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Bibliography

Bibliography

Bibliography

Many manuscripts of J. R. R. Tolkien were consulted throughout the making of this book. These are held in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Manuscripts consulted in depth were: Tolkien A14/1, A14/2, A15/1, A15/2, A16/2, A17/1, A17/2, A20/1, A20/2–3, A20/4, A21/1–12, A28/A, A28/B, A28/C–D, A29(a), A29/1, and A30/1.

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The Adventures of Tom Bombadil see Tolkien: Anderson, D. A. 235, 136, 142 Poetry Aneirin, Y Gododdin 36 Alcuin 211 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 22, 220, 221–3, 224, ælf -element 204–5 225, 226, 232, 233, 270 (notes on 1.1), Alfred, King 12, 17, 22, 23, 53, 222 296 Ælfric of Eynsham 17, 22 origins and dates 221–2 Colloquy 141 syntax 237 (notes on 1.1) on elephants 305–7, 315, 320 see also ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ Homily on the Maccabees 297, 305, 314, Anglo-Saxons 315, 320–1, 323 appellation 22: Christian tradition 17, Ælfwine 37, 224, 256, 343–6 18, 42, 211, 270 (notes on 1.5); alliteration 9, 9 n1, 49, 50, 51–3, 54, 55, dating texts 17, 18, 209; and 58–9, 60, 63, 70, 125, 171 (note on l.3), 213, 263; history of 24–5, 139, 222, 173 (notes on 32, l .3; 34, l.1; 38, l.3), 224, 238 (notes on 1.6), 255, 301; 175 (note on 53 1.2), 181, 183, 193–4 and Latin 25; Old English 15, 21, (note on l. 2251), 212, 222, 236 (note 22, 209, 210, 224, 278; Old on l.1), 241, 242, 262, 274, 294 (note Testament, use of the 297, 305, on l.307), 354 (note on l.25) 320–1 (note on 1.1); oral tradition apposition 53 16, 56; riddles 139–40, 170, (note compound words 51, 52, 54, 55, 59, 63, on 1.104), 209; Rohan, similarities to 70, 134 (notes on 1.3 & 1.2), 174 65, 66, 67, 210, 273, 277, 278–9, 307; (notes on 43, ll.1–5 & 49), 192 (note runes 47; ship-mounds 65, 255; on l.2215), 193 (note 1.2243), 194 and Tolkien 10, 12, 22, 24, 47, 53, (note on l.2299), 203 n6, 204, 236 59, 60, 65, 66, 139–40, 220, 256, 263, (note 1.2), 277, 294 (note 1.328), 320 274, 278, 279, 292 (notes on ll. 1–7), (notes on 1.145 & 1.166), 327, 338 294 (note on l. 92), 341, 343; and (note on l.1349) transience 210–11, 212, 213, 274; half-lines 51, 52, 59–60, 125, 176 (note verse 18, 22, 29, 42, 53, 56, 59, 60, on 1.4), 192 (note on 1.2215), 236 120, 140, 210, 221, 270 (note on (note 1.5), 241, 271 (note on ll. 1.13), 302, 306, 341 50–4), 320 (note on 1.172), 354 (note Annals of Beleriand/ see Tolkien: on 1.16) Fiction metre 29, 49–53 Aragorn 40, 43, 58, 62, 209, 212, 225, 226, Middle English 50 254, 263, 272, 273–4, 275, 276, 277, Old English 16, 49–50, 51, 52, 53–6, 278, 279, 296, 304, 305 58–60, 125, 241–2, 262, 302 Arganoth 212 Old Norse 16 Arkenstone 127, 213, 224 Sir Gawain 49, 326–7 Arthur, King 36, 202 n3, 256, 256 n11, variation 53, 60, 62, 63 325, 345 verse 1, 9 n1, 16, 49–53, 58–60, 63, 125, see also The Fall of Arthur 192, 241–2, 262, 302, 303, 326–7 ‘asterisk reality’ 13, 20, 21, 180, 263, 345 Alliterative Morte Arthure 241 Æthelred the Unready 300 Alliterative Revival, the 241, 253 Æthelweard 221–2, 255 Alvíssmál 133 (notes on 1.2), 138 ættir 46 Amon Hen 212 Auchinleck manuscript 199, 208 Amun Sûl 212 Auden, W. H. 10, 39, 40–1 anacrusis 52 Augustine, Saint 341

