therefore their culture and beliefs become devalued.

For instance, ‘staged’ religious rites have lost their solemnity and mystery and become cheapened (Chen, 2012). Greenwood asserts that cultural commodification has the capacity to destroy hundreds of years of history in only a few minutes (Li,

2006).

Shen (1999) and (Cohen E. , 1989)Cohen (1989) argue that the process of cultural commodification does not necessarily make the culture lose its meaning. For instance, the folk artists who participate in cultural tourism are proud of the cultural traditions of their nation and there is no reason to think that their performances disgrace their nation’s culture (Shen, 1999). In many cases, cultural commodification enhances the value of local products, resulting in a flourishing economy supported by a vibrant tourism industry. Cultures have become a tangible and saleable product that can enhance local economies. The increasing popularity of the cultural products, and their commodification, helps spread local culture, preventing the demise of

traditional art forms and giving more people the opportunity to learn about and understand different cultures. Moreover, the commodification of tourism and culture can also effectively promote the development of a national culture and economy (Meekaew & Srisontisuk, 2012).

Israel’s famous tourist anthropologist Erik Cohen (Cohen, 1989) believes it is absurd to think that commodification causes cultures to lose their authenticity. A strong culture can accept commercialization and commodification and yet at the same time, retain the benefits from the deep meaning imparted to the indigenous population by their long-term national culture. As a result of tourism activities, such cultures benefit from investment capital which allows for new production technologies and equipment updates, effectively protecting the national culture.

Many tourist anthropologists think this process strengthens a culture, and additionally helps a culture’s resurrection, with some calling the process a “cultural renaissance” (Li, 2006, p.57).

Indigenous Control

The issue of control in tourism development is critical ("Environmental Health",

2005). The level of control will likely determine the scale, pace, nature of the attraction, as well as the outcomes of development including who benefits. Local cultures and traditions may, in some cases, have a significant influence on the type of developments that encourage tourism (Butler & Hinch, 2007).

Figure 10: Indigenous tourism defined

(Butler & Hinch, 2007)

Figure 10 illustrates the issue of control in indigenous tourism (Butler & Hinch,

2007). Control can be either high or low and will depend on the extent to which an indigenous theme is present and also to what degree the indigenous community manages the tourism experience.

When indigenous people lack control of the cultural input, numerous problems are likely to arise which will impede a community’s development (Dodson & Smith,

2003). These problems include the misappropriation of culture and material in some indigenous communities, the continued cycle of poverty and the cultural assimilation of indigenous populations. As a result, the direction of the indigenous community’s development will often be haphazard and easily influenced by outsiders who have strong authority (Westerman, 1997).

Due to the emergence of these problems, there is a growing emphasis on returning power and control to the indigenous people, which has already resulted in remarkable and successful developments in indigenous areas (Weaver, 2010). The most noteworthy is that indigenous re-empowerment has been promoted within a

larger human rights agenda, which includes not only racial/ethnic minorities but females, children and the disabled (Johnston, 2003).

However, communities and governments recognize that a certain level of control is still necessary and governance plays a significant role in measuring the success of building tourism projects (Colton & Harris, 2007). Governance and leadership contribute to the success of community development through long-term strategic planning processes and strong decision-making capacity (Colton & Squire,

2010).

Strong governance and leadership have been instrumental in improving tourism in China. The Chinese economic reforms that began in 1978 are based on the official “Socialism with Chinese characteristics” ideology. While the government retains control over all markets, the significant Reform and Opening-up Policy allowed the introduction of foreign investment and permitted entrepreneurs to start businesses, which allowed China to enter a period of rapid economic development.

The Chinese government has had a considerable influence on the development of tourism, which is under the direct supervision of the Communist party. The government has played a decisive role in guiding and shaping tourism development throughout the country. Through the exercise of broad-reaching control, the Chinese government has played the role of operator, regulator, investment stimulator, promoter, coordinator and educator in tourism development. Based upon the experience gained from these three decades of significant tourism development in

China, the Chinese government is now focusing their efforts on long term strategic

plans in developing and managing tourism (Zhang, Chong, & Ap, 1999).

4. Tourism Development in China

In order to fully appreciate the current role of cultural tourism in China, it is useful to begin by considering the history and development of the Chinese tourism industry in general. Tourism has developed into one of China’s largest and most productive global industries (Hausmann, 2007). For 30 years China has identified tourism as one of its pillars of economic development (Chen, 2007).

Hundreds of years ago, people who travelled to China were almost exclusively wealthy or adventurous foreigners (Lew, Ap, Zhang, & Yu, 2003). These individuals dominated the limited leisure travel industry in China. However, since the Second

World War, globalization has increasingly affected the tourism industry all over the world. Coupled with the opening up of China to foreign investment, globalization has affected all aspects of Chinese tourism. For example, the growth of the airline industry significantly influenced the potential for international tourist trips, making

China more accessible by a wider group of tourists. Additionally, an increasingly globalized media presence has contributed to tourism demand and tourist behaviour

(Parker, 1998).

There are five major inbound geographic markets that are interested in touring

China. These are Japan, South Korea, the United States, Europe and the ASEAN

(Association of Southeast Asian Nations) countries (Yu, 2009). The foreign inbound market to China is now dominated by Asian countries. There is no doubt that the tourism industry influences and promotes the economic prosperity of any region,

and in the future, revenue generated through tourism will further support local and regional economies. The western markets of the United States and Europe offer greater economic benefits to China, compared with the Asian markets, due to the relative wealth of the western tourists. However, the Asian markets offer better prospects for development as well as continued steady growth (Lew & Yu, 1995).

Rejuvenation of both markets will be needed if China wants to maintain and increase the lucrative profits generated through tourism.

Tourism development in China can be divided into three historical stages. The

First stage (1861 – 1949), occurred prior to the establishment of the Chinese Central

Government and before the founding of the New China. At this point, there was no real tourism industry in China, however, a relatively small number of scholars, businessmen and western missionaries travelled to China to conduct business or missionary work (Li, 2012). Also, during this time, the government sent many students abroad to study, who later returned with new ideas and experiences and were interested in learning more about their own country. Tourism emerged in this period but only in a limited way. Furthermore, as discretionary income was very limited among the population as a whole, very few people could afford to travel.

The second stage in the development of the Chinese tourism industry occurred from 1949-1978. To cater to emerging tourism growth, especially that stimulated by returning Chinese students, the China Travel and Tourism Authority was created.

During this stage, tourism helped strengthen diplomatic communications, and supported the development of stronger relationships with other countries through

foreign affairs receptions (Chen, 2010).

The third stage of development began in 1978 and continues today. After 1978, with implementing the “Reform and Opening-Up Policy,” the tourism industry grew dramatically in the following three decades. With this rapid increase in visitors and associated economic development, tourism has now become the fastest growing industry in China (Chen, 2007).

In 1973, the government approved the opening of Guilin City to foreign visitors

(Li, 2011). This proved to be a winning card for the steady expansion of Chinese tourism. With the success of Guilin and with the Reform and Opening-Up Policy in

1978, Gansu (1978), Inner Mongolia (1978), Xinjiang (1979) and other autonomous regions established either Travel Utility Boards or Tourism Administrations to encourage and further develop national tourism. Deng Xiaoping (October 1978), with great foresight, opened a tourist route to Lhasa. After the 1980 Third Plenary Session of the Chinese Communist Party, national tourism in indigenous areas rapidly began to develop. Tibet (1980), Qinghai (1982), Yunnan (1986) and other locations also established Tourism Administrations (Li, 2010). In the last 15 years, tourism has been promoted as one of four ‘industry pillars’ for ‘modernizing’ of the Chinese economy

(Zhang & Lew, 2003).

China has embarked on a vigorous approach to utilize ethnic cultures as a valuable tourism asset (Yang, 2009). Previously, some minorities were marginalized

(they have a small population, located in remote areas and were thought of as heterogeneous people); however the minorities in Yunnan, Guangxi, Xinjiang and

Tibet have retained their traditional cultures and unique lifestyles. Recently they have put considerable effort into developing local tourism. With the government’s care, guidance and support, tourism boards have created plans and programs, and developed a series of measures designed to improve the local areas and support the promotion and development of tourism in these indigenous areas. The strategies have included:

• returning farmland to forests to protect the ecological environment;

• developing tourism attractions in villages and towns to strengthen the town’s

characteristics;

• highlighting ethnic elements and enhancing the appeal of towns and villages

with local folk culture;

• implementing a comprehensive plan to improve infrastructure, including the

construction of urban roads, green spaces, parks, public toilets, sanitation,

environmental protection and other public facilities;

• improving the urban living environment, including aspects that provide

convenience and comfort for travellers; and

• expanding tourism transportation infrastructure ("Hubei", 2011).

Within the local areas of Yunnan, Guangxi, Xinjiang and Tibet, there are many different minorities with a wide variety of interesting cultures and beautiful scenic landscapes. These locations are more popular with tourists than places that just have only one minority group and limited areas of natural beauty or historical sites of interest. This has caused an unbalance in the development of tourism. Reputation

and popularity, as well as the development of infrastructure, have allowed Yunnan,

Guangxi, Xinjiang and Tibet tourism to advance rapidly, while the rest of the provinces are far behind (Li, 2010). However the whole nation has been subject to an unbalanced development of tourism between the main ethnic minorities (Han,

Manchu, Mongolia, Hui and Tibetan) and other different provinces.

5. Cultural Tourism Development in China

Since the end of World War II, new industries have grown rapidly, such as electronics, information, aerospace, and nuclear industries, these industries have been called “sunrise” industries, due to their rapid growth (Journal of grant Party,

2000). This term is used in China to describe an industry which has strong vitality and broad market prospects; it also represents a future trend. Sunrise industries are also characterized by a high density of technical knowledge, raw material consumption, being value-added industries, and having light environmental pollution impacts (Liu,

2001). Cultural tourism in China is a sunrise industry and one of the emerging service industries of China (Deng, 2006).

As a sunrise industry, tourism has developed rapidly; however, the rapid development of tourism resources has also caused many associated problems

(Sheng, 2003). First, the twin issues of environmental pollution and ecological deterioration both seriously influence the ornamental value of cultural tourism resources and also influence the behaviour of investors, who are less likely to want to invest in development that they perceive as having negative impact on the environment. Second, tourism planning plays an important role in tourism

development, however, due to China’s relatively short history as a global tourism destination, the level of expertise involved with planning, coupled with the rapid changes in the tourism market, have resulted in some haphazard and unsystematic tourism planning. Third, China’s social system determines the state-owned nature of tourism resources. The local government, as the regional representative of the country, owns a variety of local tourism resources. However, the government is not an enterprise and does not have the flexibility and management style needed to develop tourism to its fullest extent; thus, heavy government involvement in tourism development has brought a series of problems (Chen, 2007).

Since the Reform and Opening-Up Policy was introduced, China has developed four types of cultural tourism resources, which can be outlined as follows:

1. Native-dependent resources are those local cultural and historical sites which

have significant economic benefits. From a practical point of view, this aspect

of cultural tourism in China has generated a large proportion of the tourism

market.

2. Creative development resources, which includes physical resources, such as

buildings and museums, as well as human ingenuity manifested in cultural

expressions provides a combination that tourists find interesting.

3. Tertiary resources, which are industries that generate products with a value

for cultural tourism. These may include agricultural, irrigational, industrial,

commercial and educational “products” that can also translate into cultural

tourism resources.

4. Integrative resources, which combine features of all the above.

Combining these different types of resources together achieves an integration and complementation of resources that successfully promote the development of cultural tourism throughout the region. This type of cultural tourism resource development has become an important strategy in China’s urban areas (Sheng,

2003).

6. Cultural Tourism Development in Yunnan Province

Yunnan province in southwest China is a frontier province and an autonomous region, with many ethnic groups, and a rich history. Current studies and archaeological discoveries in Yunnan prove that the civilization has existed there for

2,500 years. The people of this area nurture a bright humanistic culture, developed over many generations. This heritage is a valuable cultural tourist commodity, which needs to be nourished and protected (The Federation of Social Sciences of Yunnan

Province Research Team, 2004). It is also important that Yunnan province utilize these resources for economic growth (Yang, 2009).

Yunnan is the biggest and most popular destination in China. Combining culture, fascinating history, ethnic customs and the natural beauty of the environment,

Yunnan enriches the cultural experience for tourists. China’s vibrant cultures help develop tourism more quickly and powerfully, which is exemplified in Yunnan. By promoting cultural tourism in Yunnan, it has become a pillar industry, thus helping to enhance economic growth, and fostering other cultural industries (Si, 2005).

Cultural tourism is the direction of Yunnan’s tourism industry development (Ma,

2009). Yunnan is a cultural province comprised of 25 minorities. The colourful ethnic customs and culture play an extremely important role in tourism. In particular, the

Mosuo people who live around Lugu Lake have unique customs and a rich national culture (Zhang, 1998). In recent years, in order to meet the needs of tourists, many local residents in Lugu Lake have transformed their customs and culture into business products and most of the traditional festivals have become tools to generate income (Fang, 2010). Issues arising from this development are explored in this thesis

7. Discussion and Conclusion

Cultural tourism offers plenty of opportunities for economic growth for local communities like those in Lugu Lake. However, this economic growth must be balanced with a tourism development process that supports cultural preservation.

This will ultimately support authentic travel experiences.

Yunnan province welcomes 80 million tourists every year. The government has promulgated many policies to protect tourists and the natural and cultural heritage they wish to experience. Despite this, the huge numbers of tourists also bring many different cultural beliefs with them. Cultural differences bring new ideologies and concepts, mostly from other parts of Yunnan province where urbanized versions of traditional songs, dances and ceremonies have become a kind of ‘show’ to attract tourists. Therefore, keeping the authenticity of each unique culture is the main issue in developing cultural tourism in Yunnan province.

There is another issue that has emerged in the Lugu Lake area. The central

government does not recognize the Mosuo people as a distinct society. The ethnic identity of a group affects how it is perceived; this may take the form of discrimination, and thus impact the communities’ wellbeing (Phinney, Horenczyk,

Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001). Therefore, tourism development in the Lugu Lake region is a double edged sword. On the one hand it may provide opportunities to strengthen the Mosuo identity, but depending on the nature of the tourism development, it might corrupt this identity by presenting it in a way that does not reflect the true nature of the culture and thus harm the well-being of the Mosuo.

