History of Physical Education in Europe Ii
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE II
Leposavic, 2015.
1
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE
II
Leposavic, 2015.
2 Book: HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE II
Editors: Petar D. Pavlovic (Republic of Srpska) Nenad Zivanovic (Serbia) Branislav Antala (Slovakia) Kristina M. Pantelic Babic, (Republic of Srpska)
Publishers: University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education in Leposavic FIEP Europe - History of Physical Education and Sport Section
Authors:
Branislav Antala Fedor Ivanovich (Slovakia) Sobyanin (Russia) Demirhan Giyasettin Ferman Konukman (Turkey) (Turkey) Elizaveta Alekseevna Frantisek Seman Bogacheva (Russia) (Slovakia) Enric Maria Sebastiani I Gill Parry (United Obrador (Spain) Kingdom)
3 Gregor Jurak (Slovenia) Petar Pavlovic (Republic of Srpska) Ken Hardman (United Kingdom) Sergii Ivashchenko (Ukraine) Kristina Pantelic Babic (Republic of Srpska) Sixte Abadia i Naudí (Spain) Luis Felipe Contecha Carrillo (Colombia) Sladjana Mijatovic (Serbia) Marjeta Kovac (Slovenia) Violeta Siljak (Serbia) Natália Smolenáková Vladimir Nikolaevich (Slovakia) Irkhin (Russia) Nenad Zivanovic (Serbia)
4 Reviewers: Jela Labudova (Slovakia) Nicolae Ochiana (Romania) Veroljub Stankovic (Serbia) Zoran Milosevic (Serbia)
Prepress: Kristina M. Pantelic Babic
Printed by: ABL PRINT, Mlynarovicova 5, Bratislava, Slovakia
Book-jacket: Anton Lednicky
Circulation: 100 copies
ISBN 978-86-82329-53-4
NOTE: No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior permission of the authors.
5 TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD - ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS ...... 8
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ...... 24
THE EMERGENCE AND HISTORY OF SPORTS EDUCATION IN RUSSIA ...... 49
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA ...... 61
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE TERRITORY OF SLOVAKIA ...... 81
ANALYSIS OF EXEMPT ABSENCES FROM PHYSICAL EDUCATION LESSONS IN SLOVENIA IN THE PAST AND TODAY ...... 97
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN CONTEXTS OF DEMOCRATISATION: THE CASE OF SPAIN DURING THE POLITICAL TRANSITION (1975-1982) ...... 110
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN TURKEY ...... 121
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN UKRAINE...... 133
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND ...... 144
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOLS IN LATIN AMERICA: GENESIS ...... 180
6 During one session of FIEP’s Section for history of Physical Education and Sports held in Nis (Serbia) in 2014 originated the idea and initiative for writing of History of Sports and Physical Education in European countries. By exchange of views with present colleagues, the idea was accepted. After consent of FIEP Europe’s President Mr. Branislav Antala (Slovakia) regarding this matter, during the following Section’s session the Commission for leading this idea into realization was formed. Elected members of this Commission were: Nenad Zivanovic, Petar D. Pavlovic, Branislav Antala and Kristina Pantelic Babic. At the same session was decided to start first with writing of History of Physical Education. With the work of stated Commission members, National Delegates and Assistant of National Delegate of FIEP Europe, as also other associates from most European countries, this publication on beginnings of development of Physical Education in European countries’ schools was created. All manuscripts received for this publication successfully passed review process. All FIEP Europe National Delegates were informed about this project, and we received 18 European papers implemented in this publication. Besides, we also received a paper from Colombia about PE in Latin America, which is an indicator of interest for this topic beyond European borders. We hope to include all European countries in following publications, and also to go outside Europe in our close future. Papers are sorted alphabetically by countries which participated in this edition, with Colombian manuscript as a final one. We thank all authors for being a part of this interesting project, and looking forward to work together in the future.
With best regards, EDITORS
7 FOREWORD
ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS
Nenad Živanović, FIEP Europe, President of History of Physical Education and Sport Section, Serbia.
When everything has its own time (Solomon), and one should believe this to be so, then it is quite understandable that this book on physical education and sport has awaited its time. Without pretending that this is the final story of this beautiful theme, we emphasize that it is only a part of our smart book (history) on physical education and sport. From different sides and from different angles perceived, our smart book on physical education and sport perceives man and his desire to always be the best and excellent among others (Homer) and constantly perceives physical exercise as the beneficial food to man’s, primarily physical being (N. Zivanovic). In different parts of the European continent, and in the other parts of the world as well, man has been crossing the path of developing its natural form of body movement - exercise all the way to the derivative and modified forms. All this man has done in the reverse direction, constantly returning to his natural forms of movement - training. Of course, it has always been adapted and in harmony with the social environment and social circumstances in which he has lived. However, we must point out one fact. Physical exercise, no matter how it is defined, is not a subject that can be made and bought in a store. Physical exercise is actually a man himself and his movement, performed with the corresponding objective, not only to develop or train some of his (motor) properties, but also because of the emotional experiencing of such a movement - training. This fact alone indicates the complex structure of man. His physical and mental structure, consecrated by the Holy Spirit, makes him a complete man, a personality - one, unique and unrepeatable. Therefore, a physical exercise for him is a wholesome food essential to his being.
8 At the heart of physical education is a man with all his needs and desires. This man, as we have noted, has a need for physical exercise, specific food that is essential to his, primarily physical being. In fact, this man has a need for self-motion - exercise. Therefore, when we talk about physical exercise and physical exercising, we actually talk about the man himself. And this man, searching for his identity, moves from the idea that a person is one, unique and unrepeatable, to an individual – an atomized individual who thinks he is self-sufficient. Thus, between these extremes, a man wanders seeking, above all, himself and his increasingly lost person. That is why education and, of course, physical education is so important. Education and physical education as well can be defined in different ways. But it is not superfluous to recall that the term upbringing (education) is an old Slavic word denoting feeding. Of course, physical education as a part of general education ensures that a physical exercise nourishes man. And from this simple fact derives all the philosophy of physical education and sport, and it, among other things claims: everything for a man, a man for nothing. This philosophical idea draws its strength from the simple fact that says life is the highest value obtained from the Creator and noone, especially an educator, has the right to intentionally or unintentionally, incur the collapse of these values. Hence, the establishment of many schools, and in them the subject of physical education, to make man stand up and show him all the values of life. But, in all stages of life on the Earth, there were periods of ups and downs of the human civilization and culture. Therefore, the time in which we live should be considered taking into account this fact, and in accordance with it we should try to find the best solutions. It is not easy, but it is a sublime duty of the (real) experts and teachers. It is interesting to recall the times of two hundred years ago. Then, at the southern edge of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy a Fruskogorskian monk Georgie, translating a V. K. Hufeld book Macrobiotics, used a term physical education in the title of a chapter. The book was translated into the Serbian language and published in Budim in 1807.1 Before that, in these parts of Europe, different terms
1 More on this in: Milosevic, Z. and Berar M. Tracing the Term Physical Education, Physical Education and Sport Through the Centuries, Vol.1, Iss. 1. 44–52.
9 denoting the organized forms of physical exercise, were used. The most common terms used were the body exercises and gymnastics. But this term physical education was exactly in line with the basic meaning of education - and that is feeding. By means of the attribute physical in this syntagm a type of food that is offered to a man, regardless of his age, is highlighted. And that reflects a complete pedagogical idea emanating from the basic philosophical ideas that we have highlighted.
The Humanists
Turning towards man and his needs began in the mid-14th century. The advent of the Humanism and the Renaissance in the northern Italy established a new view of the world and of man in that world. Scholars and leaders of the new movement were called the Humanists. They had directed their learning towards the man (studia humana) and had pointed to the humanity as a worthy decoration of a free man.2 Such a radical shift and a break with the tradition of the Middle Ages, whose role model was found in the legacy of the ancient Greeks and Romans, was felt in relation to the physical exercise, as well. Instead of generating the possibilities of the organized physical exercise only for a selected group of (young) people - knights, various forms of physical exercise were offered and widely recommended to each and everyone. This urbi et orbi had been accepted and a new wave of a tsunami force, had begun to spread throughout Europe. The leading humanists who spoke about education, have always emphasized the importance of physical exercising. It was
2 Education and science that the Humanists took over from the priests and monks ceased to be the "handmaiden of theology" and became a "teacher of life". In that school, as well as in the amended environmental practices, one new man was formed. It was the man of this world who wanted to live out his life to the fullest and improve the gifts with which he was endowed (so he thought) by nature. To this and such a man ecstatic humanists sang the hymns. They tell him about his "excellence" (exelenntia) and his "dignity" (dignitas). They equate him with God (quidem mortalis deus) and encourage him to the comprehensive application of his own strength and quality (virtus), the constant striving to be a "noble" and "free" (nobilitis et liber), and to achieve fame (laus). We should now be able to add the competition, as well. After all, this is the motto of the EU, which is written in its founding documents. This is so because with the neoliberal concept of planning and management and the replacement of capitalism with the bankism (Gerald Selent), a Neohumanist approach is quite possible. And, unfortunately, we are witnessing where it leads.
10 very important in the design of an educational system that included various programs of physical exercise in their concept.3
3 It is appropriate, at least briefly to recall of the basic facts relating to these, for our profession, significant people: Francisco Petrarch (1304-1374) was the first who was able to show the culture of the ancient Greeks and Romans. With his own money he has funded deciphering the Latin alphabet. His name is linked to the humanistic movement in Italy. Pietro Paolo Vergerio (1349-1420), in his treatise on the Education of the Master of Padova’s son, stated as a topic of conversation: his character and discipline, free- open minded learning, physical exercise, training in art (the art of) war, recreation. He pointed out three allies: health, physical exercise and recreation, as well as the necessity of the knowledge about health and all this he substantiated with many examples of the vigorous physical exercise and recreational activities. Vitorino de Feltre (1378-1446), followed the ideas of Greece and Rome on the importance of physical exercise, but he stressed the importance of ball games, jumping and fencing. He was declared the first teacher of the Renaissance as his program has well balanced the physical, intellectual and moral education. Aeneas Sylvius Picocomini (1405-1464) is one of the most important humanists who later became the Pope. He claimed that the organism is indivisible and that the physical activity helps the development of all human abilities. Mafeus Vegius (1405-1458) believed that education should develop all of man's physical and spiritual qualities. He especially emphasized the importance of health habits and advocated that physical education should be free education, not to exceed in the extreme, but to be approached as a good recreation activity. Jakob Sadoleto (1477-1547) was the pope's secretary. But he wanted, following the model of the ancient Greeks, to connect physical exercise and music. This was of great importance because after many centuries this issue was given the proper attention. Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) recommended physical activity for health. He was not inclined to asceticism and complete specialization. He made a division of gymnastics into the preventive and therapeutic ones. He believed that physical activities represent an integral part of the free education. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) recommended physical exercise as part of the education of children. He emphasized the importance of generous movements, but of these that will have a positive impact in their lives. That is why he was against the creation of the athletes. Martin Luther (1483-1546), was an enthusiasts who believed that physical training is of great importance for the education of the youth. He was imbued with the idea of the "muscular Christians" (Muscular Christianity). He recommended that music should be used as a useful and beneficial activity, and fencing and wrestling were considered as beneficial and healthy physical activities. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) believed that the games and sport were important for children and youth. He felt that games and sport contained a certain degree of skills and that they were very useful for the organism. François Rabelais (1483-1553), a writer and doctor, can be called a classical humanist. He is known for his works Gargantua and Pantagruel, in which he outlined his views on education. In his program physical education occupies an important place, which is based on the seven skills: wrestling, running, jumping, shooting, riding, and all types of military skills. Rabelais described the exercises that are suitable for enclosed spaces (training rooms). Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670) has by his practical and theoretical works contributed most to the development of physical education. He has in his major works laid a solid foundation of our profession. In the General Didactics (Didactica Magna) he presented his views on education on the basis of the premise that "schools are not torture houses, nor prisons as lunatics think, but places to play in". And then he conveyed another message: "With prowess and not fraud to win". In his second book, The World in Photos (Orbis
11 These programs, encouraged by the new view on life and man's place in society, had gradually diverged and were directed in two independent directions. In the continental Europe the idea of the gymnastic forms of physical exercise prevailed. In contrast to this idea, in England, on the insular part of Europe, sport had won the status of the leading idea in the organization of physical exercising. This, of course, was conditioned by different social circumstances, for which there had been so many different approaches to the forms of physical exercising. The fact is that the utilitarian values of sport and gymnastics, in such circumstances, have come into the limelight. Egocentristic approach to sport and ethnocentric approach to gymnastics were quite in line with the social circumstances. Until the advent of the Reformation and later revivals that took place, there were no substantial and concrete progress in the organized physical exercising and its firmer inclusion in the school system. Only with the appearance of John Amos Comenius and his work (to make it more absurd – a post got as a punishment) in a school in Saros Patok in Hungary, there came a turning point of the immeasurable importance to physical education and sport. He was, thanks to his work as well as the position of the principle of the school, the first in the history of our profession, to award a physical exercise (education) a place in the school curriculum, as well as the time allotted in the teaching timetable. We now, in fact, inherit what was done by Comenius in the mid-17th century. And when it comes to his theoretical and practical work, even today he can serve as an example of the serious and creative efforts to approach education (also) as - feeding. His works, primarily the United didactics and The World in Photos are the examples of the great foresights and meticulousness, and are a good token of the times that are behind us.
Pictus), written in four languages he described all physical exercises and competitions then known in Europe. This is an encyclopedic work, which is very important for the History of physical education and sport. In addition to these important books, Comenius, as the director of a school in Saros Patok, has alloted to the subject of physical education place and time within the school curriculum. Thus, a subject of physical education has for the first time, taken seriously and equalled with all other achool subjects (disciplines) that were taught in school. (According to: Zivanovic, N. Contribution to the epistemology of physical education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 147-154). The other notable personalities for our profession, from the time of the Reformation, and later, will be discussed in the framework of the Theory of the development of physical education and sport.
12 Theories of the Physical Education and Sport Development
Different theories of the physical education and sport development4 have based their philosophy of development on the goal (and mission) of the physical exercise. Each for themselves and all together, during the tumultuous centuries that are behind us, they have undergone various stages of development. This was caused by different social circumstances in which they were created and developed. At the end of the 17th and the 18th century there have been many revolutions, among which five of them have exerted a great and decisive influence on the conception of social development.5 Then came the inevitable undermining of the "ancient regime" and its subsequent marginalization.6 "The Ancient Regime" has undergone criticism and change in education, as well. In the period of the enlightment the attitude of the church and its control of education, emphasizing the study of the history of the ancient times, theology, Greek and Latin languages, were sharply criticized. New people, the philosophers, represented the opinion that - modern history, new (live) languages, engagement in science and, within that, in physical activities, should be studied, instead. Prominent figures, important for the development of physical education and sport as well are John Locke7 and Jean Jacques Rousseau8. They were, indeed, by their educational and
4 According to: (1) Zivanovic, N: School sports from the perspective of the theo- anthropocentrism. In. Bokan, B. and Radisavljević Janic (Ed.). International Scientific Conference, Belgrade, "The effects of physical activity on the anthropological status of children, youth and adults". Belgrade, 2012: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education; 112-117; (2) Zivanovic, N: Contribution to the epistemology of physical education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 155–165. 5 The revolutions of the crucial influence on the development of social relations and the concept of social life certainly are: scientific, agricultural, commercial or economic, industrial, democratic or socialist ones. 6 The term the "ancient regime" is used by the French to describe religious, legal, socio-cultural and economic institutions that prevailed in the Western Europe in the late 17th and 18th century, because it was inconsistent with the new tendencies of the development. 7 John Locke (1632 - 1704) is one of the largest English philosopher of his time. His works, essays on education, have influenced many teachers and political theorists. He qualified a newborn as a - tabula rasa, who under the influence of education builds up and changes. This has resulted in many teachers to start with a different observation of children. 8 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) was another important person of the "Age of the enlightenment". He sharply attacked the current system, and his thoughts and messages about education he presented in Emil, a work which is half a discussion and half a novel. His ideas on
13 journalistic work guidelines for further development of our profession. Their numerous followers, Pestalozzi, Felenber, Basedow, inspired by their work, have created the operating principles and by their practical work have done much for the development of physical education.
Theory of biocentrism
The theory of biocentrism dated back in the early 18th century, when all the more pronounced were collisions of the old and the new social relationships, old and new traditions, views of the world and of man in this world. It has began to spread the notion that man recognizes the natural impulsive moves and feels the need to play, that he has discovered himself and his world through the experiences, that its value is based in freedom, voluntariness and natural forms of movement and exercising. This certainly is nothing new, and not a new view of the world. But such ideas and thoughts in the works of Locke and Rousseau, appeared to be new. "It is a sad misconception that physical exercise is detrimental to mental activity, as if both these operations could not be carried out simultaneously, and as if one could not manage the other".9 (3) Of course, this idea and the message for this time exuded a new view of the man and his physical exercise. This novelty, to put it plainly, was redolent of freshness of thought and for that social moment, was a bold step taken towards a new era. the new, progressive, education became the basis of many new educational programs in the mid 18th century. He believed that "constant, nature entirely similar exercises strengthen the body and not only do they not dull the spirit but rather create a kind of reason capable of filial age, and that every age is most needed. They teach us to know our strength, our body attitude towards the bodies that surround us and the use of natural tools that are within our grasp and which correspond to our organs." Such an attitude towards education and, of course, physical education stems from his attitude - that all is the good that comes from the hands of the Creator, and by human hands is corrupted. Therefore, he advocates a new approach to education and a return to nature. Because of that his Emil prefers to climb the hills like a goat to jumping in the salon like a monkey following the directions of the gallantry. Z. Z. Rousseau was among the first to raise the issue of the education of girls. However, this education is different and appropriate to the creating of a good housewife and a kind of decoration of the house. In the education of girls there are religious and aesthetic education and skills. The rest of the education complements a husband at his own discretion. Great attention he has devoted to the play. The conditions for play should be created by the elderly and their assistance should be unobtrusive and discreet. Children need to feel free and self-solve tasks in the play. 9 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emil or on education. Belgrade, 1925. Bookstore Rajković and Čukić, p.53.
14 These ideas were accepted by the thinkers and educators such as: Basedow,10 Pestalozzi,11 Saltzman, GutsMuths12. In recent
10 Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790) has by its theoretical and practical work contributed to a new approach to the physical education. He opened a school called "Philanthropinum," in Dessau, in 1774. Contemporaries have called this school a "High school for humanity." In it the plan of the daily work schedules looked like this: 7 hours - sleeping; 6 hours - dressing, feeding, rest and recreation; 1 hour - correspondence and neatness; 5 hours - studying and intellectual work; 3 hours - physical exercise, dance and music; 2 hours - handmade works (with physical exertion). Throughout the summer students would spend about a month in the camp, where the nature replaced textbooks, and another month was planned to carry out the practical work with the peasants, craftsmen and merchants. The basics of the physical education in the Philanthropinum, was "Dessaus’s Pentathlon", which consisted of: running, jumping, climbing, cargo carrying and balancing (balance exercises). Great attention was paid to the persistent walking, swimming and rowing. He advocated also for a broad application of games and gave methodological guidelines for their application. He believed that the games developed prowess and provide emotional experience - creating the conditions for a good life. 11 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) a Swiss educator has built his own position, which is predominantly directing gymnastics towards raising the health and resilience of the body against natural influences that can endanger it. In this context, special attention was devoted to strengthening and training locomotor apparatus. Therefore, with him for the first time, simple - joint exercises appeared. Pestalozzi has coming from town to village, begun to deal with the poor children upbringing. In 1800 he managed to establish the "House of Education", which was later moved to Iferten and became famous throughout the world. His "House of Education" resembles very much the "House of Play" of Vittorino Rambaldoni (1378-1446). Among his many works the most important are the following: Leonard and Gertrude and How Gertrude teaches her children. There he also presented his views on the necessity of the integrated education. Because of this, he believes that physical education should be a means of forming the spirit as well as the moral and aesthetic education. 12Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759-1839) is one of the most important theorists and creators of the systematization of physical exercises. He spent some time in Salzmann’s Philanthropinum, where he received a needed experience in gymnastics work. The principles underlying his theory and methodology are current even nowadays, which tells how his work is built into the basics of the later system of gymnastics, and even today's physical education. Here are these principles: • man is a physical and spiritual unity; • weakness of the body leads to the weakness of spirit; • highest intellectual culture, without physical education, provides only an incomplete person, without the joy of life and beauty; • natural practicing of the primitive peoples civilized ones should replace with gymnastics skills; these may be military, athletic and medical, but the only type for all of them should be the - pedagogical gymnastics; • the duty of the most educated countries and all the teachers should be to organize propaganda of the pedagogical gymnastics. That means everyday gymnastics for all ... To create an atmosphere for gymnastics; • there is a need to reinforce the concern about hygiene and one should recommend exercise in the fresh air; • in a teaching method one should count on the age, sex, profession, and the composition of those who practice. GutsMuths has in its systematization of physical exercises singled out: a) real gymnastic exercises - jumping, running, throwing, wrestling, climbing, balancing, dancing, etc.; b) handicrafts; c) social games for the youngsters.
15 years, these ideas were more elaborated by: Laban,13 Dalkroze,14 and Montessori.15 Their programs were oriented towards young people. So Laban had built his expressive gymnastics on a natural desire of a child towards movement and a spontaneous play. There were created special education programs outside of school such as snow school, school camps. Today, this approach is observed in the programs of schools in nature and sports camps.
The theory of ethnocentrism.
The theory of etnocentrism in the center of its development puts ethnos, people. Also, any form of physical exercise was created having this in mind and was adapted to that end. It originated during the turbulent times of the 19th century, when the international conflicts dominated Europe and Napoleonic wars simultaneously represented a conflict between the old and the new. Nations were getting stronger, and the period of the professional armies was passing by. In such a situation there was a growing need for the physical education of citizens, who would be the new troops, if necessary. The representatives of this school are: Franz Nachtegall16, Pehr Ling Henrik17, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn 18, Miroslav Tirs.19
13 Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) was a dancer and theoretician. In 1936 he emigrated to London (England) and there he has, within his pedagogical work, developed a system of "education by movement". He had claimed four aspects of movement (flow, time, space and path), eight combinations and sixteen ranks. Soon the term "movement" has become the most important term in the representation of Laban’s concepts, and the phrases such as "art of movement", "gymnastics by movement" and "education by movement" became the integral part of the vocabulary of physical education. 14 Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950) as a good musician has always helped his disciples to use movements to more easily become good musicians. After the Second World War his ideas were accepted also in the British schools and were known as "music and movement". 15 Maria Montessori (1870–1952) Maria Montessori (1870-1952) has built on the ideas of Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel her own educational system, in which the play and movement were important elements. She said that "what really makes the teacher is his love for a human child; because love is what differentiates the social duty of the educational worker and creates a higher awareness of his mission.” 16 Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847) founded the first gymnastics institute in Europe, which was, in fact, the basis for the further development of physical education in Denmark. When the practical benefits of such work were noticed, daily basis physical exercising was introduced as a compulsory subject in schools (1801). He soon opened in Copenhagen a military gymnastics school for the education of the professional staff. In addition to the practical work Nachtegall wrote gymnastics manuals. 17 Pehr Henrik Ling (1776-1839) spent five years in Nachtegall’s school in Copenhagen, and on his return to Sweden he formed a new system of gymnastics. Sweden as Denmark, was in a delicate international political situation, thus it was necessary to use the Civil Army (citizens) to
16 In the theory and practice of physical education these representatives of ethnocentrism are known as the founders of various gymnastic systems that were aimed at gathering young people doing physical exercise and their development in order that they, so strengthened, could fight for the social goals and ideals. It is through the analysis of the ideas of their systematization of physical exercise that we notice the emergence of the ultimate goal - ethnos, and not an individual, a member of that nation. And even today, in supplement the professional army. Therefore, first of all, they needed special programs of physical exercise. Ling in 1814 founded under the royal patronage the Royal Central Gymnastics Institute in Stockholm. The institute still nowadays exists, but under the other name (since 1967 it is called the Institute for gymnastics and sport). Ling has proclaimed four types of gymnastics: military (for strengthening the body and one’s will to encourage the other people's will); pedagogical (own body to subordinate to one’s own volition); medical (to overcome and eliminate diseases); aesthetic (towards emotions expression). His gymnastics program was characterized by a design-specific directionality, whose main characteristic is anatomical and physiological justification. Gymnastics equipment, which is still famous in the world, has been adapted to the needs of the body. 18 Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), in 28 as a soldier, survived the German military defeat, and experienced it as a personal tragedy. From then on he devoted himself exclusively to the work on strengthening the German nation. According to him, physical education had to create strong and courageous warriors for the defense of France. Therefore he had devised his own system and founded a turner organization. Since he was against everything that was not German, he would not use the word gymnastics, known and famous throughout the world, but had found a new word - turner. This term was derived from the medieval knight competition and exercises. In his program he included running, jumping, climbing, suspension and exercise on special requisites. In the period from 1819 to 1842 the Austrian Chancellor Metternich prohibited "turner". This restriction had provoked an important change in the character of the turner exercise. In fact, during this period training was performed secretly at homes. So there had been a restructuring of the physical exercises, ones that required a large space were lost, and in the foreground erupted apparatus and small space exercises. They were able to maintain discipline and control. These exercises were later incorporated into the school programs. Jahn’s system of physical exercise, with the help of his students spread out to other countries as well. Soon it lost a national basis and with the systems of Ling and Nachtegall, became an important part of the development of physical education in many countries around the world. 19 Miroslav Tirs (1832-1884) formed the Czech gymnastics society in 1862. When the German students began to stand out and establish turner societies, Tirs organized the workout for the Czech students. Later on his system was named "SOKO", as a symbol of bravery, heroism and nobility. At that time, the living conditions of the national minorities in Austria were very harsh, so, basically, this gymnastics organization was also established for the purpose of awakening the national consciousness. It could be said that the sport has undergone through four stages of development: (1) Patronizing sport (lat. Patronus: protector), (2) A gentleman sport or pedestrianism (lat. Pedes: Foot), (3) School or university sport, (4) Civil sport. The Tirs exercises system was divided into four groups: a) exercises without requisites; b) exercises using the requisites; c) group exercises; d) combat exercises.
17 these troubled times of the 21st century, there is a physical exercise that is organized on the ideas of the ethnocentrism.
The theory of egocentrism.
The theory of egocentrism. This theory’s development is based on man's quest to build his personality by emphasizing his ego, his identity. And he puts in the foreground his ultimate individualism. In sport, as one of the areas of physical education which relies (as opposed to the physical education and recreation) on the agon, fight, competition, man finds the ability to express his individuality. This is why sport (along with other, primarily political and economic reasons) has experienced a great expansion. During the 19th century a specific system of games and sports began to exist in England. This system has been specifically accepted in so-called public schools20. It has spread throughout the British Empire and even beyond its borders. Activities were different, but there stood out - the virtuosity of glory, fair play, dignity, individual effort and courage. A lot of credit for the development of school sport, which is the basis for the so-called civic sport, belongs to Thomas Arnold21, the priest, educator and administrator of the Rugby College, and his followers, above all, Thomas Hughes22. In the continental part of Europe, at that time the ethnocentric approach to physical exercise dominated. However, in the late 19th century (in 1884) Pierre de Coubertin23 visited England,
20 The development of sport is very distinctive. After the English bourgeois revolution, the new social relations resulted in the class compromise of the English aristocracy and bourgeoisie, both at the political and the economic levels. This was reflected in physical education, too and as a product of that compromise a modern sport was created. It was created by merging some forms of physical exercise and games favorite to the nobility (riding, fencing, hunting, swimming) and the folk forms of competition (running, wrestling, pugilism, rowing). 21 Thomas Arnold (1795–1842) as a director of the college in Rugby, while watching children's sporting events, realized and understood their significance for the education of children. Therefore, they were included in the school curriculum. The motto of Thomas Arnold was to educate the Christians - gentlemen. Self-improvement was something that represented a key education, which had resulted in the creation of pedagogical system based on freedom. And in all this sporting competitions had played an important role. 22 Thomas Hughes has as the successor of the ideas of Thomas Arnold, founded the movement "Muscular Christian youth" (1842). Thus, sport helped young people to recognize the act of freedom in the true sense of the word. 23 Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), has by his enthusiasm, work and his own money managed to realize one for a long time present idea of restoring the ancient Olympic Games.
18 there he got familiarized with the sports games and, after returning to France, started propagating sport. It was fruitful and in 1896 in Athens (Greece) the first new Olympic Games were held. Today, sport is experiencing a large and rapid development and is present in all parts of the world.
The theory of anthropocentrism
The theory of anthropocentrism was established on the philosophical worldview believing that man is the center of the world and the ultimate purpose of its development. This theory unifies all the previous theories of development: ethnocentrism, biocentrism and egocentrism. Its main features are: 1. Development of physical abilities and health, 2. Increase in social development (progress) 3. Improving the level of knowledge and skills in sports and games, 4. Development of leading capabilities and increasing opportunities for the cooperation with others, 5. Development of broad-based recreational skills, especially for leisure time during the holidays.
These characteristics of the anthropocentristic approach to physical exercise, although at first glance recognizable, represent a distillate of the new desires and thoughts about the necessity of human health and happiness. In doing so, it is suggested that these two postulates, health and happiness are something that is a necessity and purpose of man and that any form of the physical exercise should comply with it. Of course, there is omitted closer defining not only of health but also of happiness, but is associated with the society in which human rights and freedom are achieved. And accordingly, this philosophy of physical exercise first appeared in Scandinavia and North America. In the second half of the 20th century O. Åstrand24 and K. Cooper25, each in their own way,
24 Per-Olof Åstrand (1922–2015) had his research studies which were basically the interval method, in his later works, in the mid eighties of the 20th century, completely rejected and
19 developed a program of physical exercise having primarily in mind the needs of man. Later Jane Fonda26 has developed special programs for women. Today these ideas are present in the form of (different) fitness programs.
The theory of theo-anthropocentrism.
The theory of theo-anthropocentrism is the youngest among the theories of the physical education development. It is considered to be the youngest not due to the time of its philosophy originating, but because of the time of its presence in our profession, and that is the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century. In this theory of the physical education development (physical education and sport) one starts from the basic assumptions that: a) a man is approached cautiously as if by "pigeon legs", and b) that physical exercise is a wholesome food, primarily for the physical part of his being. This is a theory that provides one more humane agon within the frame of the Orthodox anthropology. This Christ-centrism allows a Godman centric approach, in which God and man are in the center, in the embrace of the eternal love and community. This approach reminds us that school as a place to acquire new knowledge and skills, is not composed of the the walls and classrooms, but of those who are in it: the teachers and students. And they, as the central beings of all created, may only be the personalities in the community with another personality. For without such a community there is no the first nor any other personality, and there is not one thing that goes with the personality which is freedom. Freedom, of course, implies an obligation arising out of it, that everything is done for the well-being of the man himself. Thus, one should take account of the duration of the physical exercise (scope), as well as the load of the physical exercise (intensity).
replaced with the idea that man needed physical activity during the day, for 30 minutes, in the various combinations of time intervals. 25 Kenneth H. Cooper (1931) had by his research established a system of physical exercise which is known as Aerobics. He, like Åstrand, had based his system on 10,000 steps in a day. His ideas are now used in many fitness centers. 26 Jane Fonda (1937) a film actress who aimed her exercise programs at women had made a turning point in relation to the style of exercise and attitude of women towards their physical appearance. She had developed a special program known as Aerobic exercise for women.
20 Knowing that the food (physical exercise) is varied and that it is useful in optimal quantities (volume and intensity of exercise), it is offered to man with love. And to the posed questions of how and, above all, why exercise, the answer is sought in the very being of man and his need for this kind of food as well.27 In doing so, one does not forget that it is necessary to each and all (Urbi et Orbi), which is, in fact, in the very center of this theory. Representatives of this theory are Nenad Zivanovic28 and Zoran Milosevic.29
Current time
Modern civilization resting on the neoliberal concept of organizing the overall social life, with the Darwinist direction, faces a major challenge. During decades long efforts it has managed to incorporate in most people the guiding principles - only present is what is important and what matters. Other time categories, such as past and future are wiped out. In such circumstances one must observe our profession as well. Physical education and sport30 today can be seen not only as an organic whole, but also as the two separate and, unfortunately, absolutely independent units. And this requires careful considerations about our profession. Sport31 has particularly in its professional and elite parts, completely rejected its old attributes (health, education, socialization) and accepted the new ones (result and profit). When talking about sport (elite and professional), one can no longer talk
27 The words of the Apostle Paul addressed at the weaken Corinthians: "I have the right to do anything, but not everything is beneficial. I have the right to do anything—but I will not be mastered by anything." (I Cor. 6, 12). 28 Nenad Zivanovic (1946), University of Nis, Serbia. 29 Zoran Milosevic (1962), University of Novi Sad, Serbia. 30 Terms which combine and contain physical education and sport, were different at different times, and in different social environments. From the Renaissance to the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century were dominated by the terms: the body exercise and gymnastics, and in England sport. Later, the other two terms were crystallized from which the organizational structure of our specialized field drew, as well as theoretical and practical work, namely: physical education and sport 31 We recall of the classification of sport specific to the target sports: School sport - Registered sport – Recreational sport Registration sport is divided into: amateur, top and professional sports. (According to: Nenad Zivanovic, et al., Theory of Physical Education. Nis, Panopticon, 2010, p.
21 about health, education, socialization, but solely in terms of the results and profits, that is, in terms of its political and economic utilitarianism. No longer are the ideas and messages of the Pennsylvanian bishop Etelberto Talbot valid, as he instructed the participants of the Olympics in London in 1908 – It is not important to win, it is important to take part. Now, in accordance with the ideas of the neoglobalistic New Age, there is one rule that is valid and is assuming the level of the legal norms. This rule, established in the mid-80s of the 20th century, says “It is not important to participate, it is important to win”. And to win at any cost32 With this type of a guiding principle it is not difficult to explain and understand the emergence of the new cults: the cult of the body, the cult of sports results and the cult of profit33. Amateur sport34 has, to a lesser extent, accepted the new attributes of sport. It is fully compliant with the New Era, because the athletes involved in the amateur sport inherit the values of the modern civilization. And the higher the level of the amateur sport, the more pronounced this acceptance is. But in its lower segments (sports clubs in small towns and rural areas), it has retained to a greater extent, the old attributes of sport and these should be nurtured and encouraged. School sport35 is the only link between the physical education and sport. This fact is not at all encouraging, but we must accept it and make sure it stays that way. On our work depends whether we manage to keep current title school sport. There are numerous attempts to establish the term sport in school. Such efforts are reflecting not only the desire to come to the terminology changes,
32 After an ominous wave of sports violence of the 80s of the 20th century, we are witnessing new outbursts of violence in all its forms. Fights of the athletes, fights of the fans, murder of fans (Istanbul 2014), provocations at the football stadiums (Belgrade, London, ..., 2014), all of it foretells, as well as the late 20th century, the coming evil times. In doing so, obscene and hypocritical explanations of these events indicate that the present civilization recognizes only - the current time and the Darwinian concept of competition. 33 More on this in: Nenad Zivanovic, Apology of physical exercise. Nis, Panopticon, 2011. 34 Amateur sport, as one of the segments of the registered sport, with excellent and professional, very often is treated as a recreational sport. Between them there is not only a terminological but also the conceptual difference already, and it should be taken into account during each expert analysis. 35 School sport, by its very terminological definition, by its attribute – school puts emphasis on education. And until it does, and while sport in school term does not prevail, there is still hope that the sports competitions in school have a primary goal - education, rather than - (exclusively) sports scores. And that children’s school sports dreams and sports competitions would represent one nice part of their childhood and youth.
22 but also to the conceptual ones. And that would be disastrous for us all. Because if we say - sport in school, this means that in this phrase emphasis is placed on the attribute sport. This inevitably entails cruel clear fact - that we will have in school sport with all of its particularly negative, characteristics. Let us mention only one of them, and it is – to achieve the result at any cost. If we let the result be the primary goal and do everything for its realization, then the school and its role in education of the young people will turn into a service station of the registered sport. This is not just an ominous assumption, but a harsh reality that we face. The cure for this terrible disease are certainly the new humanists and teachers who love man, but the man who has the personality - one, unique and unrepeatable. Physical education and its very name suggests that through physical exercise as the beneficial food, we build up the personality of all our students. In addition, relying on the Orthodox Christian anthropology and ethics derived from it, we know that only through love I am what I am (O. Justin Popovic). Therefore, if we know that, we will not be the teachers who will go in for the idea of this New World and regard our student as an object, commodities to be exploited to achieve our own goals, but we should observe him as a personality, unique and unrepeatable. We know that in this given freedom lies our responsibility. This responsibility makes quite comprehensive the Orthodox Christian understanding of freedom, which is reflected in the self-restrain for the sake of the others (Solzhenitsyn). And in this effort to see others besides himself, the man is realized as a person. Certainly, it is not an easy task at all, not only to understand but also to perform, but we should head on in that direction. Our teacher, educator and expert ( in this very order) loves his students and strives to be the Anatoly - their light and the light of our profession as well. He makes effort because he knows that one educates with love and by setting personal example - role model. This is how we observe physical education, and the book in front of you talks about it.
