The role of symbolism and heroism in the battle against plastic pollution
The case of the world’s largest beach clean-up in Mumbai, India
By Amalie Henriksen – 12286699 Master thesis Political Science: International Relations Global Environmental Politics and Governance in Theory and Practice Supervisor: Dr. Robin Pistorius Second reader: Dr. Jeroen Doomernik June 2019 – University of Amsterdam
Source for cover photo: Afroz Shah, Twitter, 11.11.18 (https://tinyurl.com/y6l8plny) Acknowledgements I would like to thank those who contributed in any way to writing this thesis. Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Robin Pistorius, for his valuable advice and guidance during the writing process. I would also like to thank the second reader, Dr. Jeroen Doomernik, for taking the time to assess this thesis. Furthermore, I would like to thank the interviewees, namely Tor Dahlstrøm, Erik Solheim, Hiten Bheda, Dean Gomes, Aaditya Thackeray and Afroz Shah who’s participation in this study has been greatly appreciated. Thank you for giving me your time and providing me with information that was crucial to the research in this thesis.
2 Table of contents
Acknowledgements ...... 2
List of abbreviations ...... 5
List of figures and pictures ...... 6
Chapter 1. Introduction to the topic ...... 7 1.1 Personal motivation ...... 11 1.2 Research question ...... 12
Chapter 2. Theoretical framework – Symbolism and heroism ...... 13 2.1 Symbolism in environmental action ...... 14 2.2 Heroism in environmental action ...... 15 2.3 Model of theoretical framework ...... 19 Conclusion ...... 22
Chapter 3. Methodology and research design ...... 23 3.1 Interviews ...... 24 3.2 Participant observation ...... 25 3.3 Document analysis ...... 25 Conclusion ...... 26
Chapter 4. The Indian context ...... 27 4.1 Development, urbanization and waste-management issues ...... 27 4.1.1 Slums and the lack of a functioning infrastructure ...... 28 4.2 Plastic ban ...... 29 Conclusion ...... 29
Chapter 5. Empirical findings on the effect of symbolism and heroism in the context of the Versova beach- project...... 31 5.1 Symbolism in the Versova beach-project ...... 31 5.2 Heroism in the Versova beach-project ...... 33 5.3 A symbolic movement and a hero to inspire ...... 37 5.4 Heroism and symbolism’s role in mobilization ...... 39 5.5 Symbolism, heroism and the project’s legitimacy ...... 44 5.6 Symbolism and heroism in the project’s maintenance ...... 45 Conclusion ...... 48
Chapter 6. Symbolism and heroism’s effect on awareness and political and corporate action ...... 49 6.1 Symbolism and heroism in the Versova beach-project’s effect on environmental awareness ...... 49 Conclusion ...... 54
3 6.2 Symbolism and heroism’s effect on political and corporate action...... 54 6.2.1 The United Nations Environment Programme – highlighting the best examples ...... 56 6.2.2 The Nordics utilizing the project’s symbolic value for branding ...... 57 6.2.3 Adidas involved because of increased awareness about plastic pollution ...... 58 Conclusion ...... 60
Chapter 7. Discussion ...... 61
Chapter 8. Conclusion ...... 64 8.1 Recommendations for further research ...... 66
Bibliography ...... 67
Appendix ...... 78 A. Presentation of the actors and interviewees ...... 78 B. Interview guide...... 81
4 List of abbreviations
AIPMA The All India Plastics Manufacturers’ Association
BMC Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation – the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
MNC Multinational Corporation
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
5 List of figures and pictures
Figure 1 – Share of plastic Waste that is inadequately managed 7
Figure 2 – Model of theoretical framework 19
Figure 3 – Future material consumption in India by category in scenario continuing current 27 dynamic
Picture 1 – The teachings of the God Ganesha 40
Figure 2.1 – Model of theoretical framework: Symbolism and heroism affects environmental 53 awareness
Figure 2.2 – Model of theoretical framework: Symbolism and heroism affects political and 55 corporate action
6 Chapter 1. Introduction to the topic It is estimated that 18 billion pounds of plastic waste enters the ocean every year (Howard et al. 2019). Plastic pollution has received increasing attention since sea animals have been found dead with their stomachs filled with man-made plastic products. In 2016, a report was released that stated that there will be more plastic than fish in the ocean by 2050 (Wearden 2016). The severity of the issue has led to significant global concern, and a variety of actors are proposing different methods to combat the issue.