Developing a country’s tourism products by using the country’s traditional cultures not only can increase the population’s confidence in their own country’s culture and history but also provides a vehicle for tourists to understand the country’s culture and history. Governments and indigenous people need to develop a tourism product with traditional cultural characteristics to attract more tourists and at the same time to keep the authentic nature of the culture. This is a vital subject for today’s tourism development in China (Qiao, Chen, & Kim, 2009).

Chapter Four

Research Approach and Methods

1. Research Paradigm

This study uses an interpretivist epistemological paradigm. Interpretivism posits that truth is not absolute, that multiple truths exist (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003), and that these truths are dynamic and socially constructed (Berger & Luckmann, 1996); thus they keep changing depending on one’s perspective (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The most important issue for interpretivist research is to understand and interpret human behavior; summarize and consider its implications.

The interpretive approach aims to understand motives, meanings, and other subjective experiences through direct interviews or observation of people (Hudson &

Ozanna, 1988), as well as helping the researcher “arrive at understandings and interpretations of how people create and maintain their social worlds” (Neuman,

2005, p.71). As a methodology, it is a good fit when trying to understand meaning and process in other cultures. This research focuses on the impacts of cultural tourism and explores how local people utilize their cultural and natural resources to develop tourism.

2. Methodological Approach

Case study research methods (Yin, 1994) were used to collect data. When using this methodology, researchers do fieldwork in order to collect, record, and analyze information to explain their observations (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). In this study, I used fieldwork as the means of exploring the Mosuo culture, its values and attitudes

towards developing tourism and how they integrate their cultural values, traditions, and natural resources into a tourism product.

Most tourism studies choose to use positivist or interpretivist epistemological paradigms in their research (Schuler, Aberdeen, & Dyer, 1999). Yet, leisure scientists

(Samdahl, 1999) contend that interpretive research can better reveal the processes and meanings of recreation, leisure, and tourism rather than a traditional positivist approach. The interpretive approach lends itself well to the study of cultural tourism as it relates to the Mosuo people.

3. Trustworthiness

Qualitative research is frequently criticized as an unreliable research approach

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985), due to multiple interpretations of the truth (Woods, 2006).

In order to increase reliability, trustworthiness can be established through focusing on four key factors that include credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). These factors can be summarized as follows:

1. Credibility – whether all data and information are reliable in testing or

evaluating the “truth” of the reality.

2. Transferability – whether all data and information is applicable to other

contexts.

3. Dependability – whether all data and information are stable and consistent

across repeated studies; and whether subjects are worthy of trust.

4. Confirmability – the truth and fact of subjects are not shaped by the bias

motivation, or interests of others (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

In this study, I used several methods to develop trustworthiness in my research.

In order to improve the data’s credibility, I needed to review secondary references and documents to gain an in-depth understanding of cultural tourism development at Lugu Lake. As I transcribed my data I checked (member-checks) with some individuals to ensure I captured their words and thoughts accurately. To strengthen the dependability of this study, I emailed my supervisor to check my work and the research findings. To improve the dependability of the study, someone reviewed and analyzed the data to confirm the dependability of all information. To ensure and strengthen the confirmability of the data, I also checked my own bias with one local scholar and with other researchers who study in the same geographic region.

In addition, since the interviews were conducted in Mandarin and then translated to English, efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the research participants’ statements. Carefully reviewing and transcribing the interviews with support of two colleagues who speak fluent Mandarin and Chinese enabled trustworthiness as well.

As an international student from china, I was welcomed back to China to conduct my research, but first it was necessary to go through the proper channels to gain permission. With a letter of introduction, I travelled to Lugu Lake where I was received by the local officer in the Propaganda Department. I explained my study purpose and plans for the month I would spend at Lugu Lake. The officer was very supportive and recommended the name of a local village chief to discuss the details of my interviews. The village chief granted me permission to work in his community

and the surrounding region. He also agreed to be interviewed and to identify other people who may want to participate in the research project as well. After I interviewed the chief, he helped me to arrange some other interviews. From these initial interviews, many others followed. I was also granted permission to participate in the daily tourism activities of Lugu Lake. This opportunity further led to my being asked to organize a small group of local primary students who wanted to study

English. This teaching experience was welcomed by local families, and that helped me more easily identify other possible interviewees. Therefore, I obtained data, while also providing a contribution to the local community.

4. Methods

This research project used several different methods of data collection. The primary research methods were fieldwork notes, semi-structured interviews, participant observations, and a research diary. The research process was divided into three stages. The first stage was to observe which parts of the Mosuo culture provide the most popular attractions for tourists and how the culture is represented in these forms of tourism. The second stage involved interviewing different groups to gather key information about how local people feel about tourism development in their community, as well as to study how they benefit from tourism development.

The third stage was to begin to synthesize all the data collected while in the field and develop new paths of inquiry prior to leaving Lugu Lake.

Fieldwork Notes

In ethnography, observations can be recorded as field notes, photographic

collections, interviews, field journals and questionnaires (Wolcott, 1995). This study utilized field journals and a researcher’s diary to record daily information and data from observations and personal reflections.

Photographs and videos recorded the ceremonies, festivals, scenery, and the work of local people. The photos illustrated how their unique culture is represented in tourism and how the local people get involved in tourism. Observation of their traditional dances and sports were identified as the main activities for tourists. Other tourism activities observed at Lugu Lake included boating around the lake, dancing at the bonfire party, observing traditional wrestling and horseback riding. Photos and videos were taken to capture interactions between tourists and local people.

Additionally, the photos and videos can be used as evidence for the results of the observations and provide data to better understand the cultural and natural attractions of the Mosuo people.

I. Interviews

I spent one month at Lugu Lake, during which I conducted interviews and did additional fieldwork. There were three types of interviews used in this research: these include unstructured, semi-structured, and structured (Morse, Marilyn, &

Richards, 2002). This research used semi-structured interviews to determine how local people understand cultural tourism development in their community and the impacts tourism has had on their culture.

For the formal Interviews, I divided the participants into three groups. The first group included representatives of local government organizations and councils who

dominate tourism activities in their community. The second group included local residents who participate in tourism activities but do not enjoy any control. Tourists who do not operate tourism activities were used as a supplementary group to provide additional information.

Formal interviews were needed to get more detailed information. Consequently,

I conducted 18 formal interviews. These interviews were conducted with 2 local governors from the Lugu Lake Management Committee; one of whom is also the chief of a village; 10 tourism-related business owners, most of whom are hotel owners; and 6 local residents and tourists. All interviews were audio recorded. Prior to the interview, the interviewees read and signed an informed consent letter. In order to give interviewees sufficient time to consider the questions, and give the most appropriate answer, each interview took a minimum of 90 minutes.

Pseudonyms were used to protect the identity of research participants.

The month working at Lugu Lake gave me a great opportunity to communicate with individual members of the community. Many of these community members were informally interviewed. Informal interviewees also included tourists interested in developing cultural tourism at Lugu Lake and also teachers at the local primary school. These informal interviewees provided a wide range of information to help me better understand the Mosuo culture, beliefs, education and living situations.

This thesis also considered those local people not involved in tourism and examined their attitudes about developing cultural tourism in their community and the influences of tourism on their lives.

II. Participant Observation

This study also employed participant observation. This is a valuable research method as it provides insight into daily activities in the community and provides evidence of how local people interact in developing and performing tourism related services. There are four forms of participant observation as follows:

1. Complete participant – researcher participates and studies daily activities

while concealing the role of the observer.

2. Complete observer – researcher is completely hidden and unknown to the

community.

3. Participant as observer – observer participating in activities is more

important than observing the subjects.

4. Observer as participant – participation in the community is less important

than data gathering as an observer. The local community supports first-hand

knowledge of their culture for the observer (Merriam, 1988).

In this context, I chose to be an ‘observer as participant’; the primary role as a researcher is to gather data while participating in daily activities. As a researcher, I was able to observe a wide range of people in the local community from different perspectives. As a participant, I worked ‘behind the scenes’ in order to develop a deeper understanding of how the local people commercialize their culture and values, thus allowing the gathering of rich data.

I focused on working in the Wuzhiluo Village, which is located on the shores of

Lugu Lake. Nevertheless, I still toured the Lugu Lake region, made contact with

residents, and interacted with tourists who were extremely interested in the Mosuo culture. Relationships I established with officers in the local government, volunteers in the local primary school, local business operators, artists, and tour operators helped me build trust with the local community.

Researcher Diary

The data and information gathered from fieldwork notes, interviews and participant observation informed my perspective on the impact of tourism on the

Mosuo people and their culture. As I developed my familiarity with this culture during my formative years as a young girl in China, it was important for me to separate my perceptions of this culture as a child from my understanding of the culture as researcher. A research diary allowed me to make note of my own biases and perceptions and ultimately to balance my research in an objective manner to the fullest extent possible.

5. Data Analysis

Data analysis is “a research method for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns” (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p. 1278). Thematic analysis informed the basis of the data analysis.

I followed these steps to analyze and interpret the data.

• Organized all data and transcribe all interviews

• Translated all interviews into English

• Reviewed interview transcripts

• Coded all interviews

• Reviewed and re-coded data

• Developed emergent theme categories based on coding exercises

• Reviewed and finalized themes

6. Ethical Considerations

I submitted a Research Ethnics Board (REB) application form to Acadia

University, which received formal approval in May 2012.

Other ethical considerations included an awareness of sensitive topics in the community where I conducted my research. The most sensitive topics I encountered involved misconceptions of some of the Mosuo traditional practices. In general, the

Mosuo people I met, were usually frustrated by the impression that some tourists have with regard to their Walking Marriage custom. They are understandably dismayed by the misunderstanding that Walking Marriage is akin to a one night stand, and hurt by the suggestion that they have a promiscuous culture. They are also uncomfortable with outsiders asking them questions such as, ‘Do you know who your father is?’ As a researcher, I had to be careful not to judge their values, their culture or customs.

Chapter Five

Results

This chapter will review five major themes related to cultural tourism development in Lugu Lake. These themes provide support for exploring the research objectives, which include a better understanding of how:

• The Mosuo people’s unique culture is represented in tourism.

• The Mosuo people utilize their natural and cultural resources to develop

tourism.

• Tourism impacts the Mosuo people and their culture.

Each section will begin with an overview and conclude with a brief summary.

The major themes are outlined below:

Table 2: Results Summary: Major Themes and Sub-Themes

1. Mosuo Culture 1.1 Built and Cultural Environment 1.2 Cultural Practices 1.3 Spiritual Culture 1.4 Cultural History

2. Government Organizational Management and Political Influence 2.1 Policy and Management Supporting Tourism Development 2.2 Governmental Issues in Tourism Management 2.3 Political Influences

3. Tourism Development in Lugu Lake 3.1 Tourism Development and its Role in Lugu Lake Development 3.2 Current Situation of Tourism Development at Lugu Lake

Table 2: Results Summary: Major Themes and Sub-Themes (Continued)

3.3 Tourism Development Issues and its Future at Lugu Lake 4. Impacts on Lugu Lake 4.1 Impact of Tourism on Environment 4.2 Impact of Tourism on Culture 4.3 Impact of Tourism on Local Economy 4.4 Impact of Tourism on Social Development Issues

5. Youth and Future Community Development 5.1 Changes in Youth Education and Values 5.2 Roles of External Organizations in Lugu Lake Development 5.3 The Future of Lugu Lake Community Development

Theme 1: Mosuo Culture

This theme reflects how the local people use their various cultural resources to develop tourism. It reflects a variety of understandings of Mosuo culture in light of local people’s differing education and experience. Finally, the theme and its four sub-themes provide a more in-depth understanding of the Mosuo culture and how they perceive and experience tourism.

1.1 Built and Cultural Environment

Mosuo architecture is heavily influenced by culture, even to the extent of influencing the way that local people position their homes. “We are surrounded by mountains on one side and Lugu Lake on the other. When choosing a place to build our house, we always prefer to live facing the lake to enjoy the spectacular view”

(Interview, Zhizhi, July 14, 2012).

Mosuo architecture reflects both culture and religious beliefs. Typically, an extended family group live in houses arranged around a courtyard, with the grandmother of the family living in one house, and all younger females on the right side in a two-floor apartment called the Flower Chamber. A separate house is set aside as a place of worship, where Mosuo people chant and pray according to Buddhist tradition. The lower side of the house is a gatehouse for raising livestock or for storage (Interview, Zhashilongbu, July 16, 2012).

The grandmother’s bedroom is also used as the living room for the family, and it is the most important room in the house, with all family activities, including cooking and story-telling, happening there. This room reflects the importance of the Mosuo matrilineal families’ character and customs. The grandmother’s bedroom is shaped like the Chinese character 回; having two circular walls, and two different doors. The door in front is referred to as “alive,” and the door in the rear of the room is referred to as “dead.” In Mosuo culture, there is a belief in ghosts and evil spirits. It is believed that evil spirits can only walk in a straight line, so the Mosuo custom is to build two walls with a door in each. The two doors do not line up so that the ghosts and zombies cannot enter the house. Mosuo people also believe that after death, family members will remain in the vicinity of their house, so the back door is for family spirits or ancestors walking back in to see their family (Interview, Zhuoma, August 1, 2012).

Fire has a special meaning in Mosuo culture. The importance of fire in the culture is demonstrated by the fireplace, which is located in the center of the grandmother’s room. “Mosuo people worship the God of Fire; most family activities are performed around the fire, and the fire cannot be extinguished because an endlessly burning fire symbolizes life” (Interview, Luobu, July 14, 2012). Around the fireplace, there are two different types of seats; one on the upper side that is solely for elderly people and guests, and one for everyone else. The door leading into the room is shorter than usual, meaning that everyone must bow their heads in respect for the elderly people and guests as they enter the door (Interview, Zhuoma, August 1, 2012).