23 REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Petar D. Pavlovic, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, University of Banja Luka Kristina M. Pantelic Babic, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, University of Banja Luka
Correspondence Kristina Pantelic Babic [email protected] Phone: +387 65 597 685
Social, economic, cultural, educational, political and other kind of development, as also beginnings and development of physical exercise in schools of Bosnia and Herzegovina, can be divided in several periods: a) period until 1463, b) period from 1463 to 1878, c) period from 1878 to 1918, d) period from 1918 to 1945, and e) period from 1945 onwards. We find first three periods interesting for our subject (from the beginning until 1918), because in these periods appeared first ideas and initiatives about introduction of teaching of physical education (PE), as also implementation of PE in curriculum of schools from that period.
Period until 1463
By formation of first countries in that territory their habitants were in constant conflict with surrounding people, and there were also fights between tribes over the territory predominance, so it was quite understandable that a lot of time was dedicated to physical exercise and practicing of martial skills in purpose of creating stronger, faster, agile and more endurable warrior. In different gatherings, celebrations around churches and monasteries, weddings, coronations of rulers and other religious feasts, knights, noblemen and others gathered to compete and by that
24 demonstrate their skills with weapons and other disciplines. Based on the drawings at signet rings, monuments, tomb stones and coat of arms, as also national epic (heroic) poems, we can state that they most cherished: riding, hunting, national (peoples’) games, archery, running, jumping, fighting chest to chest, throwing rocks and spears, wrestling and other similar disciplines. 1 Schools, as we know today, with present curriculums, did not exist on territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina until 1463. Until appearance of first schools, Serbs gained their literacy by themselves (they were self-taught) from literate individuals and in monastery schools. 2 As Serbs, Croats also gained their literacy as self-taught and in schools which existed in catholic monasteries. 3 Teaching physical exercise (physical education) did not exist in aforementioned schools.
Period from 1463 to 1878
First ideas, initiatives and implementation of PE (gymnastics) teaching, as obligatory subject equal to other subjects, happened during Turkish occupation. In certain schools this subject was treated with great significance. In that time there were primary and middle schools: Serbian, Croatian, Muslim and Jewish.
Physical Education in Serbian schools
Primary schools
According to certain data, first Serbian primary schools began to appear in: Sarajevo 1539, Trebinje 1763, Foča 1820, Banja Luka 1832, Bijeljina 1838, Brčko 1839, Mostar 1846, Sokolac 1875,
1 Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско Сарајево, 1988. 2 Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; и Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965. 3 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
25 etc. Until the end of Turkish occupation there were 56 schools with 75 teachers. Back then there were no separate school buildings, but teaching was provided mostly in private houses. There was no curriculum as we are familiar with today. They studied: reading, writing, calculus, religious subjects, etc. Subject Physical Education (gymnastics, games or physical exercises) did not exist. But even it was not a part of the curriculum, some teachers introduced certain forms of physical exercise and competition, as also traditional games of that territory. 4 Teacher Andre Pavasović came to Mostar at the end of 1846 and brought to his school “[…] whole new spirit and quickly gained pupils hearts. Instead of boring classes he was reading national poems with children and told them stories about Serbian past […] Andro introduced excursions with pupils where he taught them to sing and marvel.” 5 Zivko R. Crnogorcevic in his memoirs wrote about teachers who, on their own accord, organized and performed certain forms of physical exercise for their students. „When I taught school and all other children from 1850 to 1856, all our teachers took us to regration (contributions in goods that students brought to their teachers) […] And when we all gather, the teacher call us by his catalogue, and we stand two by two in a row, and we go under the hill […] and there we play all different kind of games, like: priest, chase, firiz, batin- bacac and jumping, which child will jump more, and the teacher supervises and walk around us. When the water is worm by summer he takes us to
4 Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско Сарајево, 1988; i Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 5 Владимир Ћоровић: Мостар и његова српска православна општина, Београд, 1933, p. 61.
26 swimming, but also under his supervision.” 6 About teacher Mirko Savic, who also performed certain forms of physical exercise and competition with students in his school, among other things, he wrote: “He had a good behavior and besides usual subjects he taught us some gymnastics too: we would throw rocks from shoulders, and two bigger students would hold their belts up high, and if smaller, they would hold belts lower and jump over them. Before night big guys come in front of the school, and the teacher starts different games with them. He could jump over the belts when two students hold them at height of their heads.” 7 Vladan Djordjevic in his book “Memories” wrote down that his teacher Aleksa Suskalovic in Serbian primary school in Sarajevo in 1851 gave great contribution to physical exercise and performed different kind of exercising with his students, as also different kind of, primarily, national games. His words testify about that: “When we entered school yard we saw unusual sight. Teacher was playing the ball with his students. […] He was playing with them and me and my father were not moving looking at the miracle that teacher was not a scarecrow but an older friend to his students. They finished the ball game with joyful laughs, and were planning to start a new game called ‘klisa’, when the teacher noticed us two, and turned to one of the students: ‘Stevo, you will run the game. Don’t let anyone play rough, and the
6 Živko R. Crnogorčević: Memoari, za štampu priredio Milenko S. Filipović, Sarajevo, 1966, pp. 35 – 36. 7 Ibid, pp. 42 – 43.
27 ones who want to play unfair, exclude them. When you finish klisa, ring so we can go back to school. Back than among all Serbs was hard to find teacher for primary school who passed all those schools like our teacher. Therefore his way of teaching was completely unusual. He knew that kids prefer games than books, he knew it was not due to rage but pure necessity of young body for more and miscellaneous movements necessary for muscle development. Therefore in the morning after meal, when we come to school, before everything he played with us for one hour. We played ball, mete, slaves, klisa, throw rocks from shoulders, raced, jumped over some trenches or marks to see who will jump further, and so on. Teacher played all games with us and for any disobedience and roughness punished right away the ones who did it by exclusion from the game. Only that kind of punishment was also for inattention in school and missed homework, and there was no other punishment necessary. This one was enough to teach someone a lesson and turn him back to track.” 8 Petar Mirosavljevic, who worked in Serbian schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1859 to 1909 in several places: Bjelo Polje, Zitomislic, Konjic, Mostar, Obudovac, Sarajevo and Sokolac, also on his own accord implemented physical exercise (gymnastics or playing) for his students. According to memories of his students he “[…] taught them gymnastics: simple exercises, different games, jumping, running, throwing rocks from shoulders […] He also
8 Владан Ђорђевић: Успомене, књ. прва, Нови Сад, 1927, pp. 18 – 19.
28 collected national games and wrote them down, some even published in pedagogical journals.” 9
Middle schools
Middle schools were not like today, but they were on higher level than primary schools, and therefore we can call them high schools. There were more middle schools: Serbian real – gymnasium in Sarajevo (established around 1852); Serbian private female school in Sarajevo (established in 1857 of 1858) named “Staka Skenderova School”; Private spiritual school in Zitomislic monastery (1858); Institute of Mia Irbijeva in Sarajevo (1866 or 1869); Small Serbian Real School in Mostar (1868); Serving school in Sarajevo (1864); Theological school in Banja Luka (1866), and others. Among listed schools, only in Theological school in Banja Luka was a subject Gymnastics in the curriculum, equal to other subjects, having great significance. In other schools there was no Physical Education (Gymnastics) as a subject in curriculums. But we can assume that certain teachers, as also in primary schools, organized and performed certain physical exercises and games on their own accord. For example, Aleksa Suskalovic, who when working in primary school organized different kind of physical exercise for his students, when in 1852 transferred to Serbian gymnasium in Sarajevo, he probably organized the same exercises from high school students too. 10 According to some sources students of Private spiritual school in Zitomislic monastery unsolicited “[…] practiced national sports and national games.” 11
9 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 148. 10 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско Сарајево, 1988; Todor Kruševac: Srpska realka – gimnazija u Sarajevu, knj. 3, Sarajevo, 1963; Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972; Лука Грђић-Бјелокосић: Мостар некад и сад, Београд, 1901. 11 Šefik Pašić: Mostar, pismeni podaci, 1972, citirano u Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
29 Theological school in Banja Luka was established in 1866. Its director and one of the teachers was Vaso Pelagic. The school lasted for three years and the students were future priests and teachers. Each of three years had 22 subjects, and among them was Gymnastics as obligatory subject. The most significance Pelagic gave to Serbian and general history, gymnastics and dietetics “[…] because by good lecturing of those subjects we can get all most important, most sacred and most sanative every Serb needs.” 12 Pelagic built exercise devices in church yard. As he was subdued to Banja Luka’s archpriest Ugrinovic, who was against physical exercise (gymnastics) because he considered that future priests need only spiritual education, therefore soon two of them came to a conflict because “[…] archpriest from Banja Luka broke exercise device he made as spiritual man for his students in church yard, and for which the archpriest said: Why do we need gallows at the altar.” 13 Pelagic would probably be soon moved from Banja Luka if he didn’t in the meantime get higher church position than archpriest Ugrinovic. Right after getting the higher position he rebuilt the exercise devices right away, or “[…] gymnastics closer to altar and nobody could not break them” 14, because his new calling (archimandrite) was higher than opponents. Besides practicing on devices in church yard he organized another forms of physical exercises for his students that fulfilled main goals of physical education. According to him those goals were achieved by: different games, certain athletic disciplines (walking and marching with songs, running, jumping, throwing rocks from shoulders, fighting, wrestling, bathing, swimming, rowing and driving boats, balling, riding bicycle, skating, exercises on equipment, riding, walking and excursions. 15 For all mentioned forms of physical exercise Pelagic gave methodical instructions how to perform them and he described their significance for humans, mostly youth.
12 Васо Пелагић: Писмо, Савремена школа, бр. 8-9, Београд, 1949, p. 119. 13 Васо Пелагић: Аутобиографија, Развитак, год. 1, бр. 3, Бања Лука, 1910, стр. 75. 14 Ibid. 15 Васо Пелагић: Изабрани списи, књ. 2, Сарајево, 1953.
30 It was noted that in every theological school there always was one good shoulder stone thrower, and that sometimes even Turkish soldiers came to the field near Vrbas river and competed with theological school students in throwing the stones from shoulders “[…] but there was never even one soldier who could reach nor be equal to students.” 16 As a crown of Pelagic's taught about meaning of physical exercise, primarily for youth, we can take his sentence actual even today: “Don’t ever forget that happiness of our children depends on their physical exercise.” 17 Besides setting ground for further development of physical exercise in schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Pelagic was also a first theoretician of physical culture (theory of game, physical exercise and sport) at the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that time. 18
16 Коста Ковачевић: Српска бањалучка Богословија, Босанска вила, год. 24, бр. 11, Сарајево, 1909, стр. 172. 17 Тихомир Тодоровић и Боривоје Богојевић: Васа Пелагић о значају гимнастике и физичког васпитања, Зборник за историју физичке културе Србије, бр. 4 – 5, Београд, 1968, стр. 101. 18 Petar D. Pavlović, Nenad Živanović and Kristina Pantelić Babić: Vaso Pelagić, prvi teoretičar fizičke kulture u Bosni i Hercegovini, Četvrti međunarodni naučni kongres „Antropološki aspekti sporta, fizičkog vaspitanja i rekreacije“, Zbornik radova, ur. S. Simović, Banja Luka, 2013, str. 65 – 71.
31 Physical Education in Croatian schools
Primary schools
The Franciscans started the Croatian primary schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to some sources first primary school was founded by fra Ilija Starcevic in Franciscan’s convent in Tolisa near Orasje in 1823 or 1826. 19 Somewhere around 25 years later started founding of schools in other places: Varcaru (1850)20, Livno (1850), Kresevo (1850), Fojnica (1850), Travnik (1850), Mostar (1852); and from 1854 in: Vares, Derventa, Dolac near Travnik, Dubica, Jajce, Kraljeva Sutjeska, Skoplje (Bugojno), Tuzla and other places. The schools were also founded by catholic nuns (Sisters of Mercy), in: Sarajevo (1871), Banja Luka (1872), Derventa (1872), Dolac near Travnik (1872), Mostar (1872), Travnik (1872) and Livno (1874). In these schools there were no physical education (gymnastics and games) classes, and we did not find any sources stating that teachers performed those classes on their own accord. 21
Middle schools
Regarding middle schools Croats had: high schools (gymnasiums), real schools, catholic real schools and small real schools. In Kraljeva Sutjeska, Kresevo and Fojnica (after 1757) in Franciscan’s convents started to work first high schools (gymnasiums). A little bit later schools were founded also in Guca Gora and Siroki Brijeg. 22 Classes of PE (Gymnastics and Games) were not performed. But pupils unsolicited “[…] in their free time did national sports and games.” 23
19 Julijan Jelinić: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915; i Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 20 Todays Mrkonjic Grad. 21 Ibid. 22 Julijan Jelinić: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915. 23 Šefket Pašić: Pismeni podaci, citirano u Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, str. 20.
32 In Croatian real school in Livno (1855), Catholic real school in Sarajevo (1865) and Small real school in Fojnica there was no PE (Gymnastics and Games) teaching. 24
Physical Education in Muslim schools
Primary schools
After occupation of Bosnia (1463) and Herzegovina (1482) by Turkey, started founding of Muslim primary schools called sibian-mektebi. School activities were performed in mosque’s facilities and in private houses. By the end of Turkish occupation there were around thousand schools. There was no teaching of Gymnastics and Games (PE). 25
Middle schools
Regarding Muslim middle schools there were: Madrasahs, Ruzdije, Military school (Pripravna vojna skola) in Sarajevo, Teachers school in Sarajevo and Officers school in Sarajevo. In Teachers (1869) and Officers schools (1865) in Sarajevo there was no subject Gymnastics (PE). In Madrasahs (Banja Luka, Mostar, Sarajevo, Travnik and other places) were mostly studied religious subjects and there was no teaching of gymnastics (PE). In Gazi Husrev beg’s Madrasah in Sarajevo once in a week the pupils went to picnics near Sarajevo where they performed some national games. 26 In Ruzdijas (Sarajevo – 1864, later: Banja Luka, Bjeljina, Bihac, Brcko, Visoko, Glamoc, Duvno, Jajce, Livno, Mostar, etc.) according to school law from 1869 teaching of gymnastics (PE) was in the plan, but we could not find any sources stating that it was actually performed in practice.
24 Julijan Jelinić: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915. 25 Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965; and Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 26 Хајрудин Ћурић: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 – 1878, Београд, 1965.
33 In Military school (Pripravna vojna škola) in Sarajevo, which started working in 1873, the subject Gymnastics was in the curriculum, but we also didn’t find any data saying that those classes were really performed. 27
Physical Education in Jewish schools
According to sources from 1870 there were eleven primary Jewish schools, and teaching of Gymnastics (PE) was not performed.28 Somewhere around 1768 in Sarajevo was founded middle religious school “Jesiva” for education of religious officers. Subject Gymnastics was not in the curriculum.29
Period from 1878 to 1918
During the time of Austro-Hungarian occupation existed and functioned primary, middle and higher: confessional (Serbian, Croatian, Muslim, Jewish, and schools of immigrants), public and private schools.
Physical Education in Serbian schools
27 Хајрудин Ћурић: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 – 1878, Београд, 1965; Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 28 Хајрудин Ћурић: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 – 1878, Београд, 1965; Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 29 Хајрудин Ћурић: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 – 1878, Београд, 1965; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
34 Primary schools
There were neither gyms nor playgrounds or areas were classes of Gymnastics (PE) could be performed, and “[…] rarely any of schools at the time, except Serbian school in Sarajevo, had a special gym for that purpose.”30 First data about implementation of Gymnastics (PE) teaching in Serbian primary schools we found in journal “Bosanska Vila” from 1886: “Some more conscious teachers and church-school boards, where mostly was leading Sarajevo, introduced gymnastics in Serbian schools that year. They recommended it for both male and female children.”31 Stevo Kaludjercic, teacher of Serbian primary school in Sarajevo in 1899 wrote a curriculum for Serbian primary schools, and in that curriculum, among other subjects, was also Gymnastics. In his annual report for primary schools he also stated the teaching basics for Gymnastics, where under point no. 12 was written: “Goal: development, strengthening and better movement of the body by free and social games. In all classes are done gymnastics exercises, games in one place and in the move, jumping from one place and with run-up. (Done only at summer).” 32 Number of week classes was not stated. We will use an example from Serbian primary school in Visoko to show how certain teachers performed teaching of this subject. Mirko Vukojevic, former pupil of that school, later an expert for gymnastics, who attended the school from 1899 to 1903, gave the following data to Jelena Dopudja: “The teachers were the excuse, mostly from Vojvodina… Until then we did not have that subject. And when Dusan Zivojnovic (Vojvodina) came to be the teacher, he announced to pupils: ‘We will have gymnastics in the afternoon!’ The pupils did not know what
30 Stevo Kaluđerčić: Podaci o srp-prav. školama, „Narodno jedinstvo“, ilustrovani zvanični almanah – kalendar Drinske banovine za 1932. godinu, Sarajevo, 1932, p. 362. 31 Ibid, p. 193. 32 Ibid, p. 362.
35 gymnastics is. We talked among us and concluded that that will probably be some exam, that he will examine us from History. Only when the announced class started, we realized what it is about! As he remembers, they performed some games with balls (he doesn’t remember which and what kind) and jumps. And he gave them marks from that subject. When they celebrated the final day of school, on Vidovdan, there was a public exam in front of representatives of church-school board and parents, so, among other subjects, from Gymnastics too. As eight year olds they jumped from the board long jump to 11/2 meters. Pupils purchased the ball for the game themselves.” 33 In Serbian primary school in Mostar pupils also had classes of Physical Education, “[…] combined folk sports and games with contemporary physical culture – gymnastics or better said some parts, modified forms of light athletics (folk) and similar.”34 At the new curriculum for male and female primary schools, published in 1907, there was Physical Education (gymnastics and children games) as obligatory subject. “In 1907 physical exercise (gymnastics) was introduced as an obligatory subject in Serbian schools, but it could be performed only at summer days and in schools where the conditions allowed.”35 The Gymnastic was usually performed by Sokol system.36 One of the initiators for implementing the teaching of gymnastics in
33 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 25. 34 Ibid, p. 26. 35 Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965, pp. 206-207. 36 Ibid, p. 209.
36 Serbian primary schools in Mostar and other places of Herzegovina where schools existed was Serbian Sokol Cedomir Milic.37 Serbian Sokols from Sarajevo, who practiced in the gym of Serbian primary school in Sarajevo, also advocated the idea of implementation of gymnastics in primary schools, and the most contribution gave sokol Dimitrije Matejic, and on his suggestion on session of Serbian gymnastic society, January 3rd 1907, “[…] was concluded to introduce gymnastics in IV grade of Serbian primary school, and to ask the municipality for this request.”38 In March of the same year Serbian-orthodox church municipality gave their consent, and sokol Savo Radonic started to perform classes of gymnastics. Dimitrije Matejic continued Savo’s work, and advocated the idea that female children should exercise gymnastics too. Courses for work with children were organized for teaches of primary schools. One of those courses was held by Serbian Sokol Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina, from 2nd to 30th July 1912 in Sarajevo.
37 Кристина М. Пантелић Бабић и Петар Д. Павловић: Соколска идеологија Чедомира Милића, Физичко васпитање и спорт кроз векове, год. 1, бр. 1, Ниш, 2014, pp. 117 – 133. 38 Hajrudin Ćurić: Istorija „Srpskog sokola“ u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, 1940, p. 10.
37 Physical Education in Croatian schools
Primary schools
Primary schools existed and worked as a part of convents. Nuns were the teachers, and until 1880 they worked in accordance with the curriculum from Croatia, and after that according to the plans of public schools. At the beginning there was no teaching of Gymnastics. First data about teaching of Gymnastics in school in Dolac near Travnik we found for school year 1896/97. In school year 1911/12 the subject was called Gombanje, and students of 3rd and 4th year of school were graded from that subject.39 In rim-catholic primary school in Banja Luka, there was a subject Gymnastics in the curriculum, but there are no marks, so we are not familiar with the fact if the subject was really implemented. In the period 1914 – 1917 marks from that subject were written. 40 Teaching of physical education (gymnastics) was done by nuns. Besides basic exercises, rhythmic exercises with music and like, “In schoolyards they were teaching children various games, especially in years after 1908, i.e. after the seminar for gymnastic games in Sarajevo, which attended few participants ‘white’ and ‘black’ nuns from several convents.”41 Certain convents had gyms for physical exercise with gymnastic equipment, and pupils from primary school went there to exercise when the gym was not at their disposal. Primary school in Office of St. Augustus in Sarajevo was founded in 1887 and mostly children of Austrians who moved in Sarajevo went there. The school had its own gym for physical exercise, and teaching of gymnastics was done by nuns. Teaching of gymnastics (physical exercise) was also performed in primary school in Office of St. Vinko in Sarajevo. Pupil of that school, Marija Jemric-Novak (went to school from 1910 to 1913) gave to Jelena Dopudja some data about how the teaching of that subject was performed:
39 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 40 Ibid. 41 Ibid, p. 33.
38 “We were taught gymnastics by our teacher, nun Mileva Muhek, probably from Croatian mountain area. She was singing nicely, so she taught us many dances. When the weather was nice we exercised in their yard, which was used mostly for rest. We played all kind of games there: jumping over the rope, ‘ringe-ringe-raja’, ‘Mother is coming from the station’, Pot selling; […] ‘school’, playing the ball on the wall or ground, and the children brought the balls themselves. We were very prepared for rhythmical games with music, separately boys and girls. […] We were dressed in white skirts below the knee. […] On Thursday afternoon we were free from classes, and therefore we went for a walk. The excursion was something else. […] Some very nice memories I have from excursion to Trebevic and Pale. We, of course, walked to Trebevic. […] during climbing we came to first forest house where we took some rest, and continued walking towards our goal. There was a celebration: kettle with hot cocoa and some hot rolls were waiting for us. Later we played some games and there was just no end.” 42
Katica Stimac, also a student of that school (from 1912 to 1913), told to Jelen Dopudja as follows: “I went to IV grade of primary school in St. Vinko’s Office (with white nuns). We had a courtyard there, and, as I
42 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, pp.34-35.
39 remember, we sometimes exercised and played there… We walked a little bit in two lines, and then exercises with arms and legs in one place, with counting, the simplest ones: arms up, aside, forward, down, and something alike with legs and some moves with body […] During winter there was a little bit of that arm moving in the classroom, in our benches. Outside we played: ‘Pots’, ‘Cat and mouse’, ‘Where we sharp the scissors’, ‘Sabac – sparrow, who is my friend?’, we jumped over the rope, slowly and with fast turns ( we called that ‘fajer’); ‘school’ also on break. […] We went to excursion near Pale and on ‘mayolis’ (on May 1st) in Pale… we didn’t have special clothing for gymnastics.” 43
Physical Education in Muslim schools
Even with school reforms after the Austro- Hungarian occupation, there was no Gymnastics (Physical Education) as a subject in the curriculums.
Physical Education in Jewish schools
Primary Schools
In that time there were two kind of Jewish primary schools: schools for young children (called Melders), and primary Jewish schools. In schools for young children there was no Gymnastics (PE). In primary Jewish school, founded in school year 1888/89 in Sarajevo, that performed their activities according to the curriculum
43 Ibid, pp. 35 – 36.
40 of public schools, there was Gymnastics (PE). The school even had its own small gym where teaching of gymnastics was performed. 44
Physical Education in schools of immigrants
After 1878 occupation immigrants from Austro-Hungary started to come to Bosnia and Herzegovina: Italians, Hungarians, Germans (both from Austria and Germany), Polish people, Slovakians, Ukrainians and Czech. Special schools were opened for them, and they performed their school activities according to public school curriculum that contained gymnastics as a subject. We found no data claiming that the mentioned teaching was actually performed, and in which way. But according to Jelena Dopudja’s notes, former students of those schools “[…] remember that they mostly played different games, and dances with songs in German.”45
Physical Education in private primary schools
Private schools were mostly founded for children of immigrants, and the teaching was mostly performed in Hungarian and German language. There were also trappist, evangelistic and other schools. Teaching of Gymnastics was not performed in those schools. 46
Physical Education in public schools
Primary schools
44 Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; Avram Pinto gave the data to Jelena Dopudja. 45 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 37. 46 Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
41 After occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro- Hungarian authorities disregarded all present schools and started to open public schools with curriculum and books of Austrian schools, in which Gymnastics (PE) as a subject played a significant role. Country government by File no. 21339 from September 23rd 1880 determined the rules for opening public primary schools, and two months later, on November 16th 1880 (File no. 28132) published a curriculum for city primary schools. In list of subjects under no. 8 there was Gymnastics. It was planned to teach Gymnastics in all years (I-IV), two times per week with two classes. Teaching basics for that subjected stated: “Strength, agility, certitude, sense for work and self-confidence should be nourished, bright spirit and sparkle body should be maintained. Primarily should be considered those moves, usually light exercises, known in the certain area, and then usual and free exercises, according to physical development of children. If children are 10 years old they can also exercise on a stand (bars, Barren), precha, etc.” 47 We could not find any sources based on which we could conclude what teachers did during classes of that subject. In some schools there was no marks from that subject, what brings us to a conclusion that Gymnastics was not always performed as provided by the curriculum. The name of the subject was not uniformed, and in some schools it was called Gombanje and in some Gymnastics. 48 Games had a significant role in education of young people. Perceiving the importance of games in education, Country government on December 12th 1913 issued a rescript in which the
47 Zbornik zakona i naredaba 1878-1880, ponovo štampan u Službenom dodatku školskog vjesnika 1894, p. 8; cited in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; and Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско Сарајево, 1988. 48 See more in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
42 attention was mostly on moral education of students in national primary schools through games. In this rescript, amongst, was written: “Further on, it was determined that the best behaviors have the children who know how to enjoy pleasant games during break time… Walks and games are the best way to control children sparkle; therefore walks and games are very useful educational tool, because during walking and playing children open their souls to us and that is the best way to get to know them, and then we can use the best educational method we need.” 49 Further the rescript stated that until then there was not enough attention given to walks and games, and therefore the children didn’t know how to have fun with nice games, but instead they performed the same games as the children who did not go to school. Therefore “[…] is ordered, from now on, to cherish intensively school walks and children games, in accordance with requirements of teaching basics.” 50 After that order teachers paid more attention to games and taking children to walks around town, and in some schools during classes of physical education (gymnastics, gombanje) different games were mostly performed.
Middle schools
After occupation Austro-Hungarian authorities also started with opening of public middle schools, where physical education had a significant place. In that time this subject was called differently: gymnastics, gombanje, body-exercise. Schools worked according to Austrian schools’ curriculum. Country government prepared the curriculums in which contents of physical education were adjusted to conditions in schools (gyms, gymnastic equipment, balls and other
49 Školski glasnik, Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Sarajevo, V, 1914, pp. 28 – 29. 50 Ibid, p. 29.
43 props). One of those curriculums Government published on September 12th 1910 for High Schools and Real Schools in which PE was provided with two classes per week in all years. The same year in school gazette was printed the content of the mentioned subject. Teaching plan was composed out of: Working exercises (9 exercises were listed), Free exercises (12), Long rope (7), Exercises on bars (3), Climbing (4) and Games (7). On second, third and fourth year of school, besides already listed exercises, were also introduced some more complex and other ball games. 51 New teaching plan for Physical Education was published in 1911 on 40 pages, significantly more in-depth than the ones from 1897 and 1910. In that plan, amongst, was written: “Versatile and equal body education. Maintenance and strengthening of health. Adaption to natural, nice posture. Preparing for conscious and willing movements. Body strength and deftness. Practice and sharpness of senses, soul vigilance and freshness. Audacity, soberness, endurance. Sense for order and community. Awakening of permanent interest for body workout.” 52 In the beginning most schools did not have their own space for workout. Just a few had their own gyms for this subject. Clothing was not specially determined, but the students were working out in trousers and shirts, they were wearing sneakers and sometimes worked out barefoot. In the beginning teaching was performed by teachers of other subjects who had Gymnastics as a subject in their own education. Later on, teaching was performed by teachers who during their studies attended gymnastic courses, Sokol experts, the
51 See more in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, pp. 94 – 101; Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, Školski glasnik, Sarajevo, 1910. 52 Cited in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 48; See more in: Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, br. 53 od 29. XI 1913, Svrha; Građa za pojedine razrede, Školski glasnik, god. 4, br. 12, Sarajevo, 1913, pp. 457 – 496, and Franjo Bučar: Nastavna osnova za gimnastiku u bosansko-hercegovačkim srednjim školama, Nastavni vjesnik, Zagreb, 1915, pp. 68 – 70.
44 ones who attended congresses about gymnastics and games and the ones who finished military gymnastic courses. More middle schools existed and worked, and the most prominent were: Large High School, Large Real and Small Real High School in Sarajevo, Large High School in Mostar, Real School in Banja Luka, Small and Large High School in Bihach, Large High School in Downer Tuzla. Teacher schools-pretorandies (male and female in Sarajevo, male in Mostar), Trading schools in Bjeljina, Mostar, Travnik, Trebinje, Tuzla, etc.; Higher female schools in Banja Luka, Mostar and Sarajevo. In high schools, Real schools, Teachers’ school and Higher female schools subject Physical Education was a part of the curriculum, but it was named differently (gymnastics, gombanje, body-workout) and was mostly performed by two classes per week, in some schools one class per week (teacher schools). In all Trading schools there was no PE as a subject, and in those schools that practiced PE it was done for one or two classes per week. Teaching of PE was performed by more than 30 teachers, among whom: Svetislav Badalić, Andjeo Basić, Nikola Begović, Viktor Beck, Nikola Bićanović, Jovan Vasić, Josip Vedral, Petar Vojnović, Nikola Vujičić, Nikola Duić, dr Aleksandar Erich, Stevan Žakula, Ivan Branislav Zoch, Luka Karaman, Nikola Kozomora, Jovo Lakić, Dimitrije Matejić, Dušan Metikoš, Vladimir Novak, Ivan Farkaš, Emil Woska and others. We found more than ten names of female teachers who were teaching PE: Jelica Belović- Bernadžikovska, Milka Bergant, Julija Dubravec, Marija Knežić, Jozefina Matejić, Persa Popović, Ludmila Tesar, Marija Trbojević, Vilma Ulhir, and others.
Other middle and higher schools
Beside aforementioned schools, there were also middle and higher confessional and private schools. In High schools: Serbian in Sarajevo, Franciscan-high in Siroki Brijeg and Archbishop-high in Travnik, among other subjects
45 there was Gymnastics too. In Franciscan-high in Visoko there was no Gymnastics. 53 Teaching schools: in Private teaching school in St. Josip Office in Sarajevo, among others, there was Gymnastics as obligatory subject; at Extended course for education of female Mohamed religion teachers Gymnastics was provided as optional subject; in Muslim teaching school in Sarajevo and Office of miss Adelina Pavlija Irbi in Sarajevo there was no teaching of Gymnastics. 54 Higher female schools in Sarajevo: in Serbian higher female school and in Catholic higher female school, Gymnastics was taught as obligatory subject; and in Muslim higher female school Gymnastics was provided as an optional subject. In Spiritual Offices (Serbian, Croatian and Muslim), as also in Muslim Ruzdije and Madrasahs, teaching of Gymnastics was not performed.
53 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; Todor Kruševac: Srpska realka – gimnazija u Sarajevu, knj. 3, Sarajevo, 1963; Stevo Kaluđerčić: Podaci o srp-prav. školama, „Narodno jedinstvo“, ilustrovani zvanični almanah – kalendar Drinske Banovine za 1932. godinu, Sarajevo, 1932; Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972; Растко Дрљић: Споменица фрањевачке и класичне гимназије у Високом о 50 – годишњици уједињења средњих школа Провинције Босне сребрене 1882 – 1932, Београд, 1932; Travnička spomenica 1882 – 1932, uredio: Kamilo Zabeo, Sarajevo, 1932. 54 Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972.
46 REFERENCES
Богићевић, Војислав: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965. Bučar, Franjo: Nastavna osnova za gimnastiku u bosansko- hercegovačkim srednjim školama, Nastavni vjesnik, Zagreb, 1915, pp. 68 – 70. Crnogorčević, R. Živko: Memoari, za štampu priredio Milenko S. Filipović, Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo, 1966. Ћоровић, Владимир: Мостар и његова српска православна општина, Београд, 1933. Ćurić, Hajrudin: Istorija „Srpskog sokola“ u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, 1940. Ћурић, Хајрудин: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 – 1878, Посебна издања Српске академије наука и умјетности, Београд, 1965. Dopuđa, Jelena: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. Дрљић, Растко: Споменица фрањевачке и класичне гимназије у Високом о 50 – годишњици уједињења средњих школа Провинције Босне сребрене 1882 – 1932, Београд, 1932; Ђорђевић, Владан: Успомене, књ. прва, Нови Сад, 1927. Грђић-Бјелокосић, Лука: Мостар некад и сад, Београд, 1901. Jelinić, Julijan: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915. Kaluđerčić, Stevo: Podaci o srp-prav. školama, „Narodno jedinstvo“, ilustrovani zvanični almanah – kalendar Drinske banovine za 1932.g, Sarajevo, 1932. Ковачевић, Коста: Српска бањалучка Богословија, Босанска вила, год. 24, бр. 11, Сарајево, 1909, pp. 171 – 174. Kruševac, Todor: Srpska realka – gimnazija u Sarajevu, knj. 3, Poseban otisak iz Glasnika arhiva Društva arhivista BiH, Sarajevo, 1963. Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, br. 53 od 29. XI 1913, Svrha; Građa za pojedine razrede, Školski glasnik, god. 4, br. 12, Sarajevo, 1913, pp. 457 – 496.
47 Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, Školski glasnik, Sarajevo, 1910. Пантелић Бабић, М. Кристина и Павловић, Д. Петар: Соколска идеологија Чедомира Милића, Физичко васпитање и спорт кроз векове, год. 1, бр. 1, Ниш, 2014, pp. 117- 133. Papić, Mitar: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972. Павловић, Д. Петар: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско Сарајево, 1988. Pavlović, D. Petar; Živanović, Nenad and Pantelić Babić, Kristina: Vaso Pelagić, prvi teoretičar fizičke kulture u Bosni i Hercegovini, Četvrti međunarodni naučni kongres „Antropološki aspekti sporta, fizičkog vaspitanja i rekreacije“, Banja Luka, novembar 2013, Zbornik radova, ur. Slobodan Simović, Univerzitet Banja Luka, Fakultet fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta, Banja Luka, 2013, pp. 65 – 71. Пејановић, Ђорђо: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953. Пелагић, Васо: Аутобиографија, Развитак, год. 1, бр. 3, Бања Лука, 1910, pp. 74-79. Пелагић, Васо: Изабрани списи, књ. 2, Сарајево, 1953. Пелагић, Васо: Писмо, Савремена школа, бр. 8-9, Београд, 1949, p. 119. Školski glasnik, Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Sarajevo, V, 1914. Travnička spomenica 1882 – 1932, uredio: Kamilo Zabeo, Sarajevo, 1932. Тодоровић, Тихомир и Богојевић, Боривоје: Васа Пелагић о значају гимнастике и физичког васпитања, Зборник за историју физичке културе Србије, бр. 4 – 5, Београд, 1968, pp. 88 – 102. Zbornik zakona i naredaba 1878-1880, ponovo štampan u Službenom dodatku školskog vjesnika 1894.
48 RUSSIA
THE EMERGENCE AND HISTORY OF SPORTS EDUCATION IN RUSSIA
Fedor Ivanovich Sobyanin, Faculty of Physical culture, Department of theory and methodology of physical culture, Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education «Belgorod National Research University» Vladimir Nikolaevich Irkhin, Faculty of Physical culture, Department of theory and methodology of physical culture, Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education «Belgorod National Research University» Elizaveta Alekseevna Bogacheva, Belgorod institute of development of education department of pedagogics and psychology of health
Correspondence Fedor Ivanovich Sobyanin [email protected] Phone: 8-909-206-00-53
The term sports education in Russia refers to the process and the result of human exploration of all the experience of the society in physical culture. «Physical culture is a type of culture of the society, it is specific, moral and substantial activity directed on physical perfection» (this definition was proposed by the Russian delegation as the foundational one at the VII European Congress FIEP (Barcelona, Spain 2012 ) and was unanimously approved by the participants of the Congress and adopted in the final resolution. Sports education as a systemic pedagogical phenomenon that includes the following processes: learning (mastery of knowledge and skills), education (the development of personality; where person is a carrier of socially significant values), the
49 development of physical qualities, mental characteristics, processes and properties), improvement (improvement and maintenance of the physical, social and mental well-being of individuals and society). The system of sports education in Russia has gone through a long controversial process. It has been influenced by the material history and the history of ideas in Russia. Sports education originated in ancient Russia. The natural and social environment, family, traditions and customs, oral tradition influenced the phisical development of people. The need to protect vast areas from attacks and wars, social and natural disasters forced Russians to take care of physical development of the population from early childhood. Outdoor games played an important role in education and training. The games gave the children the opportunity to excersise their reaction, agility and stamina; it allowed children to learn to make decisions quickly in critical situations, developed the sense of teamwork and mutual support. Slavic tribes had a tradition of warriors physical training in ancient time. Such practices are mentioned in historical writings of famous Russian historians such as: V. Tatischev (1686-1750), M. Karamzin (1766-1826), S. Solovyov (1820-1879), V. Klyuchevskii (1841-1911). The legends about Russian heroes Alyosha Popovich, Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich were known in many generations. In VI-VIII, the Slavs already had a certain system of physical and military training. Boys were taught horse-riding from the age of three and at six, they would begin education at "youth houses" where experienced instructors conducted sleep deprevation, hunger, temperature ordeals to develop their stamina. They were taught survival methods, hunting, self-defense techniques [2]. Physical training of commonage and princely children, and children living in rural and urban areas had its own pecularities. Great Kiev Prince Vladimir Monomakh wrote his "Instructions for one's sons" in the X century in which he proposed one of the first systems of military physical training in Russia. The system included excersises, hunting and promoted the development of strength, endurance and courage. Vladimir Monomach himself used tempering and skied [7]. .However, in the first half of the XVII century, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov forbidded games under the influence of the church that proclaimed it paganism.