369 370 Index

Bag End 39, 340 Tolkien’s translation of 6, 7, 8, 9, 24, 31, Bakhtin, M. M. 41–3 36–7, 49, 60, 69, 181, 239, 255, 277, Bæksted, A. 47 339 Baldr 123, 133 (note on 1.2), 134 (note on and The Wanderer 272–3, 275–7, 295 1.1), 138, 175 (note on ll. 3–4) Beren 39, 212 ’s tomb 220, 223, 224–5 Bilbo 18, 38, 39, 65, 136, 140, 141, 142, ballad-metre 58 142 n4, 178, 178 n5, 182, 184, 199, TheBattleofMaldon 7, 24, 170 (note on ll. 202, 224, 256, 343 121–3), 278, 296, 300–3, 305, 310–3, bird-speech 182 319–20 Blackwood, Algernon 14 loyalty of warriors 301–3 Blickling Homilies 114, 328 manuscript 296 Bliss, A. J. 223 Tolkien’s tripartite study 302 blood-feud 220, 223, 238 (note on 1.7) Bede, Venerable: Ecclesiastical History 47–8, boasts 139 222 Boethius 14, 199 61, 65 Bombadil, Tom 62, 343 Beowulf 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, 22, 50–6, 68, The Adventures of Tom Bombadil see 171 (note on 1.4), 178–81, 186–91, Tolkien: Poetry 192–5, 211, 224, 254, 258–9, 260, 63, 209, 225, 225 n9, 226, 254, 288–91, p. 294 (note on l. 312), 301, 257 325, 332–9; see also bracteates, Swedish 46 and Ælfwine 344–5 Brewerton, George 10 alliterative verse 49, 50, 59, 294 (note Britons 233, 238 (notes on 1.6) on l. 307), 294–5 (note on l.332) Brittany 35, 199 apposition 53 burial 46, 65, 254, 255, 256, 257, 260 and Boromir 254–5 (note on l. 38), 273, 355 (note on ll. Christian tradition 179 97–102) Clark Hall’s translation 7 see also ship-burial; Sutton Hoo compound words 54 Byrhtnoth 300–1, 302–3, 304–5, 311, 313, dating 17, 179–80 319 (notes on l. 120 & ll. 129–30), 320 dragon 179, 302, 321 (note on l.15) (notes on ll. 149–58 & l. 171) elegies 42 Byrhtwold 301 elves 203 epic tradition 41, 42–3 Cædmon 22 The Fight at Finnsburg 180, 220–1, 223 Cædmon’s Hymn 50 formulas 29, 55 Cain 203 gold 183–4 Carpenter, Humphrey 12 Grendel 254, 275–6, 327–8, 329 Carrock 61 9 (note 1), 65, 179, 272, 275, 278 Celtic The Hobbit, source for 181–4 language 1, 14, 15, 19, 21 (diagram), , King 48, 53, 179, 272, 275, 35–7, 299, 307 276, 277, 289, 291, 294 (note on literature 3, 35, 36–7, 200, 205, 238 l.331), 325, 327 (note on 1.3) landscape 327–8, 329 Certar 49 loyalty 302 Chaucer, Geoffrey 28, 67 manuscript 22, 34, 137, 178, 180 The Book of the Duchess 240 name 62 199, 204 quest 38 London dialect 26 runes 46 Tolkien on 7, 27 runic sword 48 Chesterton,G.K. 14 Scyld Scefing 55, 63, 255–6, 345 Children of Húrin see Tolkien: Fiction Index 371 chivalry 303 Danes 54, 60, 179, 220, 223, 225, 236 67, 240, 325, 326 (notes on l.1 & ll. 3–12), 237 (note on l. values 240, 326 43), 254, 260 (note on l. 30), 276, 291, Christ I 3, 74, 113–14, 116–9, 120, 345 311, 321 (note on l. 134) Christ II 113, 114 Dante Alighieri: Divine Comedy 240 Christ III 113 dating of texts 17, 18, 22, 122, 179, 221 142, 213, 304, 329, 330 18, 25, 34, 47, 49, 50, 56, 67, 66, 254, 302, 305 138, 211, 240, 262, 298, 307, 308 Deor 211 Anglo-Saxon prose 17 destiny see wyrd Beowulf 178–9, 183–4, 292 (notes on The Destruction of Jerusalem 241 1.1), 293 (notes on 1.2) The Destruction of Troy 241 and 182 dialect forms 16, 22, 23, 25, 26–7, 240, 278 and elves 205 dirge 254 and Goths 30, 297, 298–9 Dol Amroth 67 and hell 329 dowry system 270 (note on 1l.43–5) Iceland 29, 122, 138 dragon-slaying 38, 74, 76 (note 2), 133 lyrical poetry 42 (note on 13, ll. 1–5), 179, 184, 321 and Pearl 240–1 (notes on l.15) and Maxims II 262 dragons 13, 38, 39, 54, 74, 133 (note on and riddles 139 13, ll. 1–5), 178, 178 n5, 179, 180, 181, salvation 241, 354 (note on ll. 72–80) 182, 182 n7, 183, 183 n8, 184, 187, and The Seafarer 341, 342 189, 191, 194 (notes on l.2277 & l. and Vo˛luspá 123 2290), 195, 229, 262, 267, 302, 321 (note on l.15), 328, 335, 338 (note on l. and The Wanderer 274–5 720); see also Cirth 49 The Dream of the Rood 49, 50 cittern 252 (note on l. 91) dreams 274–5, 293 (note on ll. 51–3), 344, Cleanness 240 345, 346 ‘Coalbiters’ club 5, 14, 29 Dunlendings 65 Codex Regius 122–3, 125, 132 (note on ll. Dunsany, Lord Edward 15 3–4), 134, 134 (note on 1.2), 137, 139, Dwarves/dwarfs 4, 13, 67, 126–7, 127 n1, 172 (notes on 18, l.1 & 31 ll. 3–4), 177 129, 133 (note on 12, l.2 & l.4), 134 Columbanus 211 (note on 15, l.3 & 16, l.2), 138, 184, 203 compound words 51, 52, 54, 55, 59, 63, n5, 346 70, 134 (notes 1.3 and 1.2), 174 (notes craftsmen 124, 126 43 ll. 1–5 & 49), 192 (note l. 2215), 193 creation of 122, 123, 124, 126, 132 (note 1.2243), 194 (note 1.2299), n. (notes on 1l.3–4 and ll. 1–5), 134 203, 204, 236 (note 1.2), 277, 294 (note (note on 16, l.4) 1.328), 320 (notes 1.145 & 1.166), 327, in The Hobbit 38, 39, 65, 122, 126, 127, 338 (note 1.1349) 127 n1, 136, 178, 178 n5, 182, 184, Corsairs of Umbar 66 199, 202 Cynewulf 22, 48, 113, 114, 221, 222, 223, in The Lord of the Rings 126 224, 232–5, 238 (notes on l.6, l.7, l.8 language 127 and l.9), 239, 239 (notes on l.17 & l.27) magic 136 n2 ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ 220, 221–3, names 122, 124–5, 126, 127, 132 (notes 224, 232, 233, 237–9, 260 (note on l. on 1l.1–5), 134–5 33) ritual 126 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 220, 221, 222–3, runes 133 (note on l.2) 224 blood-feud 223, 238 (note on l.7) Eadwine 222, 344, 344 n21 loyalty 224 Eärendil 113, 115, 256, 263, 343 siege 224–5 Easterlings 66 372 Index