Mouso people believe that women play the most important role in Mosuo culture, but men are also essential to the society because of their role as the primary income earner for the family and also for their role of laborer on the land. Mosuo society cannot function without both men and women. This sentiment is demonstrated by the presence of two pillars in the grandmother’s room, one representing the female character and the other representing the male. The two pillars demonstrate the important role both men and women play in the community. There are two pillars in grandmother’s room that support the whole house. They are named female pillar and male pillar, and they symbolize the equality between women and men; the idea that they are both indispensable to the Mosuo matrilineal family (Interview, Lisike, July 16, 2012).

As a result of our Walking Marriage tradition, male adults live with their grandmothers, but spend their nights in the house of their ‘wives.’ Therefore, in the Mosuo family there are no bedrooms for men. Male teens sleep in their grandmother’s room (Interview, Zhizhi, July 14, 2012).

Cultural tourists can gain a deeper understanding of the matrilineal nature of

Mosuo culture through the architecture and building design traditions. However, until recently, few tourists paid attention to Mosuo architecture or recognized its significance. To bring awareness to this unique architectural style, the Chinese government should encourage visitation and study of Mosuo architecture as a cultural tourism feature.

1.2 Cultural Practices

The most representative and well-known feature of Mosuo culture is the

Walking Marriage, however, local people believe that the most valuable aspect of their culture is their matriarchal society.

I think the matriarchal society is the most symbolic feature of Mosuo culture. In the ideology of Mosuo culture, which is dominated by females, every creature has its own spirituality, and spirituality is fostered by the mother. The mother is both universe and nature, and she can accept almost everything (Interview, Zhuziqing, July 31, 2012).

Generally, women enjoy higher social status in the Mosuo community, especially senior females. Most of the family decisions have to be approved by the mother and grandmother, but that does not mean that men do not share any responsibility. Men need to perform manual labour during the harvest season and they must also provide financial support to help raise their nieces and nephews (Interview, Jiachuzhashi, July 23, 2012).

The matriarchal family unit provides a stable social structure, which accounts for the low crime rate, and in this society, seniors and disabled people are never abandoned by their family or their community. In our community no one starves. The elderly are always taken care of by their children. It is a Mosuo cultural belief that people have to be treated with respect and honesty, no matter their economic status (Interview, Jiachuzhashi, July 23, 2012).

As previously mentioned, a unique custom of the Mosuo culture is the Walking

Marriage. This has received much attention in popular media and has been noted in many travel magazines as being unique. The Walking Marriage is based on monogyny, allowing people to freely choose their spouse without any legal restraint or family pressure, and is mainly restricted by morality. Walking Marriages allow people to enjoy freedom within their romantic relationships without any interference from external factors (Interview, Yang Zhashilongbu, July 16, 2012).

“It is because of Lugu Lake’s isolated location that modern civilization has not influenced the custom of Walking Marriages or the structure of the matriarchal system” (Interview, Duoji, July 23, 2012). Nevertheless, with the development of tourism, the tradition has been gradually changing.

In the past, the prevalence of Walking Marriages was 70 to 80 per cent of the population, but now, the prevalence of Walking Marriages has decreased a lot, with many young couples deciding to live as modern couples instead of following the tradition of the Walking Marriage (Interview, Suolang, July 26, 2012).

Statistically, 60 per cent of young people have a traditional Walking Marriage, which means they live separately in their grandmother’s houses and only meet at night. Another 20 per cent live together, but still follow the Walking Marriage custom, which is acceptable when the particular family has enough space for the couple. The remaining 20 per cent of couples decide to get married and settle down like modern married couples, and do not live with their family (Interview, Laxiang, July 16, 2012).

Despite these statistics, most local people believe that couples who follow a

Walking Marriage still account for the majority of the population. Outside of the confines of Lugu Lake, there is a common misunderstanding of Walking Marriage, with many believing that it is equivalent to a one night stand. This is a flawed perception - couples within a Walking Marriage are faithful to one another and have made a commitment to each other, as in modern marriages. Also, as in a modern marriage, the beginning of a Walking Marriage is witnessed by friends and family.

The perception of the Walking Marriage as being synonymous with a one night stand is harmful to many Mosuo people. Outsiders believe their union is uncivilized; characterized by couples who do not feel a sense of responsibility for one another.

These prejudices have given the Mosuo a bad reputation which wounds their pride and hurts their feelings. The perception that we have no idea who our fathers are or that we do not believe in taking responsibility for our children is simply not true! In a Walking Marriage, couples are only allowed to have one partner at a time. The older generation, like my mother or grandmother, may have ended one Walking Marriage and then started a new relationship with someone else, but nowadays people choose their partners more carefully, and most people have only one

partner for life (Interview, Zhuoma, August 1, 2012).

Before China passed the Marriage Law, stating that girls could not marry before age 20 and boys age 22, the Mosuo people could enter a Walking Marriage after their Coming of Age Festival, at age 13.

On Lunar New Year’s Day, the Mosuo always hold a Coming of Age ceremony for children who are 13 years old. This festival is the turning point in a person’s social life; it signifies the transformation from childhood to adulthood. “Sometimes family heirlooms are passed on to the young people, and at 13 they stop wearing the traditional robes and long gowns made of linen. After the Coming of Age festival, special trousers are given to the boys and skirts to the girls, with decorative silver jewelry for their heads” (Interview, Youzhua, July 18, 2012). Silver jewelry has a special meaning in Mosuo culture, as “It prevents rheumatism and rids the wearer of devils” (Interview, Luobu, July 14, 2012).

Apart from the common festivals throughout China, the Mosuo also have their own unique festivals. “The biggest and most unique festival for the Mosuo people is called Turning around Mountains and Sea Festival. This festival originated from the

Mosuo people’s worship of nature and belief that it is the most divine leader”

(Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012). During the festival, the Mosuo walk around the mountains and Lugu Lake to see how their hometown has changed during the year. While this may seem a trivial celebration, during the festival they always pray for a good harvest in the coming autumn; this festival originated from their tradition of farming and their respect for the god of nature.

Two decades ago, transportation was in a really bad state, so we always had to take a whole day to walk around our lake when celebrating this festival. The festival starts on May 5th according to the lunar calendar, and continues until July 25th, but we only celebrate it on the 5th, 15th and 25th of these two months. We celebrate this festival in the summer because this is when the land is the most beautiful. We always burn incense and pray for health and wealth. On July 25th, the Mosuo people always hold a big party to celebrate this festival, and the local community organizes various activities to bring all of the community members together (Interview, Zhizhi, July 14, 2012).

“The second festival is on November 15th according to the lunar calendar, and is also focused on prayer; Mosuo people bring all of their Buddhas outside, and let them bask in the sun. This is called the Sunning of the Buddha Festival” (Interview,

Zhizhi, July 14, 2012).

In addition to the festivals, the Mosuo people also have unique funeral customs. The Mosuo believe in reincarnation. As a result, for funerals, they always invite holy men to release the soul from purgatory. “We use white cloth to cover the body, and three days later we put the body into a small wood sedan chair for a week and lamas chant sutras (a type of prayer) and pray for a better next life for the dead person” (Interview, Suolang, July 26, 2012). An understanding of funeral traditions as a part of Mosuo culture has also become increasingly important for scholars and cultural tourists.

The matriarchal families, the tradition of Walking Marriage, the colourful and unique festivals, as well as the distinctive funeral practices – all of these are reasons why Lugu Lake is a prime location for tourism development. These practices are representative of a unique culture that has been attracting thousands of cultural tourists who are interested in visiting Lugu Lake and experiencing Mosuo customs.

1.3 Spiritual Culture

The religion in this area mainly consists of Tibetan Buddhism and Daba. All

Mosuo are guided by their spiritual and religious beliefs (Chen & Qin, 1999). There are three types of Tibetan Buddhism around Lugu Lake; Bon, Sa-skya and Dge-lugs-pa. In our culture, the monks of Bon and Sa-skya can drink alcohol, eat meat, get married and have children. Lamas of Tibetan Buddhism are more like messengers from heaven, bringing inner peace and harmony to their religious followers (Interview, Zhuoma, August 1, 2012).

The Mosuo’s original religion was not Tibetan Buddhism; however it has since become the dominant religion of the Lugu Lake region. The Mosuo originally practiced a variant of Buddhism called Daba

“Our own religion is Daba, but it has almost vanished. It reminds me that local residents have forgotten the common proverbs of our first language” (Interview,

Zhashilongbu, July 16, 2012). Another factor, which restricts the development of

Daba, is the belief that “it can only be passed on by local people and family members”

(Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012).

Since the Daba religion is orally taught and shared, it is quickly disappearing from the Mosuo culture. We Mosuo have our own language but it is not a written language; everything we know is passed down from generation to generation through stories, especially the traditions related to our Daba religion. Consequently, our local religious beliefs are gradually disappearing (Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012).

Originally, the doctrine of Daba required that human beings should always respect nature. For example, Daba demands that people pray before killing an animal or cutting a tree. Daba pays a lot attention to spirituality and the relationship between nature and daily life (Interview, Zhaxi, July 28, 2012).

This traditional respect for nature and its role in the lives of the Mosuo is also reflected in their biggest festival, the Turning around Mountains and Sea Festival. In short, their religious beliefs are related to every aspect of their lives. For example, the Mosuo’s religious beliefs are also reflected in their diets. Mosuo people do not eat many kinds of meat, like dog and lamb, nor their plowing oxen or laying hens. The meat in the diet of the Mosuo mainly consists of pork. “Zhu Biao Rou” is the most popular dish, which is smoked pork fat. Although it sounds very unhealthy, the moist climate demands that people here take in more energy to carry out heavy physical work. To prepare the dish, they remove everything but the fat, and then smoke it for months with many kinds of spices (Interview, Sangji, July 17, 2012).

1.4 Cultural History

The cultural identity of the Mosuo People is a controversial topic; officially, there are no Mosuo in the 56 recognized minority groups in China. However, Mosuo do not share any similarities in the form of marriage and family customs with any other minority groups in China. They have their own unique characteristics in social and marriage traditions. There are three theories related to the Mosuo people’s identity. Some believe they are derived from the Naxi people; others support the belief that they are related to the Mongolian people, while some scholars believe they are related to the archaic Qiang people. It is generally believed that we belong to the Naxi minority group, but that is wrong; the Chinese government made a mistake and separated the Mosuo people into two groups according to their geographic location. Mosuo people who live in Yunnan province are identified as a sub-branch of Naxi, while the rest of the Mosuo people who live in Sichuan province are identified as Mongolian (Interview, Duoji, July 23, 2012).

Historically, the Mosuo can be traced to the Yuan dynasty in ancient China.

Our race is descended from Mongolia. The Mongolians went on an expedition to Lugu Lake, and some of the Mongolian soldiers decided to settle down in this area. This heritage is most readily apparent in the features of our clothes, which are steeped in Mongolian traditional culture (Interview, Sangji, July 17, 2012).

Nevertheless, there are still plenty of local people that have their own ideas about their identity. “The Mosuo belong to the archaic Qiang, which is an ancient tribe from the ‘Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period’ in China” (Interview,

Zhaxi, July 28, 2012). “Our ancestors are archaic Qiang, and in my personal opinion, this theory is the most convincing. According to the historical record, before the

Mongol army attacked this area, the local residents had already been living here for hundreds of years” (Interview, Laxiang, July 16, 2102).

These contradictory beliefs have caused confusion among the Mosuo people. Some people think that we are the descendants of the archaic Qiang people, some believe that we are the descendants of Mongols, and the government has identified us as part of the Naxi minority. I do not know where we belong. Some Mosuo people did come from Mongolia, but some of us have lived here longer, and it is hard to distinguish who is who (Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012).

The government should take a large part of the responsibility for causing this confusion for the Mosuo people. At first, the Chinese central government did not pay much attention to identifying minority groups; even today there are still many small minority groups that have not been officially recognized (Li, Xu, Xu, & Sun,

2009). The Mosuo people are an example of this practice. Because their population is so small, the government has grouped them into a category with other minorities as their location is close to a large group. This misidentification seriously influences the ability of a minority group to protect their own distinct culture and history.

There are some similarities between the Naxi and the Mosuo, but our social structure, marriage system and festivals are all totally different; we can understand each other, but we speak different languages. In the early 1980s, the Mosuo people in Yunnan province applied to become an independent minority, as our national identity is completely different from that of any other minority in China, but the government did not accept our proposal because of our small population (Interview, Luobu, July 14, 2012).

Summary

The Lugu Lake Mosuo matriarchal culture has been referred to as “the last matrilineal kingdom in the world” and, more poetically, as “the last rose in the oriental matriarchal cultural garden.” It is not only part of China’s national cultural heritage; it is a very precious and unique cultural treasure. But, the Mosuo are the guardians of a rapidly disappearing cultural heritage that needs to be recognized internationally. After the implementation of the Reform and Opening-up Policy, the

Mosuo culture has been deeply influenced by outside mainstream culture and has become very fragile. Preserving the Mosuo culture requires more scholars to study, understand and support it (Ma, 2006). The continued preservation of the Mosuo culture also requires increased numbers of tourists to visit Lugu Lake, but not simply for superficial sightseeing trips. There is a need for a deeper appreciation and understanding of the Mosuo culture by those tourists who have an interest in immersing themselves in a cultural experience that is completely different from their own. Additionally, there is a need to ensure that cultural tourists approach the

Mosuo culture with the right state of mind to look at their customs on marriage and other aspects with appropriate respect and dignity.

Theme 2: Government Organizational Management and Political Influence

This theme will illustrate how the Lugu Lake government makes policy decisions according to local requirements, and how they organize and manage their resources to develop tourism. Problems in the management process and reflections on the political influences on the local community will be explored.

2.1 Policy and Management Supporting Tourism Development

On July 30, 2004, the tenth meeting of the tenth People’s Congress Standing

Committee in Sichuan Province adopted the Yi Autonomous Prefecture of Liangshan

Prefecture Lugu Lake Scenic Area Protection Ordinance (Announcement No.3).

The purpose of this ordinance was to protect the natural ecological environment of Lugu Lake. This ordinance outlined strict requirements for sewage treatment, forest and aquatic environment protection, and the use of renewable energy sources. Aspects of the ordinance also included tourism planning. In June

2012, the Sichuan Provincial Tourism Bureau organized a group to draw up a plan for

Lugu Lake Mosuo Tourism Development.