50 Secular books that talked about the importance of the physical education emerged in the second half of the XVII century. Epiphany Slavinetsky in his treatise "Grazhdanstwo obychaev detskih" devotes a separate chapter to the physical education of children, focusing on games [16]. Socio-economic and cultural reforms of Peter I in Russia lead to the creation of the first secular schools which obligatory physycal training. The most popular games were fisticuffs on Shrove Tuesday; boys above 12 could take part in it. Kids began basic fighting training at 5. Battles were conducted one-on-one and in groups and after the fighting rivals hugged and sat down together for a festive table. I. Betsky (1704-1793) is considered to be one of the first theorists of physical culture in Russia. He is the author of the term physical education. His work Short instruction, selected from the best authors, with some physical notes («Краткое наставление, выбранное из лучших авторов, с некоторыми физическими примечаниями») is the first guide for parents and caregivers [5]. Catherine II (raigned 1762-1796) created the first public educational institutions to which female students were allowed as well. Schools similar to those in Smolny Monastery had to be founded in each province and the first department for burgher girls was created in Resurrection Monastery. For girls, physical education was completed before the graduation from Smolny Monastery [10]. Free board department was opened at the Moscow University in 1778. Physical training was part of the education process and included marshial arts, jogging, ice skaiting, snow ball fights, ball games, skittle, fencing, horse riding, hiking [8]. Prince Engalychev (1769-1829) wrote books about health and physical education, among which is On the physical and moral education («О физическом и нравственном воспитании») (St. Petersburg, 1824) and made one of the first in Russia "Dictionary of physical and moral education" (St. Petersburg, 1827). Free market influenced social life in Russia in the beginning of XIX. New 1804 Charter introdiced dancing and gymnastics into the curriculum of gymnasiums. School education must had become available to everyone. Modern pedagogical views were in Tsarsko- Selskom liceum where pupils had gymnastics, dancing, horse-riding, fencing and swimming classes.
51 Social relations became tense in 60th in XIX thus people became more politically and socially active. Advocates for phisical training changed thier moral values. Personality acuered value in itself. Works of advanced thinkers of the time (Gorinevsky, Dement'ev, Lesgaft, Pokrovsky et al.) included radical criticism of the authoritarian, pragmatic physical education, corporal punishment, indicated that the low level of physical health of Russian children was largely determined by the absence of a focused physical education. [3,4,8,11,12]. There was a need in the scientific foundations of sports education in school. Interconnection and interdependence of physical, mental and psychological development draw the attention to the importance of physical exercise. At the same time, the humanists were opposed to the predominance of military exercises and methods of coercion in the curriculum of sports education. Particular attention was paid to the system of military education. Cadet corps were replaced with military gymnasiums with civil teachers and cadet schools. The program of the latter included gymnastics and military exercise. A critical shortage of instructors in physical training prompted authorities to create special courses where trained officers and non-commissioned officers were getting qualification to conduct classes in gymnastics. Thus, by the middle of the XIX century, the background for phisical training system and had been formed. The main issue of the first period was the necessity to prove theoretically the nimportance of phisical education for population. The foundational principles of physical training were formulated within institutions of secondary, profeccional and military education. State, military and educational institutions began training of specialists. One of the most natorious was Central Gymnastics and Fencing School in Saint Petersburg [1]. Among civil schools the most famous was Higher Courses of Lesgaft. The most important factors in the formation of sports education in Russia were the implementation of the ideas of foreign and Russian theorists about the benefits of exercise and games. Philosophical and pedagogical views of Chernyshevsky (1818- 1889), Dobrolyubov (1836-1861) on the harmonious education of man, the unity of his body, the importance of physical activity, interdependance between mental and physical development
52 influenced scientists, educators, community leaders dealing with sports education. Russian scientist Sechenov (1829-1905) was influenced by above mentioned theorists and made a great contribution to the development of natural-scientific knowledge about human body. Such topics as influence of phisical activity and environment on the body, recovery excersise, importance of individually tailored training were studied in his works [15]. Other factors palyed sighnificant role in the emergence of sports education in Russia; among them are: the traditional military education, custome phisical activities, people's games and holidays. The influence of European (German, Swedish, French, сокольская) individual and traditional gymnastics systems and gradual introduction of the physical training in institutions led to the formation of systematic structure of the sports education theory. It is worth mentioning that climat, ethnic, geographic, language and social conditions and the differences in the regions of Russia influenced the content and methods of organizing and conducting physical education classes. The original Russian concept of the teaching methods and concept of education through phisical culture can be found in works by Lesgaft, Gerd, Dementiev, Zack, Filitis, Yavein and other scholars and teachers. It allowed to see the physical culture as an independent scientific and academic discipline. For example, for the founders of hygienic directions E. Pokrovsky and his followers (I. Gerd, E. Dement'ev, A. Zak, N. Filitis, G. Yavein), the goal of physical education was to achieve the healing results by removing the mental tensions. There were two trends in the development of sports education in Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. One of them is related to the differentiation of sports knowledge and the formation of an independent branch of the theory of physical culture, a technique of physical training, theory and methodology of military and physical training. Another trend was aimed at understanding the accumulated theoretical knowledge and bringing in the ideas, principles, beliefs into coherent system. Great contribution to the development of sports education theory was made by physician, anatomist, scientist, educator and social activist P. Lesgaft, who developed the system of physical education. He laid down the foundations of the theory and
53 methodology of such diverse disciplines as physical education of preschool and school-age children, training of specialists in physical culture, military physical training, physical exercise for people with disabilities. The results of his work were of great value for the development of anatomy, medicine, physiology, therapeutic physical culture, adaptive physical education, vocational and applied physical training, physical rehabilitation, physical recreation, education, psychology and other fields of knowledge. In his system of physical education, he tried to expand the narrow definition of physical culture as a healing practive, which was defended by the famous teacher P. Kapterev [6]. His theory based on the natural-historical materialism, humanism, interdependence between humans and the environment and education and anti-racist views included the following provisions: - Materialistic approach to the problem of the relation between spiritual and physical; - Recognition of the causation of phenomena and processes, reliability and substance of facts; - Denial of human hereditary doom and the recognizing of the role of environmental influence, education and phisical exercises; - The main education goal of education is the comprehensive harmonious development of person with the leading role of moral education [6]. Lesgaft put humanistic orientation, fundamentalism, systematic and scientific principles in the the basis of the Russian sports education . At the beginning of the XX century, health-hygienic and educational goals of sports education were recognized as equal and binding, which was a significant achievement of the Russian pedagogical thought. In addition, a significant stimulus in its development was the revival of the Olympic Games and the expansion of the international sports movement. All this led to the beginning of the second phase of development of the system. St. Petersburg Main Officer Fencing and Gymnastics School was opened in 1909 and other similar institutions were established in military districts. Professional training of gymnastics and sports teachers was conducted at the sports unions and clubs. Physical education was included in the curiculum in some advanced schools. The official pedagogy doctrine claimed that 2-4 half-hour breaks in a week was enough for the phisical development of the
54 pupils. But in such schools as Maya's school, Women's Mogilyanskaya gymnasium, Medvednikovyh Gymansium, Women's Stoyunina Gymnasium, Vosmiklassnoye Uchilische in Lesnoy (St. - Petersburg), much attention was paid to the content, methods and forms of physical education and daily physical culture lessons were mandatory. Physical training included outdoor games, hiking, trekking and competitive sports. Society for the physical development of students created by Lesfraft promoted extracurricular activities for physical education of children not only in St. Petersburg, but also in Moscow, Odessa, Tiflis and Tomsk. Propaganda of physical education conducted by members of the society led to the opening of playgrounds, slides for sledding and ice rinks for skating, conducting tours, walks and hiking in many other cities in Russia. Organization Bogatyr opened in 1904 organized holiday activities and built playground and was the first of that kind in the country. By the year 1914, the number of sports organizations involved in the promotion of healthy lifestyles, sports, gymnastics and tourism reached 360. October Revolution in 1917 radically changed the political and socio-economic situation in the country and opened soviet stage in the development of sports education that lasted until 1991. Specialized institutes of physical culture were created in the first years of Soviet Union: State Central Institute of Physical Culture in 1918 in Moscow, Lesgaft Leningrad Institute of Physical Culture in 1919 in Petrograd. Physical education became compulsory subjects in all types of educational institutions of the Soviet Union in 1920-1930 [2]. One of the results of the development of sports education was the further development of physical culture theory. It allowed to the development of such aspects of phisical culture as medical, biological, pedagogical, psychological, historical, sociological, theoretical and integrative, cultural and philosophical. As a consequence, levels of knowledge about the phisical culture were developed: - The relationship between biological and social content in physical education; - The fundamental and technological problems of physical culture;
55 - Particular related to physical training disciplines; - The relationship between science,general culture and physical culture [9]. The system of sports education has been formed with the following types: special (or professional) sports education which aimed at the development of the values of physical culture for subsequent transfer to different categories of students enrolled in the course of professional activities and non-special (non-professional) physical education during which the subject developed skill valuable for herself. Besides, sports education was devided according to the level: preschool, general (schools), vocational (technical schools, vocational schools, colleges), higher education (universities). A system of additional education (classes for school- age children in youth sports schools, sports school and colleges of Olympic reserve) and the system of special education for children with disabilities in the state of health and disability were integral part of the system of sports education. At the pre-school education level, the main objective was to improve the health and ensure full physical development of children and prepare them for school. Children at the stage of general education developed all the basic physical qualities, mastered the skills at the basic sports (gymnastics, athletics, outdoor sports, skiing, swimming) and develop the habit of a healthy lifestyle. Phisical training in colleges and universities was associated with a professionally-applied physical training of youth. Students attended phisical training classes in the main, preparatory and special medical groups, depending on the health conditions in all educational institutions. Higher professional physical education was carried out in the Institute of Physical Culture and faculties of physical education where special departments were created to ensure the teaching of general theoretical, biomedical, psycho-pedagogical and special sports and educational disciplines. The main values that phisical training specialist were supposed to acquire were knowledge, skills, worldview [13]. The amount of disciplines aimed at shaping the worldview of specialists in phisical training was increased three times from 1930 to 1982. General knowledge disciplines curriculum was realtively stable though some were merged or excluded. A large amount of training time was dedicated to special physical training
56 (more than 50% of contact hours). The complex of special disciplines that had been created included: 1) narrow focuse disciplines with a large volume of training; 2) practical complex for general training; 3) pedagogical specialized training. The theory began to specialise and became more diverse. Some scientific and special disciplines such as "physiology of sport", "sports psychology", "biochemistry of the sport" were taught at the faculties of physical education until the 1970s. There was virtually no difference between the content of education in institutes of physical culture and faculties for a long time because up until 1963 the curriculum was universal. Amount of biological disciplines had been dicreased in favour of pedagogical disciplines, reinforced methodical preparation and teaching practice since 1964 in the departments of physical education [13]. Valuable experince that allowed to improve the quality of life significantly and to make a great socio-economic changes in the country was aquered during that period. It helped to survive World War II and turn the USSR into a world sports power. Significant changes in education took place in the period of perestroika, reforms that began after 1984. A special role was attached to the cultural function of education, principles of humanization and democratization of the educational process, the role of human factor in education, restructuring of the relationship in the pedagogical system ("object-subject learning") and the idea of respect for person. New teaching methods were actively introduced. Training time was considerably increased: the total training time was 3626 hours in 1978 and 8105 in 1988 in any institute of phisical training. Thus the educational process became more intense. The modern stage - from 1991 to the present time - is characterized by inconsistency of sports education in Russia. The period began with crisis in the education system, which was the consequence of the collapse of the USSR, social, political and economic instability. New concept of education compatible with free market was forming when the financial support of the educational institutions was reduced; teaching specialist, couches and sportsmen were leaving the country and the quality of the education sighnificantly deteriorated. Educational institutions partially or completely shifted to self-financing; there emerged private for-profit
57 educational institutions. New terms, such as educational services" and human capital were used to describe the current state and plans to develop sports education [14]. The new strategy of education policy was formulated in the Concept of Development of Education in the Russian Federation for the period up to 2010 [14]. The concept was aimed to increase the competitiveness of Russia in the global educational system, upgrade the content and technology of education, develope the quality assurance system, improve management of the education system and economic mechanisms in the field of education [14]. In addition to the Conception, the social and economic growth in Russia has been developing and triggered the formation of legal system (such laws as "On Education", "On Higher and Postgraduate Education", "On physical culture and sports in the Russian Federation" and other normative acts). The consequences of these events were the growth of the competition between educational institutions, actualization of the problem of improving the quality of education, the efficiency of the educational institutions, increased requirements for their licensing, accreditation and certification. There are new ideas, including popular idea of "sports- oriented education", "conversion of sports technology in physical education", "sports oriented on health education", the introduction of the olimpic project "SpArt" («СпАрт») in the scientific and pedagogical environment. New technologies based on the modern exercises and practices (fitness, shaping, powerlifting, dancing, relaxation techniques, traditional outdoor games) are being introduced. The present stage of development of sports education is characterized by certain trends. For example, standardization of education is designed to provide a unified educational space, to maintain the quality of education in accordance with the needs of modern society. Multilevel education differentiates educational qualifications, determines the educational content, teaching load and other parameters. Versatile education enhances students' learning skills, making them more versatile, adaptable to the needs of society and environment. Computerization allows to receive, process and present more information to improve teaching methods. Intellectualization of education is a growing trend in response to scientific and technical progress and the emergence of new
58 technologies. Humanization is a feature and requirememnt in the educational system. Cross-curriculum integration is the integration of academic disciplines, information, individual educational blocks that allows objectively and comprehensively review the studied problems. International Integration is also a requirement for an objective comprehensive comparison and exchange of information and technologies between institutions of different countries; it also allows to improve sports education and broaden the knowledge anbout new cultural types. The steady improvement in the quality of education is another relevant trend that develops in competitive environment of national education systems and educational systems on a smaller scale (competition among schools, universities, etc.). In the end of the brief historical overview of the emergence and development of the sports education in Russia, it should be noted that sports education in modern Russia is focused on the development of general personal culture, versatility, student's adaptability to the demands of the world. This is due to the fact that the very physical culture goes beyond pragmatically defined problems of health promotion, improving the physical condition of single person. The present time requires to make physical education the mean which will provide a basis for improving the material basis for the full and harmonious development of the personality and the realization of all the essential powers of person.
REFERENCES
[1] Evstafiev, B.V., Chihaev U.T. The beginning of the school history: from the life of the first fencing school. Leningrad: VIFK, 1981. [2] Filippova, S.O., Ponomarev, G.N. Theory and methodology of physical culture in preschool: teaching guide. Spb.: Detstvo-press; Moscow: TC Sfera, 2008. [3] Gorinevsky, V.V. Physical education (1913). http://dic.academic.ru (accessed September 15, 2014). [4] Grantyn, K.H. Basic principles of physical education by P.F. Lesgaft for school children. 74-88. http://elib.gnpbu.ru/text/pamyati-lesgafta_1947/go,0;fs,1/ (accessed September 15, 2014).
59 [5] Leading Russian XVIII century educators. Betzkoy I.I. and his concept. http://www.nravstvennost.info/library/news_detail.php?ID=3989 (accessed September 15, 2014). [6] Lesgaft, P.F. Collected works on pedagogy in 5 volumes, Vol. 1. Мoscow: Physical culture and sport, 1951. [7] Maslennikov, I.B., Smirnova, G.A. Ski Race. Moscow: Physical culture and sport, 1999. [8] Moscow University Boarding school. dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/moscow/3287/Благородный (accessed September 15, 2014). [9] Nikolayev, U.M. Theoretical and methodological principles of physical culture in the XX century threshold: [Monograph]. Spb: SpbGAFK im Lesgafta, 1998. [10] Pedagogical concept of I.I. Betzkoy and his practical activity. http://maxbooks.ru/pedogog1/pg13.htm (accessed September 15, 2014). [11] Pokrovsky, E.A. Russian outdoor games (winter games, games with stones, sticks, ryuhi, bashni, gorodki). Spb., Bolshaya encyklopedia malenkogo mira, 2007. [12] Pokrovsky, E.A. Russian agility enhancing games. Collection of Russian children games. Spb.: Rech, 2010/ [13] Sobyanin, F.I. Professional training of sports education teachers with culturological approach: diss. Spb, 2001. [14] The conception of Federal educational programme for 2006-2010. Мoscow: TC Sfera. [15] Vydrin, V.M. Physical culture – a kind of culture of the person and society (experience of the historical and methodological analysis of problems). [Monograph]. Omsk: SubADI, 2013. [16] Епифаний Славинецкий. http://dic.academic.ru (accessed September 15, 2014).
60 SERBIA
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA
SlađanaMijatović, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade Violeta Šiljak, Faculty of Management in Sport, Alfa University, Belgrade
Correspondence Violeta Šiljak [email protected] Phone: +381 60 3555 736
THE PERIOD FROM 1830 TO 1914
Political, economic and cultural development of the Principality and the Kingdom of Serbia, as a young civil state, was carried out continuously during its struggle for complete state, economic and cultural independence and its further progress as an independent and autonomous state. In this sense, the development of physical education in primary schools was carried out as well. Although Serbia, after the great victories over the Turkish army in Ivankovac, Deligrad and Mišar, obtained the status of a vassal principality by signing Ichko's Peace (1806), only the hatt-i- sharif of Sultan Mahmud (1830) recognized the borders of 1813 and returned to the Serbian people their right to the freedom of religion, the right to establishing their own army and the right to open schools, hospitals and printing houses. However, the conditions for the development of education were created only upon returning the right to open and establish schools and consequently to develop instruction of physical education in schools.
61 During the Turkish rule in Serbia there were almost no schools, and basic literacy i.e. reading and writing could be learned only in monasteries, with monks or in villages, with priests. Only few schools were funded by the children’s parents and the teachers were Serbs from Austro-Hungary, who were literate peasants or priests. After the First Serbian Uprising primary schools were opened in towns and even in villages, so that there were about 40 of them in those years. By electing Dositej Obradović a principal of all schools (1808) and separating school and church, the rapid development of education was launched, however, the fall of Karađorđe’s Serbia (1813) resulted in closure of all schools, because the Turkish authorities prevented any educational activities in Serbia, knowing how dangerous it could be for their rule. After the Second Serbian Uprising (1815) and the re- liberation of Serbia, the work of schools continued, but not to the extent as it used to be in Karađorđe’s Serbia, because the prince Miloš tried not to go against the Turks in this regard. In addition, being illiterate himself, Miloš Obrenović, like other illiterate princes, claimed that educated people would lead rebellions, thus he did not support faster development of education and schooling. The obtained autonomy (1830) created the conditions for faster economic, political and cultural development, and thereafter the rapid development of schooling and education began. Thus (1839) in the Principality of Serbia, there were more than 80 schools with about 3,000 students. The first Ministry of Education was established in 1834. In order to promptly obtain educational staff who would work in the public service, the Serbian government sent its cadets abroad since 1839 already, when 10 cadets (scholarship holders) were sent to schools in Austria and Germany. Starting from 1846, the opening of the primary schools for women began in Serbia. Several new laws on schools created by the most educated people of Serbia were passed, thus the first law on schools in 1844 was drafted by the famous writer Jovan Sterija Popović. Pursuant to this law, primary schools in villages lasted three years while urban ones lasted four years, and the teachers were required to obtain the necessary qualification and graduate from the Theological school.
62 The Prince Mihailo Obrenović reorganized the government system but also carried out certain organizational changes in education. New laws on primary school were passed, and consequently primary schools in villages lasted four years since1863, and the teachers were appointed after passing the teacher's exam (since there were no teacher training schools). After the assassination of the Prince Mihailo (1868), under the regency regime in the following ten years, even more favourable conditions for the development of education were created. Dimitrije Matić, who was one of the government’s scholarship holders and studied pedagogy abroad, was elected the Minister of Education and implemented a number of measures for the successful development of education. In Kragujevac in 1871 the first Teacher Training School was opened, where the teachers were prepared for working in the primary schools in the Principality of Serbia. New curricula for primary schools were designed and the number of students in schools increased. In the last twenty years of the 19th century many modifications and amendments to the curricula, as well as in the organization of the educational system, were made under the influences coming from the developed European countries and in line with the powerful pedagogical trends. After the turbulent political events and the coup d'état (1903), the Kingdom of Serbia experienced even stronger political, economic and cultural development. The further development of education and other cultural and scientific institutions continued. New laws were passed, the curricula were amended and modified, new schools as well as cultural and scientific institutions were opened.
Physical Education in the Primary Schools in the Period from 1830 to 1868
While in Serbia, at the beginning of the 19th century, the educational system and the network of schools were underdeveloped, lacking in adequate material conditions and teaching staff, most developed countries of Europe at that time, introduced physical education into primary school. And only when Serbia obtained the right to open schools (1830), and when young educated people
63 started coming from the western countries, the first ideas and attempts to introduce such instruction as a compulsory subject appeared in the Principality of Serbia.
This period included many ideas, thoughts and attempts in relation to the introduction of physical education instruction into primary school, starting from the moment when Serbia was granted the right to open and establish its own schools until the Letter (act) of the Minister of Education of 1868, which was the official document that introduced physical education classes into primary schools. During these 38 years a lot of ideas and new curricula appeared and many reforms were made within the school system as well. In this period, four laws were adopted on the organization of primary school, but none of those even mentioned physical education. In addition to the laws, some special guidelines and curricula, which further explained the implementation of curricula, were issued but none of them included physical education as a subject. This means that, in the first decades of the primary school development in the Principality of Serbia, the state authorities were not prepared to introduce PE as a subject in primary schools. Nevertheless, many ideas, attempts and efforts to include physical education in school timetables among other subjects were spread by some pedagogical workers: 1. Milovan Spasić who was the chief school manager since 1845 wrote three books which represented specialized literature for the primary school teachers. In one of them, published in 1885 entitled: "Pedagogical and methodological instruction material for the primary school teachers” Milovan Spasić wrote about physical education of children as a foremost task of parents’ first and then of the teachers’ who should help this process through a number of procedures and measures, such as organizing children’s games. 2. At the proposal of the Parliament of the Principality of Serbia, in September 1859, The Project of the Law on School for the Principality of Serbia was designed, which also specified physical education for male and gymnastics for female children, among other subjects taught in primary schools. Although this law
64 Project was not adopted, it is evident that, in the late sixties, the first attempts to officially and legally introduce the subject in schools appeared. 3. Dr Djordje Natošević, the principal and the professor of Serbian grammar school in Novi Sad, the supervisor and the manager of Serbian schools in the Serbian province of Vojvodina, was invited in Serbia to the duty of an officer in the Ministry of Education, where he spent a year (1867-1868). After visiting schools throughout Serbia in his Report to the Minister of Education he criticized the state of schools and the organization of teaching, and in relation to physical education, he wrote: "There is no physical education in primary schools. There is nothing that primary schools do for the sake of its development” (Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1868, IV, 515, p. 3). In the proposal of the curriculum he wrote that one of the subjects should be gymnastics, which would be taught in all four grades, from 11 am to 11.30 am and from 4 to 4.30 p.m. The content of this subject would consist of: children's games, light military exercises, swimming and fighting. Based on Natošević’s Report on the state of the schools in Serbia and the Report of Stevan D. Popović on the state of the schools in Switzerland, the School Committee suggested that the Minister of Education (in February 1868) open a Teacher Training School, and to organize the course of gymnastics between the classes in the primary schools in towns and villages. In this period characterized by a discrepancy between desires and actual conditions, i.e. by an inconsistency of needs and financial possibilities of Serbia which was barely liberated, it could not be expected the ideas of Serbian pedagogues to be accepted, which would enable the integration of physical education teaching in the mainstream of the European modern pedagogical thought and contemporary teaching. Yet, all these proposals and attempts to introduce physical education teaching into schools represented significant efforts to find a suitable place for this subject in the educational process, in accordance with the achievements and the knowledge of the European pedagogical thought.
65
Physical Education in the Primary Schools in the Period from 1868 to 1882
During this period, a number of progressive laws on school as well as directives and declarations of the Ministry of Education were passed in relation to primary school, such as the opening of Teacher Training School in Kragujevac (1871), which launched the preparation of the first teachers. The highest contribution to the introduction of physical education teaching into schools was made by Dimitrije Matić, the Minister of Education, who in December 1868 distributed “A Letter to the Teachers of Primary Schools” where he, among other things, suggested all teachers: ”should dedicate 3-4 classes a week out of regular school time to gymnastics. The children can practice it indoors or outdoors when the weather is nice” (Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1868, IV, 518, p. 4). In addition to this letter, the Minister also submitted to all schools " The guidelines for physical exercises", which represented an elementary curriculum of physical education (gymnastics) teaching, divided in 17 separate sections, which were specific program contents of physical education teaching, accompanied with the appropriate explanations and short concise instructions. Therefore, physical education (gymnastics) teaching was introduced into the primary schools of the Principality of Serbia by the Letter of the Minister of Education as of the 10th of December 1868, and the Guidelines accompanying this Letter represented the first curriculum of physical education for primary schools. Inadequate professional training of teaching staff already different in their professional education was the greatest difficulty in the implementation of these Guidelines in primary schools, thus the opening of the first Teacher Training School in Kragujevac (1871) solved this problem to a great extent. At the beginning of the academic year 1869/70, the Minister Matić sent a Letter to the teachers, where he asked them to organize the teaching of gymnastics "in order to make the body development occur simultaneously with the progress of society" and
66 he highlighted that this kind of teaching must not be neglected (Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1870, X, 2068, p. 6). .In September 1871, the Ministry of Education issued "The Timetable of Subjects in Primary Schools and the Instruction on How They Should Be Taught", which actually was a curriculum, with special didactic and methodological guidelines. At the end of the Letter, a separate section stated: "In all four grades of male and female schools, the physical exercises shall be taught", which represented The introduction of compulsory teaching of physical exercise (Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1871, VII, 102-1/2, p. 5).
Professional Training of the Teachers for Gymnastics Instruction
Professional competence of teachers was the basic factor of the successful implementation of the curriculum, so after the opening of Teacher Training School in Kragujevac, before the education of the first generation of teachers was completed, the need for the teachers’ additional teaching expertise appeared. Therefore, the Minister of Education, Dimitrije Matić, at the end of 1871, decided that, during the summer school holidays in 1872, a one- month course for selected teachers should be held in Kragujevac in order to raise the level of the teachers’ professional qualifications. The lectures in this course were held by the professors of Teacher Training School in Kragujevac, and Petar Predragović, the teacher of gymnastics at grammar school and Teacher Training School in Kragujevac was selected for the teaching of physical exercises i.e. gymnastics classes. For the purpose of this course he had prepared a "Curriculum according to which Gymnastics should be taught to the primary school teachers”, which was divided into 18 classes and included everything that was necessary to realize the gymnastics curriculum in primary school. This course, held in July 1872, was attended by 75 teachers, which represented 15% of the total number of the teachers in Serbia. The same course was held in 1873 in Kragujevac, and again it was held by Peter Predragović. Thus, both of these courses played a significant role in raising the professional level of the teachers for improved physical education teaching.
67 Based on the courses held, Peter Predragović wrote a handbook "A Brief Guide for teaching gymnastics in primary schools", whose publication in 1,000 copies was approved by the Ministry of Education in 1873, and which was a valuable professional assistance to the primary schools teachers in the following decades. The held courses and the printed handbook greatly improved the physical education teaching in the primary schools of the Principality of Serbia in the following decades, since the teachers taught gymnastics classes with the assistance of the Handbook of Petar Predragović. In order to improve the conditions for physical education teaching, the Ministry of Education, under the Rules on school construction and school furniture (1881) provided that a room for gymnastics of a greater height than that of a classroom, which could be illuminated from two sides and heated, should be built within each school facility, and in the case of rural schools it should be an open space between the school facility and the schoolyard. In addition, these Rules provided that, in the schoolyards, the gymnastics apparatus should be set up, where the students could practice when the weather conditions allowed.
Physical Education in the Primary Schools of the Kingdom of Serbia (1882-1914)
After the recognition of the state independence of the Principality of Serbia by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), a strong economic development of the young Serbian state began, which was appropriately followed by the faster development of education and schools in general. Physical education as an integral part of the overall process of education, developed and changed in accordance with the relevant social changes i.e. ideas and programs, which were adopted depending on the political and economic situation in the country. In order to improve the work in primary schools, the Ministry of Education passed the laws on their work repeatedly (1882, 1891, 1892, 1898, 1904), and very often complemented and modified the curricula, which was accompanied by a number of guidelines and letters for the purpose of their more complete implementation. In all of this, physical education teaching occupied
68 a certain place, and even was regulated by separate documents: Regulations on apparatus design (1885), Guidelines for gymnastic exercises (1885), Letters of the Minister regarding teaching gymnastics (1905). The Law on Primary Schools of 1882 for the first time placed physical education in an equal position with other subjects, since the list of subjects taught in primary schools included gymnastics as well, and the Curriculum, adopted in the following 1883, specified that gymnastics should be taught two classes a week in each grade. A detailed curriculum for gymnastics teaching was adopted in 1884 for all six grades and it included: 1. children’s games, 2. military exercises, 3. basic physical exercises, 4. exercises with weights, rope skipping, exercises on uneven parallel bars and rings, then rope climbing, long jump and high jump and wrestling. However, although well-designed and thoroughly developed, this Curriculum could not be realized in practice because the majority of teachers were not professionally trained enough to implement it, and a lack of apparatus, devices, gyms and arranged schoolyards prevented its implementation even when the teachers were professionally trained. In order to solve the problem of a lack of apparatus for gymnastics teaching the Minister of Education prescribed The regulations on designing apparatus for gymnastic exercise in primary schools (1885), which described the apparatus for each grade individually, such as racks for high jump, spring boards, rings, horizontal bars, uneven parallel bars, climbing apparatus, balance beams, hoops, throwing stones, weights and the like. In the same year the Ministry of Education issued the Guidelines for gymnastic exercises with illustrations for primary schools, which contained the curriculum for gymnastics teaching in three separate sections with drawings. Surely, the adopted Regulations on designing apparatus and the Guidelines for gymnastic exercises enabled that, in those places and in those schools with adequate professional staff and at least minimal financial resources, physical education classes could
69 be conducted according to the adopted curriculum. However, a very small number of schools managed to get appropriate apparatus under these Regulations, thus gymnastics classes usually included only: children's games, simple exercises in place, rope skipping and various forms of military exercise, as stated in the reports by the supervisors visiting schools in all the areas of the Kingdom of Serbia. For these reasons, the Ministry of Education in 1891 adopted a new curriculum for lower grades of primary school, where the curriculum for gymnastics teaching, especially in younger grades, underwent major changes and amendments. The curriculum no longer included any military exercise, which was the result of numerous complaints and objections of teachers, parents, pedagogues and supervisors, since the teaching of gymnastics became exclusively military training, which was more adverse than benefitting in relation to the education of the children of that age. Some new teaching contents were introduced to the curriculum of gymnastics teaching: swimming and tours, and children’s games still occupied an important place. Specific children’s games which should be realized according to this curriculum were determined for all grades, such as the wolf and the lamb, hide and seek, peek-a-boo, catching games, tugging, tag, target shooting, leapfrog and others. In addition, the competition as a compulsory teaching content was introduced, which provided new opportunities for the teachers engaged in these classes. Such a curriculum, without exercises with gymnastics apparatus provided greater opportunities for its implementation, and new teaching contents were closer and more acceptable to children. The introduction of children’s games into gymnastics teaching created an opportunity of education through playing and games, since they brought joy and happiness to these classes by their spontaneity and comfort. The envisaged curriculum could be realized to a greater extent providing a significant impact on the students’ physical development. In order to carry out more complete control and obtain trustworthy insight into the manner and the volume of the curricula implementation, the Minister of Education appointed permanent school supervisors, whose task was to inspect schools when they
70 deemed it necessary. Thus, the insight into the teachers’ work was more complete, because they were controlled by both the supervisors and the school principals and the ministerial delegates, who assessed their work at the end of each school year. In order to provide conditions for teaching gymnastics, when the weather conditions did not allow practicing outside, the Minister prescribed the Regulations on school construction and school furniture (1899), similar to the Regulations of 1881, which stated that larger schools, especially in towns "should also have a hall for gymnastics and ceremonies which can be heated", of the height of five meters at least. In the field of physical education teaching there was a constant need for methodological reference books so that the "Textbook of Gymnastics" by Atanasije Popović, published in 1898, represented a valuable professional assistance in the work of many teachers. Thus, it enabled this kind of teaching to be carried out at a higher professional level. However, despite all of this, the condition of physical education teaching in primary schools in the last decade of the 19th century, according to the assessment and the opinion of the supervisors of primary schools was not satisfactory. A lack of funding resources for the needs of gymnastics teaching was the actual reality of that period as well as a lack of understanding and appreciation of the importance and the value of educational areas on the other hand. For Serbia of that time, physical education teaching was something superfluous, unnecessary luxury or a fad. The curriculum (1899) changed the name of this subject in: gymnastics and children’s games, which even more emphasized the commitment to this program content. According to it, a greater part of the contents whose performance required special facilities and gymnastics equipment for physical training (exercises on horizontal bar, uneven parallel bars, rings and various climbing apparatus) was exempted from gymnastics instruction, and more contents in the field of children's games were provided. Thus, the curriculum for gymnastics teaching no longer required greater financial investments in providing the conditions for its performance. However, this curriculum, in its concept, was still one- sided and limited the choice of means and forms of physical exercise. Gymnastics teaching gradually turned into a field of games
71 and entertainment, very often into children's play without the teachers’ supervision, usually before or after school. By such a unilateral approach and limited choice of the program contents, the set objective could not be achieved, so that we could not even talk about successfully accomplished tasks of this kind of teaching, as was often stated in the reports of the school supervisors. This condition was still present in the early 20th century, and even in the "Law on Public Schools" of 1904 this subject was named only: children's games. Gymnastics teaching at that time belonged to the group of subjects which were called: skills and which unfortunately belonged to the subordinate group of subjects, so they were paid less attention in schools, and therefore were neglected. Thus, the Minister of Education, by his special letter (1905), demanded a change of such an attitude which was a result of the behaviour of school authorities, who, for a long time, emphasized that the most important subjects were Serbian and Maths, so the basic school principle then was that the task of any school, above all, was: to teach children how to write, read and count. Therefore, the teachers’ attitude towards this teaching area ranged in the following relations: if you can, if you want, and if you are able to. The Minister emphasized that this approach to gymnastics teaching in primary school was basically wrong and that it had to be changed, pointing out that was an important area of students’ education, which was neglected in primary schools, and therefore in the end of the Letter he wrote: "From now on, this can never be like this. There are no major and minor subjects in primary schools. They are all important, so that equal attention has to be paid to all of them.” (Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1905, II, 301, p. 2). He also emphasized that the teachers had to change their attitudes and that the supervisors during their visits should verify whether they complied with the suggested or not. On the basis of this attitude of the Minister of Education, a part of the teachers and the schools gradually changed the attitude towards this kind of teaching, so that, in addition to children's games, other contents were provided, such as: nature tours, various kinds of competitions, which were called chivalrous competitions: in running, throwing stones, jumping, wrestling, and even in some modern sports.
72 The teachers who understood the importance of this subject and also were practitioners of a civil gymnastic society, organized also other forms of physical exercise with children, such as swimming, skating, and sometimes apparatus exercises as well. However, the teachers’ inadequate qualifications for conducting this kind of classes was due to the condition present in the gymnastics instruction in the teacher training schools in Kragujevac, Aleksinac, Niš, Jagodina, Belgrade, which occasionally organized these classes, and even more rarely appointed the gymnastics teachers. Therefore, it is understandable that the teachers who graduated from them did not acquire the qualifications necessary for teaching physical education. A faster and more significant development of this teaching area was prevented by turbulent political changes and events, although the preparations for the war conditioned gymnastics teaching to be assigned a defensive task in order to better prepare the young people for defending the country. Therefore, greater attention was paid to military exercises, which were introduced into schools and often became the only content of those classes. But despite all of this, gymnastics teaching occupied a significant place in primary schools, which is proved by a great interest of ministers, pedagogues, teachers and doctors, who wrote about it, proposed the measures to address these issues and warned the state institutions and the cultural public about it, which contributed to its continuous, faster and more successful development.
THE PERIOD FROM 1914 TO 2014
After World War I and by carrying in its sovereignty and statehood, Kingdom of Serbia initiated the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, a state which in 1929 was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After World War II and a change of polity, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was formed in 1945, a state that changed its name to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia by the 1963 Constitution. After 1992 and its dissolution, Serbia and Montenegro make the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia until 2003, when they change the name in the State
73 Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Since 2006, Serbia has been operating as an independent and sovereign state. The curricula of physical education set forth by the Ministry of Education laid the foundation for quality physical education in elementary schools in Serbia. By opening the higher education institutions for training physical education teachers, the prescribed number of physical education classes could be held successfully.
