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Marshall, Christopher John (2013) Palaeogeographic Development and Economic Potential of the Coal-Bearing Palaeocene Todalen Member, Spitsbergen Christopher John Marshall, MSc, BSc(hons) Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2013 I Abstract Palaeocene high-latitude coals from the Todalen Mbr. Central Tertiary Basin, Svalbard present an opportunity to understand the processes which controlled Arctic peat formation. Coals from this region have produced sub-economic quantities of bitumen during the 1920’s. Previous palaeogeographic models show significant variation between studies favouring deltaic and tidal wetland conditions. In addition, coal geochemistry studies have been limited to characterisation with little integration with palaeogeographic studies. This study utilises a large database of drill-logs to create cross sections and coal isopach maps to examine the spatial relation between seam thickness and palaeotopography. Palaeotopography is defined by mapping a ‘valley indicator’; the Grønfjorden bed, a fluvial conglomerate representing the first Palaeocene sedimentation. In addition, organic petrology organic and inorganic geochemistry were applied to samples from two mine sections and two boreholes to examine how coal quality and oil potential changed both within and between seams. The cross sections and isopach maps reveal that landscape had a significant but diminishing control upon peat accumulation. Thickest peats consistently formed at the break-in slope whilst topographic lows acted as areas of preferential channel formation II and conduits for clastic sedimentation. Evolution of the landscape control had a significant control upon groundwater supply. As landscape control decreased the coals moved from isolated, raised bogs (Svea Seam) to laterally expansive minerotrophic fens (Svarteper and Askeladden Seams). Evidence of increasing marine influence and higher groundwater input was also observed from the Svea Seams to the Askeladden seam. In the Svea Nord and Longyear seam, supply of lithophile elements (Al, Ti, Na, K) is shown to be controlled by dust supply controlled by orbital cyclicity. By the Svarteper/Askeladden period lithophile element concentrations are controlled by clastic supply. Ca, Mg and Fe appear to be derived from groundwater. Sulfur concentration primarily reflects the supply of marine sulfur. Upper Todalen coals (Longyear, Svarteper and Askeladden) have significantly more oil potential than the Svea Seams with estimated retorting yields of 170-190kg/ton vs. 50kg/ton respectively. The Longyear seam exhibits relatively high HI values (ca. 300-400 mg/g TOC) consistent with a mixed Type II/III kerogen source. Greatest oil potential is shown to be favoured by formation within a fen environment, with high bacterial degradation (>100µg/g TOC hopanes), marine influence (>0.5wt% sulfur, Fe/S <0.9) and the unique temperate high lattitude Palaeocene climate of Svalbard, leading to preservation of hydrogen rich organic matter via organo- sulfur bond formation. III Acknowledgements I would like to gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Natural Environmental Research Council (NERC), the University of Nottingham Graduate School BESTS Scholarship and the Midlands Energy Graduate School Travel Prize. I would like to thank Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani (SNSK) for their enthusiastic and constant support during my time on Svalbard without which this project would not be possible. I would also like to thank Prof. Snorre Olaussen and UNIS for both their logistical and financial support during my studies. Particular thanks are owed to my principal supervisor Dr. David Large whose door was always open and who enthusiastically guided and supported me throughout the PhD process. Special thanks are also owed to Dr. Will Meredith and Dr. Clement Uguna who guided me patiently through the experimental process and Prof. Colin E. Snape who always provided a new perspective on things. I would like to thank Prof. Trevor. Drage, Mr David Clift, Dr. Baruch Spiro and Mr Alv Orheim for their analytical and theoretical assistance during my PhD studies. Also many thanks to Dr. Gary Nichols for constructive comments given during an interesting viva discussion. IV Many thanks are owed to the SNSK geologists; Malte, Bjarki, Bernt and Morten for making my time on Svalbard as productive and enjoyable as possible, as well as for creating the first vitrinite reflectance joke in history. In addition, I would like to thank the SNSK assistant geologists/Icelandic Mafia for making my time on Svalbard unforgettable, especially Anna Stella (whose logs are without compare), Gauti, Minney, Anna Mjöll, Hanne, Tomas, Christine and Marit Ann. Also thanks to Maggie who acted as a safety valve when things got just too quiet in L3. Thanks to the Wild Swimmers, Andy, Pip, Zoe, Atkins and my housemates Katie, Vicky and Saif. Most importantly, thank you to my family; Nick for his bright and cheery disposition, Andy for his patience and self-control, Dad for his hard work and encouragement and finally my Mum (Angie) without whom none of this would have been possible. V “To a naturalist nothing is indifferent; the humble moss that creeps upon the stone is equally interesting as the lofty pine which so beautifully adorns the valley or the mountain: but to a naturalist who is reading in the face of the rocks the annals of a former world, the mossy covering which obstructs his view, and renders indistinguishable the different species of stone, is no less than a serious subject of regret.” James Hutton For Stan Martin, who taught me to; “Sail away from the safe harbour. Catch the trade winds in your sails. Explore. Dream. Discover” VI Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................... II Acknowledgements ........................................................................... IV Table of Contents ................................................................................ VII Table of Figures ................................................................................ XIII List of Tables ..................................................................................... XXV Chapter 1 - Introduction ........................................................................... 1 1.1 – Context ............................................................................................ 1 1.2 – Aims and Objectives ....................................................................... 9 Chapter 2 – Sampling and Analytical Methodology .......................... 13 2.1 – Sampling methods and localities ................................................. 13 2.2 – Sample Preparation ...................................................................... 17 2.3 – Analytical Methodology ................................................................ 19 2.3.1 – Organic Petrology ...................................................................... 19 2.3.1.1 – Sample Preparation ................................................................ 19 2.3.1.2 – Coal Maceral Analysis and Vitrinite Reflectance .................. 20 2.3.1.3 – Tissue Preservation and Gelification Index ........................... 20 2.3.1.4 – SEM EDAX analysis ............................................................... 21 2.3.2 – Organic Geochemistry ............................................................... 21 2.3.2.1 – Soxhlet and Accelerated Solvent Extraction ..................... 21 2.3.2.2 – Rock Eval Pyrolysis ........................................................... 22 2.3.2.3 – Hydrous Pyrolysis .............................................................. 22 VII 2.3.2.4 – Nitrogen Pyrolysis ............................................................. 23 2.3.2.5 – Gas Chromotography – Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) ...... 24 2.3.2.6 – Biomarker Biochemistry ........................................................ 24 2.3.2.7 – 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometry (NMR) ........ 27 2.3.3 – Inorganic Geochemistry ............................................................ 28 2.3.3.1 – ICP-AES Analysis .............................................................. 28 2.3.3.1.1 – Data Quality ........................................................ 28 2.3.2 – Carbon and Sulfur Coulometry ............................................ 29 2.3.3 – Ash Measurement ................................................................. 31 2.3.4 –Miscellaneous Techniques .......................................................... 32 2.3.4.1 –Spectral Analysis and Fourier Analysis .................................. 32 3.1 – Conclusions ................................................................................... 33 Chapter 3 – Structural and Palaeogeographic Controls Upon Coal Thickness Within the Todalen Member ...................................................... 34 3.1 – Introduction .................................................................................. 34 3.2 – Geological Background ................................................................. 34 3.2.1 –Regional Tectonic Development of Svalbard ............................. 35 3.2.2 – Structural Framework of the Central Tertiary Basin .............. 39 3.2.3 –Tertiary infill of the Central Tertiary Basin .............................. 46 3.2.4 –Previous Palaeogeographic Reconstructions ............................. 48 3.3 – Sequence Stratigraphy and Hydrological Landscapes ...............
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