The planning was intended to protect the Mosuo culture and the traditional

Mosuo homeland, as well as to build a cluster of tourist attractions connected with

Shangri-La (La & Xu, 2012). Lugu Lake is surrounded by Yunnan and Sichuan provinces; however the degree of tourism development in these two provinces is different. The tourism industry is much more advanced in Yunnan province because of their convenient transportation system and an experienced management structure. The Yunnan tourism regulators have a mature system of coordination with local development and tourism. The superiority of the Yunnan tourism sector set a high standard for Sichuan tourism (Interview, Qiangba, July 13, 2012).

In order to promote tourism development in Lugu Lake, the Yunnan government issued many policies with the aim of encouraging local businesses to support the tourism trade, as well as improving local infrastructure in order to make

Lugu Lake an appealing destination for tourists. In Yunnan province, the local government does a really good job; they help locals to run their own businesses by loaning money without interest or limits. They have hired a professional team to lead them in developing tourism, managing resources and creating marketing plans for the Lugu Lake Scenic Area (Interview, Lisike, July 16, 2012).

Yunnan provincial government has relocated a lot of unsuitable buildings and houses while preserving traditional architecture, in order to save the natural landscape of Lugu Lake. They have also built several public parking lots, repaired streetlights and are building an airport. The infrastructure is well made and for locals who want to build a bar, tea house or hostel, the application process is simple, and the government strongly supports them by exempting them from taxation (Interview, Lisike, July 16, 2012).

In the current political climate, the future for tourism development is bright and opportunities are available for local people to become involved in the promotion of their own area and culture. The provincial government has paid a lot of attention to protecting the local natural environment and cultural heritage of the Mosuo. Also, the tourism industry brings better opportunities for provincial collaboration. For example, in 2011, a new highway was built from Yunnan to Sichuan, which allowed for the free flow of products, services, and of course tourists, between the two provinces. “In building the highways there were negotiations between the two provincial governments. Being able to work together is a positive sign that cooperation toward the common goal of increased tourism may be long-lasting

(Interview, Youzhua, July 18, 2012).”

2.2 Governmental Issues in Tourism Management

In many aspects of tourism development, governments play a critical role in promoting and upgrading the quality of the tourism experience. However, the highly centralized regime causes some management problems for tourism at Lugu Lake. Compared to the not-too-distant past, tourism has improved a lot, but it still suffers from an inefficient management system. As it stands now, tourism at Lugu Lake is in an ‘every man for himself’ situation. The government says that they will create new policies to help manage the tourist resources, but I have been waiting for almost a year and a half and they still have not released any new policies (Interview, Zhuoma, August 1, 2012).

Many local residents think that local government and the Lugu Lake

Management Committee have not made any real effort to help the local community develop tourism. “The management of the whole scenic area is ineffective; we need a professional team to help us to manage, organize and protect our culture and natural landscapes” (Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012). Until recently, I did not think that the Sichuan tourism management committee played any role in developing local tourism. They built several wharves, summer houses, and public washrooms, but did not construct any streetlights. To be honest, they did not actually lead local people to develop tourism; they did nothing significant to benefit tourism development. They did not provide any suggestions about how to get a health permit to run a catering company, or to discharge sewage, or even to preserve our culture. The only thing they did was forbid us to hold BBQ parties or build houses in accordance with our wishes. In order to protect Lugu Lake and the Grass Sea, they forced all inn houses to move back from the lake about 150 to 200 meters. There was no communication between local government and the residents; the government just imposed their own ideas on the local residents, so I think the local government and the committee has not shown good leadership (Interview, Lisike, July 16, 2012).

The Mosuo community faces not only the challenge of creating infrastructure, but also has difficulty finding investors for tourism development projects in Lugu

Lake. A comprehensive plan of investment and development is needed to meet the 64

need for the growth of the tourism market. The government, however, is only interested in setting up short term solutions, which causes problems between local villagers and investors. The local government did not set the goal of sustainable development as their administrative model. The local government has just been forced to carry out the plans and goals that their leaders gave them. They are also limited financially and lack skillful management (Interview, Zhuziqing, July 31, 2012).

The Local government’s chaotic management style is not only represented in the unachievable goals they are setting, but also in their inefficient work systems. The problems that we face today are complicated. Too many government departments, including the Department of Taxation, Bureau of Regulation and Department of Traffic are involved in this community. This causes severe mismanagement. It is hard to balance power between so many Departments, and this leads to inefficiencies in the distribution of finances and resources (Interview, Zhaxi, July 28, 2012).

Moreover, the government and managing system have become less efficient with further development. The infrastructure has not been significantly improved, which reduces the potential for tourism development (Interview, Sangji, July 17, 2012).

Tourism has increased in the Lugu Lake region and has brought more financial benefits to the area as a result, however, the poor quality of construction in the area’s infrastructure, coupled with the mundane nature of many tourist activities, results in an unsatisfying tourism experience for some visitors. Government mismanagement has contributed to this problem, and the problems associated with government regulations cannot be solved in a timely manner, which has seriously influenced the sustainable development of the local tourism industry.

As well as mismanagement, the local government has put all their efforts into amassing revenue from tourism, thus ignoring other factors that would balance the 65

development of the whole community. Consequently, tourist revenues have dramatically increased, but the quality of tourism features remains unsatisfactory, and the local people’s living standards have not been qualitatively improved. The local government establishes hotels to attract more tourists so that they can make more profits. What is worse, the government collaborates with investors to run tourism businesses. As a result of this collaboration, the local people earn less money (Interview, Duoji, July 23, 2012).

The local government built a fancy hotel on a beautiful island, which does benefit and promote tourism development, and also attracts the rich tourists. However, the government has its own priorities so it uses its power to prohibit others from running businesses on the island, as if the island belongs to them (Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012).

The role of local government has caused disillusionment among the local people.

With investment in tourism related to infrastructure like roads, highways, and airports, the tourism attractions owned and operated by the government have become profitable. This has caused the local people to become disenchanted with the government because they do not see the benefits of this profit being used to improve the community. This is especially true in the case of improving education standards and facilities, because the Mosuo place a high value on education.

However, infrastructure also supports Mosuo owned and operated businesses, thus making the issue even more complex.

There are still many problems that the government needs to address in order to make tourism development at Lugu Lake successful. There are also some issues that do not depend solely on the government, but require external social support to achieve.

The environmental issues cause local people a lot of concern, but the government has failed to prevent environmental damage. Local tourism depends on the moral standard of its visitors; environmental sustainability cannot be achieved by local people and government mandates alone (Interview, Sangji, July 17, 2012).

Sustainable environmental protection requires that the government provide sewage and waste disposal facilities. It also requires education for tourists, many of whom need to become aware of how to protect and preserve natural environments.

Cooperation from external groups may require that environmental protection plans and procedures already be in place. Such policies are dependent upon the support of the local government and the cooperation of the local people.

2.3 Political Influences

In general, both the achievements and problems in China’s tourism industry are closely related to principles and policies made by the Communist Party (Chen, 2011).

In the Lugu Lake community, the Communist Party has significantly influenced the local community and its tourism development. “Our whole family, and our whole society, all live using communist principles. In our family, we are all brothers and sisters; we share everything, like money, work and more” (Interview, Lisike, July 16,

2012).

The Communist influence is also reflected in tourism development, “All our tourism activities at Lugu Lake are organized and managed by the local government and the Communist party” (Interview, CaidanZhuoma, July, 13, 2012).

“Now we must share all of our income from dancing and boating among family members. In order to protect our matrilineal family, we divide our income amongst

everyone; even those who did not work on a particular day still get a portion of the salary” (Interview, Zhizhi, July 14, 2012).

“Each village has a headmaster who is the Communist Party Administrator for the village. The total income from the village tourism activities, including rowing, dancing and horseback-riding, is divided equally and distributed to the villagers”

(Interview, Youzhenlamu, July 28, 2012).

However, as a result of these political influences, there are some serious issues surrounding tourism development at Lugu Lake. The local museum is a prime example of the political agenda. During the Cultural Revolution; many historical

Chinese treasures were destroyed. The Mosuo people’s treasures and artifacts were no exception - many of their cultural relics were destroyed as well. Given the very sensitive nature of the Cultural Revolution, it is not discussed very much in China. The local government built a museum to attract more tourists and also to introduce our culture and display our crafts. But I think our museum is too political; it does not really represent our culture. Also, during the Cultural Revolution, many of our crafts and treasures were destroyed (Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012).

The local government built the museum with the intention of showcasing the rich cultural history of the Mosuo people, however, the museum falls far short of its goal because there are only words to describe the lost heritage of the Mosuo.

To support tourism branding and provide a focal point for a marketing campaign, the local government developed a slogan to advertise Lugu Lake as a

“Women’s kingdom, men’s paradise.” As a result of this slogan, many tourists misunderstand what a Walking Marriage entails.

The local government focuses on publishing the uniqueness of the Walking Marriage; they utilize media to spread the ideas of couples living their lives separately in the matriarchal society. This causes many people to think that they can join in a Walking Marriage, no matter who they are (Interview, Sangji, July 17, 2012).

Even worse, the government and most locals do not realize that emphasizing

the Walking Marriage will heavily damage their community. The local people and government have realized that tourists are more curious about the Walking Marriage than anything else in the Mosuo culture, and as a result, the misunderstandings and prejudices as to what a Walking Marriage is continue to be propagated (Interview, Lisike, July 16, 2012).

A successful cultural tourism program for Lugu Lake would allow cultural tourists to understand the Mosuo history, traditions, and other aspects of the unique culture in a profound way, far more than a superficial visit allows. At present, largely because of the problems of governmental management, the tourists who visit Lugu Lake choose to participate only in sightseeing, rather than developing any real understanding or appreciation of the culture. Many people still know nothing about our culture except for the Walking Marriage. Many tourists just drive their car around Lugu Lake, buy some souvenirs and then leave; they do not really join in our activities in order to truly understand our culture (Interview, Zhizhi, July 14).

Summary

The tourism industry in the Lugu Lake area suffers from over commercialization

and lack of a comprehensive tourism management plan. While tourism

infrastructure has been significantly improved in order to support growth of the

industry, there has been very little effort in developing tourism in a manner that is

sensitive to the Mosuo culture. The government should seek to maintain the unique

heritage of the Mosuo culture, otherwise, over-commercialization and commodification will significantly alter the Mosuo people and their culture.

Theme 3: Tourism Development in Lugu Lake

In 1983, Yunnan’s Lugu Lake was listed as a Yunnan Provincial Nature Reserve, and in 1992, with approval from the State Council of China, it became a tourist area open to foreign tourists. In 1994, the Ninglang County Government established the

Lugu Lake provincial tourist area, and ten years later, the Lijiang Provincial Tourism

Management Committee was formally established. The committee helped implement governmental policy and provide support for tourism planning. The committee’s responsibilities also included capital construction, attraction development, land development, investment promotion, publicity, environmental protection and other governmental functions (Luo & Wang, 2010).

3.1 Tourism Development and Its Role in Lugu Lake Development

Most of the villagers in Lugu Lake became involved in tourism when tourists started coming to their community in the 1980s. At the very beginning, we received outsiders as our guests with warm welcome and we did not charge them money for everything. However, with the number of tourists increasing, we had to provide more services, like food, transportation and accommodation. The economic burden became heavy, so we began to run businesses (Interview, Youzhenlamu, July 28, 2012).

In the 1980s, the Lugu Lake economy experienced a decline, and as a result, most young Mosuo people went to seek job opportunities in other regions with more prosperous economic conditions. However, with the advent of tourism, most of them came back to get involved.

I applied for a service job in a tea café which is very far away from my hometown. I felt that most of the people looked down on me; it felt like a kind of discrimination. This experience inspired me to showcase our culture and to build a higher opinion of our culture among the people from the outside world. After I graduated from university, I decided to go back to my hometown to develop tourism and share more stories with outsiders (Interview, Zhashilongbu, July 16, 2012).

After I worked in a big city for a couple of years, I decided to go back to my home and forget the unhappiness of the outside world. I enjoy helping tourists; rowing for tourists in Lugu Lake gives me the opportunity to have a good time with them (Interview, Youzhua, July 18, 2012).

As a result of increased tourism, some domestic tourists from China have settled in the Lugu Lake area after having visited the region. Having recognized its beauty and its pace of life, the region offered an alternative lifestyle to that of the bustling cities. My first involvement with this place was as a tourist. I was totally overwhelmed by the scenery. Moreover, I was also amazed by the honest and friendly local people. I had been working in Shanghai for a while, I was unhappy with the lifestyle of the city. Our work was very repetitive, and the work atmosphere was highly demanding and intense. The most depressing fact is that for most of our lives we are not able to express ourselves as individuals. People around us in the city are mostly snobs. They judge you based on a very small part of you, and then try to describe you as ‘nice man’ or a ‘loser’.

I think I need time to figure out my spiritual journey and my meaning as an individual. Lugu Lake is an ideal place for me. To try to find a spiritual paradise, I need to free myself, and that is why I got involved in the local tourism industry (Interview, Zhuziqing, July 31, 2012).

Lugu Lake has a combination of both local people and outsiders developing tourism features and attractions. This generates more opportunities for local people to connect and communicate with the outside world, offering an exchange of ideas and knowledge from outsiders’ experiences. The influx of new ideas provides a useful source of inspiration, helping to develop the Lugu Lake tourist industry in 71

ways that were not previously considered.

Tourism plays two major roles at Lugu Lake. The most important role is that tourism acts to boost economic prosperity and infrastructure development throughout the region. “The majority of natives have their own business which is reliant on tourism. Tourism has brought a lot of economic development for us, so it means everything to us” (Interview, Luobu, July 14, 2012).

Another important role of tourism is its ability to act as a bridge between cultures. “Tourism plays a role as a connector between the Mosuo people and outsiders. Tourism is a platform from which to display the Mosuo lifestyle, culture and diversity to the outside world” (Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012). At the same time, it provides a window into other cultures for the Mosuo population, and they can learn from the tourists about different places and cultures that they may never have the chance to experience.

3.2 Current Situation of Tourism Development at Lugu Lake

Tourism development in Lugu Lake is still in the introductory stages in many respects, and the Mosuo culture has not been accurately portrayed in many of its tourism attractions. We are still in the elementary stage of tourism development. Our natural resources such as the lake support the boating business, fish and other aquatic products support the food service business, and the mountain supports the climbing business (Interview, Duoji, July 23, 2012).