Physical Education in Primary Schools from 1918 to 1941
After World War I, in the newly formed state there was a wide range of schools (Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Muslim, Protestant, Evangelical, Jewish, Hungarian, German, etc.), which, among other things, had different curricula (M. Tubić, 2005, pg. 105). Curricula were harmonized in 1920 for the whole country. Physical education was mandatory in all schools. Ministry of Education and Religions occasionally corrected the curriculum using regulations and amendments, and they were related to physical exercise in the winter, female physical exercise, equipment, application of the Sokol system of exercise, and so on. During this period, the instructions from the Ministry that were related to physical education implied that it be based on the Sokol program. However, the demands of the school youth and emerging educators were aimed at sports games, i.e., competitions. In 1925, Ministry of Education passed the curriculum for teaching physical education in primary schools (Grades 1-4). According to the curriculum, the subject was called Gymnastics and Children's Games and was held once a week in all four grades (S. Ilić and S. Mijatović, 2006. pg. 555). In 1929, at the time of political crisis caused by the dissolution of the National Assembly and the introduction of 6 January Dictatorship, the decisions were made in the state that led to the regression of physical education instruction, which in primary schools was reduced to two half-classes a week (Tubić, 2005, p. 107). That same year, the Act on Public Schools was passed,
74 exclusively determining the Sokol gymnastics system as the base of physical education in schools. The new curriculum for primary schools was passed in 1933, and began to be implemented starting from 1935. Number of physical education classes was as follows: Grades 1 and 2 - 4 classes a week for half an hour; Grade 3 - 2 classes a week; Grade 4 - 1 class a week. Based on official data, about 40% of primary school children were covered by physical education before World War II. However, because in many schools there were no conditions for teaching physical education, it is assumed that the percentage of primary school children who practiced physical education was much lower. At the time, the program did not set forth mandatory organization of sports activities during free time. Extracurricular sports activities only existed thanks to the self-organization of students and engagement of physical education teachers who supported sports competitions (M. Tubić, 2005, pg. 108). The first impetus by the state for the development of sports was given in 1932 by the Ministry of Physical Education of the People, which recommended and supported the establishment of students' sports associations and their competitions with a special Act. Although the students' clubs were legalized with an Act from the Ministry of Education in 1938, the law of 1924 was still in effect, which forbade the students from taking part in operations and competitions in sports clubs. Violators were expelled from school. The problem of qualified teachers was also present during this period. Classes were mostly held by the Sokol leaders who had completed professional training courses. As the courses were organized in a three-day period, the idea of teacher education at higher education institutions arose among the experts. Although in 1935 the Ministry of Physical Education of the People passed a decision on the establishment of a one-year school, the decision had not been implemented until 1938.
75 Physical Education in Primary Schools after World War II
During World War II, a large number of school buildings were destroyed. By 1990, the reconstruction of old and construction of new school buildings had doubled the number of students compared to 1941, and according to official statistics, the primary school education covered 98% of the students (M. Tubić, 2005, pg. 297). In order for the schools to use the intensity and quality of physical education to give what is expected of them, they had to provide good programs, a lot of good professionals, the required number of regular classes and extra-curricular sports and recreational activities, organization of student sports associations and their competitions, and facilities for physical exercise and sports. In December 1945, relevant governmental and educational authorities introduced a nationwide mandatory seven-year primary education system. Four years later, it was extended for another year, and it became an eight-year education system. Curricula that were passed by the Ministry of Education set forth mandatory physical exercise classes, organization of student sports competitions, taking students on fieldtrips interwoven with sports and competitive activities, and organization of sports and physical exercise events in all schools. According to M. Tubić (2005) in the first three grades, the primary schools had to set aside half an hour each day for physical exercise. From Grades 4 - 8, they had to have 3 physical education classes per week. For students who had certain physical disabilities, according to a medical report, the school was suppose to organize remedial gymnastics for half an hour each day (p. 298). Primary schools were also obliged to organize extracurricular student sports activities at least once a week, which was usually accomplished through special sports afternoons. School programs specified camping trips for students once a year, taking students on six trips a year, encouraging and supporting activities in students' gym and sports clubs, and since 1958 in student physical education societies. In addition to the joy of participation, school competitions stimulate students to exercise systematically, contribute to bringing young people together, and develop fair play. School competitions
76 have an educational and training role. The system of school competitions in Serbia, which has a 40-year tradition, is conducted under the name "School Olympics Serbia". Competitions are held under the aegis of the Government of the Republic of Serbia, Ministry of Education and Sports, and the Directorate of Sports. Olympic sports games represent a constant system of sports competitions organized for primary and secondary school students in 12 sports branches: swimming, archery, table tennis, gymnastics, volleyball, basketball, handball, miniature football, rhythmics, skiing, athletics and spring cross. "School Olympics Serbia” are organized every four years. So far, 9 Olympic Games have been held as follows: 1 – Kragujevac (1980), 2 – Kruševac (1984), 3 – Belgrade (1988), 4 – Aranđelovac (1992), 5 – were not held, 6 – Zrenjanin (2000), 7 – Zaječar (2004), 8 – Niš (2008) and 9 – Sremska Mitrovica (2012).
Winter Student Olympics have so far always been held on Mount Kopaonik, with the exception in 1992, when they were held in Mount Brezovica. Competitions are managed and organized by the Association of School Sports and Olympic Education of Serbia. Association of School Sports and Olympic Education of Serbia adoptes and implementes developmental programs for school sports, cherishes and respects sports spirit and sports morale, and works on spreading the Olympic ideas and spirit. Physical education teachers play a significant role when it comes to the implementation thereof, as they are directly involved in the competition system with their students. Number of students in one school year at all levels reaches of 350,000 participants. The competition system is divided into five levels: school (inter-class) municipal, inter-municipal (district - city),
77 inter-district (regional) and republic competition (V. Šiljak, 2013, pg. 232-234).
Physical Education in Primary Schools at the Beginning of the 21st Century
Following the curriculum of physical education in primary schools today, it is necessary to ascertain that a recent reform of the curriculum abolished the third compulsory class. Ministry of Education gave the primary school students an opportunity to use a spare class called Free Activities, and to engage in sports or other (arts) activities of their choosing. In the age of modern technology/computers and established reduced motion activities of children, the Ministry did not recognize the necessity of a greater number of compulsory physical education classes. By 2002, according to N. Rodić, eight curricula for physical education had been officially adopted, which the author considers pedagogical and the educational failures because they did not understand the importance of physical education classes for children in this age group (p. 82). In 2002 and 2003, co-author of the study, V. Šiljak, was a member of the commission for the educational field of "Physical and health education" formed by the Ministry of Education and Sports of the Republic of Serbia, in order to determine the main strategic direction of education reform in the Republic of Serbia. As the team of ten people consisted of only two physical education teachers, it was expected that this reform would not yield results in favor of increasing the number of physical education classes.
Conclusion
Physical education in Serbia in the nineteenth century owes its emergence and development primarily to the develop of the Sokol movement and the learned men who recognized the importance of the introduction of physical education in elementary schools. Since its beginnings in the late twentieth century, teaching
78 physical education and its improvement were worked on intensively until the end of the 20th century. Over the last one hundred years of teaching physical education in schools in Serbia, we can see periods of development, stagnation and even regression. The socio-political conditions have certainly affected the overall situation in Serbia, and thus the development of education in Serbia. The formation of the new state, Yugoslavia, where Serbia was only a part of it, two world wars, and the collapse of Yugoslavia are events that indicate a very turbulent 20th century. The education system in Serbia has been changing according to its polity. Serbia as a kingdom, then as part of a socialist state, and today as a parliamentary state has during this period had different forms and approaches to the system of physical education in schools.
REFERENCES AND SOURCES: a) References
Grupa autora. (1889). Prosvetni zbornik zakona i naredaba, Beograd. Đorđević, Ž. (1958). Istorija vaspitanja u Srba, Beograd. Ilić, S. (1981). Školsko fizičko vaspitanje u Srbiji (1830-1914), (Doktorska disertacija. Beograd, FFV. Ilić, S., Mijatović, S. (2006). History of Physical Education, Belgrade: D.T.A. Trade. Jovanović, B. Povodom stogodišnjice organizovanog fizičkog vaspitanja u Srbiji. Fizička kultura - Vol. 7-8. Predragović, P. (1873). Kratka uputstva za predavanje gimnastike u osnovnim školama, Beograd. Rodić, N. (2002). Former reforms of physical education in primary schools of the Republic of Serbia, Sombor: Norma, vol. 8, no. 1-2, pp. 79-88. Šiljak, V. (2013). Olympism, Belgrade: Alfa University. Tubić, R. M. (2005). Yugoslav sports, Novi Sad: Museum of Vojvodina.
79 b) Sources
1. Archives of Serbia Fund of the Ministry of Education of Serbia (MPs)
Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1868,IV, 515, str. 3. Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1868,IV, 518, str. 4. Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1870, X, 2068, str. 6. Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1871,VII,102-1/2, str. 5. Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1905, II, 301, str. 2.
2. Archives of the Museum of Physical Culture of Serbia, Faculty of Physical Education, University of Belgrade.
80 SLOVAKIA
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE TERRITORY OF SLOVAKIA
Branislav Antala, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava František Seman, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava Natália Smolenáková, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava
Correspondence Branislav Antala [email protected] Phone: +421 905 887575
The development of school physical education on the Slovak territory can be divided into the following stages: 1. School physical education since its creation until 1918. 2. School physical education between two wars (1918 – 1939). 3. School physical education during World War II (1939 – 1945). 4. School physical education in the years 1945 – 1992. 5. School physical education since 1993 until today. In our treatment, we will focus on the most important features of each period only. For the purpose of a more detailed study, this issue is further elaborated in the works of Píschová (1979), Grexa (1995), Sýkora (1996, 1999), Antala (2001), Bobrík and Seman (2010) and others.
81 School Physical Education since its Creation until 1918
In the feudal period, in relation to the monopolization of culture and education from the church, the physical education within the church schools (for example monastic, parish, and cathedral) did not occur. Later, with the emergence and development of cities are emerging urban schools and universities. Here, students devote to physical education in leisure time, but not under the supervision of teachers. However, Trnava University had its own teacher of fencing and dancing and Jesuit school in Banská Bystrica had its own gym. In connection with the establishment of schools in Slovakia we highlight in particular Mining and Forestry Academy in Banská Štiavnica, which was founded in 1762 as a Mining Academy and was essentially the first technically oriented university in the world. Within the same school, students set up their own Academic Shooting Association (in 1874) and the shooting was a sporting discipline also. Physical education is getting into the school environment with the advent of humanism and the Renaissance in the 16th century. It exists only in the form of extra-curricular. The most important figure of this period was Johann Amos Comenius (1592- 1670), which exercises, games, hiking, diet and hygiene regarded as an organic part of education. Significant changes in favor of school physical education occurred in Hungary thanks to Johann Ignatius Felbigerovi (1724-1788) and Adam František Kollár (1718-1783). They were authors of the Enlightenment reform of education and training named Ratio Educationis in the second half of the 18th century (1777). This reform has interpreted the care of physical education as one of the goals of the school and also contained standards for physical education. Thoughts of this reform in Slovakia were developed by national revivalists Samuel Tešedík (1742-1820), Daniel Lehocký (1759-1840), Bohuslav Tablic (1769-1832), who for example recommended physical exercise twice a day, and others. The poet Ján Kollár (1793-1852) as the first in our countries raised the requirement of compulsory school physical education in 1849. He was based not only on sports traditions, but took into account the modern sport that began to develop in England. Ján Kollár drew up at the request of the Vienna government reform proposal Slovak schools. He proposed physical education for all types of schools and
82 also demanded that schools have gymnasiums and vocational teachers. Based Bonitz-Exner reform, physical education gets to school in 1851 is an optional subject. Physical education in this period also developed three Slovak non-state grammar schools in Turčiansky Svätý Martin, Revúca and Kláštor pod Znievom. Students attended physical education voluntarily and teaching was paid. The highest level had physical education in Revúca. The teacher was Ivan Branislav Zoch (1849-1921), author of the first Slovak physical education textbook "Krátky návod na vyučovanie v telocviku hlavne pre školy národnie (“Short Instruction for Teaching Physical Education especially in the National Schools”) (1873). Compulsory physical education was enacted after the defeat of Austria by Prussia, firstly at the municipal schools (1868, 1869) and later in secondary schools (1874 at grammar schools, in 1883 at high schools). Physical education should ensure better preparation of young people for the needs of the army. Core curriculum was Spiess system, but at the end of 19th century the content was supplemented by sports games and before World War I by the pre-military training for boys. Physical education came into schools, but at the same time was the lack of qualified teachers who could teach physical education. Preparation of vocational teachers started first in Vienna and Budapest (since 1871) and later, since 1891 also in Prague. Physical education generally taught graduates of philosophical faculties, who during her studies as a subject did not attend. Eötvös reform (1868) of teacher training institutes provided training of qualified physical education teachers. Equipment for the preparation of a small number of professional "preparers" for future physical education teachers, however, proved to be major problems progress in preparing physical education teachers.
School Physical Education between Two Wars (1918 – 1939) The establishment of Czechoslovakia had a positive impact on the development of Slovak education and pedagogy, although the development of school physical education was not so significant. Greater development of school physical education hindered several factors persisting from the past or arising from the current political-
83 economic situation - poor material equipment of schools, lack of compulsory physical education in vocational, technical and higher education, insufficient training of teachers. Plight in the number of physical education teachers helped Slovakia Czech tackle action sports professionals and teachers. In the Czechoslovak state, university teacher training conducted at universities in Prague and Brno (but not on individual faculty of physical education). The oldest Physical Training magazine focusing on school physical education "Physical education of youth" (in the Czech Republic today it is entitled "Physical Education and Youth Sport") began. Compulsory physical education is also introduced for girls. By treatment of Czech teachers in Slovakia, in addition of Tyrs system, which was the basis for the curriculum, penetrated the ideas of the French system of gymnastic of Georges Hébért (1875-1957) (natural methods in physical education) and New Austrian system of Karl Gaulhofer (1885-1941) and Margarete Streicher (1891-1985). Physical education organizations as Sokol (Falcon), Orol (Eagle) and worker’s physical education movement have sought to influence on school physical education. Regarding physical education organization Sokol, from its ranks in 1918 published a call for the establishment of a separate faculty, which would prepare specialists in physical education: “When physical education should be guaranteed outcome, it must be organized by state. It must have the highest status of scientific management, which is the faculty of physical education at the university.” Sokol simultaneously recommended that future physical education teachers will prepare in the medical, psychological, physical education subjects and in foreign languages also. It is necessary to underline that in this preparation would be crucial Sokol gymnastics, based on Tyrš system. In Tyrš system absented sport, because the organization Sokol had, in the period immediately after World War I, negative attitude towards sport. This relationship Sokol reconsidered in the 20-ies of the 20th century. Although the Ministry of Public Health and Physical Education has submitted a proposal to the Government of the Czechoslovak Republic for the preparation of physical education teachers, whose concept was based on the French system. In 1937, Institute for Physical Education and Sport was established at Comenius University. After a short time, however,
84 institute showed no activity. In 1939, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist and the Comenius University changed its name to the Slovak University. In October, 1939, at the request of the Ministry of Education, it was established Physical Education Institute. It was due for Slovak students to end studies of physical education, who previously studied in the Czech Republic. With the approaching World War II in 1938, physical education was introduced, as a compulsory subject, into the professional schools and universities. This process was preceded by the introduction of the pre-military training in schools linked to the increase of German militarism. In Slovakia it was the Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, which is not pronounced for the implementation of the pre-military training, but for implementation of physical education, because the pre-military training doctors considered as part of physical education.
School Physical Education during World War II (1939 – 1945) The breakup of Czechoslovakia, the emergence of the so- called Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, and so-called Slovak State, beginning World War II, influenced the level of school physical education. In Slovakia it was negatively commented by forced departure of Czech teachers and professors of physical education. The then Slovak state else highlighted the importance of school physical education, but practical steps were not sufficient – lagging construction of sports facilities multiplied by small social valuation of physical education teachers. The physical education curriculum for secondary schools (1939, 1943) enshrined the mandatory requirement of three hours of physical education per week. The educational objectives of the curriculum were conditioned to state ideology and inspired by the Nazi-education. It emphasized the health, the army training and strict discipline. During this period the non-school physical education played an important role. Young people are given extra-curricular physical education in youth organizations, created by German model (Hlinka Guard and the Hlinka Youth). A positive step in this period was the introduction of preparation for future teachers of physical education at Slovak University in Bratislava, where the said Physical education Institute
85 started working from October 23, 1939. A model for the development of materials for his work was the proposal to establish schools for preparing teachers of physical education in 1926, which we have already mentioned. Thus, it was possible in Slovakia to bypass proposals requesting to organize the study of physical education along the lines of Germany, Hungary and Italy. The Commission of Slovak Experts also visited Germany and on the basis of the resulting report this commission rejected the organization to prepare the teachers of physical education by German model, which was not suitable for the conditions of Slovakia. In this period a number of sports publications were released. Most valuable publication was "Physical education Practice on Folk, Townhouses and Lower Secondary Schools with a Hundred Examples of Physical Education Classes" (1942) by Karol Stráňai (1905-1999).
School Physical Education in the Years 1945 – 1992
After World War II it was built up in Czechoslovakia the socialist society on the basis of Marxism-Leninism. For this company, sport and physical education becomes one of the important tools in comparison with the outside world. We have objectively conclude that school physical education during this period gets, despite some shortcomings, arising mainly from mainly essential philosophical approach to the understanding of man in society, the level as in previous periods certainly not. After 1946, physical education becomes equivalent to a compulsory subject in all types of schools, including vocational and university and was abolished wage discrimination of physical education teachers. At universities were established departments of physical education, respectively of sports medicine. In the following period a range of curricular of physical education for different types of schools was elaborated on a scientific basis (for grammar schools in 1949, for general education schools in 1954, the uniform curriculum, including curriculum for students with impairments in 1960, the curricula of 1970, 1976, 1984). Some of them but failed to avoid such shortcomings, such as it was their oversized, orientation to best physically gifted pupils or inadequate consideration of the
86 interests of students. In the 80s, the greater ideas and concepts of teaching form democratic states began to penetrate much to physical education. Significant change in the approach to teaching is apparent in the curriculum of 1990, issued after a major socio-political change in our society in 1989, even though they have yet no significantly change the content of education. From the first curriculum of 1948 is becoming linked compulsory school physical education and physical education in free time. Gradually emerging optional subjects like movement and sports games, hobby groups, pre-military circles, with introducing education and training courses, stays in nature and different types of school and interschool competitions. Preparation of physical education teachers got a qualitatively higher level. In 1960, Institute of Physical Education and Sports was established in Bratislava and in 1965 was renamed the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava. This, together with faculties of education provides preparation of physical education teachers and other sports professionals. Problem teaching qualifications but even this could not be resolved satisfactorily. On the optimization of school physical education also participated in the scientific and research work best workers in the field of Science Physical Culture. In 1965, it was established in the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports the independent scientific body Workstation for the Research of Physical Education of Youth, later renamed the Research Institute of Physical Culture, today Institute of Sport Science. The results of scientific work were regularly presented at scientific conferences and seminars organized throughout the territory of Czechoslovakia. The results were also presented in the scientific journal "Theory and Practice of Physical Culture," which along with journal "Physical Education of Youth" and with magazine "Coach" have been a source of new knowledge for physical education and sports movement in Slovakia. Some of them, although after 1989 for financial reasons no longer exist, but in 1991 began to build a new journal "Physical Education and Sport", which launched a newly established Slovak Scientific Society for Physical Education and Sport. The establishment of sports schools, sports classes and classes with extended teaching physical education, contributed to the development of competitive sports of youth. These
87 services work on the basis of specific curricula, scientifically substantiated. Many Slovak sports experts contributed significantly with results of research to the development of school physical education in this period: František Sýkora (1927-2002), Jaroslav Frano (*1925), Želmíra Píschová (*1929), Ivan Varga (*1935), Gabriel Varga (*1941), Jela Labudová (*1944), Xénia Rovná (1929-2014), Ivo Havlíček (1931-2005), Miroslav Rovný (1921-1991), Michal Belej (*1934), Milan Mikuš (1932-2012) and others. The socialist system, despite the attention that school physical education addressed, could not eliminate the primary source of the lack of effectiveness of physical education – the lack of school sports facilities and skill shortages, which is reflected in the stagnation of physical fitness of schoolchildren.
School Physical Education since 1993 until Today
By dividing the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic and the establishment of the Slovak Republic in 1993, began the new school physical education period, particularly in terms of the management and organization of public authorities in an independent state. Physical education continues to focus on the changes initiated after 1989. To classes, new ideas enter increasingly, but still remains partially conservatism of previous years. Curriculum Physical Education (1995 for primary schools and 1997 for secondary schools), although already a bit more modern, but in many ways still remain traditional. Following these curricula in the next years, the educational standards were created. Great contribution to science, research and qualification of professionals in the field of physical education and sport was, in 1996, recognition of a separate scientific discipline of Sport Science (in the nomenclature of sciences in Slovakia are assigned to number 74), which have the three branches: Sports Kinantropology, Sports Educology and Sports Humanities. In the following period, fails to maintain a range of teaching 3 hours a week and there is a reduction in the number of hours in the curriculum for various types of schools at the expense of emerging subjects. It is increasing the number of children exempted from physical education and reduces the number of children involved in
88 the hobby of physical education and sport. To change this state is making significant efforts and Slovak School Sports Association, which organizes mainly interschool sports competitions and School Sports Clubs, creating the conditions for participation of students in physical education in free time. Poor social conditions of teachers and the resulting low motivation and interest in teaching course of study for graduates to work in the profession, stagnation and deterioration of conditions for learning to be a transient phenomenon, but also do not add to the quality of teaching. A new impetus for the development of physical education was the adoption of the new Law on Education and Training No 245/2008 in 2008, replacing almost 30 years old Education Act. This legislation reforms the existing system of education and training. The basic ideas of the new law were particularly decentralization and greater school autonomy, their greater share in decisions about the curriculum, greater activity and responsibilities of teachers, their greater authority and emphasis on educational activity in the educational process aimed at developing the competence of the pupil. Of the established structure of the school system is passed to the international system ISCED. It introduces two-level curriculum and curriculum framework. Mandatory part of the training was divided into public education program (mandatory hours) and school education programs (optional hours). Since 2011, the time devoted is defined over the level of education only. Schedule time to be allocated to individual grades is the responsibility of the school, like the inclusion of the curriculum in grades above but the adequacy of age. In order to improve the educational process, in 2008 was adjusted number of pupils in the classes. This was a reduction in the number of pupils on average to 10% (1st year of primary school max. 22 pupils; second to fourth year – 25; 5th to 9th year of primary school – 28). Learning objectives are pursued in the framework of new educational areas where separate educational field is the area of "Health and movement" in which ISCED 1 is a subject "physical education" and in ISCED 2 and 3 subject "physical education and sport". Some areas of learning that are interdisciplinary character are not taught as separate subjects, but as sectional themes. Sectional theme "Protecting life and health", is provided by teachers of physical education and sports.
89 In the career development of teachers in 2009 were adopted two new acts – Act on educational staff and specialists No 317/2009 Act on lifelong learning No 568/2009. These acts defined the career system based on career levels, career positions and career paths. Changes have also occurred in the teaching of physical education in schools. Within hours of mandatory training programs of schools (public education program) changed the name of the subject. Name of the school subject has been modified from “physical education” to "physical education and sport" at ISCED 2 and 3; ISCED 1 remained unchanged. A change was also in terms of focus and purpose of physical education and sports. The focus of physical and sport education is reflected significant departure from the performance-oriented teaching towards developing competences of pupils and the formation of values and attitudes. In the objectives is a more significant link to health care and the creation of a healthy lifestyle. Physical education and sport must combine knowledge, habits, attitudes, skills and abilities of movement, sport, health and healthy lifestyles, which are realized through designs configured forms of teaching physical education and sports, health and physical education through integrated physical and sport education. Another change was the openness and variety of content. The content presents a wide range of knowledge and physical education and sports activities offered to pupils. The content is divided into the following four thematically oriented modules: Health and disorder; Healthy lifestyle; Physical fitness and physical performance; Sporting activities of movement regime. Each module has its own internal structure and in the various levels of education it transforms into separate thematic parts of the educational program. Furthermore, new programs allow the adaptation of teaching content to the conditions of the school, pupils' interests and give freedom and responsibility to the teacher of physical education and sport for the creation of the program for different groups of students. Support and mentoring of teachers to continuous learning has also been one of the innovative elements of the project focus of teaching physical education. In this respect, in addition to programs of continuing education for teachers organized by Methodical Centers is particularly important implementation of a national project of continuing education teaching physical education in the 1st level of primary schools and unqualified teachers in 2nd stage of primary
90 schools' “Upgrading qualification of teachers of physical education and sport "in the years 2012-2015 which carries the National Sports Center. In cooperation with Faculty of Physical education and Sports and other physical education faculties, the projects will refresher the training of 3,400 primary school teachers. The project is co-financed by European Union funds within the program "Education". At all levels of schools since 2008, physical education and physical education and sport within hours of mandatory training program is taught in all classes of 2 hours per week and through courses. Schools can raise the weekly number of hours of physical education and sport through optional hours of educational programs. This is realized in a minimal extent only. To assist the teaching of physical education in schools, the Association of Physical Education Teachers is created in 2012. This association is the professional organization of teachers of physical education and sports. Subject Commission of Physical Education and Sports in the National Institute for Education, performs a supporting and coordinating activities. Commission approves all training materials related to physical education and sport in schools and is the highest professional body in this area also. In 2012 was established at the Ministry of Education the Curriculum Council also, which includes the president of the Subject Commission of Physical Education and Sports. The Council is the highest advisory body to the Minister of Education in the curriculum of training issues. To help manage physical education have been developed several electronic portals as an information portal www.skolskysport.sk or portal www.telesnavychova.sk. To the development of school physical education in recent years significantly contributed many Slovak physical education specialists with research and teaching: ako Ján Slezák (*1945), Alexander Melicher (*1943), Michal Modrák (*1953), Branislav Antala (*1963), Jaromír Šimonek ml. (*1958), Jela Labudová (*1944), Viera Bebčáková (*1945), Soňa Kršjaková (*1958), Elena Strešková (*1947), Gustáv Argaj (*1956), Janka Peráčková (*1958), Ľudmila Jančoková (*1953), Pavol Bartík (*1959), Ivan Čillík (*1958), Dana Masaryková (*1980), Mária Roučková (*1952) and others.
91
Physical Education Development of Pupils with Special Needs
If we want to complete the characteristic and analysis of the school physical education development in Slovakia, it is necessary to mention about the physical education teaching of pupils with health impairments, respectively disabled pupils, or disadvantaged pupils with special educational needs. The beginning of contemplation about segregation teaching of disabled pupils and healthy pupils is dated since year 1883, when doctors classified them into 3 groups: exempted from physical education, actively participating with certain limits and healthy pupils. The curriculum from 1911 and 1913 years did not include special content for the treatment of health disorders; it merely highlighted the need of building the habit of correct posture. But in 1948/49 were published precise health requirements and teaching of pupils with posture errors and asthenia begun at ordinary schools. Since 1951 the guideline of the Ministry of education officially laid the foundation for the development and regular teaching of adapted physical education (APE). The beginning was associated with teaching of pupils with orthopaedic impairments, first at primary schools later then at all secondary schools and universities. All the following period since 1960 up to 2003 year were associated with the extension of the teaching objective, which signified not only healthy goals, associated with the correction of impairment´s problems, but also formation of concrete educational, later social goals of the APE lessons for orthopaedic, internal and nervous system disorders. It means a significant expansion of the space for compulsory lessons of disadvantaged pupils at schools. On the one lesson in duration 45 minutes there were 12 - 15 pupils with various impairments and every lesson is managed with qualified APE teacher. In present days in APE lessons are included pupils with significant health impairments, with problems of physical, body construction and composition, or with continued temporary problems, which are not barrier of the school lessons, but they are the contraindication of the physical load. The teaching is realised across the separate APE curriculum, which was prepared on the basis of a number of completed surveys.
92 In 2003 and 2004 was completed last comprehensive APE curriculum for primary and secondary schools with specific physical and sport content, for different types of impairments in the following classification: visual impairment, blindness, deafness, defective hearing, mobile and immobile pupils, impairments of the upper extremities, anterior-posterior and lateral spinal faults, disorders of cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, metabolic, gynaecological and neurological system, psychological and intellectual impairments. For the first time was APE teaching consolidated at standard and special schools, which it means for pupils attending integrated or segregated physical education and APE (Labudová, 2010). It is necessary to mention, that the beginning of targeted care for pupils with physical, hearing, visual and mental disabilities goes back to the 20th century when in pursuance of education law, since 1953, was allowed to establish special schools. Segregated educational environment, in which was the teaching of physical education in kindergartens, primary and secondary schools realized, was created. Since 1990 were also private and church special schools established. The trend was to establish the special schools with region-wide or nation-wide competence, what required from pupils to stay in the dorm. Up to the present days pupils education at special schools is equivalent to education at standard schools. The special school has its advantages and justification, allows the transferring of the pupils to the integrated teaching. We can conclude, that the transformation of the education system and the introduction of a State education programme for schools in year 2008, established a basis for equality education of pupils at different types of schools and levels of education in the curriculum field ”Health and movement” through the teaching of physical education and sports, APE and integrated physical and sport education. Research has indicated that 32-52% of primary and 34% secondary schools would like to apply an integrated physical education (Labudová, 2008), but this process continue very slow. To apply the regulation, that maximum 3 pupils with disability, or with special educational needs can be integrated in one study class. For each such pupil the number of pupils per class is reduced by two. In 2009/2010 were registered over 22 000 individually integrated pupils with special educational needs into normal schools (Tab. 1).
93 Tab.1 Individual integration of pupils by type of health impairment or disability (number) Type of health State Church Private impairment, disability schools schools schools Autism syndrome 188 11 38 Mental disability 3 733 120 35 Hearing disability 489 41 38 Visually impairments 475 34 17 Impaired communication 775 36 23 ability Physical disability 1 367 116 41 Behavioral disorders 1 176 80 39 Developmental learning 12 106 627 446 defects Sum 20 309 1 065 677
Actual elevated occurrence of pupils health impairments can confirm the necessity of gradual integration teaching trends. Current efforts to enhance teaching pupils with disabilities and with the socially disadvantaged should be based on creating optimal school conditions at all school levels (especially accessibility, material support, fulfilment of teachers obligations) that every pupil has the opportunity to actively participate in adequate APE lessons, or integrated physical education and sports education lessons. This can also reduce a large number of inactive pupils in physical education lessons, but also increase pupil´s motivation for physical activity and care for their health and their involvement in physical and sports activities in leisure time.
Conclusion
Physical education, as in the past, and now needs of regeneration and innovation towards higher quality and attractiveness to become more interesting and attractive to pupils and the teachers themselves and to fulfill all the important functions that human development has undoubtedly. It will not pass without state support, which it must create adequate conditions. The adequate conditions, however, is not only the material and technical
94 equipment in the spirit of the times, but also provide extensive support for teachers of physical education, not least agitation among parents to realize that adequate development of their children their lack of interest in physical activity fails.
REFERENCES
Antala, B. (2001). Vývoj, súčasný stav a nové trendy vo vyučovaní telesnej výchovy v školách. In: Didaktika školskej telesnej výchovy, END, Bratislava, 17-40. Antala, B. (2008). Školská telesná výchova a kurikulárna transformácia výchovy a vzdelávania. In: Sedláček, Jaromír – Antala, B. et al. Hodnotenie telesného rozvoja a motorickej výkonnosti žiakov v procese kurikulárnej transformácie výchovy a vzdelávania, ABL Print, Bratislava, 9-34. Antala, B. et al. (2012). Telesná výchova v názoroch žiakov základných a stredných škôl. END, Bratislava. Antala, B et al. (2014). Telesná a športová výchova a súčasná škola. END, Bratislava,. Bobrík, M. & Seman, F. (2010). 90 rokov vysokoškolského športu na Slovensku, Slovenská asociácia univerzitného športu, Bratislava. Grexa, J. (1995). Dejiny školskej telesnej výchovy na našom území. In Perútka Jaromír – Grexa Ján Dejiny telesnej kultúry na Slovensku, FTVŠ UK, Bratislava,111- 126. Labudová, J. (2008). Niektoré aspekty vyučovania telesnej výchovy v základnej strednej škole. In Antala, B. at al. Školská telesná výchova z pohľadu výsledkov vedeckého výskumu. Bratislava : FIEP, UK FTVŠ, s. 6–13 Labudová, J. (2010). Zdravotná telesná výchova. In Labudová, J. a kol.: Edukológia zdravotnej telesnej výchovy a športu postihnutých. Bratislava: SZ RTVŠ, 6–14. Píschová, Ž. (1979). Školská telesná výchova v ČSSR a v iných socialistických krajinách. In Sýkora, F. et al. Didaktika telesnej výchovy, UK, Bratislava, 78-106 Sýkora, F. (1996). Genéza tvorby učebných osnov telesnej výchovy v našom školskom systéme. In Inovácia projektov telesnej
95 výchovy v základných a stredných školách SR, FTVŠ UK, Bratislava, 7-17. Sýkora, F. (1999). Školská telesná výchova v Slovenskej republike po roku 1989 a jej ďalšie perspektívy. In: 60 rokov prípravy telovýchovných pedagógov na UK v Bratislave, FTVŠ UK and VS TVaŠ, Bratislava,184 – 188. Seman, F. et al. (2010). 50 rokov Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu UK 1960 – 2010. Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu UK, Bratislava.
96 SLOVENIA
ANALYSIS OF EXEMPT ABSENCES FROM PHYSICAL EDUCATION LESSONS IN SLOVENIA IN THE PAST AND TODAY
Gregor Jurak, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana Marjeta Kovač, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana
Correspondence Gregor Jurak [email protected] Phone: +386 1 520 77 83
Abstract
A comparison of recommendations from 1911 curriculum with modern legislation today revealed that in the last 100 years in Slovenia there has been no significant professional change in approach to exempt absences from physical education (PE) lessons. Recommendations in the last PE curriculum have not yet found their place in legislative practice; namely, the option to be exempt from the entire PE subject still exists despite the contrary guidelines in curriculum. Precise definition of procedures for exemptions and activities, which schools organise for pupils instead, form a part of school regulations. These regulations reveal that their authors do not understand PE curriculum, which include both practical and theoretical contents. A comparison between documents from 1911 and today indicates very similar formulations in contents and length of exempt absence as well as in procedures followed in exemptions. Furthermore, it can be noticed that although PE teachers in the old days did not hold any formal education in comparison with doctors; nevertheless, they had larger competency in exempting pupils and modifying lessons than highly educated PE teachers today.
Key words: physical education, exemption, legislation, curriculum, history, comparison
97 INTRODUCTION
As a result of various positive effects on growth and development every young person should partake in at least one hour of quality physical activity a day; therefore, physical education should be organised in a way that all young people could participate in school programmes (Hardman, 2008). Despite the media presented stereotype about the frequency of exemptions from physical education (PE) during adolescence, data from recent studies in Slovenia show that approximately 0.5% of primary school and 2% of high school pupils present medical letter of exemption (Kolar, 2010), with a third of them being short term exemptions. Pupils are also exempt from practical PE lessons when they are at school in other lessons; the most frequently listed reason being illness or its consequences (Jurak, Kovač, Strel and Starc, 2005a). The introduction of more suitable procedural criteria would reduce the frequency of such cases when pupils ask for exemption (Jurak, Kovač, Strel and Starc, 2005b).
The problem of exemptions from PE lessons is in different countries approached in various ways, depending whether a subject is compulsory or not, characteristics of the curricula and the autonomy of schools; in the majority of western world countries exemption from PE lessons is possible only with doctor’s letter of exemption (Himberg et al., 2003; Pangrazi, 2001).
Slovenian primary school PE curriculum states in a chapter Special-didactic recommendations that no pupils should be exempt from lessons. Teachers should modify the process to the limitations of individual pupil as the experts share an opinion that exercise can be an important therapeutic and rehabilitation tool (Kovač and Novak, 1998, str. 55). Nevertheless, pupils in Slovenia can legally be exempt from various types of education work due to health reasons. Exemptions can be granted for the entire or only a part of the subject and for short or long periods of time.
Always interesting problem of exemptions led the authors in the present study to analyse recommendations from 1911 curriculum for gymnasia and real-gymnasia and then compare them with
98 modern legislation. It was expected for recommendations to differ significantly; therefore, the analysed parameters were listed reasons for exemptions, the contents and length of exemptions, procedure followed in exemptions and the role of PE teacher then and now.
GUIDELINES FOR EXEMPTIONS FROM PHYSICAL EDUCATION HUNDRED YEARS AGO DID NOT DIFFER SIGNIFICANTLY FROM LEGISLATION TODAY
At the beginning of 20th century so-called physical activity was compulsory for boys but not for girls, duration of education in gymnasia lasted eight years and in real-gymnasia seven. Pupils had 45 minutes of physical activity per week and they were taught by physical activity teachers who only had to undertake a short training course. Exercises were carried out following the Sokol system. Curriculum included different contents and recommendations for their realisation, so-called instructions. The way exemption was defined in curricula for all types of gymnasia and real-gymnasia is presented below (Vestnik, Ministry for education and religion, 1911, part XIV., no. 21, pp. 213–249, in Kompara, 2006).
Instruction.
VIII. Exemption from physical activity should be granted to all pupils who could otherwise benefit from spiritual education wished upon the school, yet are due to physical errors permanently or temporarily unable of physical effort. Regardless of that, physical activity cannot be exempted due to unjustified small-mindedness of parents, laziness or resistance of individual pupils, especially after executed disciplinary procedure.
The repute of school demands that in cases, when the real reason wishes to be hidden with imaginary illness, decision is taken with required conscientiousness and factually. In contrast, teacher can find himself in a position when participation in physical activity depends on given permission of a doctor. Doctor needs to decide in all cases where a physical defect is stated by the pupil or observed by teacher himself.
