Tesi Federico Petroni

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Tesi Federico Petroni INDICE INTRODUZIONE p.4 CAPITOLO PRIMO - La narrazione come strumento per il consenso: il pensiero di Petraeus e la dottrina militare p.13 1. Vietnam, percezioni e small wars: la tesi di dottorato di Petraeus p.13 1.1 Il calcolo strategico dei militari dopo il Vietnam p.13 1.2 “Perception is the key” p.16 1.3 La guerra passa, i militari restano p.21 2. Giano va alla guerra: politica e comunicazione come le due facce delle guerre odierne p.24 2.1 Non ci si immerge due volte nella stessa guerra p.24 2.2 Anche la guerra “scende in campo”: la dimensione politica p.28 2.3 “Perceptions matter more than reality”: la dimensione comunicativa p.35 3. La narrazione della campagna: alla caccia di una definizione p.40 3.1 “The greatest weapon in the armory of the modern commander” p.41 3.2 La sottile linea rossa tra informazione e psychological operations p.50 4. La narrazione secondo Petraeus: lʼFM 3-24 e il surge in Iraq p.54 4.1 FM 3-24, la cassetta degli attrezzi della contro-insurrezione p.54 4.2 A lezione dallʼIraq p.64 CAPITOLO SECONDO: Il quadro strategico e il ruolo comunicativo di Petraeus p.69 1. Obama si smarca: la strategia (dʼuscita) di West Point p.69 1.1 Narrare lʼAfghanistan? No, grazie p.69 1 1.2 Tra al-Qaʼida ed exit strategy: perché una narrazione militare non serve a Obama p.74 1.3 “Reverse the Talibanʼs momentum”: il brand sulla campagna p.83 2. Il difficile bilanciamento tra percezioni domestiche e percezioni locali p.88 2.1 Air bombs keep falling on my head p.95 2.2 Distruggere per avanzare: le demolizioni deliberate p.102 2.3 La guerra in casa: i raid notturni p.107 3. La narrazione della campagna di Petraeus p.114 3.1 Le vecchie novità di Petraeus in Afghanistan p.114 3.2 Gli scopi della “campaign narrative” p.117 3.3 Maximum effect: la “campagna mediatica” di agosto 2010 p.123 CAPITOLO TERZO: “Progress is winning”: Metrica e narrazione dei progressi e dellʼinversione del “momentum” p.121 1. Riconciliazione e reintegrazione: “You do not kill or capture your way out of the insurgency” p.123 1.1 Gli “hopeful” “beginnings” della reintegrazione p.125 1.2 La (comunicazione della) riconciliazione come leva per spaccare lʼinsurrezione p.129 2. “Kill or capture”: lʼefficacia delle Special Operations Forces p.133 3. Polizia o milizie? Ambizioni e rischi dellʼAfghan Local Police p.143 4. Se un dato è negativo, interpretalo: il livello della violenza p.153 4.1 Dati positivi da amplificare, dati negativi da interpretare p.153 4.2 La guerra delle statistiche: il dibattito sugli attacchi originati dagli insorti p. 160 5. Il successo delle operazioni a Kandahar ed Helmand: progressi non sostenibili? p.164 2 5.1 Le dichiarazioni di Petraeus sullʼandamento delle operazioni e sullʼinversione del “momentum” p.165 5.2 Le operazioni concentrate: i key terrain districts p.168 5.3 Lʼaggiustamento tattico dellʼinsurrezione p.171 5.4 “Criminal strengthening”: governance, corruzione e legittimazione del governo p.174 6. Addestrare (ma non assistere) le forze afghane p.179 6.1 La corsa al reclutamento p.181 6.2 Il buio oltre lʼaddestramento: la qualità non testata p.184 6.3 “The next fight”: la non sostenibilità dei progressi delle Ansf p.190 CONCLUSIONI p.193 BIBLIOGRAFIA p.203 3 INTRODUZIONE Riferendosi al conflitto in Afghanistan, il Generale Stanley McChrystal lʼha definito: “Itʼs all about perceptions”. La guerra è sempre stata anche una questione di percezioni. Sin dallʼantichità, lʼarte della guerra consiste nel piegare la volontà del nemico di combattere. Sun Tzu ammonisce che “ottenere cento vittorie in cento battaglie non è dimostrazione di grandissima abilità. Soggiogare il nemico senza combattere rappresenta la vera vetta dellʼarte militare”1. Gran parte del pensiero strategico cinese è fondato sullʼinganno e sulla “mancanza di forma”: ingannare il nemico, nascondendo i propri obiettivi, la tattica, il livello della forza per vanificare i suoi piani e stimolare la sua reazione come se avessimo effettivamente giocato le nostre carte2. Al giorno dʼoggi, le forze armate degli stati stanno aumentando il ruolo e lʼimportanza della perception warfare nella pianificazione strategica. Si tratta di una branca della guerra non nuova ma in espansione grazie alle possibilità dello sviluppo tecnologico-informativo3; il suo compito è plasmare lʼambiente informativo e lʼambiente del conflitto per facilitare la proiezione della potenza4 . In altre parole, la gestione delle percezioni non è unʼarma aggiuntiva nella “cassetta degli attrezzi” del comandante, non è una pallottola virtuale da sparare là dove non osa quella di piombo. La gestione delle percezioni è piuttosto uno strumento che serve a manipolare, plasmare o modificare lʼarena politica o strategica allʼinterno della quale la forza sarà utilizzata. Lʼesempio letterario-mitologico che meglio cattura lʼimportanza delle percezioni è tratto dallʼIliade. I troiani non avrebbero mai portato il cavallo di Ulisse dentro le mura di Ilio se non fossero stati convinti della partenza degli Achei e, quindi, di aver vinto. In questo senso, Ulisse personifica lʼarte di manipolare le percezioni a uso strategico. La 1 Ralph Sawyer (a cura di) “The Complete Art of War: Sun Tzu - Sun Pin”, Basic Books, 1996, trad. it., “Lʼarte della guerra”, Neri Pozza, 2009. 