At present, the tourism industry in Lugu Lake area is primarily focused on providing basic tourism services, like transportation, accommodation and food. The

Mosuo have used their existing resources to meet the tourists’ basic demands; 72

however, they have not developed tourism activities or products that have their own ethnic characteristics. Their business planning is in an immature stage of development. Mostly, local businesses just follow in the footsteps of other famous tourist destinations in China. They simply provide tourists with basic accommodations and provide transportation to the popular places to visit.

Consequently, tourism in this area has developed in an unbalanced fashion. “In

Sichuan province, among these eight villages, some villages are relatively poor because of their lack of interest in tourism, while other villages with popular tourists’ spots have developed dramatically” (Interview, Suolang, July 26, 2012).

As tourism in the Mosuo culture is still in the early stage, local people are still being nice and warm to their neighbors and collaboration is built on trust in Mosuo culture and their strong feeling of community. “In terms of collaboration, the hotel owners always cooperate with private drivers and boat owners to attract more tourists. Additionally, if private drivers take more tourists to the hotels, the hotel owners share income with them” (Interview, CaidanZhuoma, July 13, 2012). We have a strategic alliance with the hotels, whereby when the hotel has been fully booked, it will recommend other hotels in this alliance, and we share information with each other; we also always get together to discuss how to promote our business; what price to set (Interview, Lisike, July 16, 2012).

Most of the cooperation brings positive benefits to local business and residents.

The cooperation between non-Mosuo businesses and local businesses is efficient and profitable. “Non-Mosuo businesses utilize their network to spread the Mosuo culture to attract more tourists to Lugu Lake. On the other hand, the Mosuo people provide natural and human resources” (Interview, Sangji, July 17, 2012). 73

In the majority of cases, the competition is healthy, Many investors from other regions compete with each other to provide better accommodation to attract more tourists. This competition is beneficial because healthy competition helps tourism develop, and the tourists have a better vacation experience (Interview, Duoji, July 23, 2012).

While competition exists and appears to be beneficial, tourism development has not been without its challenges. The primary challenges include: lack of knowledge about running businesses and other resources. Consequently, cultural tourism products suffer from a low level of quality, and tourism resources, have to a certain extent, been damaged (Wang & Meng, 2005).

3.3 Tourism Development Issues and its Future at Lugu Lake

Issues

Among the problems being faced in these primary stages of tourism development for Lugu Lake are a lack of tour buses or other forms of transportation, an absence of street lights and public toilets, which are important tourist service facilities, and a significant shortage of experienced people to guide, develop and operate tourist related activities. “Tourism development in the Mosuo community is still in the early phases. Numerous infrastructure problems need to be solved and tourists’ facilities are already unable to keep up with the influx of visitors” (Interview,

Qiangba, July 13, 2012).

Most Lugu Lake tourists enjoy their experience when they do visit the area, however with an increase in the number of visitors each year; local residents feel increasingly unable to provide the services needed to accommodate the rise in tourist numbers. As a result, the quality of tourism experience begins to decrease as 74

the existing resources are already insufficient. Now that a large number of hotels, house inns and hostels have been built, we have to make them unique. However useful cultural recourses are limited, so if you want to attract more tourists, you need to find ways to stand out. Moreover, environmental pollution makes our living conditions worse (Interview, Suolang, July 26, 2012).

The Mosuo people do not have the necessary skills or experience to successfully run businesses, so until recently “we have just been providing basic services to the tourists” (Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012). People from outside the community have a better understanding of the outside world, therefore, they can better anticipate and meet tourist needs. “Too many modern businesses were brought to our village, and it made local business less competitive. I think the main reason is that we lack universal education and management training” (Interview,

Laxiang, July 16, 2012).

Also, the tourism industry is less likely to be successful in the long term if the development pattern is unable to capture the essence of the Mosuo culture.

Tourism products in Lugu Lake do not currently showcase the central characteristics of the Mosuo culture. This is a critical weakness, because the type of tourism that is promoted for the region is cultural tourism. Local tourism development is unsustainable, and it gains nothing by repeating the business practices of other famous tourist areas. The development lacks innovation and fails to relate the tourist’s experience with truly local daily life. Not only do the hand crafts not reflect our minority’s features, but our activities have also become over-commercialized, which does not really help cultural tourists to understand the Mosuo culture (Interview, Dunzhu, July 23, 2012).

In addition, people in Lugu Lake are concerned about environmental degradation issues that include air and water pollution. This is due, in part, to 75

increased ownership of private vehicles and greater use of the lake for tourism development. Poor environmental conditions can have a negative impact on tourism development and the attitude of tourists who visit the area, which could lead to future decreases in tourism revenue if the area develops a negative reputation. We should limit the number of tourists and forbid private cars from entering the Lugu Lake tourist area, by providing shuttle buses. The trash disposal and wastewater treatment requires improvement because the water quality is not as good as before; the skin of the bullfrogs has turned from green to grey (Interview, CaidanZhuoma, July 13, 2012).

Apart from these three main issues, the uneven distribution of tourists is a sensitive matter with many business operators; this causes some negative competition between hotel owners and private car drivers.

“Some hotel owners who have long–term agreements with private car drivers like to use drivers to lure tourists away from pre-booked accommodation at other hotels, which results in significant damage to our reputation as a harmonious community” (Interview, Luobu, July14, 2012).

“Some hotels compete by offering lower prices” (Interview, Eryierchezhashi,

July 27, 2012). There are no rules and regulations for hotel owners and private car drivers, so often prices fluctuate, which is not good for long-term development.

Future

The speed of development of the Lugu Lake community has been slow, and tourism is a relatively recent phenomenon. In addition, the tourism industry in this area has relied primarily on spontaneously-developed services and businesses provided by local people.

We started with small business at first. For instance, we contacted a small tourist company and attempted to obtain business opportunities. After that we promoted the area for a few years, and the reputation of Mosuo culture has obviously played a role in developing tourism. Now I think we need to create relationships with tour operators throughout China to improve tourism and living a higher level (Interview, Luobu, July 14, 2012).

The Lugu Lake Management Committee wants to address these issues and improve tourism development into the future. However, they need to create effective policies to supervise, manage and promote tourism. A well-equipped set of service facilities, protection of the natural environment and appropriate use of cultural resources must be considered as new management development of policies.

The Mosuo would like cultural tourists to understand how their architecture is an integral part of their culture. They hope that this will help to preserve their traditional architecture. The most important thing is we should preserve is our traditional houses and buildings. People who build a hotel or hostel want to follow a modern style, and plenty of traditional houses have been destroyed. In my opinion, buildings or hotels need to keep or capture the traditional Mosuo style (Interview, Lisike, July 16, 2012).

A combination of modern living conditions with traditional lifestyles will help tourism grow more comprehensively. I think the ancient building structure of this area, using modest materials and practical resources, is what we should promote. We can use our ancient wooden houses to host tourists instead of the modern inns. In doing this we will protect our traditional architectural style (Interview, Youzhenlamu, July 28, 2012).

Summary

While living on an island at Lugu Lake, the American scholar Joseph F. Locker in his book (1947)"The Ancient Nakhi Kingdom of Southwest China," describes Lugu

Lake as, without exception, the most beautiful water in the world, “A lake clear like crystal, surrounded by the forests of the mountain, the island is like a boat floating on the water. Everything is silence; it is an appropriate immortal place to live. How to market this resource advantage needs people constantly exploring innovation.”

Tourism has been in development for almost two decades in Lugu Lake. As tourism business increases, valuable lessons have been learned in terms of how to manage and support tourism development. The most significant lesson learned is that protection of tourism resources are critical to long-term success. Tourism development needs innovation, correct positioning and accurate reflection of the host culture’s characteristics. The protection of tourism resources needs constant effort and action.

Theme 4: Impacts on Lugu Lake

Generally, an increase in tourism will have both positive and negative impacts on the host community. The positive impacts primarily include: more job opportunities, the increase of income for the local economy, and the improvement of local infrastructure. Negative impacts can include damage to the natural environment, traffic congestion, air pollution due to this traffic, and over-commercialization of the host culture.

Lugu Lake has experienced dramatic changes since it began to host tourists and develop its tourist amenities. The Mosuo community environment, living standards, religion, ethnic identity and cultural traditions have been greatly influenced by the changes brought on by tourism. The industry has brought economic benefits to the

development of the Mosuo community, but, also a series of complex and subtle negative consequences (Wei, 2011).

4.1 Impact of Tourism on Environment

Tourism has a significant impact on the natural environment, particularly when the development of tourism facilities and activities is not done with environmental protection in mind. Lugu Lake is particularly threatened by the fragility of the local environment. Personally, I believe that in today’s China, the tourism industry has caused a lot of damage to the places which want to develop tourism. It has become a vicious cycle for the natural environment and local culture. For example, the places which used to be natural fields have now been occupied by artificial tourism buildings or hotels (Interview, Zhashilongbu, July 16, 2012).

The natural landscape and culture are the treasures of the host community and the beauty of the landscape is the essence of tourism in this region. However, with the growing number of tourists in Lugu Lake area, the Mosuo culture and environment has been altered in ways that cause the local people to be upset and frustrated, despite the positive aspects of tourism development. Tourist resources have been damaged by tourism. This place is not as peaceful as it used to be. For instance, it used to be very easy for me to find inner peace when I walked around Lugu Lake. But things changed rapidly since a huge amount of tourists have visited the village; the environment has gotten dirty, noisy, and crowded (Interview, Zhuziqing, July 28, 2012).

Without proper controls and policies in place, tourism can be quite destructive to the natural environment. Specifically, in Lugu Lake there are increasing problems with water pollution, which is the main issue causing concerns for the local population. “It is inevitable that our natural environment will be ruined; the amount

of pollution caused by tourists exceeds natural sustainability. Lugu Lake was a pure, clear and clean before our community became involved in the tourism industry”

(Interview, Qiangba, July 13, 2012).

Currently, the environmental damage is on a relatively small scale; however, it is still irritating for local people to see their community’s famous lake negatively impacted by tourists, particularly when the lake itself is a feature that draws tourists to the region. “Tourists fail to realize the importance of Lugu Lake to our community; some of them thoughtlessly litter” (Interview, Laxiang, July 16, 2012).

Moreover, tourists and external organizations do not respect the natural environment the way that local people do. “Sometimes, tourists step on our gardens to take pictures of flowers; we tell them if everyone wants to step in it, that will be hard for us to keep our plants alive, but they just ignore us, and tell us that that it is not a big deal” (Interview, Suolang, July 26, 2012).

One of the greatest obstacles that must be overcome in order to protect the environment of Lugu Lake is lack of education and knowledge among the local people. The skills and expertise that are required in order to put effective policies and/or systems in place are simply not present in the local population. An example of this is the situation with existing sewage systems, which have not been successfully modified by local tourism operators and do not work effectively with the increased level of use that tourism has caused. Therefore the system is incapable of keeping up with the rapid tourism growth and associated demand for wastewater management. “Most important, the sewage treatment plant and refuse processing

plant has been established which afford a better way to deal with these problems, however, some hotels still discharge waste water directly into the lake” (Interview,

CaidanZhuoma, July 13, 2012). Within Lugu Lake, an area called the Grass Sea plays a role in preserving the quality of the water and slowing soil erosion. With the increase of tourist activity, and no plan in place to protect it, eventually pollution will destroy the Grass Sea, which will in turn affect the purity of the water and thus increase soil erosion (Interview, Zhizhi, July 14, 2012).

Unfortunately, in order to please tourists, locals have altered natural environments in potentially negative ways. For example, the Gumu Goddess Cave is a place for local people to go and pray. However, because of the beautiful stalactites in the cave, it has also become the most famous and frequently visited tourist spot in

Lugu Lake. To make the cave more attractive and mysterious, it was modified by the local people. “Our sacred cave now has so many electrical lights and artificial decorations which were installed for attracting tourists, and similar things have been done in other places” (Interview, Youzhua, July 18, 2012). The improvement of the cave has increased tourism revenue, but has also caused the cave to lose some of its sanctity and meaning for the local people.

4.2 Impact of Tourism on Culture

As tourism grows, increasing pressure is placed on the Mosuo culture to adapt to the changes brought to the community. The biggest challenge of tourism development is how to balance economic growth and simultaneously protect the local culture. It is hard for us to keep our culture. The Mosuo people are unaware of other cultures and although they have a limited education, they have a strong curiosity;

they are willing to accept new ideas, but they do not have common sense to distinguish which ideas they should adopt and which they should disregard (Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012).

In this way, the Mosuo culture is threatened by tourism. “The Mosuo culture has been easily assimilated by the tourists’ culture. A native person who has a chance to get a higher education feels an outsider’s marriage is more civilized than the Walking Marriage” (Interview, Luobu, July 14, 2012).

The greatest threat from the outside world to the host community is that local residents start to perceive their own culture as antiquated and begin to refuse to participate in traditional activities. This is not surprising, particularly with regard to their unique language and their unusual marriage customs, however, the consequences are potentially damaging because in the long term, these traditional activities may completely disappear and the associated beliefs and understanding will be lost. Because more tourists bring their cultures and values here, to some extent, they broaden our horizons, however, to a great extent, locals do not want to follow our traditions anymore, they want to get married and separate from our matrilineal family (Interview, Zhuoma, August 1, 2012).

Most tourists do not understand the essence of the Mosuo culture’s Walking

Marriage. Despite this very real tradition and its importance to the Mosuo people, it has been exploited by some people as a tourist attraction.

What the community has done is exaggerate the practices of the Walking Marriage to gain more curiosity from tourists. The misunderstanding of the Walking Marriage gives a false impression; most tourists normally think it represents a one night stand, which is insulting (Interview, Laxiang, July 16, 2012).

Most tourism-based impacts on native culture and the environment are negative; it is inevitable that when a host community gets involved in tourism that their culture will be under increasing pressure from outside influences.