99 Exemptions from physical activity require following procedure: 1. At the beginning of each course, all pupils from same class should assemble at first lesson. Pupils wished to be exempt from physical activity need to contact physical activity teacher, who will instruct them about the following actions. 2. Exemption is executed upon the presented letter from school or local doctor, who works in the area of institution (after a thorough examination). In a letter of exemption doctor should explain in understandable manner the illness of a pupil and simultaneously refer to the length and content of exemption. In certain cases, particularly in illnesses requiring longer monitoring or after long illness, letter of exemption from family doctor is suffice, although the opinion of official doctor can be called upon. 3. Letter of exemption should without an exception be presented to the physical activity teacher, who then forwards them to headmaster together with his personal opinion, reliant on the referral of the doctor. Against the judgment of headmaster an appeal can be lodged to provincial educational authority. 4. Until the request for exemption is not granted, pupils can be required to participate at lessons, but they cannot be allowed or even forced to perform the exercises. 5. Exemption from physical activity lessons can be requested at any time, even during the lesson. Exemptions can take various forms; depending on the contents: a) entire or b) partial; depending on duration: a) permanent, b) annual, c) for one course, d) for several months or weeks, or e) for individual lessons. Full exemption on a permanent basis or for the duration of one year or course also allows pupils to be exempt from their duty to participate at the lessons. In partial exemptions, pupils can be required to participate at lessons and be ranked. 6. Exemption from individual lessons can be granted to pupils by teacher himself; whereupon for regular occurrences in one pupil it is recommended to demand doctor’s letter of exemption and a statement. 7. Physical activity teacher should keep a diligent record about all the exemptions that were granted during the year, in order
100 to report about the status of pupils at any time. Physical activity teacher has to hand over the transcript of the record, together with stated reasons for letter of exemptions, to headmaster. 8. When a pupil is exempt from physical activity temporarily, in his return to activity the severity of the illness has to be considered. In certain circumstances, when the illness could be a reason for permanent exemption, doctor’s letter of exemption can be required in order to allow return to physical activity. 9. In some situations, e.g. insufficient nutrition, particularly after illnesses, school has to apply exemption from physical activity even without parents demanding it or else ask for doctor’s letter of permission. Physical activity teacher has a responsibility to inquire about the quality of pupil’s illness after long-lasting exemptions and the participation cannot be granted immediately. Particular attention should be paid to diseases of heart and lungs, inflammations of thoracic and stomach areas, appendicitis, rheumatism and bone fractures. Additionally, the responsibility of physical activity teacher is also monitoring, whilst performing strenuous exercises (see paragraph V, point d), the degree of respiration needs and the facial colour changes; pupils should be removed from activity when the stated functions are abnormal and further doctor’s examination has to be facilitated.
In all dubious cases teacher has to demand doctor’s letter of permission in order to allow the participation of pupil in physical activity lessons.
LEGISLATION AND GUIDELINES IN MODERN CURRICULA
Exemption due to health reasons is only generally defined in school legislation, as it does not particularly state individual subjects, from which a pupil could be exempt. Detailed procedures are defined in the Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary schools and the Regulations on school order in high schools. PE curricula in the chapter Special-didactic recommendations state that
101 no one should be exempt from PE lessons. When a pupil has health problems, teacher should modify the practice according to the recommendations from the doctor.
Abovementioned regulations define the rights of pupils to attend lessons as well as their responsibilities, procedures related to exemptions at times of absence and particularly the way doctor’s letter of exemption can be issued. Additionally, regulations define responsibilities of pupils, parents, form teachers, physical education teachers, headmasters and doctors.
Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary schools state that attending the lessons is a right of a pupil and the teachers should consider his or her individual particularities. Similarly, Regulations on school order in high schools define that the pupils have a right to be present at quality lessons, where their individual and developmental specifics should be respected. At the same time, regular and punctual attendance at lessons and fulfilment of learning and other commitments is a responsibility of pupils both in primary and high schools. According to the Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary schools, all pupils have to attend the lessons and activities from compulsory programme, whereas Regulations on school order in high schools give pupils a right and responsibility to participate at lessons according to the educational programme, academic calendar, annual school work plan, pedagogic contract, Regulations on modification of academic commitments and other regulations.
When a pupil is absent from school, parents are required to notify a form teacher about the absence; the absence has to be explained in oral or written manner no later than five days after a pupil returns in primary school and in written manner three days after return in high school.
If a pupil is absent from school due to illness for more than five days, form teacher can ask for an official doctor’s letter of absence (set form), justifying the absence. When a form teacher in primary school doubts the authentication of letter of absence, he informs the parents or the doctor issuing the form. If it turns out for
102 the letter of absence to be false, the pupil faces a punishment. In high school, headmaster sets specific rules on mutual notification about absences of pupils from lessons. In high school, a class teacher can exceptionally allow absence from individual lessons although the absence need to be later justified in a written manner.
Pupils in primary school can be exempt from certain lessons due to health reasons. Parents are required to present form teacher letter of exemption and guidelines from health service. Form teacher has to notify a teacher who teaches individual lessons. Pupil is required to participate at these lessons and perform tasks that do not endanger his or her health status according to the guidelines from health service. If a pupil cannot perform any tasks, school has to organise supplementary activities instead (Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary schools, 2004).
When a pupil in high school cannot participate in certain types of lessons due to health reasons, he or she has to present the form teacher a letter of exemption with guidelines. Form teacher in cooperation with school counselling service recommends to headmaster exemption from lessons and the headmaster has the final say in the matter. When a pupil is entirely exempt from participation in lessons at one subject due to health reasons, school can include him in another activity. When the exemption is only partial, teacher in accordance with the guidelines from doctor directs a pupil into individual activity that does not endanger his or her health. Form teacher keeps track about the type and length of exempted absences in prescribed documentation and informs about the case class teachers and other co-workers (Regulations on school order in high schools, 2004).
COMPARISON OF GUIDELINES BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY CURRICULUM IN 1911 AND MODERN LEGISLATION
Incidence of guidelines
In 1911, the guidelines on exempt absences were written at the end of curriculum as instructions or nowadays called didactic
103 recommendations. In 1998, curriculum guidelines are also given in the last chapter – Special-didactic recommendations, although they are very short as the exemption is defined in various regulations. These regulations are directed merely into formal procedures and not into contents and didactic definitions on how the teacher should act when working with exempt pupils.
Reasons for exempt absences
Curriculum from 1911 states that exempt absences are possible as a result of physical defects, which do not allow strenuous physical effort, whilst small-minded parents (not clear definition), laziness or resistance of pupils, particularly after disciplinary procedure (presumably physical punishment) were not considered as justified reasons for exemption. These cases are listed in curriculum as false exemptions, which are also known in present day although with different reasons for their abuse (Jurak et al., 2005a).
Modern legislation lists illness as a reason for exempt absence. It does not have be seen as a physical defect, as today many known illnesses were not thought of or recognised hundred years ago. Furthermore, modern life instigated numerous new illnesses. Pupils can nowadays practice with lesser effort and the teachers can monitor exercising with heart rate monitors. Today, some parents are still not open-minded about the importance of physical activity. As a result, parents of some children with certain malfunctions in development or long-term illnesses prefer to present health certificates, thinking that they are protecting a child and not understanding that they are causing him or her damage. Laziness and resistance against authority are today, similarly to those in the past, reasons for absences in some young people.
Volume and length of exempt absences
Over a period of hundred years the understanding of the volume of exempt absences has not changed at all (entire, partial), whereas the duration is treated differently today. Namely, pupil cannot present »permanent« letter of exemption; rather, the procedure has to be repeated every year.
104
Procedures regarding exempt absences
In 1911, pupils had to visit physical activity teacher and present him a letter of exemption, who forwarded it to headmaster together with his and reliant on doctor’s opinion. Today, exemptions are administratively more complex; however, despite larger knowledge of PE teachers, they do not have any part in the process, as their opinion is not required anywhere. Exempt absences are namely a matter between the parents and form teacher, whereas headmaster decides about absences (when a pupil is listed as exempt from a certain subject) and only then a form teacher informs the PE teacher about the exemption. PE teacher has to follow doctor’s guidelines although often he is more familiar with a pupil than the doctor.
Nowadays, regulations do not foresee a right to appeal the headmaster’s decision, whereas hundred years ago the appeal could be lodged to then the highest provincial educational authority.
Similarly to hundred years ago, pupils can be exempt only on the basis of doctor’s letter. If in the past letter of exemption was issued by a school or local doctor and in special cases also family doctor, today personal or school doctor can certify the absence of a pupil.
Hundred years ago doctor had to state the illness of a pupil and determine the length and volume of absence. Nowadays, due to the data protection act, letters of absence do not contain diagnosis, which can cause unwelcome complications and can in some cases even be dangerous, if for example teacher does not know about the epilepsy of a pupil.
Hundred years ago, entirely exempt pupils did not participate at lessons whereas partially exempt had to attend when required by school. Today the regulations are contradictory in some cases. Schools can organise another activity for entirely exempt pupil, which is in contradiction with PE curriculum. Namely, in PE pupil
105 can be due to health reasons exempt from practical lessons but not from theoretical contents, which form an important part of lessons.
Over hundred years, there are no significant differences noticed in participation at individual lessons, as documents in both periods state that the organisation of individual lessons and inclusion of partially exempt pupil is the autonomy of a teacher. School practice also indicates different understanding of a term partial exemption. Regulations in both primary and high school do not allow a PE teacher to judge independently how to treat a pupil who is partially exempt, but rather has to acquire doctor’s guidelines and act accordingly. In such cases, it is necessary for a doctor and PE teacher to cooperate in treatment of individual pupil.
Legislation today is empowering parents to write a letter of absence for absences lasting less than five days. Similarly, doctors should add opinion and recommendation for PE teacher on the letter of absence, however in practice this is most often not a case (Jurak et al., 2005b). PE teacher has to unconditionally respect doctor’s letter with guidelines due to health reasons, whereas in cases when pupil presents a letter from parents, he can decide on modification of practice according to his professional competencies. Parents or pupils can only subjectively and with professional limitations detect justification for absence from physical activity due to health reasons, as they are not aware of the ways a teacher can adapt the practice to temporarily limited abilities of pupils (e.g. feeling sick).
As in the past, PE teacher nowadays also has to record absences and types of letters of absence, although they do not need to be presented to the headmaster. In both studied cases, guidelines state that teachers should during and after the illness consider the condition of a pupil and doctor’s guidelines. At least some of the listed illnesses from hundred years ago are today not present anymore, the role of a teacher in detecting illnesses in pupils was emphasised hundred years ago.
106 CONCLUSION
Analysis of recommendations about exempt absences from physical activity in 1911 and legislation as well as didactic recommendations in PE curriculum today indicate that in hundred years there have been no significant changes. It can be also noticed that the role of a PE teacher is today lesser than a century ago.
Modern school legislation defines that a pupil can similarly to hundred years ago be entirely exempt from educational work due to the health reasons, which is contradictory to the recommendations of PE curriculum and the guidelines from health organisations, stating that movement can be a suitable tool of rehabilitation and prevention.
Similarly to hundred years ago, pupils can in PE be exempt entirely or only partially (some contents only), depending on the doctor’s certificate. Entirely exempt absence is also in contradiction with curriculum, which defines that pupils in PE lessons in addition to practical learn also theoretical contents. As a result, dealing with pupil in PE lessons according to the existing regulations is controversial. Both regulations for primary and high school define that primary schools can organise supplementary activity for a pupil who could not perform any tasks, whereas high school can include a pupil exempt for health reasons into another activity. Health letter of exemption namely define absence from practical lessons and not also from theoretical parts, which form an important part of both primary and high school PE curricula.
As a doctor had to write a diagnosis on a health letter of exemption, it is incomprehensive but not infrequent today that PE teacher does not know about a chronic illness of a pupil. In these cases, parents have to be aware of the risk and responsibility for potential negative reactions of pupil to practical lessons.
It has to be warned about the occasional practice when pupils bring health letter of exemption for the entire academic year at the end of the year (particularly in high school). Regulations namely precisely define that a semi-annual or annual health letter of
107 exemption, listing an exempt absence from PE lessons, has to be presented at the beginning of academic year. This instruction was in force already one hundred years ago.
It can be concluded that after hundred years the time has come for legislation to remove entirely exempt absences from PE lessons, at the same time giving the PE teacher larger role in deciding what a pupil can and cannot perform in lessons and how pupils can be helped in cases of certain health limitations.
REFERENCES
Hardman, K. (2008). Physical education in schools and PETE programmes in the European context: Quality issues. In M. Kovač, G. Starc in K. Bizjak (eds.), 4th International Symposium Youth Sport 2008 – The Heart of Europe, pp. 9–26. Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport. Himberg, C., Hutchinson, G.E., Roussell, J.M. (2003). Teaching Secondary Physical Education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Jurak, G., Kovač, M., Strel, J., Starc, G. (2005a). Analiza opravičevanja pri športni vzgoji [Analysis of the excuses from Physical Education classes atendance] In Slovenian. Šport, 53(3), 13-20. Jurak, G., Kovač, M., Strel, J., Starc, G. (2005b). Kako zmanjšati opravičevanje pri športni vzgoji [How to reduce requests to be excused from attending Physical Education] In Slovenian. Šport, 53(3), 21-27. Kolar, B. (2010). Opravičila od pouka športne vzgoje [Excuses from Physical Education classes]. In J. Dolinšek (ed.), Proceedings of international congress Child in motion and XX. symposium of paediatricians, pp. 65–66. Maribor: University Medical Centre. Kompara, A. (2006). Gimnastika v učnih načrtih športne vzgoje osnovnih in srednjih šol do leta 1941. Diplomsko delo, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport. Kovač, M., Novak, D. (1998). Učni načrt: program osnovnošolskega izobraževanja. Športna vzgoja. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za šolstvo, znanost in šport in Zavod RS za šolstvo.
108 Pangrazi, R. P. (2001). Dynamic Physical Education for elementary school children. 13th edition. Toronto: Allyn and Bacon. Pravilnik o pravicah in dolžnostih učencev v osnovni šoli [Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary schools]. Uradni list RS, št. 75/2004. Pravilnik o šolskem redu v srednjih šolah [Regulations on school order in high schools]. Uradni list RS, št. 82/2004.
109 SPAIN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN CONTEXTS OF DEMOCRATISATION: THE CASE OF SPAIN DURING THE POLITICAL TRANSITION (1975-1982)
Sixte Abadia i Naudí, Blanquerna Faculty of Psychology, Education and Sport Sciences, Ramon Llull University Enric Maria Sebastiani i Obrador, Blanquerna Faculty of Psychology, Education and Sport Sciences, Ramon Llull University
Correspondence Sixte Abadia i Naudí [email protected] Phone: 0034 606126256
Introduction
As an expression of modern society, historical research into the phenomenon of sport and physical education is necessary in order to understand the social, political and cultural context in which they take place. In the case of Spain, an analysis of the political transition (1975-1982) as a period characterised by political and social instability is particularly interesting as a way to interpret the evolution and current status of sport and physical education in this country. The status of sport during this period has barely been studied from the historiographic standpoint, with the exception of contributions by authors like Núria Puig (1993, 1995), Xavier Pujadas and Carles Santacana (1995, 1999), Conrad Vilanou (1994) and Abadia (2011). This article aims to rectify the lack of studies focusing on sport and physical education during a period of change, as was Spain’s political transition. After the 1960s, the phenomenon of sport became a mass social activity and habit of the citizens of this country (García,
110 2006), so the political transition was a crucial period in this transformation. That was when the notion of sport for all emerged and the ideal conditions to start a process of sport democratisation were put into place (Puig, 1995) as a consequence of the promotional actions spearheaded by sport entities, social movements and especially the public authorities. In this reflection, we shall try to show how the process of political democratisation that occurred during Spain’s political transition prompted a series of profound transformations in the spheres of physical education and sport in terms of both the stance of the government bodies and the gradual regulation of both fields. In terms of methodology, this study has been approached from a hermeneutic standpoint based on the analysis of secondary sources focused on studying the political transition, sport and physical education, as well as periodical sources on sport topics.
The gradual restructuring of Spanish sport
The death of the dictator Francisco Franco signalled the end of the dictatorship imposed after the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the beginning of a new period characterised by uncertainty and profound social, economic and political transformations in Spain. At the start of this period, which is called the political transition, the status of sport in this country was quite lacking, as stated in a 1975 study conducted by ICSA-Gallup: even though people considered sport a social necessity, there were major hindrances to accessing sport and little interest by the authorities in changing this (ICSA- Gallup, 1975). Indeed, the shift in the mindset and basic values of Spanish society towards modernity and democracy, coupled with economic growth, made it possible for the Spanish people to access sport despite the position of the Franco regime. This regime continued to earmark so little money to this sphere – and what it did earmark went primarily to competitive sport – that the collapse of the Franco-era sport system was inevitable even the waning years of the dictatorship (Pujadas & Santacana, 1995). This paradoxical situation was also the norm during the early years of Spain’s political transition, when there were serious shortcomings in policies aimed at fostering access to sport and physical education. Thus, by late 1975 the criticism of the
111 government’s approach to sport concerned not only the lack of sport facilities but also the shortage of teachers and facilities and the failure to enforce the 1961 Law on Physical Education (Se hace camino al andar, 1974, 5). In the course of the political transition, there was a series of changes, initially with the political representatives becoming more favourable to expanding policies in both spheres, and later with the approval of a regulation that would allow the foundations to be laid for a definitive impetus for both sport and physical education.
The advent of a new discourse on physical education and sport early in the political transition (1975-1978)
Despite the increase in the budget earmarked for sport in Spain in 1976, 5.238 billion pesetas, the most significant aspects of this new stage was the appearance of a discourse around sport and physical education which advocated restructuring and democratising them. These came from Tomás Pelayo Ros, the head of the National Delegation of Physical Education and Sport (Delegación Nacional de Educación Física y Deportes, DNEFyD) from mid-1975 until September 1976. This restructuring perspective was influenced by several initiatives – seminars, working groups, etc. – launched in 1974 and by international positions on sport, as shown by the First International Conference of Minister and Senior Officials for Physical Education and Sport organised by UNESCO in April 1976, and the European Sport for All Charter approved by the Council of Europe in 1976. This shift in position was accentuated after September 1976 when Pelayo Ros was replaced by Benito Castejón, the mastermind behind the restructuring of Spanish sport during the two-year period from 1977 to 1978. Some of the programmatic points he mentioned when he took over the position included the unity and social and political importance of sport, the need to plan Spanish sport and encourage it to spread as a right of all citizens, and the desire to call an assembly on sport to establish the avenues of this restructuring. Castejón, who was still the head of the DNEFyD, stated that “from now on, physical education and sport for all are basic objectives in accordance with the Council of Europe’s Charter on Sport” (programmatic declaration of the National Sports Delegation,
112 D.N.D., 1976, 3). Shortly thereafter, as the director of the National Sport Council (Consejo Superior de Deportes, CSD), a body created in August 1977 after the disappearance of the DNEFyD, Castejón posed three avenues of action corresponding to “an area of physical education and promotion, a second area of technification and a final competitive area” (Astruells, 1977, 32). However, they were conditioned by the concurrent context of economic instability worldwide after 1973, which only served to aggravate the socio- political uncertainty in the country. Some examples of this shift that started with the disappearance of the DNEFyD and were fostered by the creation of the CSD were three courses held in the city of Barcelona in the months of December, 1978, to January, 1979, two revolving around school sport – the “Course for School Sport Directors” and the “Retraining Course on School Physical Education” – and one around sport for all – the “Monographic ‘Sport for All’ Course” (Cursos del CSD en Barcelona, 1978, 30). In the case of physical education, this model upheld by Castejón of attaching more importance of citizens’ gaining mass access to sport translated into the desire for “physical education and sport to be an area of specialisation for all legal purposes, just like the other areas in general basic education” (La educación física debe ser materia de especialización a todos los efectos legales, 1977, 30). Unfortunately, these approaches did not seem to satisfy the students and teachers at the National Physical Education Institute (Instituto Nacional de Educación Física, INEF) in Madrid and Barcelona, who decided to halt their activities in order to resolve the main problem in the sector: recognition of degrees and their equality with the other degrees in the field of education (Massó, 1977, 13). The differences of opinion in the negotiations with the public administration and the impossibility of reaching an understanding led to a total indefinite strike started by physical education teachers in the province of Barcelona in late 1977. Their goal of standardising their professional status received the support and solidarity of students at Barcelona’s INEF, who shut down the centre’s facilities for 24 hours. One of the spheres of sport that reflected and highlighted certain shortcomings after 1977 was physical education. The fact that sport education in childhood “was hobbled” as a result of the fact that “at general basic education schools, not only is there one teacher for all the classes, who can therefore spend little time with each of
113 them, but these teachers also lack the right degrees” (Tarín, 1977, 2) also revealed the need to consider establishing degrees that would bring these professionals’ status in line with that of their counterparts in other disciplines. Indeed, from 1977 to 1978, the field of physical education was characterised by increased claims by professionals for better regulation of the sector and for agreements on this matter reached with the public administration. Thus, in March 1977 an association of physical education professionals was established which did not work at odds with the National College of Physical Education Teachers (Colegio Nacional de Profesores de la Educación Física) but instead went further by asking this subject to depend on the Ministry of Education and Science instead of on the General Secretariat of Movement (Secretaría General del Movimiento), as it did then, as well as this Ministry’s recognition of the degree and salary parity with the other teachers. Its bylaws were approved by the Council of Ministers on the 3rd of November 1978 under the name of the Official College of Physical Education Teachers (Colegio Oficial de Profesores de Educación Física). As we shall see below, as Law 13/1980, the General Law on Physical Culture and Sport was being drafted, once again the teachers and students at the INEF in Barcelona and Madrid called for improvements in the job status of physical education professionals. Therefore, Spanish citizens witnessed how not many changes took place in the early years of the transition, nor did the transformations needed to overcome the shortcomings that would make possible massive participation in sport and the ideal conditions for high-quality physical education. Even though there were changes in the discourses and political positions around these matters, Spanish citizens would have to wait until the second half of the transition for a clear sport policy to get underway, one that therefore signalled a break with the previous approaches.
The regulation of physical education and sport in Spain, a slow road towards normalisation begun during the political transition (1978-1982)
Two of the most important milestones towards promoting and regulating sport and physical education were the approval of the
114 Spanish Constitution and Law 13/1980, the General Law on Physical Culture and Sport. Prior to this, we should highlight two initiatives with the characteristic widespread participation of the era, which were also important in the democratising process of the country and which conditioned the government’s position on sport and physical education: the Congress of Catalan Culture and the General Assembly on Sport. The course on Sport and Leisure at the Congress of Catalan Culture ended on the 9th of October 1977 with a series of conclusions regarding school, social and competitive sport. They identified the need to consider sport as a citizen right whose educational and recreational facets could influence the citizenry’s physical and psychological wellbeing (Congrés de Cultura Catalana, 1978). At the same time, with regard to physical education and school sport, these conclusions noted virtually no practice of sport at schools, the enormous difficulty finding physical education teachers and therefore the need to intensify physical education taught by specialists at schools. Broadly speaking, the conclusions of this course on Sport and Leisure concurred with the position of the official bodies. The need to encourage a wider practice of sport both educationally and recreationally and to stop overstating the importance of professional sport – until then the sole focus on public policies – was characteristic postulates of the discourses of most of the sport agents in the country during the early years of the democratic transition. On a statewide scale, in late 1977, too, the 1st General Assembly on Sport was held in Madrid, which was organised into seven courses (Alfil, 1977a) and was closed by Benito Castejón on the 17th of December of that same year. At this gathering, which was condemned by seven political parties because of a lack of representativeness and internal manipulation (Alfil, 1977b), the conclusions included the need to have a law on sport that fit the current needs and to regulate and organise physical education in the educational system. It also offered important insights on the need for the state to make a massive contribution to the phenomenon of sport, since “the contribution should not only be moral or legal but also economic” (Esto es una apertura al futuro del deporte, 1997, 14). It further concluded that independence should govern sport policy and that “facilities for ‘sport for all’, to which spectacle sport and high-
115 performance sport should be subordinated” were urgently needed (Alfil, 1977c, 20). In short, the positions of the Congress of Catalan Culture and the General Assembly on Sport dovetailed with those of the representatives of state sport in the sense that they both revealed virtually endemic shortcomings in sport and physical education in Spain. Therefore, beyond the change in discourse and position towards this matter, the government bodies had to take greater responsibility in order to contribute to the definitive expansion of sport and physical education, which had primarily been the responsibility of associations until then. To this end, the approval of the Spanish Constitution and the General Law on Physical Culture and Sport served as the underpinning of subsequent sport and physical education policies in Spain. Specifically, the Spanish Constitution was passed on the 31st of October 1978, and shortly thereafter, on the 6th of December, it was approved by citizens with 87.9% of votes in favour (Segura, 2000). This text was grounded upon five principles, namely the democratic state, the rule of law, the social state, the parliamentary monarchy and the state of the autonomies – the latter the most controversial one, dovetailing with the approval of the draft Statute of Autonomy in the Parliament of Catalonia on the 29th of December 1978. Its approval led to the spread of the process of autonomy, starting what was called ‘coffee for all’ which strove to dilute the uniqueness of Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia. Regarding sport and physical education, this constitutional text was crucial in recognising citizens’ right to sport through article 43.4, which stated that “the public powers shall encourage health education, physical education and sport. They shall also encourage the proper use of free time” (Martín, 1996, 107). Its approval on the 6th of December 1978 came at a time of enormous sensibility towards collective shortcomings (Puig & Heinemann, 1995). After the approval of the Spanish Constitution, we should stress the importance of Law 13/1980, the General Law on Physical Culture and Sport. The purpose of this law, whose embryo was the aforementioned General Assembly on Sport (1977), and which replaced the 1961 Law on Physical Education, was to “spearhead, guide and coordinate physical education and sport as crucial factors in the education and holistic development of the individual” (Law
116 13/1980, dated the 31st of March 1980, the General Law on Physical Culture and Sport). It also made sport for all a priority in general sport policy. This text was “the first attempt to change the structures of Spanish sport” (Puig, 1993, 98) and its main points included the compulsory nature of physical education at different levels of education, the organisation and competences of the CSD and the Spanish Olympic Committee (COE), the assignment of no less than 22% of total proceeds from Mutual Sport-Charity Wagers to the CSD, university status for the National Institutes of Physical Education (INEF) and the declaration of the principle of decentralisation in the government organisation to promote sport. This last principle formed the underpinning of the actions of the autonomous communities, the provincial councils and the island and municipal councils (Pastor, 2000). Regarding the status of physical education, the months prior to the approval of the law were tinged with controversy since the teachers and students at the INEF in Madrid (1967) and Barcelona (1975) believed that the status of professionals in this field was not fully enough specified, nor were the possibilities of accessing and converting degrees (Calatayud, 2002). Beyond the aforementioned law, some progress was made in physical education and the status of professionals in this sector during the transition, such as the creation of the Official College of Physical Education Teachers (RD 2957/1978) and the approval of Royal Decree 790/1981 on National Physical Education Institutes and the education they provide. Thus, the last years of the political transition were important in the regulation of physical education and sport in Spain, forming the peak of the democratisation of sport, which also came hand in hand with a process of decentralisation and the assumption of responsibility for sport matters by the autonomous communities, provinces and municipalities of Spain.
Conclusions
Most of the organisational and structural changes in Spanish sport came during the first few years after the dictatorship, and despite the paltry progress in the statuses of physical education and sport in the country during this period, they were extraordinarily important in consolidating democracy and the process of expanding
117 sport. Most of these transformations, which took place between 1977 and 1980, fostered the democratisation and decentralisation of government sport bodies, fostering participation in sport in line with the postulates of the Council of Europe. The need to have a law on sport and a regular, recognised physical education sector, as well as the recognition of all citizens’ right to access sport expressed in the articles of the Spanish Constitution were the outcome of the new approaches to these issues.
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abadia, S. (2011). Deporte, ciudadanía y libertad: la transición política en España y el deporte (1975-1982). In X. Pujadas (Coord.), Atletas y ciudadanos. Historia social del deporte en España: 1870-2010 (pp. 357-392). Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Alfil (1977a, 16 December). La Asamblea Nacional hacia un nuevo concepto de deporte. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 3. Alfil (1977b, 18 December). Siete partidos políticos no aceptan las conclusiones. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 14. Alfil (1977c, 17 December). Con el pleno termina la I Asamblea del Deporte. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 20. Astruells, A. (1977, 21 September). Benito Castejón, con las cartas boca arriba. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 23. Calatayud, F. (2002). De la gimnasia de Amorós al deporte de masas (1770-1993). Una aproximación histórica a la educación física y el deporte en España. Valencia: Valencia Town Hall. Congrés de Cultura Catalana (1978). Resolucions III. Barcelona: Congrés de Cultura Catalana. Cursos del CSD en Barcelona (1978, 26 November). El Mundo Deportivo, p. 30. Declaración programática de la D.N.D. (1976, 3 October). El Mundo Deportivo, p. 3. “Esto es una apertura al futuro del deporte” (1977, 18 December). El Mundo Deportivo, p. 14.
118 García, M. (2006). Veinticinco años de análisis del comportamiento deportivo de la población española (1980-2005). Revista Internacional de Sociología, 44, 15-38. ICSA-Gallup (1975). El Español y el Deporte: datos de una encuesta. Madrid: Delegación Nacional de EF y Deportes. La educación física debe ser materia de especialización a todos los efectos legales (1977, 20 July). El Mundo Deportivo, p. 30. Law 13/1980, dated 31 March, Ley General de la Cultura Física y del Deporte. Martín, L. (Ed.). (1996). Constitución Española. Pamplona: Aranzadi. Massó, J. (1977, 2 April). I.N.E.F., en paro, requiere urgente solución. Dicen..., p. 13. Pastor, J. L. (2000). Definición y desarrollo del espacio profesional de la Educación Física en España (1961-1990). Madrid: Universidad de Alcalá. Puig, N. (1993). Revisión histórica de la política deportiva en España, lecciones que se pueden extraer de cara al futuro. At the 3º Encuentros de política deportiva (pp. 93-105). Barakaldo: Instituto Municipal de Deportes. Barakado Town Hall. Puig, N. (1995). Esport i societat a Catalunya. In L’Associacionisme i l’esport (pp. 251-264). Barcelona: Secretaria General de l’Esport. Puig, N. and Heinemann, K. (1995). Institucions públiques i desenvolupament de l’esport a Catalunya (1975-1994). Proposta d’un marc teòric interpretatiu. Acàcia, 4, 123- 143. Pujadas, X. and Santacana, C. (1999). Esport, espai i societat en la formació urbana de Barcelona (1870-1992). Barcelona: Fundació Barcelona Olímpica. Pujadas, X. and Santacana, C. (1995). Història il·lustrada de l’esport a Catalunya. Vol. 2, (1931-1975). Barcelona: Columna- Diputació. Se hace camino al andar (1974, 24 November). Don Balón 4, p. 5. Segura, A. (2000). Memòria i història de la transició. In R. Aracil and A. Segura (Ed.), Memòria de la transició a Espanya i
119 a Catalunya (pp. 11-66). Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. Tarín, M. (1977, 21 January). Benito Castejón: deporte sin patetismos. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 2. Vilanou, C. (1994). L’esport a Sants-Montjuïc. Una visió històrica (1883-1994). Barcelona: Arxiu Municipal del Districte de Sants-Montjuïc.
120 TURKEY
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN TURKEY
Giyasettin Demirhan, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Hacettepe University, Ankara Ferman Konukman, College of Arts and Sciences, Sport Science Program, Qatar University, Doha
Correspondence Giyasettin Demirhan [email protected] Phone: 90 532 382 5352
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to review the historical development of physical education in Turkey up to modern times. In the process, beginning from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic of Turkey, the early physical education courses were offered in Military High School in 1864 and in Navy High Schools since 1884. Application of physical education courses into other program areas. Teacher education accelerated by the foundation of the young Turkish Republic. The first course to train physical education teachers was offered at Çapa Girls Teacher Training School in Istanbul in 1926. In 1932 Gazi Teacher Training School and Terbiye Institution Physical Education Training branch were established in Ankara. Recently, more than 70 higher education institutions have begun providing such services. Physical education courses at primary, secondary and higher education levels are being offered two-five hours weekly including extra curricular activities such as scouting and sport organizations among the schools.
Key Words: Physical education, physical education teacher education.
121
Sports is the literature of the physical education, physical education is a branch of public health, and gymnastics is language of the physical education. Movement is a sort of nourishment for the body. If less, it does not feed, if too much, it does harm. Selim Sirri Tarcan (1932-1943)
Physical Education in Schools
It is known that in the period ranging from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic of Turkey, early physical education courses were offered in Military High Schools in 1864 and in Navy High Schools in 1884 (Abali, 1974, pp. 95). In 1869, National Education General Directorate listed “Gymnastics” as a course offering. Also during this early period the Galatasaray High School offered a physical education course that was taught by French teachers (Kahraman, 1995, pp. 641). The most significant figure in the organization of physical education theory in Turkey was Selim Sirri Tarcan. Tarcan began to work in the Military Forces after finishing his education in Sweden. Then he was assigned to the Ministry of Education as physical education inspector in July 14, 1910. But as there was no physical education course, he asked, “What will I inspect?” The minister’s reply was interesting: “You will be both founder and inspector. We have improved the Male’s Teacher School. Now its program includes physical education courses twice each week. You will give lectures there and train teachers. We will consider Girl’s School later” (Tarcan, 1946, pp.47). Consequently, physical education began to be considered in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In 1911, physical education courses began to be offered in the first and second years of high schools as an optional course. In 1913, “Physical Education and School Plays” courses appeared in primary schools (Okan, 1975, pp.8). Tarcan was trying to achieve his goals while fighting against two fronts: Conservatism and the proponents of old gymnastics “(Asir, 1950, pp.68). Near the end of the Ottoman Empire, around 1916 and 1917, two views were dominant regarding physical education. The first was “John Amaros Gymnastics” that appeared as result of the impact of the Amaros Gymnastics. The second was the “Swedish Gymnastics” that was supported by Tarcan
122
and made widespread by Pehr Henrik Ling. In contrast to the Amaros approach, the Swedish gymnastics was argued to be easer, soft. Thus, it could be stated that Swedish Gymnastics approach aims at health. Faik Ustunidman, one of the proponents of Amaros Gymnastics and a physical education teacher, considered Swedish Gymnastics to be for woman (Aray, 1959, pp. 80-81). However, Tarcan (1940, pp. 85-88) stated that Swedish Gymnastics depended heavily on training, physiology and anatomy. For Tarcan, its aim was to provide coherence of the body. This view assumed that the public should accept physical education and sports work.
Picture 1: From Selim Sirri Tarcan’s Album
In 1983, physical education courses began to be offered as an optional course in universities. The policy is still in effect today. In elementary, secondary and high schools, physical education courses were required for a long time in Turkey, and are required today. The courses are offered five hours during the first three years of basic education, two hours in the fourth-eight grades and two hours in high
123
schools. In 2014, there were 17,532,088 students and 37,000 physical education teachers in 56,506 schools (TUIK, 2015). The number of students per teacher is 438. The number of teachers per school is 0,65. There are significant imbalance regarding the number of teachers and their distribution among schools. Today, especially in the western world, a standard-based curriculum is more common than the traditional curriculum. According to this approach, the curriculum standards are determined and it is assumed that children and adolescents will achieve those standards at the end of the education process. The following question can be asked here, “What is the meaning of standard?” Standard is a rule or principle that is teaches students what they need to know in a quality physical education and sport program (NASPE, 2012). It can be seen that there is not a big difference between the standards of Physical Education Curriculum in different countries like Turkey as follows (MEB, 2007; 2013): The students have certain competences in movement patterns and kinesthetic skills in order to participate in physical activities. While they learn and perform physical activities, they acknowledge the concepts, principles, rules, strategies and tactics related to movement. The students participate in and maintain physical activities to an extent that will keep them healthy. The students participate in physical activities regularly. The students perform responsible personal and social behaviors during the physical activities. When implement the lessons, physical education teachers should establish a relationship with the standards and conduct their lessons taking into consideration the ages and developmental characteristics of children and adolescents in light of the learning fields in physical education. The main learning fields are movement skills, knowledge, active participation and healthy life. Motor skills and knowledge consist of athletic activities, gymnastics, dance, games, swimming and outdoor-adventure activities. Active participation and healthy life include regular physical activity related to health. The lessons are conducted according to the weight of the mentioned fields; the assessment and evaluation activities are conducted at the end of the lessons (Demirhan and Saçlı, 2013).
124
The most important factor in conducting a physical education lesson, with regard to the curriculum, is to enable participation and to develop the skills of the individuals according to their own capacities. Individuals with more developed skills will be more participative. Being participant means having the basic physical skills. According to Whitehead (2000, pp.16), the participative individual has physical literacy and is considered physically educated. An individual with the abovementioned characteristics is assumed to participate in physical activities that s/he has learnt in the physical education lessons at school, or in other activities related to the physical education course after s/he has graduated. Therefore, physical education lessons and extra-curricular activities should be conducted on a quality basis. This is possible only with qualified physical education teachers conducting quality lessons. As the teachers are educated in higher education institutions, objectives and contents of the physical education teacher education programs should be consistent with physical education curriculums at schools. Otherwise, the situation would be similar to restaurants with fabulous cooks, but only a few customers (Demirhan and Sacli, 2013).