Edda, Poetic 28–9, 42, 122, 124, 125, 134, Anglo-Saxons 305 134 (note on 15, l.3), 137, 173 (note on Bakhtin on 41–2, 43 33, l.4), 182 Beowulf 42, 43, 276 Edda, Prose 28, 122, 126, 134 Finnish 3, 12 Eddic poetry 28–9, 63, 125, 126, 137, The Lord of the Rings 43 138, 139, 171 (note on 9, l.4), 182, need for English epic 13 203 Nibelungenlied 42 Edoras 65, 66, 272, 273, 277, 278 Old English 4, 56, 276–7 Egil’s Saga 47 Welsh 36 Eirik Bloodaxe, King 47 ‘Ernest’ by Knatchbull-Hugessen 183 n8 elegies 42, 180, 209, 211, 212, 219, 272, The Exeter Book 22, 113, 139, 140, 175, 273, 274, 340 176, 177, 209, 211, 261, 272, 340 Elene 48, 114, 292 (notes on l.1) exile 66, 191, 229, 272, 274–6, 283, 289, elephants 66, 296, 305, 306, 307, 315, 320 292, 293, 333, 340, 341, 342, 349, 35 (note on l.1) see also mûmakil (war elephants); Fáfnismál 182, 184 oliphaunts fairies Elric 112 (note on ll. 329–34) etymology 202–3, 204, 205, 208 (note 48, 123, 199 on l. 193) Elves 4, 13, 14, 67, 134 (note on 16, 1.1), Fairy King 200, 201 174 (note on 47, l.1), 263, 345–6 and Sir Orfeo 199, 200–2, 204 Celtic influences 37, 205 world of 200, 201, 204 Chaucer 204 see also Tolkien: Scholarship Elvish language 19, 34, 115, 274, 343 Fangorn 261, 304 etymology 174 (note on 47, l.1), 203, 63, 302 204, 205, 344, 345 Fenrir wolf 126, 164, 165, 174 (note on and ’s name 127, 133 (note on 46, l.4) ll. 1–4) The Fight at Finnsburg 220–1, 228–31, High Elves 202 236–7, 239, 273 The Hobbit 57–8, 199, 202, 202 n4, 204, Beowulf 180, 221 205 as epic 42 The Lord of the Rings 205, 209, 210, 240, siege 220 242, 341 Finland 12, 15, 33, 34, 75 Lothlórien 37, 67, 240, 242 Finnish 75, 112 medieval 203–4, 205, 343, 344, 346 culture 112 (note on l. 152) poetry of 57–8 language 1, 3, 4, 14, 15, 19, 32–5, 68, and The Seafarer 341–2 307 The Silmarillion 113, 203 n51 literature 3, 17, 56, 69, 74, 76 and Sir Orfeo 201, 202, 204 see also the Kalevala Undying Lands 212, 342, 343 Finnsburg Fragment see The Fight at Finnsburg Wood-elves 57–8, 199, 201, 202, 204 flyting 139 Ents 261, 263 folklore 56, 261 -wives 264 Celtic 200 dislike of change 261–2 Scandinavian 138 etymology 213, 213 n8, 263, 270 (note followers, loyalty 301, 309, 318 on l.40), 272 formulaic style 55–6, 277, 319 (note on giants 213, 263, 264, 270 (note on l.40), l.117), 339 (note on l. 762) 272 Beowulf 29, 56, 63, 192 (note on l. Maxims I and II 261–4 2215), 277 poetry 261, 262 Christ I 113 Éowyn 63, 224, 296, 302 Edda 29 epic literature 1, 37, 41–3, 74 n1, 276, 319 Kalevala 56, 77 (note on l.117) Maxims II 270 (note on l.16) Index 373

