A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details UNWILLING ALLIES?: TOMMY-POILU RELATIONS ON THE WESTERN FRONT 1914-1918 D.Phil Thesis Chris Kempshall University of Sussex i I hereby declare that this thesis has not and will not be submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree: Signature: ii University of Sussex CHRIS KEMPSHALL DPHIL THESIS Unwilling allies? Tommy-Poilu Relations on the Western Front 1914-1918 SUMMARY This thesis examines the relationships and interactions between British and French soldiers on the Western Front of the First World War. To date the historical approaches to inter-allied relations has been predominantly focused on those interactions taking place at governmental or command levels. Whilst previous studies have touched on the relations between common soldiers, this has often been within specific case studies. I have drawn particularly on the contemporary diaries, letters and written records of British soldiers within the Imperial War Museum and also the postal censorship records of the French army at the Archives de l’armee de terre in order to trace the nature and evolution of these relations across the war. My study covers the time-period of 1914-1918 and focuses on periods of sustained contact in 1914, 1916 and 1918. This focus shows that the arrival of Kitchener’s New Armies in 1915-16 was a crucial development in forming strong relations between British and French soldiers. British military command took little interest and made no substantial plans for ensuring friendly relations between soldiers of the two armies and, as a result, these early interactions were largely self-directed by the soldiers. They were also driven by the apparent insecurities of the British volunteer soldiers who viewed themselves as being less accomplished than their French fellows, who were largely well-disposed to welcoming and teaching the new British arrivals in order to achieve swift victory. I argue that, although serendipitous in nature, this uneven starting point allowed relations between British and French armies to evolve positively whilst allowing both sides to maintain a sense of their own national identity without having to overly sacrifice their own ideals. However, the French desire for a decisive victory and a professional response in the trenches led to a rupture in Tommy-Poilu relations following the British failures in 1918. This changed the dynamic between the two nations in the build up to, and aftermath of, the armistice and provided a prelude to the difficult inter-war relationships at governmental levels. iii Acknowledgements I wish to deeply thank the following people, organisations and institutions for their assistance throughout this thesis. My supervisors Professor Ian Gazeley and Dr Chris Warne for their guidance, advice, expertise in both British and French history, and for ensuring that the process of researching and writing this thesis was enjoyable and survivable. The archivists and staff of the Imperial War Museum London, Kew National Archives and the Archives de l’armee de terre Vincennes for providing me with a multitude of assistance and expertise whilst undertaking my research. Likewise I’d like to thank the staff of the University of Sussex Library for their assistance in identifying and providing various sources. The Doctoral Support of the School of History, Art History and Philosophy has been extremely generous in providing funds for conference attendance and research trips both in Britain and France. I was also the fortunate recipient of a Postgraduate Travel Grant from the Society for the Study of French History which ensured I could undertake my archival research at the Archives de l’armee de terre and for this I am extremely grateful. I would also like to thank the members of the International Society for First World War Studies for assistance particularly in regard to my research at Vincennes but also for the ongoing and fascinating discussions that would regularly be exchanged via email. Additionally I would like to pay special tribute to Franziska Heimburger and Dr Ann-Marie Einhaus for providing useful sources and advice throughout this study. I count myself deeply privileged to have been a part of the University of Sussex History Department over the last five years. The people who remain or have left during this time have, frequently, proved friendly, supportive and accommodating but, most importantly, often inspirational. With this in mind I would particularly like to thank Becca Searle, Ben Jones, Stella Sims, Lucy Robinson, Claire Langhamer, Eugene Michail, Samantha Shave, Tom Akehurst, Kevin Reynolds, Nikolas Funke, Roger Johnson, Ruth Charnock, Anna Winterbottom, Alexa Neale, Sian Edwards, Rose Holmes, Esther MacCallum-Stewart, and Samantha Jolley. I consider myself honoured to call the above my friends. Also Laura Johnson gave great support. I would like to pay particular tribute to my two best friends; Steven Newman and Sylvie Lomer. Steven has been a longterm collaborator and a reassuring participant in proving that growing old doesn’t necessarily mean growing up. Sylvie has provided a level of support, interest and advice far beyond most peoples’ abilities. Additionally her assistance in translating French documents has been invaluable. I have never been more grateful of walking into someone in a library in 2006. I would like to offer my heartfelt thanks to my family, particularly my brother and Nan, for their support and interest in this project. However this study would not only never have been finished it would never have even begun without the love and support of my Mum and Step-Dad. A thesis that took longer to write than the war did to fight seems a poor offering in exchange but it is dedicated to them regardless. iv Unwilling allies? Tommy-Poilu Relations on the Western Front 1914-1918 CONTENTS Declaration Page i Summary Page ii Acknowledgements Page iii Tables & Illustrations Page v Introduction: A grassroots trans-national history Page 1 Chapter One: British and French interactions: Armies, People and Power Page 34 Chapter Two: Interacting with the Allies: The B.E.F. in France 1914-15 Page 82 Chapter Three: ‘My heart softened to the French ... all at once I loved them’; Kitchener’s New Armies around the Somme Page 119 Chapter Four: 1918: The Entente at the end Page 163 Chapter Five: The Poilu perspective: French responses to the British Page 213 Chapter Six: ‘The English are threatened with a careless disaster’: The records of the Commissions de contrôle postal Page 245 Conclusion: Britain, France and l’apres guerre Page 277 Bibliography Page 292 Appendix One: British Soldiers Page 308 Appendix Two: Chapter Five: French translations Page 314 Appendix Three: Chapter Six: French translations Page 318 v Tables & Illustrations Table 1: Success and Proximity Contingency Table Page 26 Image 1: W. K. Haselden, The Bird He Will Fail to Bring Down Page 68 Image 2: W. K. Haselden, The Spy Mania Before the War Page 69 Image 3: W. K. Haselden, What do Channel-Tunnelphobes Think Now? Page 71 Image 4: Punch Magazine, To the Glory of France Page 132 Image 5: Neumont, Maurice, On ne passe pas! Page 133 Image 6: Punch Magazine, Comrades in victory Page 158 Image 7: ‘Nos Amis Anglais’ Page 232 1 Introduction A grassroots trans-national history Historians tend to see the aims and objectives of the masses through the eyes of leaders or institutions that claim to represent popular interests. In this way the problems of the leaders become the problems of the class.1 There is a movement within the sphere of First World War studies towards a more trans-national approach to examining and researching the war. This is particularly visible through the recent activities and conferences of the International Society for First World War Studies, which has been pioneering examinations into other combatants and other fronts. This study is reflective of the movement towards new approaches to the First World War. It may still be rooted in the Western Front and in the two primary Entente nations, but its focus and approach are not towards the principal actors, the respective heads of armies and governments, but rather on the ordinary soldiers. The narrative of Anglo-French relations has tended to highlight the rancour between the two neighbours and there has been much evidence to draw upon. Interactions have verged more towards conflict than co-operation. There have been hundreds of years of imperial rivalry that, even after the fall of Napoleon, still led to friction between the two nations despite the temporary alliance in the Crimea. The Entente Cordiale that brought Britain and France together to fight in the First World War was also a fractious affair that saw British and French generals regularly butting heads whilst leading politicians in the two capitals would attempt to gain a measure of control over the fighting. However, this image should not be viewed as the totality of Anglo- French relations and interactions. There are alternative views and sources from which a very different picture can be drawn. 1 Dave Lamb, Mutinies;1917-1920 (London: Solidarity, 1977). p.1 2 The scope and benefits of this study are multifaceted.