Physical Education Teacher Education Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of young Turkey, emphasized education as a main force to establish modern Turkish society. During that time, teachers were key elements reform, and they had better economic and moral living conditions (Karagozoglu, 1991). During this period, American Educator John Dewey was invited by the Turkish government in 1924 to promote educational reform. Dewey spent three months in Turkey and prepared a report about the Turkish education system. He recommended that the Ministry of Education follow leadership toward more progressive and effective modern schools in order to promote the needs of a contemporary nation (Brickman, 1984-1985). Dewey’s report indicated that the main purpose of the Turkish educational system was to achieve an independent Turkey in the contemporary world (Bursalioglu, 1991). During the early decades of the 20th century, physical education was a field of men because of the previous socio-cultural structure of the Ottoman Empire. Although some efforts were made
125
to include women in such activities, these efforts were unwanted by religious authorities of the period. “The First Science Council” was forced to delay its activities in 1922. It resumed work during July and August of 1923. Tarcan was also a member of that council (Yucel, 1994 pp.21). The fifth article of the council’s work concerned “Scouting and Physical Education”. While designing the activity program, the council considered “High School Scouting Administration Principles” and a Physical Education Boys’ Teacher School”. These were incorporated into the design of the program (Dagli and Akturk, 1988, pp.16). After that it was planned to open a physical education teacher school in 1926. A sports complex near Çapa Girls’ Teacher School in Istanbul was completed and a Gymnastics Teacher Program was started. It presented theoretical and applied courses for both males and females for a one-year period. Tarcan was the administrator of the program. Three Swedish teachers were assigned to the program, Inge Neiman, Rangar Johonson and Suen Alexanderson.
Picture 2: Selim Sirri Tarcan, Inge Neiman, Rangar Johonson, Suen Alexanderson and Women Gymnastics Teachers
The training program included courses about the theory and application of physical education, physiology, anatomy, rough behaviors, public health, the sport theory, and applied courses. Primary school teachers trained in physical education and with a strong ability and desire were invited to participate. Those who
126
passed the professional ability test participated in three months of theoretical and applied courses. After three months, the participants take another exam. Those who passed the exam continued to participate in the course for another three months. Those who completed the course successfully were assigned as “Physical Education Teachers” at the secondary school level (Guven, 1996, pp.75). From these courses, 148 men and 63 women graduated (Bilge, 1989, pp.67). Those who successfully passed the final exam were sent abroad for further education (Abali, 1974, pp.96). During the beginning of the course, Tarcan wrote a guide for physical education teacher. Tarcan discussed how to teach movements, how to organize sports activities, and problems related to equipment in this guide. Also, the guide argued the notion of “neither an ill thinker, nor an unwise wrestler” (Karakucuk, 1992, pp.50). As a result of the growing need for physical education teachers, “Gazi Secondary Teacher School and Physical Education Department” was founded in 1932 (Yucel, 1994, pp.83). This program was chaired by German Kurt Dainas. The lecturers at the school were all Tarcan’s students. The program, which lasted three years, could be regarded as a continuation of the earlier program. Some of the courses included in the second program were, theory of gymnastics, methods of teaching, sports and games, anatomy, and foreign language (Karatun, 1973). The program was re-designed to require only two years of study in 1945 but it was changed back to three years in 1948. As physical education became more wide spread in Turkey, more programs were founded The Atatürk Education Institution was started in Istanbul in 1974. In 1975 and 1976, Youth and Sports Academies were founded in Ankara, Istanbul and Manisa respectively to teach sport managers. During 1978 and 1982, these institutions were all converted into Higher Teacher Education Schools. Also the Ege University School of Physical Education and Sports was established in 1976 in Izmir and the Middle East Technical University Physical Education, Sports and Recreation Department was founded in 1979. Parallel to these developments in higher education, the academies were attached to the Department of Physical Education and Sports in 1982. During this period, there were only four physical
127
education teacher training departments. In 1989, another department was established at Hacettepe University in Ankara, the School of Sports Sciences and Technology. By 1992 the number of physical education teacher education schools had grown to 14. In 2000, there are 47 such departments and school about physical education and sport. Now, in 2015, there are more than 70. In the meantime, in 2014, six schools were established as Faculty of Sport Sciences. Physical Education Teacher Education is one of the departments of the new organization. The duration of all programs is four years. An analysis of the curriculum of these programs showed that the courses of general culture include, Turkish language, foreign language, research methods, etc. Those of subject matter knowledge contain physiology, anatomy, and psychology, as well as skill domain such as soccer, basketball, educational games, health related fitness, etc. The courses within the Teaching Profession Knowledge area are teaching methods, class management, educational, psychology, material development and design and school application etc.
Conclusion
When it comes to physical education and physical education teachers, physical education activities, which will support the health and holistic development of children and adolescents, and make them happy as well as healthy, should be carefully designed, and highly qualified physical education teachers should be educated in their profession. Therefore, when children and young people participate to the daily physical education in school regularly, they will become a physically educated people. This is important because physically-educated person has learnt the necessary skills for certain physical activities, is physically fit, participates in and enjoys physical education skills, knows the importance and advantages of participating in physical activities, cares healthy life style, understands the contribution of physical education to personal and social development, and takes individual and social responsibility during the physical education lessons. In this context, the estimation of future physical education and PETE programs to be conducted are given below:
128
Physical education teachers and teacher educators will include health-related physical education and information communication technology in order to improve student learning. Physical education teachers and teacher educators will improve and develop their teaching skills and knowledge continuously. University teaching staff will be specialized even more in physical education, physical activity, recreation, exercise, and sub-disciplines of human movement and sports sciences. Distance education will grow up in higher education. Teachers will be active in educating and leading instead of being regular physical education teachers. Outdoor-adventure activities and swimming will gain more attention because of complicated city life. Extra-curricular physical education programs will be increased. Physical education teachers will want to have different certificates related to physical activities and exercise. Physical education teacher education and adapted physical education teacher education will increase. School practice will be more important for pre-service teachers. As a result, physical education should be explained in relation to schools, students and physical education teachers. Because, physical education curriculums in schools consist of basic movement skills, specialized movement skills, sports skills and health related fitness. Physical education teacher education program is affected by the expectations and the culture of a society. Changes in school practices and the contents of physical education within a socially transformative period also shape the contents of a physical education teacher education program.
129
REFERENCES
Abali, A. (1974). Cumhuriyetimizin 50. yilinda genclik ve spor (Sport and youth in 50th Republic of Turkey). Ankara: T. C. Genclik ve Spor Bakanligi. Aray, S. (1959). Bir Galatasarayli'nin hatiralari (The memories of a Galatasaray supporter). Izmir. Asir, V. (1950). "Selim Sirri Tarcan". Dost goz ile 75 yasinda genc Selim Sirri Tarcan. (Selim Sirri Tarcan who is 75 years old young). Istanbul: Ulku Basimevi, 53-71. August 2012). Bilge, N. (1988). Turkiye'de beden egitimi ogretmeninin yetistirilmesi. (Physical education teacher training in Turkey). Ankara: Kultur Bakanligi Yayinlari. Brickman, W.W. (1984-85). The Turkish cultural and educational revolution: John Dewey’s report of 1924. Eastern European Education, 16, (4), 3-18. Bursalioglu, Z. (1991). Turkey. handbook of world education : A comparative guide to higher education and educational systems of the world. (Ed. W.Wickremasinghe). Houston: American Collegiate Service. Dagli, N. & Akturk, B. (1988). Hukumetler ve programlari (Turkish governments and their programmes). Ankara: T.B.M.M. Basimevi. Demirhan, G. & Sacli, F. (2013). Physical education in Turkey in the context of society with the culture of movement, Physical education and health global perspectives and best practice (Eds. M.K. Chin & C.R. Edginton). Urbana: Sagamore Publishing, 441-450. Guven, O. (1996). Turkiye'de Cumhuriyet doneminde beden egitimi ve spor ogretmeni yetistiren okullarin egitimini hazirlayan calismalar (Preparing studies on education for training schools of physical education and sports teachers during the period of declaration of Turkish Republic). Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, 1(2), 70-81. http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/standards/nationalStandard s/PETEstandards.cfm (Access date: 17 Kahraman, A. (1995). Osmanli devletinde spor (Sport in the Ottoman Empire). Ankara: Kultur Bakanligi Yayinlari.
130
Karagozoglu, G. (1991). Teacher education reform in Turkey. Action in teacher education, 13(3), 26-29. Karakucuk, S. (1992). Turk spor kurumu dergisi. (Journal of Turkish Sport Institute). 1936-1938. Ankara: TDFO, 72. Karatun, O. (1973). Physical education in Turkey. (Ed. D.S. Ainsworth). Physical education around the world. PHI Epsilon Fraternity, 6, 53-62. leri_Kitab%C4%B1_genel_yeterlikler_par%C3%A7a_2.pdf (Access date: 17 August 2015). MEB (Ministry of National Education) (2012). Ogretmen yeterlikleri (Teacher qualification). http://otmg.meb.gov.tr/belgeler/ogretmen_yeterlikleri_kita bi/%C3%96%C4%9Fretmen_Yeterli MEB (Ministry of National Education). (2007). Beden eğitimi ogretim programi (Elementary physical education curriculum). Ankara: Milli Egitim Bakanligi. NASPE (2012). National standards & guidelines for physical education teacher education Okan, K. (1975). Turk spor tarihi. (Turkish sport history). Ankara: Mektupla Ogretim Yayini. Tarcan, S.S. (1932). Beden terbiyesi: Oyun, cimnastik, spor (Physical education: Play, gymnastics, sport). Istanbul: Devlet Matbaasi, 50. Tarcan, S.S. (1940). Simalin uc irfan diyari: Finlandiya, Isvec, Danimarka. (Three comprehensive countries of west). Istanbul: Ulku Basimevi. Tarcan, S.S. (1943). Spor pedagojisi (Sport pedagogy). Istanbul: Cumhuriyet Matbaasi, 18, 21. Tarcan, S.S. (1946). Hatiralarim. (My memories). Istanbul: Turkiye Yayinevi. TUIK. (2015). Egitim istatistikleri (Education statistics). http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1018 (Access date: 14 February 2015). Whitehead, M. (2000). Aims as an issue in physical education. Issues in physical education (Eds S. Capel & S. Piotrowski). London, New York: Roudledge/Falmer Taylor & Francis Group.
131
Yucel, H.A. (1994). Turkiye'de orta ogretim (Secondary school education in Turkey). Ankara: Kultur Bakanligi Yayinlari.
132 UKRAINE
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN UKRAINE
Sergii Ivashchenko, National University of the Physical Education and Sport of Ukraine
Correspondence Sergii Ivashchenko [email protected]
During the Middle Ages on the territory of modern Ukraine was carried out the original system of physical education of young people in the region of Zaporizhskaya Sich (Guba V., 2008). This original system of physical training, designed for Zaporizhsky Cossacks, was provided not only for the development of some basic physical qualities of people, but also to instilling in them the special moral and psychological characteristics necessary for successful warfare (devotion to duty, endurance, courage, discipline, resistance to torture , etc.). The specificity of this training system was to use more and more difficult exercises (in terms of intensity of physical activity and the complexity of motor actions), as well as the rejection of any frills and amenities, and the formation of habits to perform combat work in extreme conditions (Pavlova Y. & Tulaydan V., 2012). Much later, namely, during the period from 1899 to 1930 on the territory of modern Ukraine there are numerous sports associations, whose activities are based on the principles, that was applied in Zaporizhskaya Sich (Vydrin V. & Pleshakov A., 2005). During this historical period was beginning the process of formation the Ukrainian national system of physical education, designed for different categories of the population. It was during these years in Ukraine is widespread sport for all movement and created a large number of sports clubs specializing in football, skiing, swimming, boxing, athletics and other sports. At
133 the same time, in rural areas of Ukraine were organized many special sports courses and voluntary sports associations. In the period from 1912 to 1930 in many regions of Ukraine was spread so-called movement "Ukrainian scouts", which, in principle, has much in common with the movement of "Scouts" in other countries (Butyrskaya I., 2004). In February 1917 was formed the Ukrainian National Republic. Since that time, there were significant changes in the system of education of the population, including a system of physical training all his age (Andreeva A., & Krutzevich T., 2004). In Kiev It was created a first national school of physical education. The main purpose of this school was to provide education, from the earliest childhood, physically strong young generation with the harmonic development of physical and spiritual strength. This required the full promotion of all kinds of mass sports and physical education, particularly in schools and other educational institutions, as well as engaging in physical culture movement of the broad masses of the population, especially the youth. In Kiev in 1963 was held a scientific conference on physical culture and sports of all age groups. One of the major problems of this event was to study physical education and recreation as a means to combat premature aging (Yaremenko A., 2005). In this period of time many professionals, working in the field of physical education, work hard to promote the popularization of physical culture among people of different age groups and teach them a correct understanding of the importance of physical exercise. In addition, their efforts are focused on the development of tourism, as an extremely exciting and versatile sports activity, which affects all aspects of human life: physical, moral, aesthetic and labor (Hodge K., & Smellie L., 2008).
134 Number of schools in which the teaching of Physical Education conducted
Number of schools Academic years
Primary Secondary Total schools schools number
1914 - 1915 19361 356 19717 1926 - 1927 16713 2066 18779 1927 - 1928 17832 2531 20363 1928 - 1929 17487 2958 20445 1929 - 1930 17944 3390 21334 1930 - 1931 17496 5845 23341 1931 - 1932 13191 8231 21422
After that time came a long period of headship in the sphere of physical culture in Ukraine the soviet system of physical education of different categories of population in the country. Despite this, until 1920 the lessons of physical education in schools and other educational establishments are present in the curriculum sporadically. Based on the analysis of the structure and content of the programs of physical education can be concluded that up to 1920, the main aim of this programs was to develop the physical qualities needed for employment. In 1924, there was developed approved the first mandatory physical training program designed for all types of schools and other educational establishments. In 1925 it was set up a public sports society "Meadow", which initiated the mass sports movement, aimed at the development in various categories of the population those physical qualities and skills, that are necessary for successful action in the process of disaster management, as well as in the process of elimination the consequences of all kinds of natural or technogenic disasters. In 1926 and 1927 were created special training programs, designed for physical education of students, who studies in labor schools and teacher colleges. In 1927 for the first time in Ukraine were developed some special programs of physical education, used in auxiliary schools and designed for pupils with pathological
135 disorders of the central nervous system. This event can be considered as beginning of development the adaptive physical education in Ukraine. Since 1928 was enacted official requirement for mandatory recording in educational documents the results of physical training control tests, that students are made twice during the school year (for the first time at the beginning of the school year, and the second time at the end of the school year). It was also a mandatory requirement for the implementation of physical training lessons according to three different training programs depending on the age group of schoolchildren. The first age group (schoolchildren’s age from 12 to 14 years): 1) running (boys - 50 meters, girls - 30 meters); 2) throwing the ball into the goal; 3) a running jump in length; 4) a combination of gymnastic elements. The second age group (schoolchildren’s age from 15 to 16 years): 1) running (boys - 100 meters, girls - 60 meters); 2) shot put (boys), throwing the ball with a handle (girls); 3) a running jump in height; 4) pulling on the bar; 5) swimming 25 m (with pool). The third age group (schoolchildren’s age from 17 to 18 years): 1) run 100 meters (boys and girls); 2) throwing grenades or training shot put 7.5 kg (boys), throwing the ball with a handle or pushing a lightweight kernel 5 kg (girls); 3) the climbing rope or pulling (boys), abdominal exercises (girls); 4) high jump with a running start (boy), high jump with a running start (girls); 5) swimming 100 meters (boys), swimming 50 meters (girls). In 1930 it was has developed a new, science-based curriculum for physical education for all categories of student youth (the program included two hours of classes in physical training during the school week, or three hours of training during the school ten-day). The next step in the development of physical education in the country has been the introduction of the complex "Ready for Labor
136 and Defense." The emphasis in physical education young people transferred to the development of military-applied physical qualities. Therefore, the program of physical fitness of the population focuses on running, overcoming obstacles, carrying weights, swimming, and cross-country skiing, throwing grenades and shooting. In fact, the introduction of the 1931 All-Union sports complex "Ready for Labor and Defense" (RLD) was the first attempt to use the special motor tests to assess the level of physical fitness of different population groups. It should be noted that the content of the complex "Ready for Labor and Defense" during the period from 1934 to 1988 several times varied depending on the results of scientific experiments and achievements of modern sports science.
In the period from 1934 to 1944 in all fitness programs, using in secondary schools, were introduced extra lessons in sports rhythmic and military physical training. At this time, the school program of physical fitness becomes completely focused on the issues of military physical training of students.
Standards for physical education in schools and trade schools (1934)
The name of the specification Boys Girls
100 meters 15sec. 17 sec. Running 500 meters 1000 meters 3 min. 50 sec. - Long jump from the takeoff 3 м 70 sm 3 m High jump from the takeoff 110 sm 100 sm Pulling from a hanging position 5 times - Climbing rope (gymnastic stick) - 3 м Grenade throwing 700 g 30 m 20 m Cross-country skiing 5 km for 40 3 km for 28 min. min. Carrying ammunition box 50 m - Walking in a gas mask 1 km 1 km
137
During the entire period from 1932 to 1988 the content of physical education in school is closely connected with the use of complex "Ready for Labor and Defense". It should be noted that during this period, is the overriding so- called command-bureaucratic approach to physical education of children. Among the all Slavic peoples who lived on the territory of modern Ukraine in the years just before World War II it was widespread so-called Sokolsky gymnastic movement. To the territory of Ukraine the Sokolsky gymnastic movement came from the area where nowadays is located the Czech Republic and gradually enveloped almost all regions of the state (Sukharev A., 1991). The main singularities of this gymnastic movement were its widespread, professionally-applied orientation and diversity of methods using in the process of physical training for all participants. In the system of physical preparation, characteristic for Sokolsky gymnastic movement organically combined the best and most effective elements of Swedish, German and French systems of physical education. Characteristic for Ukraine was the fact that all the exercises used in the Processes of physical education can be divided into four main groups: 1) applied exercises (exercises on sports equipment and exercises with gymnastic objects); 2) floor exercise (gymnastic exercises performed without the use of any objects); 3) group exercises (typically acrobatic exercises performed in groups of trained members); 4) military exercises (exercises with the military and practical value, such as "Battle gopak"). In the postwar period (1945 to 1950) the State's efforts have focused on the development of sports infrastructure in the country. At this time, the number of schools that were closed gyms has increased from 13% to 85%. By the end of 1947 there were about 12,640 full-time employees of Physical Education, working in various institutions of public education on the territory of modern Ukraine.
138 Training of specialists with higher education in the field of physical education was carried out mainly in the higher institutions situated in the regional centers of Ukraine: Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk, Lviv, Odessa, Nikolayev and others. At this time, it was created the Ukrainian National Committee for Physical Culture and Sport, as one of the subordinate structures of the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. In the same period was increased production of manuals and guidelines for physical training aimed at different age groups of the population. There have been made some changes in the system of training schoolteachers, working in the sphere of physical education. In particular, only in 1947 of pedagogical universities in the country were issued more than 7,500 teachers with additional specialty - a teacher of physical education.
Personnel training in physical education (1947 - 1948 years)
City I year II III IV Total year year year Kiev 250 258 140 96 744 Lviv 100 90 126 88 404 Dnipropetrovsk 130 126 67 79 402 Voroshilovgrad 135 81 68 73 357 Kharkiv 122 97 85 78 382 Stanislaw 100 45 35 38 218 All together 837 697 521 452 2507
During this time, there is a strengthening of scientific support of the state system of physical education of the population. So in 1948 in Kiev was organized the first national conference on Physical Fitness and Sports (75 experts participated in the conference). In March 6, 1948 it was adopted the Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine "On the physical education of students in primary, seven-year and secondary schools of Ukraine." In 1949 it was created the Kiev State Institute of Physical Culture, and then there were established some regional institutes of physical education, opened in Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk and Voroshilovgrad (now Lugansk).
139 During this period of time, many secondary schools, colleges and high schools, designed to train specialists in the field of physical education and sport, have been established in many cities of the country: in Kiev, Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk, Voroshilovgrad (Lugansk), Kharkov, Stalin (Donetsk ), Odessa, Stanislaw (Ivano-Frankovsk) and other cities of Ukraine. In addition, in 1951 in educational universities of Kharkov, Odessa and Voroshilovgrad were opened the departments of physical education. At this time in Ukraine, there were 11,948 schools, providing general education (primary schools, seven-year schools and secondary schools), besides there were opened 8812 sports clubs in different sports disciplines inside of schools. During this time in Ukraine were operated 156 institutions of higher education (universities and specialized institutes). On the territory of Ukraine that time there were more than 31 000 students and teachers, studying and working in higher educational establishments, and who were engaged in physical activity in special sports clubs. In addition, at this time in Ukraine there were more than 530 colleges with their own sports clubs. In these sports clubs more than 75 200 students and teachers were regularly engaged in physical culture and sports. In vocational schools, the number of which in this period in Ukraine has exceeded 780, physical culture and sport systematically engaged in more than 110 thousands students and teachers (representing 63.5% of the total). Since 1952 in all secondary schools, located on the territory of Ukraine, were introduced mandatory daily physical exercises before lessons, as well as short-motor exercises in breaks between lessons for younger schoolchildren. Over time there have been changes in the content of programs of physical education students in all types of educational institutions. The most significant changes were made in 1971 and in 1986. Last version of this program provides training in four main areas: gymnastics, track and field athletics, sports games and ski training. This program was provided certain amount of theoretical material designed to develop the students' logical thinking, spoken language and memory. Also has been defined list of skills that the students had to learn in each class, and was also set the optimum volume of loads during endurance training (Glazyrin D., 2003).
140 In the same period of time there were developed some state projects of new schools with mandatory presence of indoor sports halls and outdoor sports grounds, and since 1961 - also with the presence of their own school stadium. During these years, the management system of physical education of the population in Ukraine is carried out jointly by two ministries: the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Manpower. In Kiev in 1963, a scientific conference on physical culture and sports of all age groups was held. One of the major problems of this event was to study the physical culture and recreation as a means to combat premature aging. Carried out extensive work to promote physical culture among people of different ages and learning the correct understanding of the importance of exercise. The process of developing tourism as an extremely exciting and diverse sport that involves all aspects of life: physical, moral, strong-willed, aesthetic and labor. Comparative data of physical education teacher’s education in Ukraine
The level of education of 1 - 3 classes 4 - 10 classes teachers of physical education In urban schools Complete higher education 25,6 % 91,8 % Incomplete higher education 5,9 % 6,8 % Specialized Secondary 67,6 % - Education General secondary education 0,9 % 1,4 % In rural schools Complete higher education 11,2 % 78,6 % Incomplete higher education 4,2 % 14,7 % Specialized Secondary 82,8 % - Education General secondary education 1,8 % 6,7 %
Since 1970, there is a radical change in the focus of teaching activities in the field of physical education and sport in all kinds of
141 schools and other educational establishments of the country. Now the main content of all programs of physical education is to promote public health through the development of basic physical qualities of young people. In 1980 in all educational institutions of Ukraine there were established the following types of physical education lessons: 1) educational; 2) training; 3) general (mixed); 4) control. The main goal of physical fitness during this time is the need to achieve a level of comprehensive physical development in young age at which they will be able to perform high-efficiency labor and defensive tasks (Kalinichenko I., 2009). In this case, all students should have reached such indicators: 3 - 4 classes - I pioneer degree of physical fitness; 5 - 6 classes - II pioneer degree of physical fitness; 7 - 8 classes - III pioneer degree of physical fitness; 9 - 11 classes - delivery standards ” Ready for labor and defense” first stage. It was officially established that the lessons of physical training should consist of the following component parts: 1) Introduction (duration 5 - 8 minutes); 2) Préparation (duration 8 - 10 minutes); 3) Main part (duration 20 - 25 minutes); 4) Final part (duration 3 - 5 min.). After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, on the territory of Ukraine begins to apply a new national curriculum for physical training of young people, which consists of two parts: mandatory and optional. This curriculum contains a theoretical section, which explains not only what you need to learn, but also how to conduct training. So, nowadays, physical education of young people is an integral part of modern education system in Ukraine.
142 REFERENCES
Andreeva A., & Krutzevich T. (2004). Analysis of motivational theories in improving physical education and recreation Theory and Methods Physical Education and sport, 26 (2), 81 – 84. Butyrskaya I. (2004). Features of the health for pupils’ middle and high school age at the boarding schools. Kiyv, Ukraine: Olympic literature. Glazyrin D. (2003). Foundations of differentiated physical education. – Cherkassy: Vidlunnja-plus. Guba V. (2008). Scientific-practical and methodical bases of physical education for young students. M: Sovetskiy Sport. Hodge K., & Smellie L. (2008). Motivation in master’s sport: Achievement and social goals. Physiology of Sport and Exercise, 9(1),157 – 176. Kalinichenko I. (2009). The state of children health in educational institutions with different modes for organized physical activity. Kiyv, Ukraine: Olympic literature. Pavlova Y. & Tulaydan V. (2012). Physical activity quality of life for first and second year students. Young sport science of Ukraine, 12(3), 92 – 99. Sukharev A. (1991). Health and physical education of children and teenagers. Moscow: Medicine. Vydrin V. & Pleshakov A. (2005) Physical education as a cultural phenomenon of the individual and society. Physical Culture and Health, 8(2), 23 – 37. Yaremenko A. (2005). Physical education as an indispensable component of a healthy lifestyle of young people. K.: Zdorovya.
143 UNITED KINGDOM
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND
Ken Hardman (Emeritus Professor), Institute of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Worcester Gillian Parry, Physical Education Consultant
Correspondence Ken Hardman [email protected] Phone: 0044 (0)1457854262
Introduction
The history of physical education in England reveals influences variously shaped by military, political, economic, social, cultural, philosophical and pedagogical factors fostered either by individuals or institutions. Essentially, school physical education in England has evolved out of two (‘dual’) traditions: organised games and competitive sports associated with Public Schools1 (that is Independent or Private Boarding Schools); and physical training associated initially with military drill and then Swedish therapeutic gymnastics in the Ling tradition in State Elementary Schools from 1871 on.
Shaping Traditions
Developments in sport as an important component of the physical education curriculum are inextricably linked with antecedents in English mainly Independent (Boarding) Schools in the 19th century. Though not exclusively so, these institutions for the sons (and later daughters) of the privileged laid down enduring foundations. Initially sporting activity was encouraged to structure boys’ leisure as an antidote to ill-discipline, immorality and general anti-social conduct, i.e. as a form of social control. This was an early
1 For purposes of clarity, Public Schools are generically referred to as “Independent” schools. As such they can also be distinguished from schools provided by the State.
144 indicator of one of the ascribed roles in present day society in school and out of school settings of sport being administered to assist in the resolution of anti-social behaviour. The later 19th century English Independent Schools’ ‘muscular Christianity’-grounded athletic traditions and belief in character development, social accomplishments and moral and ethical codes inspired the ideal of participation outranking winning. The Independent Schools 19th legacy was potent not only for subsequent developments in sport in wider society in general but also for curricular programmes in schools, because by the early 20th century, sport was fast emerging as a significant feature in generically termed physical education programmes in all continental regions of the world. Over time, the legacy also produced a school physical education and sport delivery system functioning interdependently and epitomised in the emergence of a comprehensive programme of extra-curricular activity, traditionally serviced by teachers on a voluntary basis. In the State sector of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the spread of universal education facilitated the extension of school sport beyond Independent Schools. Hence, within the development of physical education, there has been an implicit notion of education through sport, which increasingly after 1945 became more explicit as Sport, and Games in particular came to dominate the physical education curriculum. Testimony to the significance of Games even in State Schools in the generally practised Secondary Schools curriculum were time-table allocation and subject nomenclature, which ascribed one or two lessons (‘PT’, later ‘PE’) and an afternoon of Games up to the 1960s-1970s. The relationship between Physical Education and Sport became more overt in the 1990s when it was well reflected in the terminological shift to ‘Physical Education and School Sport’ and later highlighted in central governmental departments’ joint publications respectively entitled High Quality Physical Education and School Sport for Young People and Learning through Physical Education and Sport (Department of Education and Skills (DfES)/Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), 2004). Thus, from informally arranged 'sides'/games in school playgrounds, competition in a range of sports developed through local town/district, county, regional to national levels, administered by hierarchically structured associations. Extra-curricular activity came
145 to encompass a broad range of sporting activity engagement and its significance has been by and large sustained, though changing societal attitudes and leisure activity patterns, curriculum developments, and teacher 'industrial' action over contractual issues etc. contributed to a reduction both in numbers of pupils willing to participate and in teachers prepared to offer or contribute to the programme around the 1990-1995 period. Nevertheless, the basic template of extra-curricular activity laid down over a century ago, still plays an important role in the physical education system in English schools.
The second of the ‘dual’ traditions emanated from what essentially represented a ‘victory’ of Swedish over German influences in a ‘battle’ initially largely fought outside the education sector. The Rousseau inspired pioneering work of Basedow, Salzmann and GuthsMuths at the Dessau ‘Philanthropium’ had inspired Swiss Army Officer Phokion Heinrich Clias to develop a system of gymnastic exercises, which the British Army and Navy were quick to adopt in their respective recruits’ training courses in the early part of the 19th century. The drill orientation in Clias’ adaptations was deemed to be suitable for instilling discipline of a military kind. It was only after Archibald MacLaren opened his Oxford Gymnasium and after an invitation to run courses at Army Headquarters’ in Aldershot that the German system was introduced into Independent Schools, where Friedrich Ludwig Jahn’s ‘Turnen’ formed the basis of inter-school gymnastic competitions, and after 1875 into some elementary schools by Non-Commissioned Officer (NCO) trained Instructors. It is relevant here to point to the perceived necessity for physically fit armed forces’ personnel to extend and defend the British Empire: the politics of colonialism were bound up with military might! It was the likes of Swedish Central Gymnastics Institute graduates Indebetou, (1838), Ehrenhoff (1840) and Georgii (1849) who, through courses and with the aid of pamphlets, introduced Swedish ‘Medical Gymnastics’ based on Per Henrik Ling’s system into the country. Hungarian immigrant, Mathias Roth, a homeopathic medical practitioner championed the cause of this form of medical gymnastics because of its allegedly held therapeutic values for homeopathic ‘medicine’ and perceived wider benefits.
146
Thus began the battle of the two systems with Roth fervently lobbying Army, Government and Government Boards, Royal Commissions, School Boards, politicians and Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Schools (HMIs) by alluding to comparative situations in Sweden, Prussia, Switzerland, Russia and France and pointing out that the neglect of physical education and hygiene within the English education system was the principal cause in the decline in the general health of the nation. Roth’s vociferous arguments heralded the addition of medical health and social welfare to factors shaping developments in physical education. At the time of the Franco- Prussian War, the early post-Forster Education Act (Elementary Education Act, 1870) introduced non-denominational State Schools with bye-laws requiring attendance of children aged 5-13. An Amendment to the Act in 1871 permitted the inclusion of ‘drill’ in the curriculum. These initial 'physical education' programmes reflected methods utilised by the Army; indeed in the last thirty years of the 19th century, part-time ex-army, non-commissioned personnel taught much of the permitted 'military drill' syllabus.
The Swedish case was enhanced by London School Board invitations to Concordia Löfving in 1878 and Martina Bergman (later Bergmann-Osterberg) in 1881 to develop training programmes for elementary school teachers. Bergmann-Osterberg was instrumental in founding courses at Hampstead (1885) and then a two-year Course for Women teachers at Dartford in 1895. Her ‘disciples' subsequently fostered a number of Women's Training Colleges (Anstey in Birmingham, Bedford, Chelsea, I.M. Marsh in Liverpool, Maria Grey and Whitelands in London, Girton and Newnham in Cambridge), graduates of which placed female physical educators at the forefront of developments in England. By 1888, the government established Cross Commission in seeking a “safe and scientific system of physical training” reported against elaborate gymnastics apparatus (associated with German gymnastics): physical exercises, largely comprising, gymnastics and 'Swedish drill' came to be included in the curriculum from 1890 on - the bottom line was that Swedish gymnastics was financially cheap! Economic realities were a significant influence in the adoption of the Swedish system: large numbers of children could experience drilled exercise with minimal facility or equipment
147 provision; and in any event ‘therapeutic gymnastics’ were seen to be more health beneficial (concerned with whole body development) and so accorded with social policy. Moreover, the discipline, obedience and order inculcated through systematic exercises to command met both with military requirements and the politically motivated social control of the children of the working classes. In any case, German Gymnastics were regarded as male and performance oriented: they were unsuitable for ‘rational’ Physical Training requirements (too acrobatic and apparatus oriented), over- developed the upper body and were ‘non-scientific’!
The 1902 Board of Education Model Course of Physical Training was based on the Army training handbook of the day. The early 20th century connection between physical training and military drill began to fade when exercises for therapeutic purposes overshadowed the discipline purpose. The concern for health, the physical and the intellectual brought a new significance to physical activity. The official shift away from military drill was initially seen in the 1904 Syllabus of Physical Exercises, which contained elements from the Swedish system and then in the appointment of the national Chief Medical Officer (CMO), Dr. (later Sir George), Newman at the Board of Education with responsibility for school physical education. The subsequent revisions of the 1904 Syllabus in 1909, 1919 and 1933 reflected a change in concept and methods from drill, exercises and physical training to a more enlightened ‘Physical Education’. Indeed, the use of the term ‘Physical Education’ “symbolized a change of attitude away from a pre-occupation with muscles and joints to one taking account of the whole child” (Munrow, 1963). However, despite these various indicative uses of the term Physical Education for another half a century, it was not overtly represented as such in the school curriculum.
The evolutionary development of Physical Education in the late 19th-early 20th century period was reflected in the establishment of professional Associations. The Ling Association (an Association for female Physical Education practitioners) was established (for women practitioners) in 1899. In 1919, it underwent a name change to the Ling Association (and affiliated Gymnastic Bodies), a title that
148 was modified in 1925 to the Ling Association of Teachers of Swedish Gymnastics (and affiliated Gymnastic Bodies). Another yet highly significant change was made in 1937, when the name Ling Physical Education Association was adopted2. Another independent organisation (for men) emerged in 1921, the National Association for Physical Education Organisers and was soon followed by the foundation in 1925 of another male only organisation, the North Western Counties Physical Education Association - this Association still exists as an influential independent regional Association but is no longer male only! Meanwhile, other institutions were adopting a Physical Education label: the British Medical Association (an advisory body to the then ministerial department – the Board of Education) established a Physical Education Committee in the 1920s; a government Board of Education Circular (Circular 1445) in 1936 extended government support for Physical Education; and Carnegie College of Physical Training (the first male specialist teacher training college in England), established in 1933, changed its name to Carnegie College of Physical Education in 1947.
The Emergence of an ‘English System’ and Curriculum Change
Diffusion of organised games and competitive sports throughout wider society was in part reinforced by the 1902 Education (Balfour) Act, which was responsible for the introduction of nation-wide State Secondary education. The Act facilitated a merging of the two ‘traditions’, for it was in Secondary Schools that the sport and games institutionalised in Independent Schools were more developmentally appropriate. The gradual pervasion of the Education System by Sport and Games was manifested in the government Board of Education's Supplementary Syllabus Handbook on Games in 1927 and the 1933 Syllabus of Physical Training for use in State Elementary Schools. The Board of Education Syllabi (1909, 1919, and 1933), as well as showing a gradual decline in support for the Swedish system, reveal the changes in philosophy
2 After a series of mergers with other bodies, the Ling Physical Education Association became the lead national professional body in 1994 when it was renamed the Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom; it now has the name of the Association for Physical Education.
149 from a drill-based programme, mainly concerned with inculcating discipline and obedience, producing good posture and promoting fitness through exercise of muscles and joints to an 'English System', which drew from an amalgamation of the various imported (other influences included Danish Gymnastics, the Scandinavian ‘glädje’ movement and the Austrian ‘natural movement) and home-grounded systems, and aimed at optimum development of the individual through a broader-based curriculum. This philosophical shift was also a clear indication of pedagogical change, which was associated with developments in educational psychology. It was a ‘shift’ that was identifiable in the McNair Report (1942) commentary that "this subject...is a fundamental and integral part of general education” with every teacher knowing “something of it, for wherever children are being educated their bodies are a factor in the process. To embody such a conception...we find the term physical education preferable to p.t." (Board of Education, 1942). Perhaps just as overtly, if not more so, the shift was demonstrated in physical education curricular trends in the second half of the 20th century. The final demise of the subject’s inclusion on remedial and therapeutic grounds occurred in 1945 when responsibility for Physical Education was passed from the CMO to the Ministry of Education. Indeed, the CMO Report for the years 1948-1949 highlighted the change of focus (particularly in Primary Schools) intimating that the Board of Education’s administrative absorption of physical education represented an acknowledgement of its educational purpose and function. The CMO specifically linked physical education with the term "Movement", a “fundamental means of ensuring growth and development in all forms of life” (Ministry of Education, 1952(a), p.16). It was a prophetic link as subsequent developments especially in its official acceptance at ministerial level in 1972 were to prove.
Further impetus to physical education curriculum change occurred in 1952-53, when the then Ministry of Education published syllabus guidelines, respectively entitled Moving and Growing (1952b) and Planning the Programme (1953), which offered a rationale for physical education, flexibility of programme content and at the same time included advice on less formal learning processes through guided exploration and discovery methods.