Old English 18, 53, 55–6, 63, 141, 241 (not on l. 92), 333, 351, 353, 355 (notes Vo˛luspá 124 132 (note on 9, l.1), 134 on ll. 97–102 & l. 99) (note on 16, l.4) artefacts 46, 134 (note on 15, l.1), 189, fornyrðislag 49, 60, 125 191, 201, 211, 254, 255, 267, 276, Fortunatus, Venantius 211 289, 313, 320 (note on l. 166), 333 Franks, the 63, 299, 311, 319, 320 (note cursed 183–4, 191 on l. 134) as descriptor 145, 206, 215, 229, 243, see also Gregory of Tours: Historyofthe 247, 249, 259, 260 (note on l. 47), Franks 278, 283 French language 19, 20 (diagram), 21, 25, dwarf love of gold 57, 124 (note on 16, 27, 202, 305, 326 l.4), 184 Frisians 21, 220, 223, 225, 237 (note on ll. ink 30 18–27) golden hall 60, 272, 273, 278 Frodo 18, 38, 39, 40, 43, 62, 115, 142, 199, see also Edoras 212, 224, 225, 225 n9, 226, 242, 243, 62 256–7, 302, 303, 304, 306, 325, 329, Gollum 40, 136, 136 n2, 140, 141, 142, 330,340, 341, 343 142 n4, 213, 306, 329, 338 (note on l. futhark/futhorc 44, 45–6, 47 1357) Gondolin 48 18, 65–6, 224 Gaelic 35–7 Gordon, E. V. 5, 242, 341 Gagnráþr 138 Gordon, Ida L. 355 Galadriel 43, 123, 240, 274, 342 Goths/Gothic 3, 10, 14, 15, 15 n2, 20, 21 Phial of 115 (diagram), 30–2, 63, 65, 297, 298, 300, Gandalf 39, 40, 61, 66, 127, 209, 210, 224, 307, 316, 317, 318, 319, 321, 322, 323, 225, 226, 263, 272, 277, 278, 302 324 name of 61–2, 122, 127 Gothic Revival 65 Gawain, Sir see Sir Gawain and the Green Gregory of Tours: HistoryoftheFranks 63, Knight 178 Germanic Grendel 38, 179, 254, 272, 276, 325, 333 dwarfs 126, 135 description of 53, 303–4 elves 203, 204, 205 and landscape 327–8, 329 heroism 301, 304, 354 (note on ll. lineage 327, 333, 338 (note on 72–80) ll.1355–6) languages 13, 19, 21, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, mother 48, 179, 325, 327 44, 47, 203, 203 n6, 204, 298, 307 name 62, 62 n5 legends 9, 123, 126, 135, 263, 343 Tolkien’s ‘Lay’ of 8–9 names/name-giving 62, 63 Grettir’s Saga 47 people 19, 21 (diagram), 29, 30, 34, 45, Grey Havens 209, 212, 340 64, 295, (note on l. 348), 298, 299, Grímnismál 124, 138 301, 319 (note on l. 115), 322, 323 Gullveig myth 173 (notes on 39, 1.1–4), poetry 29, 42, 49, 63, 178, 241 204 n4 runes 34, 44, 45, 47 Gunnhild, Queen 47 giantesses 124, 134 (notes on 16, 1.4) Gylfaginning 123, 132 (note on ll. 3–4), giants 48, 123, 126, 137, 138, 141, 155, 137, 138, 172 (note on 31, ll. 3–4), 174 159, 163, 165, 172 (notes on 21, l.1; 28, (notes on 45, l.1 & l.2; also 46, l.4), 203 l.5 & 29, l.5), 173 (note on 33, l.4), 175, 203, 210, 215, 218 (note on l.2), 263, Haggard, Sir H. Rider 14 264, 267, 287, 328, 335 Háma 277, 277 n13 62, 126, 209, 213, 254, 272, 277, Haradrim 66, 305, 306 304 Hastings, Battle of 21 gold 48, 57, 58, 75, 124, 173 (note on 39, Hauksbók 123, 125, 132 (note on ll.3–4), ll. 1–4), 189, 204 n7, 263, 267, 283, 294 134 (note on 15, ll.1–2) 374 Index

Hávamál 47, 133 (note on 11, l.2), 138, iambic tetrameter 56–7 171 (notes on 9, l.4 & 10, l.1) Iceland Heaney, Seamus 48 history of 28, 29, 138 Hearne, Thomas 296 language 16, 21 (diagram), 28, 29, 47 Heiðreks saga 138, 142, 170 (note on 203 n6 l.104) literature of 14, 28, 47, 122, 124, 126, Hengest 180, 220, 225, 226, 229 138, 178, 223, 239 (note on l. 27) see also Tolkien: Scholarship Finn and manuscripts 28, 29, 122, 137, 178 Hengest tradition 46, 124 Heorot 9 n1, 65, 179, 272, 275–6, 277, Imma 48 278, 294 (note on l. 312), 325 inflections 36, 221 heroes 36, 47, 66, 74, 77, 126, 133 (note Gothic 31 on 12, l.4), 134 (note on 15, l. 3), 171 Middle English 26 (note on 12, l.3), 173 (note on 41, l.1), Modern English 23, 26 181, 182, 184, 189, 231, 237 (note on l. Old English 23 43), 259, 276, 287, 289, 291, 294 (notes Old Norse 29 on l.331 and l. 332), 326 Inklings 5, 6, 345 appearance of 276–7 Irish 35–6, 37 as narrative element 11, 29, 38, 39, 41, 42, 54 Jackson, Peter 2, 127 n1, 136, 178 n5, 225 death of 256 n9, 273 n12, 305 and epic 41, 43 Jarrow 274 and quest 38–9, 41, 328–9 Jordanes 3, 324 Tolkien 178 n5, 181, 272, 273, 277, 278, Getica 15 n2, 32, 68, 297–300, 307, 279, 302, 303 308–9, 316–19, 321–3 Judith 178 heroic Judith, Book of 178 and dragons 183 Junius manuscript 22 to excess 304 names 63, 354 (note on ll.72–80) The Kalevala 3, 12, 14, 17, 32–3, 34, 35, poetry 42, 47, 56, 63, 122, 179, 56, 69, 74–7, 78–111, 112, 113 183, 221, 277, 301, 302, 303, kennings 54 325 kinship 235, 293 (note on l.7), 302 Tolkien 38, 39, 126, 226, 304 loyalty 274 see also Germanic: heroism memory 293(note on 1.51–3) Heurodis 200, 201 sister’s son 319 (note on 1.115) Heusler, A. 42 Hickes, George 221 LaZamon 142 Hildeburh 220 landscape 273, 345 Hnæf 220, 225, 226, 229, 231, 236 (notes Beowulf 325, 327–8, 329 on l.1 & l.2) Gollum 329 The Hobbit see Tolkien: Fiction heroic world 54–5 Hollin 209, 210 Middle-earth 64–5, 346 Holy Grail 38 Mordor 325, 328, 329–30 Homeric epic 56 Pearl 240–1, 242–3, 252 (notes on l.71 & Homily on the Maccabees (Ælfric) 297, 305, l.115), 253 314, 315, 323 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight 326, Horsa 62, 180, 220 328–9 Hrothgar, King 48, 53, 179, 272, 275, 276, Sir Orfeo 201 277, 289, 291, 294 (note on l.331), 325, Undying Lands 340 327 Lang, Andrew 183 n8 The Husband’s Message 211 Langland,William: Piers Plowman 240, 241 , King 178 lays, Breton 37, 199 Index 375

