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Geology and Ore Deposits of the Central African Copperbelt

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Geology and Ore Deposits of the Central African Copperbelt GEOLOGY AND ORE DEPOSITS OF THE CENTRAL AFRICAN COPPERBELT by David W. Broughton A thesis submitted to the Faculty and the Board of Trustees of the Colorado School of Mines in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Geology). Golden, Colorado Date ____________ Signed: _____________________________ David W. Broughton Signed: _____________________________ Dr. Murray Hitzman Thesis Advisor Golden, Colorado Date ____________ Signed: _____________________________ Dr. Paul Santi Professor and Acting Head Department of Geology and Geological Engineering ii ABSTRACT The Central African Copperbelt (CACB) is the world’s largest and highest-grade sedimentary- rock hosted stratiform copper (sedimentary copper) province, and contains a metallogenic endowment and diversity unique amongst such provinces. The CACB extends ~450km from the Zambian Copperbelt (ZCB) in the southeast through the Congolese Copperbelt (CCB) to the northwest, and also includes deposits in the North West Province of Zambia. It is hosted in Neoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks of the Katangan Supergroup deposited in an evolving intracontinental rift, the Katangan basin. The basal Roan Group includes early rift-stage continental siliciclastic rocks (redbeds) and overlying mixed evaporitic carbonate and siliciclastic rocks (Lower and Upper Roan subgroups in the ZCB; R.A.T., Mines and Dipeta subgroups in the CCB), followed by marine siliciclastic and mafic igneous rocks (Mwashya Subgroup). These rocks are overlain by thick diamictite of the Grand Conglomerate Formation of the lower Nguba Group. Subsequent deposition of carbonate rocks and relatively monotonous, non-evaporitic siliciclastic rocks of the Nguba Group and a similar diamictite-carbonate-siliciclastic sequence in the Kundelungu Group preceded basin inversion during the Pan-African (~590 – 500 Ma) Lufilian orogeny. Sedimentary copper deposits in the CACB occur in multiple lithologies and stratigraphic positions and vary in type of mineralization and alteration, but share important characteristics. Deposits generally occur within reduced facies rocks above oxidized facies rocks at the lowest redox boundary within the Roan and lower Nguba groups. This boundary is differently positioned throughout the CACB, and may be stratigraphically or structurally controlled. Many deposits are located in the vicinity of macro- structural features, primarily growth faults and large anticlines and synclines formed during Lufilian inversion of such faults. These structures appear to have controlled fluid flow, directly or by influence on sedimentary and diagenetic facies. Evaporitic strata within the Roan Group influenced the development of the basin and its deposits. Basin-margin settings such as the ZCB had relatively minor accumulations of halite and contain autochthonous and relatively undeformed, laterally continuous deposits proximal to basement. Non- iii marine evaporites may have been present. The CCB represents a basin-central setting characterized by halokinetic (salt movement) structures and disrupted allochthonous deposits distal from basement, and likely contained significant accumulations of halite. The evaporitic strata contain distinctive breccias interpreted as marking the former position of evaporites. Breccias in the ZCB form lenticular bodies at the tops of shallowing-upwards evaporitic sequences in the Upper Roan Subgroup. The number of sequences and thickness of evaporitic strata and breccia display a systematic relationship to interpreted growth faults, defining footwall condensed sections and hangingwall depocenters. Observations in the ZCB and near the Kamoa deposit in the western CCB suggest that breccia formation occurred through a combination of dolomite replacement of gypsum, evaporative dissolution and collapse, and texturally destructive dolomite/magnesite-albite alteration. In the CCB, breccia forms ~stratiform and discordant structures (diapirs, intrusions) and “megabreccia’ enclosing mineralized fragments of rocks of the Mines Subgroup. Many fragments were emplaced upon rocks of the upper Kundelungu Group prior to or during the onset of the Lufilian orogeny. Evaporitic strata and processes generated residual and dissolution brines capable of mobilizing ore metals. Analysis of fluid inclusion solutes indicates that the majority of deposits studied to date in both the ZCB and CCB formed from metalliferous residual brines generated during deposition of evaporites. Halokinetic and tectonic disruption of such deposits in the CCB post-dated this mineralization event. In contrast, ore sulfides from the post-metamorphic (450Ma) Kipushi deposit and breccia from the basin-central Kolwezi district in the western CCB have a solute signature indicative of partial derivation from halite dissolution, consistent with the association of these areas with halokinetic structures. Breccia from the ZCB has a distinct Na-rich signature suggestive of dissolution of non-marine evaporites. Potassic and sodic alteration in the ZCB are partitioned within the Lower Roan and Upper Roan- Mwashya subgroups, respectively. Breccia occurs primarily within the latter. These observations suggest that deposition of halite and/or other sodic evaporites occurred primarily within the Upper Roan Subgroup. iv Dissolution and collapse of evaporitic strata and production of dissolution brine probably commenced with a change to open marine conditions during Mwashya time, and continued during glacial and post-glacial events associated with deposition of the Grand Conglomerate Formation. Halokinetic structures present at higher levels in the CCB suggest that evaporites there were preserved at least locally until the onset of Lufilian inversion. Thick overlying siltstone-shale, diamictite, and mainly fine-grained siliciclastic deposits of the Mwashya Subgroup and Nguba and Kundelungu groups formed a hydrological and possibly thermal seal, evidenced by the low abundance of deposits and alteration in these upper portions of the Katangan Supergroup. A long history of formation of residual and dissolution brines is consistent with abundant evidence for a protracted history and varied styles and types of mineralization and alteration, at different stratal levels and in different rock types throughout the CACB. The remarkable productivity of this basin and its prospects for discovery of additional deposits are directly linked to this complexity. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. iii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................... x LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................................... xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ xiv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Scope of this Study ..................................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Location and History .................................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 2 THE CENTRAL AFRICAN COPPERBELT: DIVERSE STRATIGRAPHIC, STRUCTURAL, AND TEMPORAL SETTINGS IN THE WORLD’S LARGEST SEDIMENTARY COPPER DISTRICT ..................................................................................................................................... 6 2.1 Regional Geological Setting ....................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Zambian Copperbelt ................................................................................................................. 13 2.2.1 Stratigraphy .............................................................................................................. 13 2.2.2 Copper deposits ........................................................................................................ 15 2.2.3 Konkola-Musoshi deposit ......................................................................................... 18 2.2.4 Mufulira deposit ....................................................................................................... 20 2.2.5 Frontier deposit ......................................................................................................... 22 2.2.6 Lonshi deposit .......................................................................................................... 24 2.3 Congolese Copperbelt .............................................................................................................. 25 2.3.1 Stratigraphy .............................................................................................................. 25 2.3.2 Salt tectonic disruption of the Mines Subgroup ....................................................... 29 vi 2.3.3 Copper-cobalt deposits ............................................................................................. 31 2.3.4 Kolwezi District ......................................................................................................
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