Figure 1: Share of plastic Waste that is inadequately managed, 2010 Source: Jambeck et al. (2015)
The largest share of total plastic waste that is inadequately managed and thus poses the greatest risk of polluting marine areas is centered in Asia and Africa (Jambeck et al. 2015). I will focus on environmental action taken against plastic pollution in South Asia and the coastal city of Mumbai, India’s largest city in terms of population and the country’s financial center. Here, environmental concerns have affected policy-making, and last year Mumbai’s home state of Maharashtra, India’s most populous state, introduced a plastic ban including all single-use plastics. Indian national authorities have encouraged the population to be innovative and come up with alternatives (UN environment 2018), as the state of Maharashtra has with its plastic ban effectively sought to wipe out all single-use plastics.
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Marine plastic pollution has had a devastating impact on the state of Maharashtra’s beaches, rivers and life on the coast. This kind of pollution affects fish that is eaten in the area and the health of the population, and with its highly visible impact on the beaches and rivers it has received considerable and increasing attention. For an estimation of over 20 years, the Olive Ridley turtles had been missing from the city’s beaches where they once laid their eggs, as five-and-a-half feet of plastic covered the beach, making it look like nothing but a landfill (Arora 2017; Jowit 2018; McCarthy 2018).
An increased focus on the issue has led to a growing international concern, which can be demonstrated in e.g. the impact BBC and David Attenborough’s TV-series “Blue Planet 2” had on people’s conscience. A research conducted by Waitrose and Partners (2018) has shown that 88 percent of Brits who watched the series’ episode about plastic changed their behavior. The UK Environment Secretary also stated that he was “haunted” by the episode and that he was inspired to introduce new environmental regulations (Rawlinson 2017).
In Mumbai, the clean-up of Versova beach has been deemed the largest beach-cleanup in history and has received a great deal of attention both within India and abroad. The cleanup was initiated by two neighbors who were sick of seeing their local beach devastated by marine litter. Attention was brought to these two activists and more people, primarily from the same area surrounding the beach, joined, and soon the sand on the beach, previously buried under layers of plastic, was again visible. Reportedly, the activists had cleared 12,000 tons of plastic from Versova beach in 2018 (Moore 2018). Consequently, the Olive Ridley turtles returned in March 2018 (Safi 2018).
However, due to continuous human littering the beach will be dirty again, and has gone back to its previous state before again being cleaned (Chatterjee 2017). But when there is little to do at the Versova beach, the activists move to rivers and mangroves around the city to continue removing plastic waste. The project has grown in size with the number of volunteers rising rapidly, and Multinational Companies (MNCs), the local and national government, the Nordic countries and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has become involved.
8 The clean-up has become a symbol for successful civic environmental activism. Actors are getting involved with the project and utilizing its symbolic effect for e.g. branding and political gains. The beach’s transformation symbolizes that individuals can create substantial change, considering the fact that the clean-up started with merely two neighbors cleaning their local beach. These two neighbors were a young man, Afroz Shah, and his 84-year-old neighbor who later passed away. Shah continued cleaning the beach with other locals who saw him and wanted to help, and went on to inspire and mobilize masses of people to join the clean-up. Shah became the face of the efforts, a symbol for civic environmental activism, and the hero that the other activists could look up to. As the clean-up developed into a movement, Shah became well-known in the media, both nationally and abroad. In 2016 he was recognized as a UN Champion of the Earth by the United Nations. The award is the United Nation’s highest environmental honor and celebrates figures whose actions has had a transformative, positive impact on the environment (UN Environment 2019; UN Environment 2016).
Prime Minister Modi is praising Shah as the leader of the project, and the project in itself publicly (Bhatia 2018). The number of volunteers who have participated has reportedly reached tens of thousands (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19; Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Municipal and state politicians can enjoy political gains by getting involved in something the local population shows great interest in. The initiator of the plastic ban, Aaditya Thackeray, has also argued that the implementation of the ban was made possible by the pre-existence of a people’s movement, making protests against the policy less likely (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19; Press Trust of India 2018). In 2014, the Indian government announced a “Swachh Bharat”-mission, aiming to achieve a clean and open-defecation free India by the 150th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi’s birth on the 2nd of October 2019 (Swachh Bharat Mission 2019). In this regard, the country’s politicians are looking for examples of environmental action that can inspire, and have highlighted the Versova beach clean-up and the ideas it symbolizes. Additionally, along with the world directing its attention to Versova beach and Mumbai, comes a responsibility for the city and India’s reputation.