Legolas 61, 62, 209, 210, 212, 213, 225, (note on l.113), 270 (note on l. 42), 254, 272, 273, 277, 278, 304, 342 294–5 (note on l.332), 326 The Letter of Alexander to Aristotle 178 alliterative poetry 50, 242–3 Lewis,C.S. 5–6,9 dialects 25–6 Liber Eliensis 303 inflections 26 Lindisfarne 274 pronunciation 26 On the Sack of the Monastery at Lindisfarne spelling 26, 27 211 199, 202 Litr, dwarf 133 (note on 12, 1.2) Misty Mountains 40, 136, 140, 240, 328 Lokasenna 139 Moorcock, Michael 112 (note on Loki 134 (notes on 15, 1.3), 136 n2, 139 ll.329–34) 178, 178 n5, 182, 199 Mordor 38, 62 n5, 66, 67, 306, 325, 328, Lönnrot, Elias 34, 56, 74–5 329 The Lord of the Rings see Tolkien: Fiction Morgai 325, 330 Lord, Albert 74 Morgoth 39, 74, 113 lordship 304 67, 126, 212, 220, 221, 225, 236 Lothlórien 37, 67, 201, 240, 242, 243, 325 (note on l. 14), 240 loyalty 223, 224, 225, 274, 278, 301, 302, Morris, William 10, 15, 183 n8 316 mûmakil (war elephants) 296, 305–6, 307, Lúthien 39, 212 321 Lyonesse 34 names 1, 30, 37, 46, 47, 49, 255 n10, 278, 280, 298, 307, 308, 328, 343, 344, 345 The Mabinogion 36, 37, 77 ælf -element 204–5 Maccabees see Homily on the Maccabees Anglo-Saxons 22 magic 42, 47–8, 76, 77, 126, 133 (note on Beowulf 63, 255 n10 12, ll.1–4), 138, 170 (note on l. 52), 173 Dwarves 122, 124–5, 126, 127, 132 (note on 39, ll.1–4), 199, 200, 202, 204, (notes on 1l.1–5), 134–5 204 n7, 208 (notes on l.192 & 193), 256 Edda 63, 122, 124, 132 (note on 11, rings 136, 136 n2 ll.1–5), 134 (note on l.3) Maldon see The Battle of Maldon engravings of 48, 49 Malory, Sir Thomas 38, 67 The Hobbit 60–1, 122, 127 MariedeFrance 199 Germanic 62, 63 maxims 261, 262 lists of 122, 124, 127 Maxims II 183, 218 (notes on l.1 & l.2), The Lord of the Rings 60–3, 64, 122, 261–4, 266–9, 270–1 255 n10, 263, 278, 279, 305–6 Meduseld 278 in Old English poetry 48, 62, 114, Mercia 48, 255, 277, 278 344 n21 Merry 40, 224, 254, 261–2, 296, 302, 304 of runes 44, 45, 46 metre sagas 63 alliteration 29, 49–53 of swords 48 anacrusis 52 synonyms 63 half-lines 51, 52, 59, 125, 241 ‘Tale of Kullervo’ 77 Sievers, Edward 50–1 Wessex kings 62 Middle-earth 2, 3, 4, 9, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19, Narsil 275 37, 38, 43, 61, 64, 67, 74, 113, 123, 212, Nazgûl 261, 296, 307, 329 213, 254, 262, 263, 264, 306, 307, 341, New Oxford English Dictionary 5 343, 346 Nibelungenlied 41, 42, 184 n9 medieval reference 24, 114, 117, 272, Niflhel 163, 173 (notes on 43, ll.1–5) 285, 342, 353 Nimrodel 240, 243 Middle English 1, 4, 7, 10, 11, 14, 15, 21, Norman Conquest 21, 25, 50, 241 21 (diagram), 23, 25–8, 35, 37, 43, 66, Norns, goddesses of fate 124 68, 142, 199, 200, 202–3, 204, 252 Northumbria 16, 48, 65 376 Index