4.3 Impact of tourism on Local Economy

Tourism has brought significant economic benefits to the Mosuo community, with the most significant impact being more job opportunities for local people. The standard of living and family income of many Mosuo people have also improved dramatically. Tourism plays an irreplaceable role in our community development. Most of the economic income is a benefit of tourism. For example, in the past, our life was somewhat self-sufficient, after the development of tourism; our village had largely reduced the ratio of farming and has put much more effort into promoting tourism to make more profits (Interview, Duoji, July 23, 2012).

Agriculture was the primary driving force of the local economy before the tourism industry developed. However, local people are finding that tourism provides similar or improved economic benefits with less effort than farming. Tourism, therefore, has become an attractive economic development opportunity. “The income from tourism is much higher than that of farming, and offers greater job choices. The ability to make more money is important but just as important is that we enjoy the new lifestyle of guiding and providing services for tourists” (Interview,

Suolang, July 26, 2012). “Moreover, guiding tourists or dancing for tourists is a much easier way to increase income, and we can have more free time to enjoy our leisure activities” (Interview, Sangji, July 17, 2012).

In Lugu Lake, tourism has significantly increased the income potential for local

families. Since they have become involved in tourism, the most obvious change is that local living standards have been improved to a much higher level. Before we were involved in the tourism industry, the quality of our life was just above starvation, though what we consumed in daily life was totally homemade and sustainable (the people support themselves); there was little electricity, telephone or other high-tech utilities before tourism (Interview, Dunzhu, July 23, 2012).

Tourism also stimulated developments in many other industry sectors, especially catering, transportation, and the commercial retail trade. Now most of the local businesses are related to tourism or provide services for tourists. Tourism and related business is responsible for almost 90% of the local economy and has led to the development of various industries. Especially in the service industry, there are more chances for local people to obtain extra income; so now we can say that we live on tourism (Interview, Zhizhi, July 14, 2012).

Despite the increased income potential in the Mosuo community, not every family has enough money or knowledge to run a business as complex and demanding as a hotel, however, many locals have sufficient skill and ability to run small scale service businesses related to tourism. People who have money can renovate their houses to become a hotel or hostel, and then they can earn money by providing accommodations and serving meals to tourists. They also can sell native products like potatoes, corn, and pork to tourists. If you do not have money to build a hotel, you can entertain with dance or with rowing boats for tourist sightseeing. Both of these activities pay well. For me, I can say that tourism changed my whole life (Interview, Lisike, July 16, 2012).

Tourism plays a significant role in the Mosuo community, as it provides an economic boon to the local economy and it benefits local community development.

Nevertheless, there are still some local residents who believe that the challenges and negative impacts are greater than the positive economic impacts tourism brings to 84

the host community. I think the only benefit that tourism has brought is economic gain. The positive point is the chain reaction; with higher economic growth, local people desire more information and technology. Step by step, local people intend to spend more money on education. However, too many modern businesses were brought into our village, making local business less competitive (Interview, Zhaxi, July 28, 2012).

4.4 Impact of Tourism on Social Development Issues

With the increase in capital resources from tourism, the most significant effect of the booming economy is that it enhances many other social developments in the host community. First, local people have more opportunities to communicate with outsiders. Second, the infrastructure and service facilities have improved dramatically. Third, from a medical perspective, the government provides more free medicine for local people and tourists. In order to receive more tourists, the government constructed the Wingding Mountain road connecting several cities to Lugu Lake, as well as other infrastructure like public washrooms and parking lots. These improvements are extremely helpful to local development. Our lifestyle also experienced tremendous changes; radio, TV and computer are the evidence of this material improvement. Moreover, with the growth of our financial capacity, more local villagers began travelling to other cities or tourist spots. We try to gain management skills and knowledge from other business models; it improves a lot of the output and input of our culture (Interview, Youzhenlamu, July 28, 2012).

The transportation system used to be very inefficient; however, with the rapid growth of tourism, the system has improved tremendously, allowing domestic tourists to travel more easily to visit the Lugu Lake region. The provincial highway allows villagers to easily get in touch with outside communities. Local people benefit greatly from the convenient transportation system. “We used to take one whole day

to go to the country town center but now it takes only three hours. I think efficient transportation has largely improved the quality of our life” (Interview, Zhuoma,

August 1, 2012).

Increased transportation has provided greater access to medical facilities, and the efficient transportation has shortened the time that patients wait for medical treatment. With the improvement of medical treatment, local villagers benefited from the tourism industry. In the past, there was a high possibility that people could die, not from diseases, but because of the poor transportation system. Nowadays, the survival rate has increased significantly (Interview, Dunzhu, July 23, 2012).

Communication with outsiders has also improved with the increase in tourist numbers. Communicating and gathering information from tourists helps the locals absorb a variety of cultures and knowledge.

Tourism development and its resulting infrastructure have provided increased access to communication technologies such as the internet. Before tourism development, we had little chance to connect with the outside. However, with the internet brought in by tourists, local people not only learn the news from radios or TV, but also the internet functions to greatly improve our daily life. Now, native people are familiar with using blogs to promote their businesses (Interview, Lajicuo, July 14, 2012).

Improving communication, transportation and technology has brought significant change. However not all changes have been positive. The process of modernization has changed interpersonal relationships, values, world outlook and philosophy. As a result, life for the Mosuo has become more complex and less harmonious. Tourism also brings many other negative impacts. For example, because of the

local people’s low education level, and their awareness of the area’s spectacular view and unique culture, they choose to rely solely on the tourist and cultural resources instead of working or studying hard (Interview, Zhizhi, July 14, 2012).

The objectives of a host community’s purpose of developing tourism differ from those of outside investors. To some extent, local people want to display or carry forward their culture during tourism development. However, outside investors put economic benefits first and foremost on their agenda. As time goes on, local people are influenced by the investors, altering their focus and attracted by the lure of earning more money. In turn, this makes the people become more materialistic. In this area, before tourism developed, if you needed something, you could borrow it, or others would give it to you. Now, people realize that everything has some monetary value, and so they charge money. Tourism destroyed our relationship with others and also damaged local people’s friendliness and the social harmony in this area (Interview, Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012).

The local people of Lugu Lake report that their community and neighborhoods used to be very cooperative and friendly, but with increased business competition created by tourism, there is now conflict. The Mosuo have become superficial and materialistic. Most of the local people enjoy depending on the tourism industry, which is an easy way to make money. They have become lazy and stop thinking in the long term about possible innovations for future development (Interview, Zhaxi, July 28, 2012).

Summary

The development of a tourism industry typically incurs both negative and positive impacts on a host community.

The negative impacts on the environment and culture from tourism development are inevitable; moreover, these impacts not only influence the tourists’ experiences but also influence local people’s daily lives. Water pollution and cultural 87

assimilation are serious problems that threaten tourism development and the

Mosuo community. The local people and government need to work together to address these issues.

However, the positive impacts from tourism not only improve local people’s lifestyle but also improve their spiritual life. The increasing income from tourism has improved local people’s living standard, promoted communication and exchange of information with outsiders, and given local residents greater opportunities to improve their educational level. As a result of these impacts, they find more enjoyment in their daily lives.

Theme 5: Youth and Future Community Development

Young people experience dramatic changes as they mature, and they form their attitudes, competencies, social skills and values that will influence their success throughout their lives. Community programs promote youth development, however, from another perspective, community development depends on youth. Parents and families play a crucial role in helping the young, but so too do schools and communities, which need to take responsibility for extending and enhancing education and supporting young people. Tourism development has provided opportunities for youth in many areas but most notably in education (Science, 2002).

5.1 Changes in Youth Education and Values

Education

The most significant improvement in the Lugu Lake community is the awareness of the importance of education. People no longer have to give up their education

and perform tiring physical work. Local people have become more interested in higher education, and of adopting different kinds of knowledge in their daily lives.

“Currently, almost every family holds the opinion that sending their child to university is not optional but required. For the older generation, management and financial knowledge has become more popular and useful in their businesses”

(Interview, Sangji, July 17, 2012).

With the increasing number of families realizing the importance of education, the Chinese Central Government’s welfare education program has begun providing free tuition from grades one to nine, and the Lugu Lake local government provides free lunch for students up to the sixth grade. The awareness of improving education is increasingly important in supporting community development. “We used to believe that it was unnecessary to go to school. Helping your family to manage a small business and farm work is the core value in this area. But it is not the case anymore” (Interview, Youzhenlamu, July 28, 2012).

In the Lugu Lake community, for most local families, education has become the most challenging issue. “The idea of getting a higher education has already spread to every single villager. People tend to encourage their children to go to the outside world to get a better education instead of limiting themselves by working for their family” (Interview, Tenggeer, July 16, 2012). Now the local residents who are more deeply involved in tourism can afford to have their children continue education after the nine-year compulsory education provided by the government. Others may have educational awareness; however they do not have the ability (Interview, Lisike, July 16, 2012).

Values

Most Mosuo are happy with the changes in education. However, they are equally concerned about the changes taking place in their culture. More and more

Mosuo people are worried about the loss of many unique Mosuo practices because they are unlikely to be carried on by the younger generation. Several of the younger people want to know about the outside world. They want the chance to travel and see other cities. It also means they desire a better life as individuals. They want their children to get a better education, to learn other skills, to gain new knowledge, and to have new opportunities (Interview, Zhuziqing, July 31, 2012).

Many of the younger generation have left their community to go to school or work elsewhere, and when they return, they come back with a totally different worldview. What is happening now is that a lot of teenagers now refuse to have a Walking Marriage because they want a regular marriage. Most likely this is because they have already experienced the modern world and then come back to compare it with our culture. They are more likely to lean towards a ‘regular marriage’, like a couple who are really in love and want to have a family of their own and share all their responsibilities and work out their struggles together (Interview, Zhuoma, August 1, 2012).

Unfortunately, because of the promotion of Mandarin in education, many children cannot speak the Mosuo language and that will irrevocably damage the

Mosuo people. It is also an increasingly common phenomenon that local children and youth like to imitate outsiders’ mannerisms and dress styles. As a result of these kinds of influences, the Mosuo culture and language are being lost in the young generation.

The changes in education bring changes to their values, with more and more

youth getting a higher education. They will wish to change their current situation by improving their living standard or changing their matriarchal society and marriage system. Eventually, the Mosuo culture will be nothing but a legend (Interview,

Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012).

5.2 External Organizations Support of Youth and Mosuo Culture

Many outside organizations have supported the Mosuo people. One positive benefit from external organizations support is a charity fund for youth, which has helped the poor local inhabitants, especially the children. Many charitable organizations regularly provide free school supplies and winter shoes and clothes to local students. “The charity for education plays a positive role by helping poor local students. It provides the Mosuo community more opportunities to create a sustainable education opportunities for our future development” (Interview, Dunzhu,

July 23, 2012).

External organizations help promote the host community’s development and enhance their educational awareness for youth. Outsiders invest money in education, and help open primary schools to improve the whole community’s quality of education. “More volunteer teachers have come to this place to enrich the quality of our education. However, to some extent, it also causes cultural assimilation”

(Interview, Laxiang, July 16, 2012).

Organizations and people from other communities also help the host community to advertise and promote their businesses. At the same time, the locals learn more advanced knowledge and awareness and are therefore able to offer

better services for tourists. Most of the external organizations and philanthropists are playing the role of spreading education and new information. Most of their influences are positive, because from a personal perspective, the younger generation will be able to adapt more easily to the outside world (Interview, Sangji, July 17, 2012).

External writers and researchers also play an important role in spreading the host community’s culture. Through their works they are introducing many people to

Lugu Lake, and they also help attract more tourists and academic interest in the

Mosuo community, to help them promote their culture. Nevertheless, this also causes some misunderstandings between hosts and guests. Many writers, in order to make their work more attractive, will ignore or alter the facts of Mosuo culture. Outsiders do not really know our culture, or they intend to exaggerate our Walking Marriage to attract more readers. Some tourists really think that our Walking Marriage is just a “one night stand”. Some actually travel here seeking exciting sexual experiences and bring their negative elements which will influence the local people and cause misunderstandings on both sides. As time goes on, the local people will think that they too can just laze around and not do any work, not understanding that tourists will get back to their life after the trip, and they do not behave in this manner in their own home or work place (Interview, Zhuoma, August 1, 2012).

5.3 The Future of the Lugu Lake Community Development

For some Mosuo people the future is uncertain and the loss of their culture weighs heavily on their minds.

The most serious issue is that with the increasing awareness of education in our community, we will gradually lose our culture. I am really concerned about the capability of the younger generation, because they are under the influence of the modern industrial society. It is so hard for them to keep following our customs (Interview, Zhashilongbu, July 16, 2012).

Apart from the impact caused by tourism, in the host community there are five

minorities: Mosuo, Yi, Pumi, Tibetan and Han. These five minorities also interact with each other. It is obvious to see the effects of assimilation with regards to the Han, because most of the businesses in this area are owned by Non-Mosuo people. Their lifestyle and management ideas have caused changes in local residents. It is possible that all of our traditions could be substituted by mainstream culture within 20 years (Interview, Youzhua, July 18, 2012).

Now, as the Mosuo community increasingly gains the world’s attention, tourists, investors and different kinds of organizations try their best to help the Mosuo community. Not only do they donate money or funding, they also help promote significant improvements in community development. These investments better position the Mosuo community for the future. There are still many charitable organizations to be established, and the main project will be to solve the educational and environmental problems, and also help promote sustainable travel. It will allow local development more opportunities to improve (Interview, Zhuziqing, July 31, 2012).

While outside organizations have provided significant support, local people still worry about the future of tourism and to what extent it has actually been beneficial to communities. With the development of tourism, benefits and negative impacts can be confusing, and difficult to navigate for the local population. Some Mosuo people are confused about the process of tourism and community development: should they put tourism before community development?

Since the development of tourism, almost every family has gained some income from tourism. Some young people are no longer dedicated to their family and their future; instead they just drink and play games. This is one reason why our community is not prosperous. However, most young men engage in the tourism industry, which provokes a spirit of hard work. For future community development, I am afraid that if one day we can no longer develop tourism,

what are we going to do? (Interview, Dunzhu, July 23, 2012)

Now tourism experiences in the Mosuo community are just based on rowing boats and dancing for tourists; the locals do not add any extra value. Their handcrafts have also not been developed well. Some local people express their doubts, saying that “tourism is developing slowly, I think I cannot see our future and there is no hope for us” (Interview, July 16, 2012).

