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Effects, Perceptions, and Adaptations to Climate Change Effects, Perceptions, and Adaptations to Climate Change Small Farmers in Argentina and Chile Hope Radford Spring 2015 INTRODUCTION disease, and crop and livestock mortality (Morton Though climate change will have varied 2007). Small farmers in particular possess high and dispersed effects, certain populations are far vulnerability and low resilience because their more vulnerable to these effects than are others. livelihoods are directly dependent on agriculture Those living in poorer countries and those largely and they often don’t have the resources needed to dependent upon agriculture are among these adapt to environmental changes (Hertel 2010, populations, making small farmers in developing Harvey 2014). Due to this extreme vulnerability of countries one of the most climactically vulnerable small farmers in developing countries, it is critical populations in the world. Furthermore, the that researchers examine how small farmers vulnerability of small farmers is closely tied to experience, perceive, and respond to climate issues of food security and poverty in developing change. countries. Understanding how small farmers experience, perceive, and respond to the effects of climate change is essential in ensuring the Effects of Climate Change survival and resilience of this vulnerable population though the process of global development. The effects of climate change for small farmers in developing countries are extremely Vulnerability and Resilience varied, even within individual countries, but the most widely cited effects include altered Climate change vulnerability is the “degree to precipitation regimes, temperature variability, which geophysical, biological, and socio-economic and extreme weather events (Vermeulen 2014, systems are susceptible to, and unable to cope Fernandes 2012). In addition to direct impacts on with, adverse impacts of climate change” (Fussel crop viability and yields, these changes can induce and Klein 2006). Thus, vulnerability refers not secondary effects including spread of disease and only to the negative impacts experienced by pests. Furthermore, these effects are extremely certain systems and populations, but also their general, and often culminate into much more inability to respond or adapt to these effects. In specific witnessed effects based on regional and contrast, resiliency is the ability to absorb effects environmental differences. The specific effects of of climate change and maintain or return to climate change for small farmers are difficult to normal function (Folke 2006). Often, the term also measure and describe due to the intrinsic encompasses the ability of the system to adapt complexity and regional specificity of small-scale and become more prepared for future effects of agricultural systems and the vulnerability of these climate change (Nelson et al 2007). systems to many different global changes, climate Those living in developing countries are change only one of many (Morton 2007). among the most vulnerable and least resilient populations to the impacts of climate change Perceptions of Climate Change (Adger 2003, Mirza 2003, IPCC 2001). Developing countries are generally located near the equator, There has been extensive research on making the effects of even a slight temperature how small farmers in developing countries rise particularly severe (Posner and Weisbach perceive forecasting and other climate change 2010). Furthermore, these countries have fewer information (Hansen et al 2004). The 2004 resources (capital, infrastructure, governing Hansen Study found that 38.4% of farmers bodies) needed to adapt and respond to severe interviewed perceived no trend or pattern in effects (Smith 2003, Posner and Weisbach 2003). climactic changes, and 46.1% perceived changes Farmers in both developed and as a part of a natural 8-10 year cycle. These developing counties are a vulnerable population perceptions, however, were based almost entirely because agriculture is strongly affected by upon individual experience, with 29% of climate seasonal rainfall and temperature patterns change beliefs based on personal memory, 18% on (Nelson 2009, Adger 2003, Darwin 1995). conversation with other farmers, and only 11% Furthermore, climate change is likely to based on the media. Generally, small farmers’ exacerbate some of the biggest environmental perceptions about climate change are based challenges already faced by farmer such as pests, primarily upon what they see and hear in their personal lives, not on patterns identified in scientific forecasting, in part due to lack of access The Need for Ethnographic Research to information technologies, but also due to lack of temporal and location specificity in these Much of the research done on small forecasts (Madden and Hayes 2000, Nelson and farmers’ adaptations to climate change in the Finan 2000). Consequently, some studies have developing world has been survey and interview found mistrust of scientific climate information in based. Though these methods enable researchers small farmer communities as a result of these to encompass a wider study group, they often fail forecast limitations (Letson et al 2001). to capture the social and cultural complexities of small farmers’ relationship with the changing There has also been debate in the climate. Furthermore, participants’ social, literature regarding to what extent small farmers religious, economic, and cultural background can understand information about climate change. play in an important role not only in how they Some studies indicate many farmers have perceive and respond to climate change, but also difficulty in interpreting and understanding how they convey those responses in surveys and climate information, and in incorporating that interviews (Roncoli 2006). Small farmers may also information into farm practices (Austen et al have difficulty in articulating their decision- 2001, Ridge and Wylie 1996). Contrarily, other making processes, as many adaptations to climate research indicates small farmers do understand change are in response to years of subtle and appreciate the significance of climate observation, interaction with the environment, forecasting but have a culturally different and word of mouth (Luseno 2003, Hansen et a understanding of climactic changes, or deny the 2004). occurrence in their individual situations because In order to understand the complexities they do not have the resources to respond involved in small farmers perceptions of and (Luseno et al 2003,Ingram et al 2002, Bostrom adaptations to climate change, researchers must 1994). Thus, this debate is likely a result of move to more participatory, ethnographic cultural differences and misinterpretation rather approach. Ethnographic research is based on the than actual lack of knowledge and understanding “recognition that engaging in daily life and social among farmers. relationships provides a contextual understanding of cultural realities that can not be captured by Adaptations to Climate Change formal research methods” (Spradley 1980, DeWalt and Dewalt 2002). In the case of small farmers in There is been far less research on if, how, climate change, it allows researchers to explore and to what extent small farmers are adapting to (1) the social, cultural, and cognitive backdrop changes in the climate. Main factors determining that shapes farmers’ understanding of climate extent of adaptation include differences in farm change and (2) the process of decision-making characteristics, personality, climate perceptions, that determines farmers’ responses to it (Roncoli and decision goals of farmers (Hansen et al. 2004). 2006). These subtleties and complexities can not Potential methods of adaptation have been be captured through standard research methods, explored primarily in Africa and include new crop making current research on the topic far from varieties, tree planting, soil conservation, altered complete. planting schedules, and irrigation, though methods are diverse and regionally variable Why Argentina and Chile? (Deressa 2009, Thomas 2007, Mendolsohn 1999). This relative lack of information regarding small Though small farmers throughout the farmers’ adaptations to climate change, though, world will be affected by climate change, could be contributed to (1) culturally different Argentina and Chile are ideal locations to observe interpretations of “adaptations to climate change”, a wide variety of climate effects and equally wide in that, small farmers may see their adaptations variety of capability to respond to such effects. simply as responses and interactions with Argentina and Chile both stretch north to south, weather, not climate change, and (2) interview- tropics to pole, offering a huge diversity of based research methods that rely upon small ecosystems and potential climate-related changes farmers reporting adaptations, rather than (Lumerman 2011). The actual impacts and researchers observing adaptations that may not expected impacts across the varied ecosystem be perceived as such by small farmers. types of these countries range from flooding to drought as a result of increased rainfall in some regions and decreased rainfall in others. Other impacts include increased temperatures, severe weather, and recession of rivers and lakes (Meza 2012, Lumerman 2011, SADS 2009). In addition to diversity of ecosystem type and climate effects, Argentina and Chile offer a wide range of development. Though both countries are still considered “developing,” on the world scale, they are among the three
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