Nowell Codex 178 Tolkien’s imitations of 9, 10 Númenor 18, 66, 256, 343, 344, 346 see also specific titles Fall of 343, 344, 345, 346 Old Testament 24, 136, 178, 297, 305 Númenoreans (Black) 66 oliphaunts 305, 306 see also elephants; mûmakil (war Odin, Óðinn 123, 140, 141, 151, 155–67, elephants) 170 (note on l 104), 171 (notes on 1, oral culture 16, 34, 36, 56, 65 l.1; 5, ll.3–4; 8, l.1), 172 (note on 18, 66, 220, 223, 225, 225 n9, 243, 254, l.1), 175 (notes on 51, ll.1–4 & 54, 261, 329 ll.3–4) Orfeo 199–200, 201–2, 206–7 disguise 137–8 see also Sir Orfeo Fenrir wolf 123,174 (note on 46, l.4) Orosius (Old English) 33 Ragnaro˛ k 123, 138, 173 (note on 41, Orpheus 199, 200 n2 l.1), 174 (note on 46, l.4) Orthanc 213, 262 ring 134 (notes on 15, l.1) Ostrogothic see Goths/Gothic self-sacrifice 47, 138 Other world 37, 200, 201, 253, 256 ogham 36 see also Lyonesse Olaf Tryggvason 300 Ovid 14, 199 Old English 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 19, 21 (diagram), 21–5, 27, 30, 31, 33, Paradise 201, 242, 249, 341, 342 35, 37, 45, 63, 68, 69, 113, 192, 224, see also Other world; Valinor 262, 307 parataxis 222, 224 alliteration 16, 49–50, 51, 52, 53–6, ‘The Parker Chronicle’ 222, 224 58–60, 125, 241–2, 262, 302 The Parlement of the Three Ages 241 compound words 54, 70, 204 The Passion of St Christopher 178 dialects 22, 26, 278 Patience 240 elegies 42, 180, 211, 212, 274 Paul, Saint 328 inflections 23, 26, 29 Pearl 8, 50, 240–2, 243, 244–51, 252–3 poetry 16, 17, 18, 22, 24, 29, 42, 48, alliteration 50, 241 49–50, 51–6, 58–60, 62, 113, 114, dream visions 240–1 125, 176, 209, 224, 241, 262, 274, language 26 279, 293 (note on ll.81–3), 302, 327, manuscript 240 345 stanza form 242 pronunciation 23 Tolkien’s translation 27 prose 22, 178, 222, 237–8 (note on l.1), Pelennor Fields, Battle of 59, 60, 63, 296, 297 300, 307, 308 riddles 3, 136, 139–41, 168–9, 176, Piers Plowman 240, 241 177 Pippin 40, 254, 261, 262, 302, 304 runes/alphabet 45, 46, 47, 48 Plato 14 spelling 23, 26 prose, rhythmical 297 and Rohan 278–9, 302 prosopopoeia 306 Tolkien writing in 10, 18, 343, 344 Pugin, Augustus 65 variation 60 Púkel Men 65 see also specific titles Old Norse 1, 4, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 21, 28–30, 31, 46, 63, 68, 76 n2, 115, 174, 175, quest 1, 11, 37, 38–41, 184, 209, 275, 325, 263, 307, 343 326 borrowings 327 ‘Coalbiters’ club 5 Ragnaro˛ k 123, 132 (notes on 9, l.1), 133 elves 203 (notes on 12, ll. 1–4), 138, 172 (note on inflections 29 17, l.4), 173 (note on 41, l.1), 174 (note poetry 16, 17, 49–50, 60 , 139 on 46, l.4), 175 (note on 50, l.4) riddles 142 Resignation 211 Index 377 riddles 3, 138, 140–1, 168–9, 170 (notes 18, 39, 40, 115, 141, on l.52 & l.104), 175–7, 306 142, 212, 224, 302, 304, 306, 307, 325, The Exeter Book 139–40, 209 329, 330, 340 The Hobbit 136, 141–2, 142 n4, 177, 213 Sæmundar Edda 122 Jackson’s film 136 38, 213, 254, 272, 277, 305 prosopopoeia 306 Sauron 275, 296, 303, 305, 325, 343 Skaldic poetry 28 Scyld Scefing 55, 63, 254, 255–6, 345 RígsÞula 124 funeral 55, 256 37, 39, 67, 199, 209, 213 sea 52, 123, 126, 141, 157 (verse 21), 165 Rohan 4, 58, 59, 63, 65, 224, 272, 273, (verse 48), 170 (note on ll.110b-113), 277, 278, 302, 305, 308, 321 (note on 176 (note on l.14a), 269, 273, 285, 289, l.13), 338 (note on l.1348) 293 (notes on ll.2–4 & l. 5), 343, 354 Rohirrim 43, 65, 67, 236 (note on (note on l. 62) l.11.10–12), 302, 305, 307, 328 longing for 342, 345, 351 Anglo-Saxons, similarities to 65, 67, vocabulary for describing 54–5, 172 210, 277–9, 280, 307 (note on 31, ll.3–4), 174 (note on 49), Aragorn 272, 273, 304 260 (note on l.28), 338 (note on loyalty 302 l.1362), 342, 354 (note on ll.33–8) Old English language 278–9, 346 voyages across 42, 212, 254–5, 256–7, Orcs 254 256 n11, 259, 274, 283, 291, 293 poetry 18, 65, 272, 273 (note on ll.2–4), 340–1, 342, 343, The Wanderer 24, 272 344, 345, 346 Le Roman de la Rose 240 see also The Seafarer The Ruin 170 (note on ll. 121–3) 209–12, The Seafarer 22, 170 (note on l.47), 211, 214–17, 218–19, 263, 270 (note on l.5), 274, 307, 340–2, 344, 345, 346, 347, 272, 294, (note on ll.85–7), 354 (note 348–353, 354–5 on l.25) Christianity 341 elegaic 211–2, 340 as elegy 209, 211, 274, 340 The Exeter Book 209, 340, 341 structure 341 see also Ælfwine language 23 senna tradition 139 manuscript 209–10, 218 (notes on l.12) Shadowfax 277, 277 n14, 278 Roman ruin 210 Shakespeare, William 14, 57 runes 1, 37, 49, 114, 132–3 (note on 11, Sheave, King 255, 256, 344–5 l1.1–5) ship-burials 254, 255–6, 260 (note on alphabet 44, 45, 46, 47 l.47) futhark 44, 45–6 Shire 38, 39, 40, 64–5, 67, 212, 261, 305, Germanic 34, 44, 45, 47 306, 307, 325, 340 The Hobbit 44 Sievers, Edward 50–1, 53 inscriptions 34, 44, 45–6 Sigfússon, Sæmundr 122 magic 45, 47 Sigurðr 133 (note on l.4), 134 (note on names of 44, 45 l.3), 182, 184 Óðinn 47 Silmarils 39, 113, 305 Tolkien’s 44, 47, 49 The Silmarillion see Tolkien: Fiction word divisions 46 Silverlode 240, 243 Runic Poem 45 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight 325–7, Ruthwell cross 48–9, 50 334–7, 338–9 alliteration 50, 241, 326 sagas 13, 29, 36, 124, 212, 224 Alliterative Revival 241 Icelandic 14, 28, 47, 124, 126, 223, and Beowulf 42–3 239 landscape 326, 328–9 see also Poetic Edda language 26, 326–7 St Erkenwald 241 magic 42 378 Index