Summary

It can be said that community development in the Mosuo communities I visited now depends on tourism. Tourism development has been double – edged sword, supporting greater access to education for youth but impacting values not consistent with Mosuo culture. While it is normal to expect youth to want to experience new things and search for opportunities outside their communities, tourism development must be managed in a way that creates meaningful opportunities for them once they are ready to engage in their communities. Strong leadership from various levels of government can support this process.

Chapter Six

Discussion

1. Introduction

Indigenous communities are increasingly using cultural tourism to support their economies, stimulate financial benefits from their arts and handicrafts, and support community development (Richards & Wilson, 2004). The Mosuo people have experienced greater prosperity since the development of tourism and have experienced a broad range of socio-economic benefits. Yet, tourism has also negatively influenced the natural environment and brought unavoidable negative impacts to the traditional Mosuo culture and their folk customs. The purpose of this research was to better understand how:

• The Mosuo people’s unique culture is represented in tourism;

• The Mosuo people utilize their cultural and natural resources to develop

tourism; and

• Tourism impacts the Mosuo people and their culture.

Through an analysis of the results of interviews and a critical exploration of the literature, three dominant issues arose that provided further insight into the development of tourism at Lugu Lake. These are:

I. The role of cultural tourism in the community’s development

II. The role of government in Mosuo community cultural tourism development.

III. Impacts of tourism on the community

2. Discussion

The Role of Cultural Tourism in the Community’s Development

Every population possesses a unique culture, and an increasing number of people have an interest in experiencing different lifestyles, exploring new food and customs and visiting historic places through participating in cultural tourism. In this way, travel and tourism have become a crucial source of income, especially for developing countries. Yet, tourism must also assume the responsibility of reducing the negative impacts on a culture, people and its community (Mzembi, 2011).

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines culture as: “the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or a social group. It includes not only the arts and literature, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, values systems, traditions and beliefs” (UNESCO, 1982). Worsley argues that culture is ‘a design for living’ and it contributes to a society’s development (Braden & Mayo, 1999). During the process of community development, culture plays a number of pivotal roles. In particular, local economies can be enhanced and in some cases supported by direct investment in cultural activities. (Kalantzis, 2003).

Loss of cultural significance has been demonstrated at Lugu Lake area. An example of this is the local bonfire party, which used to be celebrated as the dance of a successful harvest. “But now we hold it like a live show for tourists every night, so they can understand our traditional dances and songs, through joining in the party

to gain greater understanding of our customs” (Interview, Zhizhi, July 14, 2012). The

Zhu Cao Chuan is the name of a traditional boat that the Mosuo people used in the past as a transportation tool, but “now in order to meet tourists’ requirements, touring around the lake in this type of boat has become a special tourist experience”

(Interview, Suolang, July 26, 2012). These two cultural activities are the main tourism activities in the Lugu Lake area. For those not able to own and operate their own tourism business, these activities provide the primary employment opportunities at

Lugu Lake.

Cultural industries are powerful engines in the global economy that create job opportunities and generate revenue for communities and organizations. More than

7% of the global GDP is created by global cultural industries (UNESCO, 2009). In Lugu

Lake area, cultural tourism has provided an opportunity to develop businesses that cater to the cultural tourist. Collectively, these business realized revenues of $2.4 million (USD). While the traditional activities were not originally intended as ways to generate revenue, the traditional dance Jiacuowu, for example, has earned local business in excess of $100,000 (USD) as a performance for tourists.

Figure 11: Culture: a driver and an enabler for sustainable development

(UNESCO, 2012)

Figure 11 indicates how the relationship between culture and development acts as an enabler in supporting economic development, sustainability, and as a tool for more effective development interventions. In the Mosuo community, cultural heritage and tourism activities play a significant role in generating revenue for local residents, which has given them a way to overcome the poverty that existed before tourism development began. The Mosuo people have also used cultural development to support activities that support cross-cultural exchange promoting inclusiveness, equity and diversity. These values underpin broader sustainability principles. Finally, cultural development of Mosuo activities as a tourism experience enables the community to more effectively support education and other programs that support the social welfare of the community.

Culture as Identity

Tourism has also provided an opportunity for the Mosuo people to affirm their identity and their unique culture. With the increasing number of tourists coming to this area, there is a greater people have realized that the Mosuo people are a separate, completely different ethnic society compared with other minorities in

China. In contemporary society, identity plays a significant role in determining one’s location and position in society (Maku, 2007). Therefore, to maintain their distinctiveness as a unique people within China, it is important for the Mosuo people to retain their culture. However, due to the fact that they are not considered a distinct minority in China, they are not encouraged to preserve their culture. The

Mosuo people have their own spoken language but no written language. There is little official literature to record their history, customs and culture. As a result, gradually the Mosuo culture will disappear and become merely a legend (Interview,

Eryierchezhashi, July 27, 2012). The incursion of Mandarin as China’s official language has caused a gradual decline in the use of the Mosuo language. Cultural assimilation is also a very serious problem in this area; Mosuo lifestyles, religions and marriage traditions have been deeply influenced by outsiders visiting the community

In the Lugu Lake area, the uniqueness of the matriarchal family and the Walking

Marriage has attracted a large number of tourists. These two issues are not only symbolic features of the Mosuo culture but also the primary drivers of its tourism development. The most celebrated tradition of Mosuo people is the Walking

Marriage; the Walking Marriage is one symbol of the Mosuo culture, which explains

the Mosuo identity (Interview, Laxiang, July 16, 2012). Many outside tourists come to this place solely because of they are curious about the Walking Marriage

(Interview, Laxiang, July 16, 2012). With the popularity of the Walking Marriage and the Matriarchal society, Lugu Lake has become a famous Chinese tourist destination, which attracts thousands of tourists visit every year.

Culture as commodity

Tourism can generate sustainable revenue and employment (The World Bank,

2010). For this reason, Lugu Lake is developing their culture as a commodity (tourist experience) in three ways 1) Physically, 2) Practically, and 3) Spiritually. Examples of this include visiting a traditional Mosuo family, joining in the Turning around

Mountain and Sea Festivals, attending bonfire parties and dancing the 72 steps dance, as well as visiting their Lama temples. These activities, while commodified for tourist consumption, have fostered a tourism experience for visitors who want to understand and experience the unique Mosuo culture and its distinct identity

(Interview, Luobu, July 14, 2012).

Culture is the main commodity that the Mosuo people are able to promote, and it therefore plays a significant role in driving and supporting tourism development.

Consider the Grass Sea Bridge and the local product, dried apples, as examples of promoted local culture. The original bridge that crosses the Grass Sea was built for local transportation purposes, but since tourism has developed, it has been renamed as the Walking Marriage Bridge and now has become a famous tourist attraction

(Interview, CaidanZhuoma, July 13, 2012). Even the local apples have been

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conscripted to support the idea of the Walking Marriage; these apples are dried and labeled as Walking Marriage Apples - an idea totally outside any local tradition.

This excessive use of one aspect of the Mosuo culture has damaged the reputation of Mosuo people. The slogan of Lugu Lake is now a “Women’s Kingdom,

Men’s Paradise”. This slogan attempts to highlight the main elements (matriarchal society and Walking Marriage) of Mosuo culture but also arouses outsider curiosity and imagination about the traditions of the Lugu Lake area. Unfortunately, a misunderstanding of the nature of the Walking Marriage has caused many negative consequences with regard to perceptions about the sexual norms in this area.

Mosuo community members view this as an affront to their culture and identity; they are now considered by many Chinese people as uncivilized human beings without ethical principles (Interview, Zhaxi, July, 28, 2012).

The Role of Government in Mosuo Community Cultural Tourism Development

The Lugu Lake Management Committee

The Lugu Lake Management Committee (LLMC) is responsible for the implementation of the decisions of the municipal government in the protection and development of Lugu Lake projects. “The LLMC has been granted the rights of approval, planning and construction, attraction development, land development, investment, state – owned asset management, cultural market management, promotional marketing, environmental protection and other government administrative functions” (Lugu Lake Management Committee, 2008).

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The Problems in Local Government’s Management

The LLMC is indeed making a significant contribution to tourism and community development; however, during the process of construction, some problems with government management have emerged. Local government has established many goals to pursue economic benefits, but these goals ignore the protection of the local culture and customs. In 2007, the Committee attracted investors with the goal of raising $24 million USD to build a resort. Later in 2008, the Lijiang Municipal

Government cooperated with two companies and invested more than $5.7 billion to develop Lugu Lake tourism projects (Field Journal, 2010). These two projects have dramatically boosted the local economy; nevertheless, the Mosuo people think that the resort, Holiday Inn and other commercialized tourist areas, do not reflect local culture and folk customs. If local governments only focuses on building roads, airport and hotels to attract more tourists and do not care about the Lugu Lake environmental and cultural consequence it will become the second Old Town of

Lijiang1 (Personal Diary).

There are two models of local people participating in tourism, both of which have caused conflicts. One model is the community autonomous model, in which the community autonomously manages and organizes its own tourism development.

The other model allows for the leasing of businesses - this means Mosuo people lease their land to investors to build tourist facilities.

Table 3: The Comparisons of Two Models of Tourism Participation in Lugu Lake Area

1 The Old Town of Lijiang is world famous UNESCO Heritage Site and located in Lijiang City, now because of the standardized bars, house inns and souvenir stores has been accused of becoming over – commercialized. 102

The Comparisons of Two Models of Tourism Participation in Lugu Lake Area The Community Leasing Business

Autonomous Model Model Catering, living and Houses, land lease or Participation Means touring reception services transfer Local residents Outside investors Investment Entities Using bank loans to build Investors lease land Investment house inns and invest money to build house inns Local residents Outside investors, and Business Entities a few local residents The income from house Rent and Revenue inns and communities’ communities’ tourism tourism activities activities

The community autonomous model is not controlled by local governments and investors, but is controlled by local villagers. Local residents are directly involved in tourism, and act as leaders to manage and organize tourism activities. However, because local residents lack capital and experience in operating tourism businesses, they have to borrow a large amount of money to build house inns. The villagers often use the same design in the construction of these house inns - as a result, many house inns look the same.

The leasing business model is totally controlled by outside investors; therefore local residents are not directly involved in tourism, and have little ability to control tourism development. The investors must sign a 15-year contract with local villagers.

After 15 years, the investors have to return the property, including land, house inns, and hostels, to local villagers. This kind of contract encourages investors to make as much money as possible within the fifteen year limit of the contract; consequently,

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they ignore often ignore local community input into the design and management of these tourism businesses.

The Communist Party also has profoundly influenced tourism development. All government policies and regulations in wealth creation and environmental and cultural protection have to conform to the guiding ideology of the Chinese

Communist Party (Li, 2006). The organization of tourism activities and the way income is distributed must follow the principles of communism, meaning that all must share the income. This creates a situation of routine behavior which some people dislike because it does not allow for creativity in tourism innovation; people always do the same dance or activity and are not encouraged to step outside the

‘scheduled activity.’

Impacts of Tourism on the Community

Tourism Development in the Lugu Lake Area

During the last two decades, tourism has generated many opportunities for local community development. At the same time, it has also resulted in many negative impacts on the Lugu Lake area. For the local government and residents, understanding these positive and negative impacts is important to move forward into the future. Maintaining the authentic landscape and culture and upgrading services are the main issues for tourism development in the Lugu Lake area; this is its greatest challenge.

At present, tourism development in Lugu Lake area still remains in its initial stages despite the fact that it has been an active industry for two decades.

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Figure 12: Hypothetical evolution of a tourist area

(Butler, 1980)

Figure 12 illustrates how a tourist area goes through a number of changes and

stages over time. At present, the Lugu Lake area tourism industry appears to be at a

stage between involvement and development stages. This stage is characterized by a

dramatic increase in tourist visits, and as a consequence, rules and standards are

created to manage tourism development. In this stage, those residents who have

sufficient funds may build house inns, bars and restaurants and provide facilities and

services for tourists. Some local residents who run their own tourism businesses still

have high levels of contact with tourists and control of development; however, most

local people have lost contact with tourists. Usually in this stage, a limited target

market is accessed; in Lugu Lake area, most of the tourists are from one place -

Chengdu City, the capital of this province.

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Recently, with an increase in advertising, Lugu Lake has attracted more and more visitors; however these visitors are not satisfied with the simple, basic, local style of accommodations and services. Thus, in order to meet tourist needs, local facilities are being replaced with advanced facilities provided by external investors.

These modern facilities include shower baths, night-commodes, laundries and air-conditioners. These facilities fill the fundamental needs and expectations of tourists. The most significant intrusion into the Mosuo culture was a cableway built by an external investor. Now instead of climbing to the Goddess Cave on Gemu

Goddess Mountain, visitors can take the cableway. In this way, tradition is lost.

Tourism Impact on the Mosuo Community

There is no doubt that tourism can boost the local economy and create employment opportunities by effectively using previously largely untapped natural and cultural resources (Robinson & Picard, 2006). Tourism creates more job opportunities, boosts the local economy, and improves community infrastructure.

Conversely, tourism also damages the landscape, causes traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and over-commercialization of the host culture.

Given the government’s level of management and control in tourism development, it must work with community stakeholders to develop a road map that will guide future tourism development in the area. The Shaolin Monastery, which shares martial arts traditions and holds live performances, is just one of many examples of Chinese tourism development which have contributed to a reversal of the trends towards stagnation and decline in tourism development through the use

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of proactive planning, which continues to support the local economy while honoring local values and traditions (Lv & Guo, 2001).

If a balance between economics and culture can be found, the Mosuo will be able to promote tourism and support its local economic development while maintaining their traditional cultural heritage. In doing so, they will create a sustainable model that allows the Mosuo culture to endure long into the future

(Yang, et., 2009).

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Chapter Seven

Conclusions and Recommendations

1. Key Insights

This study provides meaningful insight into the relationship between cultural tourism development and the Mosuo People at Lugu Lake. The data analysis demonstrates that the local government, the Mosuo culture and Lugu Lake itself are the most significant and important elements in developing a viable cultural tourism industry in this area. Cultural tourism derives its success from the intersection of the above mentioned elements.