150
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, conferences and In-Service Training (INSET) courses tended to concentrate on educational gymnastics or "movement", which was perceived to be an all encompassing term for either educational gymnastics or "modern dance" based on Laban's basic concepts of space, time, weight and flow. However, there was a considerable divergence of opinion in defining the term. The work of Dudgeon, Bilborough and Jones had a major impact initially respectively on developments in the north of England regions of the West Riding of Yorkshire and Lancashire, and later in other parts of the country in physical education in Primary and early Secondary Schools’ years, though implementation of ideas was subject to level of teacher competence, extent of a head teacher’s commitment and availability of suitable facilities, apparatus and equipment.
Some two decades on from the CMO’s prophetic commentary and Ministry of Education’s guideline publications, the Department of Education and Science (DES) issued its Movement - Physical Education in the Primary Years (1972), in which value was placed on children being given more responsibility for their own rate and pattern of work, with teachers being sensitive to individual needs and differences. Notably, this publication marked a change from teacher centred and directed to child centred delivery. Teaching methods had become more informal; the formal commands, performance of exercises in unison and strict class organisation had given way to conversational teaching and recognition that children needed to work at their own rate and at their own level of ability. These significant modifications of the ‘English System’ were embedded in influences stemming from discovery learning theory and Rudolf Laban’s analysis of movement, which pre-empted innovative approaches to gymnastics’ teaching (educational gymnastics), movement education in general with its variations in didactical approaches in both Primary and Secondary Schools, and which arguably were forerunners of the activity for understanding approaches of more recent years.
151
A National Physical Education Curriculum
After over a century of state-provided education, a government sponsored National Curriculum for children aged 5-16 was implemented in phases in England (and Wales) in 1989 with Physical Education introduced for the first time in its history as a statutorily required curriculum subject in 1992. Prior to this innovative government initiative, physical education in its various ‘guises’ was not a compulsory subject in the school curriculum3 rather it was generally practised. The National Curriculum was born out of then Labour Prime Minister, Jim Callaghan's inspired "Great Debate" and subsequent discussions of the late 1970s-1980s, highlighting the need for changes in how children should be educated. The resultant 1988 Education Reform Act embraced a package of changes in State education for children aged 5-16. The legislation ushered in changes in school admissions, school financing and school curriculum. The National Curriculum was intended to provide a broad and balanced curricular framework, through which there would be an all-round improvement in the quality of the teaching process and learning experiences. Its development generally and for Physical Education specifically, reflected central Government's concern for a return to 'traditional' values and content in the school curriculum. Physical Education was included as a Foundation Subject throughout the compulsory years (ages 5-16) of school attendance over four key-stages: 5-7 years (year groups 1-2); 7-11 years (year groups 3-6); 11-14 years (year groups 7-9); and 14-16 years (year groups 10-11). Beyond key stage 4, in Further and Higher Education Institutions it generally became optional (though not exclusively so because some ‘continuing’ further education establishments did offer obligatory recreationally based programmes) and participation more often than not was voluntary. Notably relevant here is that during the consultation phase, the Physical Education Curriculum Working Party was informed by the Minister for Education that time allocation for physical education was a non-negotiable issue. In the event a notional 7½% appears to have been expected, though this
3 Interestingly the only compulsory subject legally required up to this time was “Religious Studies/Education”.
152 was reduced in 1994 (two years into the new curriculum) to a notional 5% because of the nature of the overloaded planned curriculum content. In pursuit of the various goals, it was recognised that the notional 5% of curriculum time allocation was in itself insufficient to achieve the desirable outcomes of healthily fit young people associated with physically active lifestyle; additional (extra- curricular) time was advocated, a ‘back to the future’ restatement of the values of the historically embedded school extra-curricular activity programmes.
This first National Physical Education Curriculum model contained so-called Programmes of Study activity areas (Athletics, Dance, Games, Gymnastics, Outdoor and Adventurous Activities and Swimming) over the designated four 'key stages'. The introduction of a statutorily required curriculum should have produced, at least in theory, a nationally applied general pattern. However, in practice, the picture was confused and local variations prevailed, such as those between schools in time-table allocation and activities taught within the same local education authority or local community. This confused pattern originated from an intention to represent the National Curriculum more as a framework rather than as a prescription. It was designed to take account of school teaching staff interest and expertise as well as school resources and location (thus, facilitating the fostering of local traditions). To a large extent also, this pattern reflected the situation, within a statutory framework of local management of schools, of powers of responsibility devolved to school governing bodies, through head teachers, for budget management and control, spending priorities, the curriculum and its delivery. Many issues concerning curriculum development were matters for individual schools and teachers to decide upon (e.g. curriculum time allocation and teaching methods). Hence, the National Curriculum varied between schools because of the extant freedom and flexibility.
Nonetheless, the reality of the situation in many schools was a tendency to reinforce the importance of sport, games and performance. In essence, a sport-oriented programme resulted, in which, Games as the only ‘Programme of Study’ compulsory throughout the four key stages was “established as the dominant and
153 defining feature of physical education" (Penney and Kirk, 1997, p.34). The sport-games dominated focus was reinforced through central government-driven initiatives announced in a White Paper (policy document), entitled Sport - Raising the Game. In a prefatory statement, then British Prime Minister, John Major, referred to competitive sport teaching valuable lifelong lessons and “putting sport back at the heart of weekly life in every school” (Department of National Heritage, 1995, p.2). The case for sport was based on Victorian era values in character formation, health promotion, moral development and socialisation: the Government believed “fair play, self-discipline, respect for others, learning to live by laws and understanding one's obligations to others in a team are all matters which can be learnt from team games properly taught" (Department of National Heritage, 1995, p.7). Further evidence of the emphasis on sport was seen in the White Paper's references to future initial teacher training courses (for primary teachers and secondary PE specialists) as having an explicit focus on games: trainees were to be prepared "to teach team games…" and "… all teachers of PE will be equipped to teach at least one mainstream game played in summer and one mainstream game played in winter..." (pp.14-15).
Arguably, the bias in content of the Physical Education National Curriculum merely reinforced what already was widely practised. Any analysis of curriculum content even in the earlier halcyon days of Movement Education would have revealed the dominance of Games. Surveys in the 1980s by HMI (DES, 1983; DES, 1985) looked at the education offered to children in middle schools and found that whilst games, gymnastics, athletics and swimming were offered, not all aspects were given equal emphasis within each year group or in each school: in the 1983 DES Survey, expressive movement and dance were less frequently taught than other areas of the Physical Education curriculum; in the 1985 Survey, dance was offered in only half the sample. The generic activity ‘Games’ accounted for at least 40% of the physical education curriculum. Clearly, the ‘movement' orientation in the 1972 publication was little more than policy rhetoric when compared with reality of practice.
154
Notwithstanding the sport/games-related domination, the inclusion of Physical Education within the National Curriculum established its legitimacy and increased its credibility as a subject in the school curriculum, already somewhat enhanced through its status as an examinable subject at both General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) Ordinary ('O' (1970s) and Advanced ('A') levels standard (1988). However, this status was insufficient to save the subject’s compulsory position in Primary Schools (key stages 1 and 2), when the government temporarily suspended the statutory order relating to physical education provision for a two-year period (1998- 2000) in order to divert time to the development of literacy and numeracy skills. The suspension inevitably led to widespread substantial reduction in physical education lessons taught in Primary Schools, a situation from which subsequent recovery was largely expedited by a range of funded measures, governmental and quasi- governmental driven initiatives.
Physical Education-School Sport Dualism
The deterioration in Physical Education provision in Primary Schools in the latter part of the 1990s extended to Secondary Schools. Indicative of the deterioration were decreases in curriculum time allocation, impoverished facilities and equipment, perceived lower esteem and status, inadequate teacher preparation (especially so in Primary Schools) and reductions in In-Service Training (INSET) programmes and courses as well as below par British performances in international competitions. The then quasi- governmental agency, the Sports Council, seized the initiative to become actively engaged in school physical education developments. Its Strategy for Sport contained within its 1997 policy document, England, the Sporting Nation, expressed the view that school is where most children first encounter sport and hence, schools are in a prime position to encourage young people's lifelong participation in sport. A Sportsmark scheme, with the addition of an annual Gold Star award for the most innovative schools demonstrating outstanding achievement, was introduced. In order to extend this so-called 'sporting culture' beyond the confines of school, the Policy document expressed the need for a corporate approach and identified Further
155 and Higher Education Institutions, sports clubs, local government authorities, youth services, the Sports Council and regional agencies, National Governing Bodies of Sport (NGBs), as well as private sector sponsorship as having contributory roles to play and acting in partnership with central Government. The vision was one of integral partnership of Physical Education and Sport within broad-ranging educational and social institutional agencies’ partnership providers. It was an illustration of envisaged government and quasi- and non- governmental agencies policy interventions with the dualism of physical education and sport working in unison. The Sports Council acknowledged that the activities on offer in the curriculum did not necessarily match those preferred by young people but, nevertheless, emphasised the importance of ensuring that young people experience a breadth of sporting opportunities in compliance with the National Curriculum. The document also stressed the values of sport within the ‘extended’ curriculum asserting that extra-curricular activities contribute to personal development, broaden pupils' interests and experiences, expand their opportunities to succeed and help to build good relationships with the school (Sports Council, 1997). Subsequently, the Council in its re-packaged form, Sport England, articulated the value and role of sport in schools in the context of schools having a statutory role for the delivery of physical education. Sport England recognised the role of schools in the development of physical competencies and positive sporting attitudes within the curriculum and then in encouraging young people to continue participation in sport, through the provision of links and opportunities in the extended curriculum and by community links established by the school. At national level, it launched several initiatives aimed at “more people involved in sport, more places to play sport and more medals through higher standards of performance in sport” (Sport England, 1999, p.2) and underpinned by the principle of inclusion through equal opportunities to participate. One of these initiatives was the so-called Active Schools with programmes for groups aged 4-7 years and 7-11 years, involving teaching and equipment resource support in Primary Schools, aims to support Physical Education and School Sport to provide school children with opportunities to learn foundation skills and to participate in the sport or physical activity of their choice.
156
These programmes were supported by the Sportsmark Award, which acknowledged provision of quality physical education and sports programmes at school and in the local community and the Sportsmark Gold Award for exceptional provision.
National Physical Education Curriculum Modification
Under advice of the then School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) in response to concerns within the physical education profession about the predominance of Games and issues surrounding relevance of the content of the physical education curriculum, ministerial orders for curricula were modified in a revamped National Curriculum in 1999. The Physical Education curriculum introduced in 2000 retained the four key stages’ Programmes of Study with designated activity areas at each key stage: key stage 1, dance, games and gymnastics; key stage 2, dance, games, gymnastic and two activity areas from swimming activities and water safety4, athletic activities, outdoor and adventurous activities; key stage 3, games and three of the following (at least one of which had to be dance or gymnastic activities), dance, gymnastics swimming and water safety, athletics, outdoor and adventurous activities; and key stage 4, two of the six activity areas. The modified curriculum provided opportunities to emphasise personal and social skills that are an intrinsic part of Physical Education, including team work, co-operation and leadership opportunities. National strategy guidance by the Department of Education and Skills (DfES) for Information Communication Technology (ICT) and Physical Education suggested the use of ICT within data and information sources (e.g. comparative analysis with peers etc.), models and modelling (e.g. replaying and analysing performance) and control and monitoring (e.g. comparing pupil results with others). For the end of each key stage, the National Curriculum specified Attainment Targets (ATs), which comprised eight level descriptions, plus one for “exceptional performance”. Descriptions ascribed types and
4 Swimming activities and water safety had to be chosen as one of these areas of activity unless pupils had completed the full key stage 2 teaching requirements in relation to swimming activities and water safety during key stage 1. The National Curriculum specified that pupils should be able to swim unaided at least 25 metres.
157 range of performance characteristically demonstrated at each level: at age 7 – level 2; at age 11 - level 4; at age 14 – level 5/6; at 16 – usually national qualifications (GCSE ‘O-level’ or vocational qualification equivalent). Curriculum 2000 aspired to two hours (that is 120 minutes) for Physical Education AND extra-curricular activities per week at all four key stages5.
The ‘sting remained in the tail’ because the DES/QCA continued to expect schools to provide competitive games for children who wished to exercise this option. The spirit of John Major’s prefatory comments in Sport – Raising the Game and the deeply embedded legacy of 19th century Independent Boarding Schools in the physical education curriculum was not exorcised. Moreover, the continuing problems faced by physical educators in delivering a balanced and pupil relevant curriculum encouraged the national Sports Council and Sports Governing Bodies to lay sustained siege to physical education in schools primarily to serve their own specific ends.
Physical Education, School Sport and Creating a Sporting Legacy
Central in the drive to build more sport into school curricula in the UK was the Physical Education, School Sport and Club Links (PESSCL) Strategy. Launched by the Prime Minister in October 2002, the PESSCL Strategy was jointly delivered by the DfES and the Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) as part of a shared Public Service Agreement. The Strategy was overseen by a Project Board comprising representatives from a broad range of central and local government, quasi-government and non- governmental agencies and schools (head teachers). The Strategy was an example of active partners working together to promote a
5 The DfES/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) recommended that at least 75 minutes curriculum time be required per week to deliver the physical education Programme of Study at key stages1 and 2 (Primary phase) and 90 minutes at key stage 3 (Secondary phase); no recommendation was made for key stage 4 where the focus was essentially health, fitness and wellbeing.
158 common cause and achieve a common goal. In order to deliver the Strategy, Government committed to invest £978m between 2003-04 and 2007-08. In addition, £686m lottery funding was allocated to improve school sports facilities: a total of over £1½ billion was to be invested in Physical Education and School Sport in the five years up to 2008. Following consultations, Sport England together with the DfES and DCMS, agreed (in 2004) to introduce changes to the Sport kitemarks. From 2006, the kitemarks (Activemark, Sportsmark and a new Sports Partnership Mark), were linked to the delivery of the PESSCL Strategy and only open to schools in Schools Sport Partnerships. The key indicator determining whether a school qualified for one of the kitemarks was its success in enabling pupils to take up their then entitlement to at least 2 hours of high quality physical education and school sport each week. The overall objective of the Strategy was to increase the proportion of 5 to 16 year-olds who engaged for a minimum of two hours each week in physical education and school sport to 75% by 2006 and to 85% by 2008. A key aim of the modified Physical Education, School Sport (PESS) Strategy was to promote high-quality Physical Education and School Sport to facilitate positive attitudinal change in young people and their schools. To achieve this, several approaches were employed including re-designing the Physical Education curriculum, developing playground activities, making the most of time before, and after school, and finding better ways to support and develop teachers and junior leaders. Primary Schools were assessed on the range of sports/activities (including dance) offered and how many pupils participated in club sport; Secondary Schools were also assessed on the range of sports/activities (including dance) offered, how many pupils participated in club sport, how many pupils took part in competitive school sport, and how many took on volunteering and leadership roles. Each year, a Panel (comprising a Primary and Secondary School head teacher, a Special School head teacher, and representatives from the DfES, the DCMS, Sport England, the QCA, the Youth Sport Trust (YST), the afPE as well as from a NGB met to agree the standards schools and partnerships needed to demonstrate in order to be awarded one of the kite marks. The Strategy also included a target (announced by the Prime Minister in December
159
2004) of all pupils taking part in a further two to three hours of sport beyond school by 2010.
Prior to the introduction of the PESSCL strategy, Specialist Sports Colleges (SSCs) had already evolved as a concept and some had been established. Originally they were conceived by the Conservative government in the early 1990s and then adopted and expanded by the succeeding Labour government to provide opportunities for educational centres of excellence initially in Technology, Arts and Languages, later extended to include Sport. The first SSCs were designated in 1996. Each school developed its own special ethos and worked with others to spread best practice and raise standards. Once granted, specialist status was subject to re- application after four years to maintain status. The SSCs were intended to have an extended school day, improved coaching, improved facilities and to work closely with neighbouring Secondary Schools as well as establish links with ‘feeder’ Primary Schools, through Sports Co-ordinator appointments and designated ‘Link’ Primary teachers. They were well resourced and were seen by government as central to sport strategy in terms of talent development. Practices varied: some SSCs emphasised broad participatory models, others followed more narrow and selected activities’ models; some developed positive relations with feeder schools, whereas others neglected links because of time/distance constraints.
SSCs were involved in partnerships of families of schools. These so-termed School Sport Coordinator Partnerships collectively served to enhance sports opportunities for all. The Partnerships were made up of clusters of a Specialist Sports College, up to eight secondary schools and around 45 Primary or Special Schools. Each Partnership received a grant of up to £270,000 each year to cover costs of a full-time Partnership Development Manager, the release of one teacher from each Secondary School for two days a week to take on the role of School Sport Coordinator, the release of one teacher from each Primary or Special School for 12 days a year to become Link Teachers and employment of Specialist Link Teachers to fill the gaps created by teacher release. The Partnerships'
160
Scheme’s overall aim was to assist schools in ensuring that pupils spent a minimum of two hours each week engaged in high quality Physical Education and School Sport. Strategic objectives included: development and implementation of a Physical Education/Sport Strategy; links with Primary Schools, particularly to provide a bridge between Key Stages 2 and 3; provision of enhanced opportunities for all pupils out of school hours; increased participation in community sport; provision of opportunities in leadership, coaching and officiating for senior pupils, teachers and other adults; and raising standards of pupils' achievement. As part of the overall PESSCL Strategy, the School Sport Partnerships were intended to guide young people into NGB affiliated or otherwise accredited clubs linked to those Partnerships. This School/Club Links Project initially focused on seven major sports (tennis, cricket, rugby union, football, athletics, gymnastics and swimming), but schools were then encouraged to establish links in a broader range of sports and physical activity.
In July 2007, Government demonstrated further commitment to Physical Education and Sport with additional funding of £755 million over three years to facilitate a co-ordinated approach to ensure that all 5-16 years olds would have access to two hours PE and three hours beyond the curriculum and 16-19 year olds would have three hours of sport outside of the curriculum. Collectively, this was referred to as the Five Hour Offer. In a government Comprehensive Spending Review for 2008-11, the Department for Culture Media and Sport’s Public Service Agreement (PSA 22) referred to the delivery of a successful Olympic Games and Paralympic Games with a sustainable legacy and increasing children's and young people's participation in high quality Physical Education and Sport, through the creation of a world class system. In 2008, the new Physical Education and Sport Strategy for Young People (PESSYP)6, committed to improving the quantity and quality of PE and Sport undertaken by Young People aged 5-19, was
6 PESSYP had ten work Strands as follows: Club Links, Coaching, Competition, Continuing Professional Development, Disability, Extending Activities, Gifted and Talented, Infrastructure, Leadership and Volunteering, and Swimming.
161 launched to build upon the perceived success of the PESSCL Strategy, and set out how this would be reached through the delivery of the 'five hour offer'. The Strategy entailed an investment of £755 million over three years and joint overall responsibility of the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) and the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), working in particular with the Department for Universities, Innovation and Skills (DIUS) in relation to 16-19 year olds and with strong links to the Department of Health. The evidence-based view (e.g. Bailey et al., 2009; Stead and Neville, 2010; and Montague, 2012) that high quality Physical Education and Sport provision contributed to improving educational standards, which embraced not only development of physical skills but also helped young people to become more active, understand the importance of being healthy and supported the development of personal, social, creative, thinking skills, qualities and attributes was paramount to achieving the wider government policy of Every Child Matters7.The Strategy required the co-ordinated School Sports Partnerships infrastructure (described above) already in place. A Further Education Sports Co-ordinator (FESCO) was also established in every Further Education Institution later in 2008. The immediate antecedent of this initiative to encourage increased participation in sport and involving partners and one that was clearly related to the successful London bid to host the 2012 Olympic Games was the UK School Games. The vision for these Games comprised seven key themes:
1. planning and delivery of a UK level sports event showcasing talented young sports people 2. using the event to bring about a step change in the content, structure and presentation of competitive sporting opportunities for young people
7 The then Labour Government’s aim was for every child to have a chance of fulfilling their potential by reducing education failure, ill health, substance misuse and neglect, crime and anti-social behaviour. Five outcomes were specified: being healthy, staying safe, enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and economic well-being. Physical Education and School Sport were deemed to contribute to a greater or lesser extent in all areas.
162
3. developing a themed branding programme for local and regional level competitive activity managed by the sports engaged in the main event 4. integrating an Olympic and Paralympic theme into the event and ensuring that the Olympic and Paralympic values are promoted through the event, including volunteer training, opening and closing ceremonies and an athletes village 5. using the event to profile, at a local and regional level, young people taking part and, through this, to promote the work undertaken in each nation to improve Physical Education and School Sport 6. using the event to create opportunities for young people to become engaged in volunteering at major sports events 7. ensuring that the event advocates and demonstrates the highest level of child protection and welfare systems.
The first UK Games, organised by the YST in September 2006 in Glasgow, included athletics, swimming, gymnastics, table tennis and fencing plus ‘disability’ events in swimming and athletics.
The attempt to building a lasting legacy of competitive sport in schools was reinforced in January 2009 by an extension to the infrastructure network to include 225 Competition Managers, who were given a support role to the SSPs to deliver a broad range of inter-school competitive opportunities to a wider range of young people, delivered through the implementation of the School Games national competition framework for young people. For these Games at levels 1-4, all schools have the opportunity to create a year round calendar of approximately 30 sports available to attract young people into competing at all levels intra-, inter–school levels culminating in local regional and national events (the first School Games national Final took place in May 2012). Physical Education was now assured as a compulsory component of the National Curriculum, though paradoxically, somewhat contrary to the 2012 London Olympic legacy philosophy, as early as August 2012, the Conservative-Liberal Democratic Coalition's Department of Education seeking to empower head teachers and de-bureaucratise the organisation of physical activity
163 in schools, dropped the requirement for the weekly provision of 120 minutes of Physical Education and Sport (Patton, 2012).
Further legacy measures have embraced additional links between schools and community sports clubs at least 6,000 Partnerships by 2017 and, echoing policies in the 1960s and 1970s, additional investment in facilities to include funding for schools to open up their sports facilities for wider public use. However, Coalition Government politics soon came to the fore and funding for School Sports Partnerships was removed only to be tempered by a Government announcement, in April 2013, of funding of £150 million for Physical Education and Sport. This funding was earmarked for improvement of the quality and breadth of Physical Education and Sport provision. Primary Schools’ were/are expected to monitor the funding and most importantly demonstrate the impacts on pupils. The impacts are now subject to Ofsted inspections. The Association for Physical Education (afPE) in partnership with Ofsted has produced a Quality Mark, which provides evidence of quality Physical Education and School Sport. The Quality Mark will become significant in relation to School Sport Premium funding. It would seem from early indicators (Ofsted, 2014) that impacts are perceived as positive with better quality PE teaching, more opportunities for physical activity and sport participation, and head teachers noting that the Premium had brought a renewed and sharper focus on PE and Sport.
The transition of Physical Education/School Sport appeared to produce beneficial outcomes. The government target for 2006 of 75% of children in schools aged 5-16 receiving at least two hours of high quality Physical Education and School Sport was exceeded with actual achievement being 80%, a figure that increased to 86% in 2007 and 90% in 2008 across England thus, favourably comparing with the 2002 figure of 27%. Nonetheless, at the same time, participation rates in sports amongst young people declined dramatically after leaving school at 16. There was particular concern over girls’ sports engagement with only a third participating aged 18 compared with two-thirds of boys. Youth Sport Strategy major aims have consistently been to increase the number of young people (age
164
14-16) habitually engaging in sport over the life-span, through establishing a lasting network of links between schools and sports clubs in local communities hence, breaking down barriers that have prevented young people from continuing their interest in sport into adulthood. Sport England has invested heavily in working with schools, colleges and universities, as well as local County Sports Partnerships, National Governing Bodies for sport, local authorities and voluntary sectors agencies. In April 2013, it was announced that Sport England, already investing £100m a year in grassroots sport, would inject an extra £24m into a programme to attract teenagers and young adults (aged 14 to 24 years) and a further £10million per year up to 2017. It was estimated that some 190,000 14-24 year olds would benefit from free/discounted sports courses in a wide range of activities.
National and Secondary School Physical Education Curriculum Revision
Developments in Physical Education came thick and fast after the advent of the 2000 millennium. The importance and understanding of Physical Literacy was building momentum with a deal of confusion of what it was, what it meant, and why it was regarded crucial to each and every individual throughout life. It was a period that saw the introduction of a new Secondary School Curriculum, formalised consultation for which took place between February and April 2007. The new Curriculum for Key Stages 3-4 was part of a wider vision to develop a modern, world-class curriculum that would inspire and challenge learners and prepare them for the future. It was a curriculum that embraced a whole school perspective and impact to better meet the needs and interests of all pupils. It was the first English National Curriculum to be a ‘schools based curriculum’ with linked learning between all subject areas with cross-curricular dimensions and personal development. Its overarching aim was to develop a modern, coherent and flexible curriculum that recognised the needs of young people and provided opportunities and experiences to inspire, challenge and prepare them for the future. Its implementation commenced in Autumn 2008, though schools were not required to fully implement changes until
165
2011. Conceptually it encompassed: Successful learners; Confident Individuals; and Responsible Citizens. The revised Physical Education Programme of Study for Key Stage 3 had greater adaptability, was more meaningful and had increased personalisation. Similar to all other subjects, it contained the following five sections.
The importance of Physical Education Key concepts; Competence, Performance, Creativity, Healthy Active Lifestyles Key process with three main areas: (i) developing improving range and quality of skills in physical activity; (ii) making and applying decisions (iii) evaluating and improving, and making informed choices about healthy and active lifestyle Range and content: the breadth of Physical Education that areas of study were to be drawn from with an emphasis on 'thinking skills' Curriculum opportunities: a significant area that helps all pupils to engage and understand Physical Education, opening up a new world for pupils to contribute and personalise the curriculum, including ‘Learning Outside the Classroom’, work with for example professional dancers and sports people in physical activities and specific sports context centres.
Physical Education Teaching: Initial Training and Continued Professional Development
As intimated in the earlier section, Shaping Traditions, from 1881 on, Madame Bergman-Osterberg ‘disciples’ established a number of Women's Training Colleges (graduates of which taught mainly in girls’ Independent Schools). This placed female physical educators at the forefront of physical education developments in
166
England. Meanwhile in the newly established Elementary Schools, the ‘military drill’ included in the Revised Code of Regulations, which followed the 1871 Education Act was the only officially approved form of physical education in State sector schools until 1890. It was ‘taught’ by non-commissioned Armed Forces instructors. In 1902, the Board of Education reflecting general concern for the health of the nation turned its attention to physical training in schools. In doing so, it consulted with the War Office, which made “available facilities for the formation of teachers’ classes under qualified Non-commissioned Offices of the Gymnastic Staff” (Board of Education, 1903). Two years later, Colleges (largely ‘Church’ provided) received the Board of Education Circular 454, inviting them to draw up two year teacher training courses that included Physical Training.
After the end of World War I in 1918, recruitment and training of teachers was quickly planned. The Board of Education based the organization of physical education on three groups: (i) class teachers, familiar with techniques of Physical Training but no advanced training; (ii) specialists for secondary and continuation schools; and (iii) organisers to advise and to help train non- specialists. Vacation courses and the men's Training Colleges catered for the needs of the class teachers, and specialists were trained in Silkeborg or attended the former Broman's College, taken over by London County Council for short courses. The Board of Education gave its support to a one-year course for women Certificated Teachers at Reading and in the summer of 1919 sponsored a three - month course at Sheffield Training College designed for men who had gained experience of Physical Training during their service with the Forces. In September, 1919 the Sheffield experiment resulted in a one-year course to train men for posts as Organisers of Physical Training under Local Education Authorities and for other responsible positions. The ‘Church Colleges’ were at the vanguard of developments in Physical Education Teacher Training for men throughout the 1920s into the 1930s. Changes of provision for specialist training were signaled when in 1930 the University of London agreed to a Diploma Course in theory and practice of physical education and came to full fruition (for men’s specialist
167 training) when Carnegie Physical Training College8 was established with a grant of £30,000 from the Carnegie Trustees and provision of a site by the City of Leeds Education Committee. Loughborough (1935) and Goldsmiths (1937) followed suit to make three specialist Colleges for men. The post-World War II era up to the 1970s was marked by a proliferation in Higher Education Institutions providing so-called Specialist, Wing and Main Physical Education training courses for both men and women. By the early 1970s, there were some 147 Teacher Training Colleges involved in the initial preparation of certificated teachers of physical education. Rationalisation, commencing in the mid- to late 1970s, rapidly altered this situation: closures and mergers reduced the numbers to around 20 Institutions offering three year Bachelor of Education, or four year Bachelor of Arts/Science plus Qualified Teacher status and one year Post-graduate Certificate of Education courses for Primary and Secondary School physical educators.
One of the ten strands for investment of the PESSCL Strategy, introduced in 2002, was Professional Development with an allocation of £9.3million. The Continuing Professional Development programme introduced aimed to raise pupils’ attainment levels, improve understanding of how high quality Physical Education and School Sport could be used as a tool for whole school improvement and to support healthy lifestyles and physical activity, and encourage schools to interpret the Physical Education Programme of Study in more innovative ways. The implementation of the Programme was through established Local Delivery Agencies responsible for developing, delivering high quality PE and Sport professional development for teachers and adults supporting learning in school settings. The need for Continued Professional Development and support for teachers of physical education classes, as exemplified in previous references to inadequate delivery of Physical Education, especially in Primary Schools, was clear. Physical Education was also to address children’s health, especially obesity, thus underlining
8 In 1930, the Board of Education had decided that it was not desirable that physical education should be taught by those whose qualification was limited to physical training. The Carnegie course was only open to those with a teacher’s certificate or a degree.
168 the importance of working with different government bodies, associations including the Department of Health. A focal feature was the process of Learning and Teaching, and Inclusion, that is meeting the needs and abilities of all children. Guidance models emerged for Foundation (early years and Key Stage 1) and Formative (Key Stage 2) including supportive resources. The emergence of such models highlighted inherent weaknesses in the delivery of Physical Education by Primary School teachers, caused by deficiencies in Initial Teacher Training (ITT), including insufficient time, lack of preparation and post-ITT support.
The national profession Association (AfPE)9 set up a National College for Continuing Professional Development (this was a development role envisaged by the DfES for afPE). The National College focuses on needs of practitioners and ensures compliance with Training and Development Agency (TDA) standards for class teachers. The opportunities on offer embrace a broad spectrum of themes and topics, which variously address didactical, pedagogical, leadership/management and health and safety issues etc.
In September 2010, the new Coalition Government released a ‘White Paper’, The Importance of Teaching. Amongst other things, its policy message signalled changes to teacher training, pupil behavioural issues, curriculum reform, raising of compulsory education to 17 in 2013 and to age 18 by 2015, extension of the new schools system of Academies (directly funded rather through local
9 The Association for Physical Education (formally launched in March 2006 after a merger of the PE Association UK and British Association of Advisors and Lecturers in PE) is recognised by the DfES and its agencies, DCMS, Sport England and NGBs etc., as the lead professional association. The Association meets its mission objectives through lobbying government, publications including a member’s journal (Physical Education Matters), a research-oriented journal (Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy), regular electronic updates of professional development initiatives, production of resource packs, establishment of good practice benchmarks (e.g. Standards for Safeguarding and Protecting Children in Sport), involvement in professional development programmes and courses as well as an annual conference. In July 2006, it launched the National College for Continuing Professional Development, which aims to provide leadership in physical education, raise professional standards and share exemplary practice
169 education authorities), refocus of school inspections and reform of performance tables, devolvement of responsibility to schools for improvement, an aspect that eventually resulted in the decline/demise of local authority PE Strategic leads, advisors, teacher advisors etc., and school funding (the Pupil Premium) aimed at increasing resources for deprived pupils by injecting £2.5billion annually into the schools budget over the next four years. Further reform within the education system was sign-posted in the Wolfe Report (2011), specifically in Further Education Vocational Schools as raising of the compulsory school leaving age was about to be implemented.
Ofsted’s (2013) most recent Report on Physical Education in English schools, which was based on evidence from HMI and Ofsted Inspections between September 2008 and July 201210 and also drew on evidence from four visits to schools to observe good practice in physical education, noted that a major weakness in primary schools was the lack of specialist subject knowledge among teachers. It is, therefore, not surprising that, even in schools known to have strong practice in Physical Education, a significant part of the new funding is being used to improve the quality of teaching in the subject. In the schools visited, this was mainly achieved by using the funding to employ specialist Physical Education teachers and sports coaches to work with other teachers and teaching assistants. However, some schools were also using it to improve the skills of existing members of staff so that they could provide good quality training for their colleagues in school. This concurs with the DfE Survey, which found that 86% of the sample schools were using the premium to provide extra physical education training for staff. Inspectors also found that the new funding was being used effectively to increase pupils’ participation in sport and physical activity. In some schools, part of the funding was used to help selected pupils overcome personal difficulties and as a platform to improve their physical and social development. Although most of the schools visited were using the premium in effective ways, some common weaknesses were noted: strategic planning was reported as
10 120 Primary Schools, 110 Secondary Schools and 7 Special Schools were inspected
170 generally poor; and monitoring and evaluation of the impact of actions to improve the provision of Physical Education and Sports were not rigorous enough (Lloyd, Fry & Wollny, 2014).
Now due to support from coaches and other professionals in schools more opportunities are available for wider groups of children to follow their interests, before school, breaks, lunchtimes, after school, school to club links. There are, however, concerns within the physical education profession that some coaches in Primary Schools, who have no teaching qualifications, are undermining teachers and ‘de-skilling’ teachers as they move into teaching physical education classes! The ‘bottom line’ is that within Initial Teacher Training programmes, there remains insufficient inclusion of Physical Education, BUT the situation seems to be improving and some specialist Primary Physical Education teachers’ training programmes are now available in a few teacher training establishments.
The Present Situation: A New National Physical Education Curriculum
In 2013, Government announced yet another new National Curriculum to be introduced in schools in 2014. Important features of the Curriculum embrace:
shorter Programmes of Study for ALL children to excel no matter what background subject content, what should be taught, what pupils should know and be able to do allowance of maximum level of innovation at school level in developing content of Programmes of Study and design of curriculum pathways that meet all learners needs and interests.
In relation to Assessment, there are no level descriptors and schools are required to develop new assessment systems. The focus is on all pupils reaching an expected standard rather than on labelling differential performance. Explicit in the new National Curriculum is the development of Numeracy and Literacy in/through all subjects.
171
Physical Education is one of only four subjects that is statutorily required across all four Key Stages. Within a conceptual context of lifelong physical activity participation and opportunities for all, this latest Physical Education Curriculum aims to ensure all pupils 5-16 develop confidence and competence to excel in a broad range of physical activities, are physically active for sustained periods of time, engage in physical activities and competitive sports and lead, healthy active lives. It is not overly dissimilar to the 2008 curriculum, being less prescriptive and has a more flexible offering with choices in physical activities and sports to learn in, and through. An over-riding mantra is the need to be specific to the needs and interest of the school and pupils. Greater emphasis is placed on Fundamental Movement and Physical Literacy throughout the curriculum stages and especially so in Key Stage 1. There is a greater focus on competition in the widest sense including self- challenge, developing cognitive, creative, personal and social skills, including fair play, and learning from winning or losing. Additionally, there is a specific focus on sustained activity over time and health impact. Despite logistical problems in provision and delivery, Swimming remains a compulsory part of the Primary School curriculum.
Concluding Comments
Physical Education in England has made significant progress since its 19th century antecedent foundations. In the early years the concern was for the immediate health and fitness of the nation and the emphasis was on training the ‘physical’ in State Elementary Schools and the cult of 'Athleticism' for the privately educated rich elite. From the early decades of the 20th century, when most of the initiatives were discipline and short-term fitness related, Physical Education in English schools has developed from a narrowly defined teacher directed subject to its current position of orientation to pupil- centred learning, with an accent on learning 'how to learn', health- focused physical education, links with other subject areas, development of assessment procedures and partnership schemes with the local community. The progression has been variously marked by the
172 emergence of an English System shaped by ‘imported’ external influences on to which were grafted indigenous ‘English Games’ and other competitive sport activities and which was subsequently modified by innovative pedagogical and didactical approaches. These innovations ushered in discovery learning, movement education and activity for understanding approaches to the teaching/learning interface. From the 1950s onwards, teachers were encouraged to adopt different teaching styles and to apply more general educational principles to the teaching of physical education; more emphasis was placed on the acquisition of movement skills, which placed greater demands on the teacher to understand fundamental principles of movement to plan balanced progressive schemes of work for the pupils. Inexorably, the trend in the second half of the 20th century was from the ‘doing’ child, through the ‘doing and thinking’ child to the ‘reflective thinking’ child of the post-1990s physical education national curriculum era. In the 1990s, the inclusion of Physical Education within the national curriculum established its legitimacy as a subject and gave credibility to its status. However, despite the philosophical and pedagogical intention supported by politico-ideological will, it is clear that the dominant physical education curriculum ideology in schools continued to lie with Sport, particularly Games. The pedagogically inspired movement approach era was replaced (if ever it needed to be replaced) in the return to the quest for ‘traditional values’. It was a return, which was endorsed by government supported agencies and the autonomous National Governing Bodies of Sport.
Since 2002, central Government in England has demonstrated clear commitment to a partnership of Physical Education and Sport with large-scale financial investment. The policy plan for delivering Government commitments was contained within the Cabinet Office Strategy Unit’s Game Plan (2002) Strategy document, in which it was claimed that sport can contribute in the key areas of social inclusion, community cohesion, youth crime, life long learning, regeneration, economic benefits and health and well being of communities, and in which there was a vision to make England an active and successful sporting nation. The mission was to work with others to create opportunities for people to become involved in sport, to stay in sport and to excel and succeed in sport at
173 every level. The Game Plan recommended that the government should adopt a ‘twin track’ approach to increasing participation in sport and physical activity and developing sustainable improvements in success in international competition. Further evidence of central Government’s commitment to excellence and winning was seen in the DCMS Agenda (Caborn, 2004), where there was a clear confirmatory statement on what was actually being done: increasing access to school sports through two hours’ entitlement; improving the quality and quantity of community sport clubs; focusing upon quality coaching in schools and the community; and investing in facilities and protecting playing fields.