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight – continued Tiw 49 manuscript 240, 325 Tolkien, Christopher 77, 327 quest narrative 38–9 Boromir’s funeral 254 romance form 42, 326 Ents 261 structure 326 and The Fall of Arthur 7, 115, 345 Tolkien and Gordon 5, 7, 8, 27, 38, 49, 327 on J. R. R. Tolkien 7, 209, 220, 240, 270, Tolkien on 11, 37, 38, 326 272, 278, 346 Sir Orfeo 8, 26, 27, 199–205, 206–7, 208 Rohirrim 272, 278 skaldic poetry 28, 29 Tolkien, J. R. R. 1, 2 Skallagrimsson, Egil 47 General: biography/career: 1, 5–10, 27, Smaug 39, 178, 182, 182 n7, 183, 270 44, 49, 341; and languages 4, 10, 12, (note on ll.26–7a.), 305, 321 (note on 14, 19, 20–1, 24, 33, 35, 36–7, 44; l.15) ‘mythology for England’ 4–5, 12–3, Smeagol see Gollum 18, 180, 213; own verse 18, 49, Solomon and Saturn II 136–137, 140–1, 142, 56–60, 262; see also Tolkien: Poetry 144–9, 170, 177 Fiction and Stories: Annals of Beleriand dialogue 136, 138, 139, 140, 141, 224, 237 (note on 1.1), 343; Annals of 177 Valinor 113, 224, 237 (note on 1.1), Sturluson, Snorri 122, 125, 174 (notes on 341, 343; Children of Húrin 74, 76, 44, l.4) 77; 18, 38, 304, Edda 28, 122, 123, 126, 133 (note on 12, 327; ‘Guide to the Names in The Lord 1.2), 134 (note on 15, l.3) of the Rings’ 64; The History of Gylfaginning 123, 132 (note on 9, ll.3–4), Middle-earth 2, 61; see also specific 203 titles Sutton Hoo 7, 65, 255, 260 (note on l.47), The Hobbit 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 68, 122, 295 (note on l.334) 126–7, 136, 140–2, 178, 181–4, 199, see also burial and ship-burial 202, 204–5, 304–5, 327; Arkenstone Sveinsson, Bishop Brynjólfur 122 213, 224; and Beowulf 181–3; and Swein Forkbeard 300 C. S. Lewis 6; Elrond 48; giants swords 54, 57, 64, 133 (note on l.4), 175; Jackson’s films 136, 178, 202 189, 229, 255, 267, 275, 313, 315 n4; landscape of 65; names 60–1, Beowulf 48 122, 127; and quest narrative 38, The Hobbit 48 39–40, 65; revisions of 136; riddles inscribed 47, 48 136, 141–2, 142 n4, 177, 213; Kullervo 76, 79, 101 Rivendell 39, 199 runes 44; verse The Lord of the Rings 254, 275 in 49, 56–7, 59 suicide by 74, 76 The Lord of the Rings 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, Tolkien on 112 (note on ll.329–34) 40–1, 68, 126, 136, 199, 204–5, 209, synonyms 53, 54–5, 62, 63 210–3, 220, 223–6, 240, 242–3, 254–7, 261–4, 272, 273–80, 296, Tacitus, Germania 33 300–9, 325, 327–330, 340–7; and The Táin (The Táin Bo Cualinge)36 allegory 280; Appendices 19, 49, Tengwar 49 213; C. S. Lewis 6; creation of Théoden 40, 59, 60, 61, 63, 224, 236 mythology 12, 13, 124; elegaic tone (note on ll.10–12), 254, 255 n10, 263, 212; Ents’ Long List 58–9; epic 43; 272, 273, 273 n12, 277, 278, 279, 296, fate 123; funerals 254; heroism 302, 305, 309, 320 (note on 226, 302, 325; ‘Lament of the Stones’ l.171) 209; languages 19–20, 49, 69–70; Thorin 38, 122, 126, 127 n1, 178, 184, names 60–3, 64, 122, 255 n10, 263, 202, 224 278, 279, 305–6; poetry 17, 49, Thorkelín, Grímur Jónsson 178 56–60, 263; quest narrative 38–41, Tidwald 303, 320 (note on l.160) 65, 243; race 65, 66, 123 Index 379