Lugu Lake is famous throughout the world for its spectacular landscapes and unique Mosuo culture. Due to the unique matriarchal culture of the Mosuo, Lugu

Lake has attracted a large number of cultural tourists. During the process of tourism development, Lugu Lake and the Mosuo culture have become the main attractions for tourists. The local government, that is the Lugu Lake Management Committee, has guided and directed tourism development in the Lugu Lake area to its current level, but not without its fair share of problems.

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Figure 13: Governmental issues and tourism impacts at Lugu Lake

Figure 13 illustrates the pivotal role the Lugu Lake Management Committee plays in planning and decision – making for Lugu Lake tourism development, however; because of its control, many issues have arisen, including negative impacts to the local environment and culture.

The current situation underscores the point that in order to accommodate the increasing number of tourists; the committee must promote more infrastructure development, which ultimately increases impact on the community and local environment. This has further endangered an already fragile environment. Also, in order to appeal to tourists, the committee has exaggerated and stylized the Mosuo

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culture with the sensationalistic slogan: “Women’s Kingdom; Men’s Paradise.” This slogan has aroused the curiosity of many people and has thereby attracted increasing numbers of tourists, but more importantly, it has seriously distorted an understanding of the Mosuo culture.

Tourists who wish to experience and understand Mosuo culture have significantly contributed to cultural tourism development in the Lugu Lake area. This became obvious while interviewing locals, who explained that many tourists had a curious fascination with the Mosuo traditional culture, customs, traditions and religion. Many tourists chose to stay for an extended duration to gain a deeper understanding of their culture and in some cases, develop tourism businesses themselves. Academics have chosen to settle in Lugu Lake to conduct more in-depth studies of the Mosuo culture.

Apart from the attraction of the unique Mosuo culture, tourism development in the Lugu Lake area has also been attributed to the pure and visually stunning Lugu

Lake. The combination of the Mosuo culture and Lugu Lake, if carefully preserved, can foster sustainable tourism development for many years to come.

2. Recommendations

In order to support sustainable tourism development, it is necessary to carefully manage its development so that both the culture of the Mosuo people and Lugu

Lake are protected. A series of recommendations are highlighted below that I believe will support the responsible development and management of cultural tourism in

Lugu Lake.

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Recommendation #1: Establish cooperation between the local governments of

Yunnan and Sichuan provinces.

l Cooperation between the two provinces would enhance management and

guide tourism development to benefit both provinces. Yunnan province is

one of the biggest and most famous tourist destinations in China, and

therefore its tourism industry is more developed than that of Sichuan.

Working together, for the good of the region, tourism capacity in Sichuan

can be increased so that both the positive and negative impacts associated

with tourism can be shared.

Recommendation #2: Establish a uniform system of transportation management.

l Establishing an effective public transportation system and forbidding private

vehicles from entering the tourist area is not only good for managing traffic,

but it will also help to protect the environment and generate more job

opportunities for local people.

Recommendation #3: Use a motivational system to encourage local residents and outside investors to retain traditionally-designed houses and buildings.

l Any plans for future development of the Mosuo community must be based

on protecting the Mosuo culture and traditional house designs. Due to the

economic benefits from developing tourism, Lugu Lake has attracted a large

number of investors who have constructed many non-traditional buildings

and facilities. The luxury hotels and resorts can provide better living

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conditions for tourists and also can generate more income, but the tourists

staying in this ‘modern’ building cannot experience the authentic Mosuo way

of life. This is contrary to protecting the Mosuo culture and in direct conflict

with sustainable cultural tourism development.

Recommendation #4: Establish a Lugu Lake natural landscape protection area.

l Chapter two introduced the concept of establishing a protected area to

preserve Lugu Lake and the Mosuo people. However, to this point, the

environmental issues are primarily only a concern for the local people.

Establishing a Lugu Lake natural landscape protected area to more

specifically protect the natural environment would be a significant step

forward.

Recommendation #5: Provide Mosuo language courses in schools.

l Government should encourage local schools to provide Mosuo language

courses in order to give youth more opportunities to learn and speak their

own language. Only by maintaining the language will the other unique

cultural elements be carried forward successfully.

3. Final Word

As a result of my month of study and work at Lugu Lake, I have had many incredible experiences. I truly appreciate the local peoples’ time and their patience.

This project provided me with a great opportunity to gain a profound understanding of the Mosuo people and their culture. During my time with the Mosuo, the local 112

people showed me their passion for sharing everything with their guests. The most memorable experience I had was volunteering as an English teacher for four local children. I had a great time with them and their families and learned much about the

Mosuo culture. This research experience helped me to have direct contact with

Mosuo people and to understand how they think about local tourism development. I learned the significance of their culture and the importance of taking measures to manage change, like tourism development, carefully, so that both their precious lake and their culture can continue to be a source of economic and spiritual growth for these beautiful people.

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Appendix

Appendix A: Interview Guide

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Interview Guide Questions

1. Describe your culture? Describe which parts of your culture are the main

attractions for cultural tourists?

2. Describe cultural differences between different villages around the Lake?

3. Describe which parts of your culture or which parts in your community are

potential attractions for tourists?

4. Describe your involvement in tourism?

5. Describe your community’s involvement in tourism?

6. Describe the positive benefits from being involved in tourism (for you and your

community)?

7. Describe the challenges/negative impacts from tourism for your community?

8. What role has tourism played in developing your community?

9. Describe the current situation of tourism development in local community?

10. Describe how local tourism operators interact? Do they compete? Do they

collaborate? Explain.

11. Describe how local tourism operators utilize the natural and cultural resources

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to promote tourism development?

12. Describe the role of other organizations/people in supporting tourism

development in your community? Has this been a positive or negative

experience? Describe.

13. What specific aspects of your culture are included in the tourism experience?

Appendix B: Invitation to Participate in Study

133

Invitation to Participate in Study

July, 2012

Dear Research Participant,

Recently, the Mosuo culture has become an increasingly popular tourist attraction for cultural tourists in China. As a Chinese student who has been studying cultural tourism for eight years, I have become particularly interested in how cultural and natural resources are managed for tourism development. I have been interested in the Mosuo culture for years and now have the opportunity to come to your community and learn about your culture and how you integrate your culture into the tourism experience

Recently, I traveled to Canada to attend Acadia University where I could learn more about cultural tourism through graduate studies. For my studies, I chose to focus on the Mosuo culture. This would allow me to travel back to China and conduct research in a region that will benefit from my studies through insights into cultural tourism development.

The purpose of my study is to:

• Better understand how the Mosuo’s peoples’ unique culture is represented in tourism; and • Better understand how the Mosuo people utilize their natural and cultural resources to develop tourism.

You are invited to participate in this study. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to read and sign and informed letter of consent that describes how my study will treat research participants and protect confidentiality. Your participation will be completely voluntary.

134

The research will provide insights into the role of culture in cultural tourism development. The results of the research will be shared with you and the Lugu Lake Management Committee.

Thank you very much!

Liu Ziwei

135

Invitation to Participate in Study

Translation into Mandarin

亲爱的研究参与者，

最近，摩梭文化已成为中国越来越受欢迎的旅游景点之一。我做为一名学习文化旅游将近八年的学生，尤其对自然资源和文化资源怎样用于旅游发展中有着深厚的兴趣。我对摩梭文化存有浓郁的兴趣，现在有机会来到泸沽湖进行调研与学习，并且着重研究泸沽湖文化是怎样体现在旅游业当中的。

去年，我有机会到加拿大阿卡迪亚大学攻读硕士学位，这里提供我一个很好的机会，让我更深入的了解和学习文化旅游。关于我的调研，我选择学习摩梭文化。这也让我有机会回到中国来到泸沽湖这个地区通过洞察文化旅游的发展来完成我的学习与研究。

我研究的主要目的是： • 更好地了解摩梭人独特的文化怎样体现在旅游业中； • 更好地了解摩梭人如何利用其自然和文化资源发展旅游业

您被邀请参加我研究的访问，如果您同意参与，您将需要阅读一份同意书包括我的研究将怎样保护参与者和怎样保护所有关于参与者的机密信息，您完全自愿参与本次访问。

这项研究将提供我个人的观点关与看法关于文化在文化旅游发展中扮演什么样的角色。调研结果将会与您和泸沽湖管理委员会共同分享。

非常感谢！

刘紫微

136

Appendix C: Informed Consent

137

University of Acadia Faculty of Professional Studies Recreation Management & Community Development

INFORMED RESEARCH CONSENT FORM

Date of Research Ethics Board Approval: May XX, 2012

Research Project Title: Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Tourism Development and the Mosuo People in Lugu Lake, China

Researcher: Liu Ziwei Master Candidate School of Recreation Management and Kinesiology

Supervisor: Dr. John Colton

Contact: Acadia University, Wolfville. NS Canada B4P2R6 902 585-1160 [email protected]

______

The central purpose of this research is to:

You have been identified as someone who can contribute to this study. Your participation is completely voluntary. If you agree to participate you will be interviewed between one and two times and asked to share your knowledge and perspectives about your traditions and cultures and how these aspects are represented in tourism. You will also be asked questions about the impacts of tourism on your culture and community. Photographs may be used to supplement the research. Interviews will be last from one hour to one and half hours in length and be audio taped. The interviews will be transcribed at a later date and a pseudonym will be used in any reports or published and/or presented materials resulting from the research.

There are no risks to you other than a disruption in your routine. You have right to

138

legal recourse for any harm arising from your participation in this study. There are no potential benefits to your participation and no payment will be made for expenses or time spent participating in the research project. All information obtained from the research will be kept by the researcher. No other person will have access to the data and the records will be kept secure by the researcher for a period of seven years at which time paper files will be incinerated and electronic files will be permanently deleted. Data will be password protected on the researcher’s laptop computer.

You have the right to refuse to participate in this research and the right to stop the interview at any time. You may also withdraw your data from the research at any time prior to the completion of my thesis with no penalties.

If you have concerns about the ethical nature of this research you may contact our Research Ethics Board using the following contact information:

Stephen Maitzen, Chair, Research Ethics Board Email Address: [email protected] Mail Address: Research Ethics Board 214 Horton Hall Acadia University Wolfville, Nova Scotia Canada Postcode: B4P 2R6 Telephone: 902-585-1498

Consent: I ______,

1) have read and understand the above information, 2) understand that I might asked more questions in the future, and 3) indicate my free consent to participate by signing this form.

Signature: ______Date: ______

139

Translation

阿卡迪亚大学专业研究学院娱乐休闲管理 & 社会发展

调研知情同意表

研究伦理委员会批准日期：调查方案名称：探索泸沽湖文化旅游和摩梭文化之间的关系调查员：刘紫微研究生娱乐休闲管理和人体运动学院

指导老师：John Colton 博士

联系方式：阿卡迪亚大学，沃尔夫威尔，新思科舍省，加拿大。邮政编码：B4P2R6 电话号码：902 585-1160 邮箱地址：[email protected]

这项研究调查的主要目的是： • 更好的理解摩梭独特的文化是怎样在旅游中体现出来的 • 更好的理解泸沽湖自然和文化资源与摩梭人怎样运用这些资源发展旅游业

您已经确认是可以有助于本项研究的。您的参与是完全自愿的。如果您愿意参加，您将会被访问一次或者两次，并希望您能分享您的知识和观点关于您的传统和文化，他们怎样体现在旅游发展中和泸沽湖旅游业发展现状和影响。照片将用于补充研究资料。访问将会持续一个或一个半小时并被录音。访谈将在稍后进行，方式，并且会以匿名的形式用在其他报告或出版物和材料中。

没有任何风险参与这次访问。您对于参与这次访问所带来的任何伤害有追究权。参加这次访问也没有任何的好处，没有金额完全免费的参加访问。所有的信息将会被调查员保留。没有任何人将会获得所有的数据与信息，他们将会保留几年，然后将会被焚烧，销毁。数据将会被我设置密码保存在我的电脑中。

您有权拒绝参加这项研究，并有权随时停止采访,您可以在我完成论文之前随时取回照片和录像，并不必交付任何的罚款。

如果您有任何问题关于这个调查的道德伦理考虑，您可以联系我们的研究伦理委员会，联系方式如下：阿卡迪亚大学伦理道德委员会主席，史蒂芬电子邮箱：[email protected] 联系地址：214 号 Horton Hall 阿卡迪亚大学，沃尔夫威尔，新思科舍省，加拿大邮编：B4P2R6 电话：902-585-1498

140

赞同：我

1) 已阅读并了解上述信息 2) 理解，我可能会在未来提出更多的问题 3) 表明我同意参与签署本表格

署名：日期：

141

University of Acadia Faculty of Professional Studies Recreation Management & Community Development

INFORMED CONSENT FORM: PHOTOGRAPHS

Date of Research Ethics Board Approval: May xx, 2012

Research Project Title: Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Tourism Development and the Mosuo People in Lugu Lake, China

Researcher: Liu Ziwei Master Candidate School of Recreation Management and Kinesiology

Supervisor: Dr. John Colton

Contact: Acadia University, Wolfville. NS Canada B4P2R6 902 585-1160 [email protected]

______

The use of photographs and videos taken by the researcher may be used to supplement the research and used in community, professional and academic presentations and publications.

The photographs and videos will not be used for any other purpose and will not be sold or duplicated for any reason. The photographs (digital or printed) will be kept on record for a period of seven years at which time they will be destroyed by incineration.

You can revoke the permission to use the photographs at any time for any reason.

1) have read and understand the above information, 2) am aware that the photographs may be used in academic presentations in the future, and 3) indicate my free consent to release the photographs by signing this form.

Signature: ______Date: ______

142

Translation

阿卡迪亚大学专业研究学院娱乐休闲管理 & 社会发展

知情同意表：照片

研究伦理委员会批准日期：调查方案名称：探索泸沽湖文化旅游和摩梭文化之间的关系调查员：刘紫微研究生娱乐休闲管理和人体运动学院指导老师：John Colton 博士

联系方式：阿卡迪亚大学，沃尔夫威尔，新思科舍省，加拿大。邮政编码：B4P2R6 电话号码：902 585-1160 邮箱地址：[email protected]

调查员所拍摄的照片可能会应用与补充在研究报告中或者提供给当地社区，也可能用于专业的，学术的演讲和出版物中。

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