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Mckillen on Carroll, 'America and the Making of an Independent Ireland' H-Diplo McKillen on Carroll, 'America and the Making of an Independent Ireland' Review published on Saturday, August 21, 2021 Francis M. Carroll. America and the Making of an Independent Ireland. New York: New York University Press, 2021. 312 pp. $35.00 (cloth), ISBN 978-1-4798-0565-5. Reviewed by Elizabeth McKillen (The University of Maine) Published on H-Diplo (August, 2021) Commissioned by Seth Offenbach (Bronx Community College, The City University of New York) Printable Version: https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=56518 Despite an extensive range of scholarly case studies on US responses to the Irish Revolution (1916-23) dating back to the 1950s, US diplomatic historians have largely failed to come to terms with its significance in shaping US foreign policy during the World War I era. Although President Woodrow Wilson made self-determination for oppressed nationalities a goal of US wartime foreign policy, his responses to the Irish Revolution have long been overshadowed in foreign policy textbooks and synthetic scholarship on Wilson by extended accounts of his policies toward the more radical Mexican and Russian Revolutions. More recently, historians have focused on the ways in which Wilsonian rhetoric helped fuel nationalist sentiments and movements in Asia and the Middle East.[1] In his new book, however, Francis Carroll asserts that, due to the large and politically influential Irish American community in the United States, Irish issues remained an important focus not only of the Wilson administration, but also of the Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge administrations. He argues that “at every stage, from the home rule movement through the 1916 Rising to the world of international diplomacy in the 1920s, the United States performed a crucial role in, and was a major contributing force to, the achievement of Irish sovereignty” (p. xii). The author of multiple, well-received books on Irish America and the struggle for Irish independence, Carroll argues that a reappraisal of US diplomacy toward the Irish struggle is needed in part because of the opening of new government archives in the United States, Great Britain, and Ireland. New historiography on the Irish Revolution itself, as well as the centennial of the Irish Revolution, has also inspired renewed scholarly interest in the American contribution to the Irish nationalist crusade. Carroll begins by highlighting the size and political influence of the Irish American community on the eve of World War I. By 1910, approximately 4,504,360 Americans had been born in Ireland or had at least one parent who had been born in Ireland. Another twenty million were third- or fourth- generation Irish Americans. Carroll estimates that those with some Irish heritage constituted about 21 percent of the total American population (p. 2). From an early date, Irish Americans developed an extensive set of fraternal and nationalist organizations that, in turn, played an important role in political lobbying and in cultivating close ties with the Democratic Party. The United Irish League won support in the United States for the Irish Home Rule movement, while the Clan na Gael emerged as a secret society pledged to revolutionary tactics to achieve a fully independent Irish republic. The latter group helped to win popular support for Irish independence by supporting the activities of Irish groups promoting a revival of Gaelic culture in the early twentieth century, such as the Gaelic League and Gaelic Athletic Association, and by sponsoring tours of representatives of these groups in the Citation: H-Net Reviews. McKillen on Carroll, 'America and the Making of an Independent Ireland'. H-Diplo. 08-21-2021. https://networks.h-net.org/node/28443/reviews/8114144/mckillen-carroll-america-and-making-independent-ireland Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. 1 H-Diplo United States. The Clan also played a key role in planning and financing the Irish Easter Rebellion of 1916 and in creating a new group, the Friends of Irish Freedom, to educate and encourage American support for the Irish rebels. Although the Easter Rising was an “incredible organizational accomplishment” (p. 11) for the Clan na Gael and Irish Republican Brotherhood, in a military sense it proved a dismal failure and initially won little popular support either in Ireland or the United States. The execution of the leaders of the Easter Rising, however, provoked outrage and spurred widespread anti-British sentiment in the United States at a time when the Wilson administration was becoming increasingly pro-British due to German submarine attacks. Carroll demonstrates convincingly that both British and American governmental leaders were very worried about the role that the Irish American community could play in undermining any future US war effort. Spurred by this concern, Wilson worked through the US diplomatic service only shortly after declaring war to encourage the British to find a “satisfactory method of self-government for Ireland” (p. 24). The British, perhaps influenced by the Wilson administration, subsequently staged a conference with the major Irish parties to discuss future home rule solutions, but it proved unsuccessful. By contrast, the Wilson administration enjoyed some partial successes in moderating the treatment of Irish political prisoners and in paving the way for American relief efforts in Ireland. Both US and British leaders worried that the imposition of conscription in Ireland would provoke a backlash in Irish America, but the British proceeded with these plans anyway, spurring new antiwar activism. The failure of the Irish Convention staged by the British to resolve the problem of self-government, in combination with the imposition of conscription in Ireland, fueled the growth of the Sinn Féin independence movement in Ireland, which sought a hearing for the case of Irish self-determination at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Irish Americans, in turn, created an American Commission on Irish Independence to travel to Paris to convince Wilson of the need to secure a hearing for Ireland at the peace conference. Wilson met with Irish American representatives and insisted that he worked privately with British leaders to encourage them to settle the Irish question. Yet he failed to press the issue of an Irish hearing before the peace conference, thereby alienating significant components of Irish America and leading them to work with Republicans in defeating the treaty and League of Nations. A full-scale guerrilla war, meanwhile, developed between British forces and Irish rebels. Over the course of the next two years, Irish American groups launched highly successful bond certificate and other aid campaigns to help fund the newly created Irish government, Dáil Éireann. Carroll extensively details the creative ways in which Irish Americans overcame legal and strategic obstacles to achieve these financial successes. Carroll also underscores the importance of the American Commission on Conditions in Ireland in 1920-21 in bringing public attention to British atrocities during the war and, in turn, leading British prime minister Lloyd George to seek a truce. Carroll next explores the ways in which the treaty, which partitioned Ireland and established a Dominion status for Southern Ireland, bitterly divided the Irish both in Ireland and Irish America. The final chapters examine the role of the Harding and Coolidge administrations in diplomatically recognizing representatives from Ireland, the first British Dominion given this formal status, and an important step in achieving national independence in foreign affairs. Published one hundred years after the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, Carroll’s book is an important contribution to the ongoing reappraisal of the Irish-American relationship. He succeeds in demonstrating that the Irish American lobby was a significant source of concern for British leaders; Citation: H-Net Reviews. McKillen on Carroll, 'America and the Making of an Independent Ireland'. H-Diplo. 08-21-2021. https://networks.h-net.org/node/28443/reviews/8114144/mckillen-carroll-america-and-making-independent-ireland Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. 2 H-Diplo the Wilson, Harding, and Coolidge administrations; and Congress. He also demonstrates that the Irish American lobby, in concert with visiting Irish leaders, helped to shape US public opinion on important foreign policy issues during this period and likely played an important role in turning some Americans against the Versailles Peace Treaty and League of Nations. Less convincing is his argument that the United States significantly influenced British actions on Irish issues for, as he admits, many factors likely came into play in its ongoing decisions about whether to seek peace or continue to war against Irish rebels. One other weakness of Carroll’s analysis is that he fails to adequately explore recent literature on the role of women and labor activists in the transnational activities of the Irish nationalist movement during these years. This literature is not just ancillary; it could force a reanalysis of key issues. Although Carroll mentions the activities of a few key women lecturers such as Mary and Muriel MacSwiney, the scope and significance of women’s activism was much broader. A steady stream of Irish widows and female relatives of Easter Rising martyrs came to America and proved to be highly popular
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