The Lost Road and The Notion Club Papers 327; ‘Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’ 18, 115, 256, 340, 343, 344, 345 lecture on (W.P. Ker Memorial Lecture The Silmarillion 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 39, 68, (1953) 38, 326, 327); Sir Orfeo, 74, 76, 113, 115, 223, 305, 345; translation of 200, 205; The Story of creation of Middle-earth 123; Elves Kullervo 77; translations 8–9, 203 n5; mythology 13, 33; names 69–70, 176, 192, 242, 341 60–1 Torhthelm, minstrel 254, 303–4, 320 (note Poetry: The Adventures of Tom Bombadil on l.160) 9 n1, 306; ‘Bagme Bloma’ 31; transience ‘Eärendil’ verses 115, 342; The Fall of glory 210, 211, 212, 279 of Arthur 2, 7, 8, 59 n4, 256 n11; of time 38, 212, 222 and ‘Anglo-Saxon Verse’ 22, 53, Treebeard 18, 30, 61, 213, 261–2, 263, 140, 292; and Eärendil 115, 345; 264 s relation to medieval literature 2, 8, see also Fangorn 37, 60, 115, 345; and The Lord of the Trollshaws 212 Rings 59 n4, 202 n3; verse structure Túrin Turambar 74, 76, 76 n2, 77 49, 53, 60; ‘The Happy Mariners’ 342; ‘The Homecoming of Undying Lands Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm’s Son’ 7, 8, attacked 343 49, 254, 302; ‘Imram’ 37, 304, 342; Elves 212, 342, 343 ‘Kortirion among the Trees’ 213; Frodo 40, 256, 340, 343 ‘The Last Ark’ or ‘Oilima Markirya’ and Tolkien’s mythology 256, 345, 346 33; ‘The Lay of Aotrou and Itroun’ Uruk-hai 304 37, 199 n1, 304; The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún 7, 8, 9, 29, 49, 50, 60, VafÞrúðnismál 123, 124, 137–9, 141, 125, 139, 177, 182, 342 n19; ‘Ofer 150–67, 171–5, 177, 204 Widne Garsecg’ (‘Over the Wide Sea’) riddles 141 342; ‘The Prophecy of the Sibyl’ Valhalla 173 (notes on 41, l.1) 127; ‘The Sea Bell’ 342; ‘Sellic Spell’ valkyries 124 9, 10, 13, 34, 181; Songs for the Vanir 123, 134, 163, 173 (note on 39, Philologists 8, 10, 31; ‘The Tides: On ll.1–4) the Cornish Coast’ 342 region of 173 (note on 39, Scholarship 7–8, 9–10: ‘’ ll.1–4) 4; ‘Anglo-Saxon History and Variags 66 Literature’ 12; ‘Anglo-Saxon Verse’ variation 22, 53, 140, 292 (notes on ll.1–7), alliteration 53, 60, 62, 63 341; ‘Beorhtnoth’s Death’ 302, 303; apposition 53 Beowulf: A Translation and Old English 60 Commentary including ‘Sellic Spell’ Vercelli Manuscript 22 7, 8, 9, 10, 24, 31, 37, 48 n3, 49, 54, Viking 23, 211, 302, 303–4, 311, 313, 319 55, 60, 63, 69, 175, 180, 203 n6, 213 (notes on l.120 & ll.129–30), 320 (note n8, 255, 256, 277, 327, 345; ‘Beowulf: on ll.149–58), 345 The Monsters and the Critics’ 7, 18, era of 27, 65, 67 42, 180, 304; commentary on Elene ships 260 (note on l.32) 48; ‘Development of wyrd’ 211; wars of 22, 296, 300–1, 304 ‘’ 8, 35, 37; Finn Virgil 199 and Hengest 2, 8, 180; ‘On Visigothic see Goths/Gothic Fairy-stories’ 7, 11, 13, 202, 280; The Vision of St Paul 328 ‘On ‘The Kalevala’ or Land of Heroes’ Vo˛luspá 16, 63, 122–7, 128–31, 132–8, 171 77; A Middle English Vocabulary 7, note on 12, l.3), 174 (note on 43, 208, 242, 327; ‘Ofermod’ 302, 304; ll.1–5), 203, 204 n7 ‘Sellic Spell’ see Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary; Sir Gawain and the Wagner, (W.) R.: Ring Cycle 184 n9 Green Knight, translation of 38, 49, Waldman, Milton 12, 114 380 Index

The Wanderer 22, 24 , 211 218 (note on Winchester 200, 235, 297 l.2), 272, 273–4, 275, 280, 282–7, Wirral 328 292–4, 295, 341, 344 n23, 355 The Wonders of the East 178 alliteration 58 Wood-elves 202, 204 and Aragorn 58, 272, 273, 275 see also Elves Christianity 274–5 wood men, woses 65, 328, 335 as elegy 209, 211, 272, 340 World War I 5, 77 Rohan/Rohirrim 24, 273, 279 World War II 280, 303 ubi sunt passage 273–4, 279, 294 (notes Wormtongue 40, 61 on l.92) Wright, Joseph 31 TheWarsofAlexander 241 Wulf and Eadwacer 175, 211 Warwick 213 Wulfgar Weathertop 199, 212 Abbot 222 Welsh Beowulf 272, 275, 276, 291, 294 (note and Elvish 37 on l.331) language 10, 21, 35, 36–7 Wulfmær 302, 303, 311, 313, 320 (note on myths 36, 37 ll.149–58) and Tolkien 8, 10, 19, 35, 36, 37 wyrd (fate) 211–2, 215, 218 (note on l.1), Wessex 23, 223, 239, 297 263, 267, 270 (note on l.5), 293 (note Alfred the Great of 12, 17, 22, 23, 53, on l.5), 341–2 222 kings of 62 The Wife’s Lament 211 Yggdrasil 138 William of Malmesbury 255 ympe-tre 200, 201, 208 (note on l.166) William of Palerne 241 Yugoslavian folk poetry 56

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