The historical development of physical education in England has been marked by ambivalence and ambiguity. Earlier perceptions of the duality of physical education and sport have been in recent years reconciled into unison variously through strategic policy and/or opportunistic interventions by Government (DfES and DCMS), and quasi-governmental (Sport England) and non- governmental (NGBs and afPE) agencies working in collaborative partnerships to raise standards of provision and delivery of high quality Physical Education and Sport and increase participation across a broad spectrum of physical activity in general but sports- related activity in particular. Significantly, the joint Department for Education and Skills/Department of Culture, Media and Sport (2004) published High Quality PE and Sport for Young People offered guidelines for the recognition and achievement of high quality Physical Education and Sport in schools and clubs with a clear indication that leaders, managers, teachers and coaches should work together to positively influence young people’s physical activity behaviours. Now, beneficially, because of support from coaches and other professional in schools, more opportunities are available for wider groups of children to follow their interests, before school, during breaks and lunchtimes, after school, and through school to club links.
Historical factors have produced a complex set of arrangements in Physical Education teacher training. Each Higher Education Institution has enjoyed a deal of autonomy in how it
174 delivers teacher training. Nevertheless, all have been subject to national quality control procedures related to accreditation of Initial Teacher Training and have modified programmes to meet the needs of national curricula and requirements. Inadequacies in Initial Teacher Training programmes are slowly being alleviated with support for Teaching and Learning in, and through, Physical Education via what is becoming a comprehensive network of Continuing Professional Development programmes, especially for Primary School teachers. The alleviation process may well be aided by the training of specialist Primary School Physical Education teachers in the hitherto small number of training institutions and establishments across the country.
Since the introduction of a National Physical Education Curriculum in the 1990s, there has been an unprecedented array of central, quasi- and non-governmental agencies initiatives and interventions. It is clearly evident that a veritable ‘jungle’ of agencies is involved in provision and delivery of physical education in schools. It is equally clear that over the years there have been marked shifts in ideological make-up from ‘drill’ and ‘exercise’, through ‘physical training’, ‘physical education’ and ‘movement education’ to its present representation as ‘physical education and school sport’. The latter is coming to transcend the school and moving into the domain of wider communities involving partnerships of interest-vested agencies in the name of lifelong learning, notions of physical literacy and the physically educated person and at the same time being instrumentally charged with combating sedentary lifestyle diseases and anti-social behaviour, increasing levels of obesity and inactivity and producing pools of young talented people, capable of medals successes in international sport. Thus, Physical Education and School Sport has become a high profile sphere of inclusive activity. Nevertheless, a balanced curriculum is a rhetorical ideal, the reality is a school physical education curriculum, which is dominated by the potent legacy inherited from sporting traditions established in 19th century Independent, mainly Boarding, Schools.
175
REFERENCES
Bailey, R. , Armour, K. , Kirk, D. , Jess, M. , Pickup, I. , Sandford, R. , Pearce, G., and BERA Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy Special Interest Group, (2009). The educational benefits claimed for physical education and school sport: an academic review. Research Papers in Education, 24 (1). pp.1-27. Board of Education (1902). Model Course of Training. London, HMSO. Board of Education (1903). Annual Report, 1902-3.London, HMSO. pp.11-12. Board of Education (1904). Circular 454. Board of Education. Board of Education (1936). Circular 1445. London, HMSO. Board of Education, (1909). The Syllabus of Physical Exercises for Schools. London, HMSO. Board of Education, (1919). Syllabus of Physical Training for Schools. London, HMSO. Board of Education, (1933). Syllabus of Physical Training. London, HMSO. Board of Education. (1942). McNair Report on the supply, training and recruitment of teachers. London, HMSO. Caborn, R. (2004), DCMS Agenda, www.teachernet.gov.uk . Cross Commission (1888). Final Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Elementary Education Acts, England and Wales. London. DCMS document ‘Creating a Sporting Habit for Life’. ‘A New Youth Sport Legacy’ Jeremy Hunt , Secretary of State for Culture, Olympics Media and Sport. Department for Education and Skills and Department of Culture, Media and Sport (2004). High Quality PE and Sport for Young People. Annesley, DfES Publications.. Department for Education/Welsh Office, (1995). Physical Education in the National Curriculum. London, H.M.S.O. Department of Education and Science, (1972). Movement - Physical Education in the Primary Years. London, H.M.S.O. Department of Education and Science, (1983). 9-13 Middle Schools – An Illustrative Survey. London, HMSO.
176
Department of Education and Science, (1985). Education 8-12 in Combined and Middle Schools – An HMI Survey. London, HMSO. Department of National Heritage, (1995). Sport. Raising the Game. London, Department of National Heritage. Frapwell, A., & Wilkinson, S., (2007). Curriculum dissemination and implementation support. Physical Education Matters, AfPE, 4, Winter. Hardman, K. (2002)., The PE Curriculum in England - Issues andTtrends, Unpublished paper presented at the Catholic University Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, 5 December. Lloyd, C., Fry, A., & Wollny, I., (2014). Physical Education and Sport premium: an investigation in Primary schools. Department of Education, National Centre of Social Research. Ministry of Education, (1952a). The Health of the Schoolchild – Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Ministry of Education. London, HMSO. Ministry of Education, (1952b). Moving and Growing. London, HMSO. Ministry of Education, (1953). Planning the Programme. London, HMSO. Montague, A., (2012). Raising your Game – Using Sport to Raise Achievement in English, Mathematics and Science. Loughborough, Youth Sport Trust. Munrow, (1963). Pure and Applied Gymnastics. London, Edward Arnold Publisher. pp.21-22. Ofsted (2013). Beyond 2012 – outstanding physical education for all. Physical education in schools 2008-12. February. www.ofsted.gov.uk/resources/120367 Patton, G., (2012). Olympic Legacy: Coalition axes schools sport targets. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/945 9469/Olympic-legacy-Coalition... 16/01/2013 Penney, D., and Kirk, D., (1997). National Curriculum Developments in Physical Education in Australia and Britain: a Comparative Analysis. Journal of Comparative Physical Education and Sport, Vol.XVIII, No.2. pp.30-38.
177
Stead, R., & Neville, M., (2010). The Impact of Physical Education and Sport on Education Outcomes: A Review of Literature. Institute of Youth Sport, Loughborough University. The Sports Council (1997). England, the Sporting Nation. London, The Sports Council.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AfPE (2006), Newsletter. 3, July. Department for Education (2011). The Framework for the National Curriculum A Report by the Expert Panel for the National Curriculum Review. London, HMSO. December. Department for Education and Employment (2014). Physical Education. The National Curriculum for England KS 1-4. London, HMSO. Department for Education and Science/Welsh Office, (1992). Physical Education in the National Curriculum. London, H.M.S.O. Department for Education and Skills (2005). The Results of the 2004/05 School Sport Survey, Annesley, DfES Publications, September. Department for Education and Skills and Department of Culture, Media and Sport (2004). Learning through PE and Sport. Annesley, DfES Publications. Department for Education November (2010). The Importance of Teaching. The Schools White Paper. London, HMSO. Department of Education (2013). Physical Education programmes of study: Key stages 1 and 2 National Curriculum in England, Department of Education Physical Education programmes of study: Key stages 3 and 4 National Curriculum in England. London, HMSO. September. Ofsted (2006). Ofsted Strategic Plan 2006-2007. Ofsted, May. Ofsted (2013). Evidence of PE and Sport in Schools. Ofsted. June. Ofsted (2013). Inspecting primary school PE and school sport: new funding. Ofsted, September. Ofsted (2014). Physical education survey visits. Supplementary subject-specific guidance for inspectors on making
178
judgements during school visits. Ofsted, Reference no. 20100015. April. Ofsted (2014). The physical education and sport premium for primary schools – good practice to maximise effective use of the funding. Ofsted, Reference no. 140164. October. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2006). The curriculum: QCA looks forward. QCA. Sport England, (1999). Sport England. More People, More Places, More Medals. London, Belmont Press. Sport England/Youth Sport Trust (2008). The PE and Sport Strategy for Young People. (PESSYP). A guide to delivering the Five Hour Offer. Sport England/Youth Sport Trust, London. Strategy Unit Cabinet Office (2002). Game Plan – a strategy for delivering Government’s sport and physical activity objectives, London, HMSO. Talbot, M., (2007). Policy Matters. ‘Quality’; in Physical Education Matters. 2 (2). Summer. Youth Sport Trust (2003). Every Child Matters Through Physical Education and School Sport. A guide to the work of Youth Sport Trust in supporting the achievements of Children Services priorities. Youth Sport Trust.
179 COLOMBIA
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOLS IN LATIN AMERICA: GENESIS
Luis Felipe Contecha Carrillo, Research Group “ESPARTACUS”, University of Tolima, History International Section “FIEP”
Correspondence Luis Felipe Contecha Carrillo [email protected]
Abstract
This article accounts for the beginnings of the teacher training schools in some countries in Latin America. This document is a result of visiting Institutions and having personal interviews with a group of Physical Education – PE Professors. It is aimed to specifically register the antecedents and processes that originated the institutionalization of the profession: PE teacher.
CHILE
Referring to the history of the Teacher Training School in Chile, is to journey back in time, in an itinerary that starts in The Central Institute at Stockholm and to chronologically locate in the year 1889, in which Joaquin Cabezas G., travelled to Europe in his study mission, (1936, pg. 404), as he claimed in 1936 in his speech for the celebration of the 30 years of the institute and his 50 of service as an educator. Consequently with what has been said, and with the importance of the primary source, in this case, the speech published in the magazine of the Institute, was taken, to write this quick glance to the creation of the Institute of P.H in Chile. Professor Cabezas had a scholarship to study in Europe, his first period lasted four years; in his return to Chile in 1893, he understood and spread his knowledge, pointing out the necessity of
180 starting a process that allows the teaching and training of pedagogue teachers in the PE field. These ideas had refuge in the Ministry of Education, Federico Puga Borne who hired him in 1897 to organize a temporal course on vacation for primary teachers, focused on handwork. Of course, everything learnt in Europe was focused on handwork, pedagogical games, and the Educational Gymnastics of Ling. Before this event, in 1902, Manuel Borros Borgoño, Principal of the University of Chile, included in the syllabus of the Pedagogical Institute, the subjects of Drawing, Arts, and Physical Education, the only teacher that leaded those classes was professor Cabezas. The situation and support of these classes was not the best, there were not physical places, tools, and willing from the managers; this circumstance was the device that got professor Cabezas to think of the necessity of creating an establishment to train teachers of P.E in Chile.
Higher Institute for Physical Education
In 1905, the proposal of including in the National Budget an entry for the creation of an Institute of Higher Physical Education and hand work, was presented at the National Congress. In March 1906, with the direction of the just placed teacher Cabezas, the Institute received the first students in a rented house in the Arturo Prat Street. It depended from the Ministry of Public Instruction: its syllabus was based on Handwork, drawing, domestic economy, shorthand, calligraphy, and Physical Education. Teachers for Secondary Schools and Normal Schools were being trained. As a result, the aspirants had to meet the requirements of being a Normal School graduate Teachers with good grades or at least having finished fifth year of humanities. Students graduated in two years. Its first graduates received a certificate in 1907. In 1918, the graduate students from the school received the title of State Teacher as the teachers from the Pedagogical Institute already did. In 1922 the General Direction of P.E was born. With this new organism, the title of State Teacher was lost. Professor Cabezas
181 was the principal of the Institute until 1928 when he quit after realizing his ideas did not meet the ones of the new direction created. The category of Higher Institution was recovered with the reform of 1931, when the Institute turned into a dependence of the General Direction of Physical Education and the Council of Higher Physical Education of the Ministry of War; by then, and for the request of the President of the Republic Arturo Alesaadri, Professor Joaquin Cabezas was principal again.
University of Chile
In 1932, after removing the Superior Council and the General Direction of Physical Education, the Institute integrated to the School of Philosophy and Sciences of Education of the University of Chile, From then on, it was called Physical Education Institute. In this phase of the Institute, Professor Cabezas does well retirement and delegates as Director, Doctor and Professor of P.E Luis Bisquertt Susarte, graduate teacher from the Institute in 1919. (Guarda, 2006. Pág. 19). In 1981 the University status got lost again, which was gain again in 1936, when the Metropolitan University of Sciences of Education was created.
ARGENTINA
Antecedents of Teacher Training
Romero, E., when referring to the origins, says, “the Institute was finally, the forced crowning by that ideological evolution in the European environment of the time, carried then, from time ago, in our country” (1938, Pg. 41); he claims that mainly, the influences came from the French, especially Lagrange’s ideas and the implantation of the English sports in the Educational places. It was the Colegio Nacional de Corrientes, directed in 1890 by Principal Fitz Simón, where the seed was planted, of what was going to be, the Institutionalization of the Physical Education in Argentina; Professor Tomas Reeve was hired to teach outdoor sport games, as well as, light tool gymnastics. Pablo Pizzurno, was allied
182 to Fitz in the starting of these activities in a particular institution called Instituto Nacional de Caballito, the professor was Enrique Romero Brest. (Martin, L. En Holze. Pág. 8) When the Law of Common Education in 1884 (Nº 1.420), and until 1898 Physical Education was not well seen by Ministries of Public Education. With the reform of 1898, promoted by Pizzurno, secondary PE was organized in the national schools; from army like and athletic exercises, it turned into programs with physical rational exercises based on physiology that assisted the scientific needs of PE in this effort Pizzurno was supported by Romero Brest in the technical redacting and regulation of the Decree. Afterward, and given the success of the reform of 98, in national schools, Romero Brest redacted the Decree that extended its limits to the Normal Schools and the Educational Establishments Is the Decree of 1898 the one which ruled and provided the creation of athletic clubs in every school in the Argentina. These organizations were composed with students, alumni and faculty: their objectives were from the organization of games and exercises to the realization of annual parties, the setting of musical groups and the competence between blubs. The associates were forced to contribute with an economic fee every month. From courses on vacation for teachers to Normal High School of PE in 1909 In fact, to guide and carry out the established in the reform, suitable teachers were required which let the programming of a course on vacation, called in the time, temporal courses of Physical Education to which not only teachers from D.F., could attend but also the ones from province schools; there were five courses carried out in total, between the years 1901 and 1907, there were 309 teachers were trained, the courses were directed by the doctor and professor Enrique Romero Brest. The courses on vacation were followed by the Normal Course theory-practice of physical exercises for teachers from the three Normal Schools (Decree of April 11th 1902). A second course was programmed and officialised by the Vice-president for the year 1905, Figueroa Alcorta, appointed Romero Brest as Director, as teacher, Mr. Sebastian Duran Gauna and as auxiliary Mr. Nicolás Bergally. To Romero Brest, this document was the record of the foundation of the Institute. (Pg.56).
183 The Vacation Course was carried out at Escuela Roca, in the Rivadavia School and finally in 1908, in a house located in the Azcuénaga Street 886. After discomfort and budget and tools insufficiencies, a period of change came, in which the authorities looked with bigger clarity the work that was being carried out. In a normal day of activities in the house of Azcuénaga, the course was visited by Minister of the Public Instruction of that time, Romulo S, Naón who observed carefully, questioned and informed the conditions and perspectives of the course and decided that existing budget and given the results of the courseit was necessary to improve its state and proceeded to manage and work, getting the President Figueroa to decree the creation of the Normal School of P.E. like a dependence of the Ministry of Public Instruction through a Decree of May 14th 1909. The Decree ordered the consecution of the Laboratory of Physiology, from the sufficient material for the classes and named as professor of anatomy Miguel Sussini.
From Normal of Physical Education to National Higher Institution of Physical Education.
The name of Normal School of P.E. was only for three years. In 1912, by management of the Minister Juan M. Garro it passed to be called Superior National Institute of PE. The change was based on the title students both men and women already had and because it was thought that the training received was isolated from the Higher Education given at different universities. This name was also changed in the law of the budget which allowed the entailment of professors and equipped it with the budget needed to face the challenges put by the new designation. With the new syllabus and the increment of student’s registration the Institute required a new facility and the headquarters was in Coronel Diaz 2180. There were years of strengthening and institutional progress. A specialization was offered so whoever got it, wasn´t going to study three but five years. Doctor Romero Brest continued as Director until 1932, year in which he resigned his place after 33 years of being entailed with the Institute.
184 One of the reasons for the resignation of Dr. Romero was the removal of the Budget Law of the Superior Category, as its new name was National Institute of PE.
BRAZIL
The teaching of physical exercises and the practice of some sports in Brazil is linked to the army schools created with the purpose of training officers in charge of leading the troops. Some of the masters – in the army – of the time, were Antonio Francisco da Gama and Pedro Guihermino Meyer, 1858 and 1860 teachers of fencing and gymnastics respectively. De Mello, (1996), quoting Merinho, says that the first attempts for teacher training in Brazil were in 1902, with the initiative of Coronel Pedro Diaz de Campos in a army school of fencing in Sao Paulo.
Army Centre of Physical Education
The method of German gymnastics was followed in Brazil until 1921, when the President of the Republic of the United Stated of Brazil, Epitacio Pessoa, by Decree No° 14.784, ordered to replace it by the French gymnastic method, the Centre assumed the method Hébert. The regulation had aspects related to to the army physical instruction. Afterwards, on June 10th 1822, the Army Centre of Physical Education, its objectives were to lead, coordinate and spread the new method of army Education and its sports applications. The instruction was given in three courses; the first one was about P.E. for officers; the second one was the P.E. for sergeants and the third one was a course of demonstrations for officers. The two first courses lasted three months and the third one a month, its objective was to train instructors for guiding the officials in charge of the direction e instruction of the soldier. (Marinho, I. p.g 53) Lieutenant, Ilído Rômilo Colònia, Lieutenant, Joao Barbosa Leite, Lieutenant Jair Dantas Ribeiro, Lieutenant Freitas Rolim, were some of the leaders of the Army trainers’ training. In 1928, Commander Pierre Segûr of the French army was hired for the Direction of P.E. in the army school; the general
185 regulation of P.E. started, and created a program where practice of the physical exercises was integrated with a sport in the Army Centre of PE. General Nestor Passoas in 1929 presented a preliminary project to the Commission of P.E. that had into account the necessity of the practice by the Brazilian citizens in P.E. and the mandatories of the teaching in the Educational Centres applying the French method. Marinho (p.g 57) says that it was a project that received hard critiques by the mandatories of the French method. Later, courses, where not only army members could register but the civilians too. There, instructors were trained, as well as, monitor, gun masters, fencing monitors, and army specialized doctors. By the end of the 20’s the PE. and the training of teachers was a concern not only for the army but also for the civilians who were claiming proper training for school teachers for being indispensable agents for the development of the national physical culture. Some examples are the departments and schools of PE created in the states of San Paulo and Espiritu Santo. The Decree N° 19.402 of November 14, 1930 created the ministry of Education and Public Health. These developments and questions were the beginning of the necessity for the creation of what in 1930 was heard, the National School of Physical Education.
National School of Physical and Sports Education - NSPSE
In the VII National Congress of Education, which central theme was PE the idea of Ciro de Morais was presented, where he proposed the creation of a school for training teachers of P.E. among the conclusions of the congress the possibility of creating a normal school of P.E. that was subscribed to the University of Rio de Janeiro Brazil was also had into account. In 1937, in the Ministry of Education and the Health through Law 378, the division of Physical Education – D.P.E – was created; its first director was Joâo Barbosa Leite; as consequence of the work of the D.P.E the National School of Physical Education and Sports – NSPES – was created.
186 The exhibition of reasons was presented by Gustavo Copanema and Getuliio Vargas; the NSPES, was founded in the year 1939, through Decree Law 1212; it was the first Brazilian School that was part of a University, the University of Brazil – UB –. Currently, the School is integrated to the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro – FURJ –. Its functions were to train professionals for the P.E. area; to spread the knowledge related with the field; and to carry our research about perspectives of the Brazilian physical education. Colonel Otavio Saldanha Nazza delivered, in an official ceremony, to the Commander Inacio Freitas Rolim the administration and direction of NSPES; and was its principal until 1948. (De Melo, 1996)
COLOMBIA
National Institute of Physical Education in Colombia
Former professor of the Universidad Pedagígica Nacional Mr. Vaca, H. – R.I.P. – stated that the Colombian P.E. started in November 1925 with the spreading of Law 80 of the same year, in the same way, Gómez Moreno and Parra Parra1, called that law, “the cornerstone of the Physical Education in Colombia”. Is important to highlight that Echeverry2 member of the House of Representatives was a lecturer of the Law and the presentation of reasons, made it clear, which part of what was presented was copied textually from article 6° of the Law 7 July 1911 from Uruguay. The transcendence of the Law is based on the importance given to the P.E. and to sport, so through a National Physical Education Plan, would be carried out to the schools and universities, in the same way, the Law created halls or plazas of sports, procreative associations, placed parameter for the building of
1 GÓMEZ M. Y PARA, L. Historia de la educación física en Colombia como profesión. 1936-1986. Universidad Central Bogotá, 1986 2 Was a diplomatic agent of Colombia in Uruguay, which let him be part and Exchange ideas and concepts with the National Commission of P.E. in that country, he redacts what would later be, the great charter of the P.E.
187 stadiums, and for the organization of sport events in all the places in the country3. The first course for teachers was motivated for the urgent need of giving fulfilment to the Law 80 of 1925. The Colombian State had hired the services of German Professor Hans Hubers, who as head of the P.E. section, was in charge of teaching courses, he also was in charge of the celebration of the Olympiad during four years. These Olympiads were the first movement that later would build the organization of National Olympiads and the passing to the National Games that are celebrated today. Nevertheless, Hans Hubers, was not heard by the government of the time and as an urgent recommendation in his report, he suggested the necessity of preparing Specialized Teachers. Forero narrated how initially, the Swedish school product of Chilean work influenced PE in Colombia4. So in August 1936, 180 people, among them, professors, lieutenants and police officers, registered to the first course of P.E. training programmed by the National Direction of Physical Education. The course was guided between May 11 and September 5. The National Ministry of Education and the Chilean mission, gave them the title of trainers of gymnastics5 This first step to the training and instruction gave birth to the National Institute of Physical Education NIPE, which was created through Decree 1528, 25 June 1936, and depended from the National Direction of P.E. its first principal was the Chilean Candelario Sepúlveda La Fuente. The Colombian president of the time was Alfonso López Pumarejo6. The conditions for entering to NIPE were:
3 For deepening the information, see: VACA H Ángel H. Historia de la Educación Física Colombiana a través de sus Normas. Bogotá, 1987. 4 Forero Nougues, In interview said, Agustin Nieto Caballero met professor Joaquín Cabezas who was pupil of Per Henry Ling. In his return to Colombia, he asks him to come to Colombia too, but because of his age, he recommends Candelario Sepulveda as leader of the Chilean mission and Ramón Quintana as his assessor. 5 The clases carried out were about Anatomy, Philosophy, Chemistry, Nutrition Sociology, and Gymnastics. 6 Leads the Liberals to power after almost fifty years in the opposition. He starts in Colombia a campaign of renewing and changing, under the slogan “The revolution in March” at the moment of creating NIPE, the minister of education was Educación Darío Echandía Olaya (1897-1989)
188 - Being a high school or normal school graduate student - Presenting a certificate of good health - Having a minimum height of 1.55 mts – women – and 1.65 mts – men – - Presenting and pass the physical efficiency Between its first students, the NIPE had Alberto Gómez Moreno, Cecilia Navarrete, Miguel Forero Nogues and Numae Hernández, who were later the professors to continue the teachers training in Colombia. The NIPE depended from the National Direction of P.E. and its function was to train teachers of P.E. as well as, instructors, masseuses and managers of sport plazas; developing research projects in health and growing of Colombian children. In this first phase of NIPE two promotions were graduated in 19377 and 1938 respectively. The career lasted three years By Decree 868, 19 of April 1939 NIPE was incorporated to the Universidad Nacional de Colombia its directors were all doctors, by 1942, three promotions are graduated according to record 03 of January 20, agreement number 4, it is closed by the Universidad Nacional and the government is asked to continue again being in charge of it. It’s important to mention that the first sport facilities of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia were built for the PE activities The NIPE was closed by Decree Nº 166 of January 27, 1942, what originated the Physical Education team at the Superior Normal School. And the National Institute of PE was integrated to it.
Normal Superior School and the imminent closing of NIPE
When added to the Normal School, the Institute was directed in 1942 and 1951 by six professors: German Salesian José Mosser who it’s remembered for teaching Gymnastics with different
7 First Graduates of NIPE: Ana María Chávez P, Gilma Wills O, Rita Perdomo, Elisa Gaviria, Rosa Cubillos, Josefina Chávez S, Carlos Arias, Justo Peñalosa, Alberto Rendón, Enrique Vargas, Luis E Sánchez y Miguel García.
189 devices, Spanish Manuel Usano8 Francisco Acosta, Mike Forero Nougues, José Rivera, and Carlos Alberto Guzmán. In this period, the Colombian Association of P.E. teachers, was created (1941). During the functioning as Institute added to the Normal School, important events happened, like the graduation of professor José Velandia, first teacher of P.E. who acted as physical trainer in a professional football team9 the visit of Professor Mayor J.G Thulin, the transformation of the Normal Superior School, to Normal Superior University School and its masculine team transfer to Tunja. In the last graduation of NIPE, the graduates were given the Title of Bachelor of Arts, being these the first of Colombia to receive such title; the honour was conceived after studying an extra year, otherwise they would have receive just a certificate of trainer. Finally, the institute was closed on November the 6, 1951.
Creation of the National School of Physical Education NSPE
After some months of uncertainty, and with pressure of students and teachers, in 1952 through Decree N° 1052 of April 22, the National School of Physical Education – NSPE – was open; it was a Ministry of Education independent organism. Its headquarters would be in Bogotá and the masculine and feminine sides were still separated, the career was three years long10. Although it had two headquarters, legally it was just one. In 1954, by action of Decree N° 221, the NSPE was legally turned into two entities completely independent. Paradoxically, the unification (1959) of the schools was done by a management decision that only conceived budget ownership to one entity11. The
8 For more information read MARTINEZ G. María E. En Historia del Deporte en España y Colombia: Manuel Usano Martín (1907-1987), en www.sportquest.com/revista/ Digital Magazine – Buenos Aires – year 5 – May 2000 9 VACA H Ángel Humberto. Op. cit 10 For more information read VACA H Ángel Humberto. Historia del Alma Mater de la Educación Física en Colombia. Second part. Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. Bogotá 1998. 11 Decree N° 1013 of Abril 6, 1959, Determined that the establishment named National School of Physical Education dependent of the Sports Section Ministry of Education, which was in charge of teachers training in both sexes and technicians training in physical Education activities and in the other branches related to
190 united NSPE started labours with 73 students. Until 1962, 311 students were graduated in 18 promotions, six syllabuses were designed. The biomedical training was kept as well as cleaning, sports, dancing, general culture, gymnastics history. There was not any training in the research field.
MEXICO
Superior School of Physical Education "SSPE"
Previous to the rising of the Superior School of P.E. in Mexico, affords to dignify the role of the teacher as a protagonist of the consolidation of the educational project of the Normal Schools. in 1885, courses of improvement where the importance of the corporal work was highlighted and the teaching of principles of P.H and sanitation in the training of the teachers; this training was done in the Escuela Modelo de Orizaba and in the Normal School of Xalapa under the direction of Enrique C. Rébsamen. Afterward, with the creation of the Normal School of Teachers of Primary school, in the city of Mexico in 1887, in the syllabus the subject gymnastics was offered. Consequently, National congresses and upgrades to the curriculum of the Normal High School carried out between 1889 and 1896 the gymnastics, PE teaching and army exercises. The creation of the Magerly School of Fencing and Gymnastics in 1907, led to the institutionalization of teachers training, it was an Army instruction; one of the directors of the school was the French Lucien Merignac. In 1921, this effort was complemented with the creation of the Secretary of Public Education "SPE" as an initiative of José Vasconcelos, who was also the promoter of the creation of the General direction of P.E.; these actions originated the elemental course of P.E. ascribed to the brand new School of Elemental PE (1923).
organization of courses of improvement. The law also regulated the requirements for being accepted like age (between 17 and 30 years old) minimum height 1.65 mts.
191 The methodological focus of the Elementary School of PE was focused mainly in the theoretical foundations of the game and the sport, the concept: mind, body and a corporal ideal based on the moral; also had into account the teaching of sports as well as the rescue of the autonomous and folklore. it worked until 1927, when through Agreement N° 94 of June 11 was closed giving way to the Academic School of PE ascribed to the National University of Mexico "NUM". Five groups were graduated from this school who made up the first generation of professionals in PE in Mexico By circumstances of the university life, in 1932, the school is isolated of the University and the Normal School of Physical Education.
From the Normal School of Physical Education in 1936 to National School of Physical Education
In the period of the Normal School of PE the teaching of PE was declared mandatory in the schools, the National Direction of Physical Education (NDPE), the preliminary teaching was decreed so the NDPE was turned into a dependence of the secretary of National Defence: besides, the Normal School of PE joined the Department of Pedagogical Studies of the Direction of Superior teaching and scientific research in the "SEP" (1943). In 1947 when the Normal School of PE was incorporated to the Department of Normal and Urban Teaching of the General Direction of Normal Education. Two years later, the General Direction of PE (Agreement 26 of January 1949), was created, and one of its effects is that the Normal School of PE changed its name to National School of Physical Education “NSPE” and during 24 years functioned at the Centro Social y Obrero: Deportivo Venustiniano Carranza.
From the National School of Physical Education “NSPE” in 1949 to Superior School of Physical Education, “SSPE” 1979.
This was a period of institutional consolidation in teachers training in the P.E area, as the opening of schools in different regions of the country. With it the Army focused proposal changed to a technical-sporty one, now the time of the career changed from three
192 to four years; the title to achieve was Bachelor or Arts (Secretarial Agreement N° 11140 of 1976). The adjudication of the lands located in the sport city for the construction of the headquarters of the National School of P.E. Construction that started in 1958; these facilities were inaugurated being the president Adolfo López Mateos and secretary of public education Jaime Torres Bodet. The school students played an important role during the development of the XIX Olympic Games, as an example, we can quite Manuel Guerrero Sainos and Angel Fernando Rangel Munguia, who officiated as Athletics judges and were present as witnesses of the world record in long jumping Bob Beamon. By requirement of student movements inside de NSPE, the building of a laboratories, the modernization of physical facilities, were changed, as well as, the name of the institution for Superior School of Physical Education SSPE
Superior School of Physical Education, “SSPE”
Through agreement N° 36 of the Secretary of Public Education, with date: 31 October 1979. The syllabus had been updated in several opportunities attending the necessities, reforms and realities of the Mexican context; post-graduate programs are offered since 1997 not only in the SSPE, but also in the Normal Schools of D.F.
URUGUAY
As requirement for achieving the objectives of the National Commission of Physical Education, (NCPE) courses were organized under the model and methodology of the Young Christian Men Association (YMCA), this work was directed by Jess Hopkins, from Kansas, USA. Between 1920 and 1936 six courses were organized, for training the teachers that were going to work in the available places for Physical Education, in a systematic way.
193 Normal Institute of Physical Culture
In 1938, Anibal Roig who worked as a secretary of the NCPE presented the creation project of the Normal of Physical Culture Institute. And through Decree of December the 3 1939, the courses started. The first promotion graduated in 1942. Professor Julio J. Rodiguez. And professor of gymnastics Pedro De Hegedeus, was who introduced the guidelines of the Neosueca School. For 1948, Professor Alberto Langlade who helped De Hedeus, assumed the course of gymnastics; Langlade left an important legacy as he was boss of studies, changing teacher’s training in Uruguay. In 1952, by lead of the students, the name of the course was changed for Superior Institute.
BOLIVIA
Superior Institute of Physical Education SIPE
In 1936, Diaz Vera wrote: “the serious step for the physical Education in Bolivia, was given in 1909, when the Normal School of Sucre was founded” (Physical Education bulletin. Year II N° 7) By year 1909 being President Ismael Montes and Daniel Calvo as Minister, the idea of creating a school of physical improving for young men who wanted to dedicate to training teenagers, the National Army delegated this task. In 1914, the Physical Education General Direction was created and Belgian professor Henri de Gents. In 1918 the Physical Education Section was created and the Superior Normal of Peace was annexed to it. Later on May the 7, 1926 through Decree of the President Hernando Siles, the course of PE was created, which had to be executed in two years. The contents of the rapid course was distributed in the following areas, Gymnastics and Sports, Methodology and Didactics, directed by General Inspector of PE professor Saturnino Rodriguez, who later travelled to Europe to get informed about the new tendencies of PE in that continent. The contents of the medical area, were guided by Dr. Carlos Valenzuela; the Experimental Psychology by Professor Juvenal Mariaca. Form this course 43 teachers graduated, 17 ladies and 26 gentlemen on December the 31 1931.
194 On February 3, through Supreme Decree of 1931, the Superior Institute of P.E. was founded – SIPE – its first Director was Professor Saturnino Rodriguez. During his years of Functioning it has changed its name, after it was created; its name was changed to Superior Normal Institute of Physical Education “Antonio José de Sucre” (Supreme Decree of February 1951)
PERÚ
National School of Physical Education
Created by Supreme Resolution N° 326 of September the 6 1932, trained teachers specialized on Physical Education and technical sports. This Institution was an achievement of professors Carlos Caceres Alvarez, who was its first director. As collaborators on this idea, he counts on Jorge Romaña, Yori Carlos Alvarado, Jesus D. Lopez, Miguel Alegre, Luis E Palma and Juan Ojeda.
195 REFERENCES
Boletin de Educación Física. Año III-Nº9. (1936). Instituto de Educación Física de la Unive CHILE 2003 060.jpgrsidad d CHILE 2003 060.jpge Chile. Santiago de Chile. Boletín de Educación Física. Año I-Nº1. (1934). Instituto de Educación Física de la Universidad de Chile. Santiago de Chile. Callejas, A. (2008) Breve Historia de la Educación Física en Bolivia (1900-1981) recuperado de http://www.efdeportes.com/ Revista Digital - Buenos Aires - Año 13 - Nº 127 - Diciembre de 2008 Chávez, R. (2012) Historia de la Educación Física en México. México, Trillas. Contecha C. Luis Felipe. La Educación Física y el Deporte en Colombia. http://orbita.starmedia.com/fiepcolombia Artículo en permanente construcción. De Mello, V. (1996) Escola Nacional de Educaçao Fisica em desportos- Una possível História. Master Thesis, Faculdad de Educaçao Física, Universidad de Campinas. Diaz O Jorge. Las escuelas de educación física en Latinoamérica – Estudio comparativo. ediciones JADO Córdoba Argentina 1994. Diaz, H. (1936) La Educación Física en Bolivia. Boletín de Educación Física, Año II-nº 7, Enero. Instituto de Educación Física de la Universidad de Chile. Fuentes: Saravi, J.A. (1988). Historia de la Educación Física Argentina. Siglo XIX. Instituto Nacional de Educación Física de Buenos Aires Dr. Enrique Romero Brest. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Gomez M Alberto & Parra P Luis A. Historia de la Educación Física en Colombia como profesión, 1936 – 1986. Publicaciones Universidad Central. Bogotá, 1986. Holze H. (1986). Contribuciones a la documentación e investigación de las ciencias del Deporte. Volumen I – 80 aniversario. (compiladora) Instituto Nacional de Educación Física de Buenos Aires Dr. Enrique Romero Brest. Buenos Aires, Argentina
196 ICFES. Sistema Nacional de Información de la educación superior – SNIES. www.icfes.gov.co. Marinho, I. (1980) Historia de la Educación Física en Brasil. Sao Paulo, Brasil. Romero, E. (1938). El sentido espiritual de la Educación Física. Evolución de una escuela Argentina: el Instituto nacional de Educación Física. Librería del Colegio, Alsina y Bolívar; Buenos Aires, Argentina Vaca Hángel. Historia de la educación física Colombiana a través de sus normas. Universidad Central Bogotá 1987. Vaca Hángel. Historia del Alma Mater de la educación física Colombiana Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. Facultad de Educación Física Bogotá 1993. Vaca Hángel. Historia del Alma Mater de la Educación Física Colombiana. Segunda parte. Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. Facultad de Educación Física Bogotá 1998. Vidal, S. (1952) Los Veinte años del Instituto de Educación Física del Perú. Revista Chilena de Educación Física, Nº 72, Santiago de Chile.
197
CIP - Каталогизација у публикацији - Народна библиотека Србије, Београд
371.3::796(4)(091)(082)
HISTORY of Physical Education in Europe. 2 / [editors Petar D. Pavlovic ... et al.]. - Leposavić : University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education ; [Bratislava] : FIEP Europe, History of Physical Education and Sport Section, 2015 (Bratislava : ABL Print). - 197 str. : ilustr. ; 21 cm
Tiraž 100. - Napomene i bibliografske reference uz tekst. - Bibliografija uz svaki rad.
ISBN 978-86-82329-53-4 (FSPE) ISBN 978-86-82329-54-1 (niz) a) Физичко васпитање - Историја - Европа - Зборници COBISS.SR-ID 218578444 --