2 cfr. ibidem. 3 cfr. Henrik Friman, “Perception Warfare: a perspective for the future”, Discussion Paper, Department of Operational Studies The Swedish National Defence College, 1999; Friman, Sjostedt, Wik (a cura di), "Informationskrigsföring - några perspektiv", Utrikespolitiska Institutet, Stockholm, 1996. 4 Douglas Dearth, “Shaping the Information Space”, Journal of Information Warfare, vol.3, n.1, 2002, pp. 1-15. 4 gestione delle percezioni nelle moderne forze armate comprende almeno quattro elementi, ognuno dei quali ha un obiettivo diverso5: il public affairs, che deve informare e dialogare con i media; la public diplomacy, che invece cerca di persuadere un pubblico delle proprie intenzioni e azioni; la deception, il cui compito è palesemente ingannare il nemico; le psychological operations, che cercano di influenzare un pubblico ai propri fini. Questa tesi si inserisce nel filone della gestione delle percezioni in guerra. Lʼargomento delle prossime pagine sarà la narrazione della guerra in Afghanistan sotto il generale David H. Petraeus. Tuttavia, prima di spiegare ciò che questo lavoro è bisogna chiarire cosa non è. Non è intenzione dellʼautore sostenere che i militari mentono al pubblico. Né affermare che, durante la guerra in Afghanistan, siano stati elaborati piani di “deception” diretti al pubblico americano e ai paesi della coalizione internazionale. E nemmeno che il generale Petraeus sia coinvolto in un piano di deliberato inganno alle istituzioni del suo paese. Le prove a sostegno di simili tesi, se esistono, non sono disponibili. Nel periodo della ricerca, lʼautore si è scontrato con una fastidiosa tendenza a dividere il “campo” in due schieramenti opposti e inconciliabili: chi accusa le forze armate di mentire e chi accusa la prima fazione di essere antimilitarista e sensazionalista. Chi approccia la materia della gestione delle percezioni e delle strategie militari di comunicazione deve spendere tempo e fatica a spiegare di non essere mosso da teorie del complotto. Chi sostiene queste tesi è facilmente attaccabile e un lavoro basato su premesse cospirative sarebbe sterile. Forse anche per questo, in letteratura manca un lavoro neutrale, analitico e rigoroso. Unʼanalisi a tutto tondo delle strategie di comunicazione militare richiederebbe molto più di una tesi. In questa sede, lʼattenzione sarà molto ristretta: lʼoggetto è il tentativo del Generale Petraeus, nel suo anno di comando in Afghanistan (luglio 2010 - luglio 2011), di elaborare una narrazione della campagna allo scopo di sostenere il supporto pubblico americano. Eʼ utile sviscerare le tre parti di cui è composto questo oggetto. Primo, cosʼè una narrazione? Il termine traduce lʼinglese “narrative”, usato in diversi campi, dalla politica allʼantropologia, dalla letteratura al mondo commerciale, fino ad arrivare ai militari. Conrad Crane, professore del War College dellʼesercito americano a 5 cfr. ibidem. 5 Carlisle, Pennsylvania, spiega che esistono due definizioni generali del termine: “The narrative is basically an expression of the system of beliefs that people have or, for a commander, it is a vision of his campaign: [...] commanders also develop a campaign narrative”6. La prima, dunque, è una definizione sociologica o antropologica; la seconda è più prettamente strategica7 . La ricerca è stata limitata alla “campaign narrative”: come si argomenterà in seguito, essa è la visione del comandante e articola la strategia, spiegando e mettendo in relazione gli obiettivi, i mezzi e le risorse della campagna. Al tempo stesso, è uno sforzo di interpretare la realtà in funzione della strategia stessa: ogni evento viene interpretato in funzione della narrazione stessa. Eʼ, quindi, la comunicazione della strategia e la strategia di comunicazione. Secondo, perché focalizzarsi sulle percezioni americane? La gestione delle percezioni in guerra coinvolge una miriade di attori: questi si possono sommariamente dividere in audience “domestica” e audience “locale”. Con la prima espressione, si intendono i pubblici del paese che interviene in uno scenario di conflitto (i cittadini, la stampa, le istituzioni rappresentative). Con la seconda, ci si riferisce ai pubblici del paese in cui si svolge il conflitto (il governo locale, la popolazione, il nemico). La ricerca si è concentrata solo sulla narrazione diretta allʼaudience domestica, eliminando quindi la comunicazione strategica diretta alla popolazione afghana, allʼinsurrezione e al governo Karzai. Inoltre, si è scelto di lasciare a studi futuri una verifica dellʼimpatto della narrazione sullʼopinione pubblica americana. In altre parole, non si tenterà qui di stabilire se la narrazione abbia avuto successo nel mantenere il supporto pubblico americano. In ogni caso, il sostegno domestico è diventato, nelle guerre contemporanee, una variabile strategica.
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  • The 2011 Afghanistan Analyst Bibliography
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