Today, cooperation with the municipal government has led the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (BMC) to take over the cleanup and introduce more advanced technologies to do so, as the volunteers are moving their efforts to other beaches, mangroves and rivers. As
9 the Versova beach clean-up initially was the only activity, the Versova beach-project – which I will call it in this thesis – is today comprised of the clean-up at Versova beach, but also at the Dana Pani beach, the Mithi river, and other mangroves or beaches centered at the coastline of Mumbai. In addition, the activists have on some occasions helped clean public toilets in the city’s slums while educating the locals about sanitation (Personal observation, A.H., 20.04.19, Mumbai, India).
In India, a country of approximately 1,3 billion people, bureaucracy is famously inefficient. Both foreigners and Indians express their frustration and concern about the matter in the media and elsewhere. Harvard Business School’s economist, Michael Porter, said in an interview with the Indian Economic Times that the business environment in the country was still very inefficient and cumbersome (Times of India 2017). In his own words, “I think in India the greatest problem is that it's going to take decades to clear away all the built-up inefficiency and ineffectiveness and it's going to take a huge effort to invest in the citizens - their education, skills, inclusion, their ability to have a good life” (Times of India 2017). The inefficient bureaucrats even have their own nickname: “babus”. At the same time, coming into office in 2014, the newly appointed Prime Minister Narendra Modi told the bureaucrats it was “time of work”, giving them what has been named his “11 commandments” aimed at cleaning up in old paperwork and making sure people are at their desks during work hours (Gowen 2014a). A survey conducted by community based social networking platform LocalCircles showed that Indian start-ups expected corruption and/or bureaucratic inefficiency to be their greatest challenge going into 2018 (Local Circles 2017). Thus, it can be more efficient for civil society to take matters into their own hands.
In Mumbai, the Versova beach-project is a symbol for successful civic environmental action and Shah has become a hero that is today enjoying political power on this basis. The project and its leader have influenced the general awareness about plastic pollution in the population of Mumbai, and created a movement of volunteers cleaning the city’s maritime areas. Public policy in the city, which is one of the world’s largest, has in turn been shaped by this civic action. Corporations have gotten involved and entered into collaborations with Shah that will have the ability to create solutions on a large scale in regard to reducing plastic pollution. Symbolism and heroism has thus, from a grassroots-level, influenced individuals and in turn policy-makers and corporations. The Versova beach-project is a case of a bottom-up approach where symbolism and heroism has played a role in the development of a “trend” that in turn
10 has influenced policy and corporate action. Thus, a project initiated by neighbors with the aim of merely cleaning their local beach, has grown powerful and shaped public policy and corporations’ actions through symbolism and heroism.
1.1 Personal motivation Before starting my MSc at the University of Amsterdam I worked as a trainee in the Norwegian Consulate General in Mumbai. Part of the Nordic countries’ work in the area consists of cooperating with activists in the Versova beach-project to battle marine plastic pollution. As part of their own national policies about the ocean and pollution that has a global outreach, as well as national branding, they participate in the cleanup and promotes the efforts in Mumbai, at the same time as they are advocates for this type of environmental work and function as messengers to their home countries. I participated in the beach cleanup every week for six months, and I got a hands-on experience and knowledge about the project from personally being in the field. I participated in the development of the project and joined Afroz Shah and his team on school visits and other events in regard to the battle against marine plastic pollution. I witnessed several large MNCs come to the cleanup, sometimes in context of their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) actions, and the attention and outreach this project was getting. I partook in the kick-off of the celebration of the World Environment Day that was organized by the UNEP at Vesova beach, and I saw the involvement from foreign countries and their consulates as well as these multinational organizations and state- or non- state actors.
I was inspired by the outreach the project has had and the development from consisting of merely two neighbors to involving a large number of people and a variety of actors. Considering the inefficiency of the Indian bureaucracy and governmental system mentioned in the previous section, the participation in the Versova beach-project seemed like a way for actors to effectively bypass the system to get the job done efficiently, or to get attention from state authorities and have influence on environmental policy. The complexity and fascinating effect and development of the project sparked my interest. The symbolic role the cleanup has received, as well as the power Afroz Shah has obtained as a symbolic leader and hero made me want to look at symbolism and heroism in relation to environmental issues and the effect this can have on the efforts to combat marine plastic pollution and to prevent global climate change.
11 1.2 Research question In this thesis I aim to answer the following research question:
How does symbolism and heroism affect awareness about marine plastic pollution as well as political and corporate involvement in and development of solutions to the issue in Mumbai, India?
Hypothesis H1: The Versova beach-project has through symbolism and heroism influenced the population’s general awareness about marine plastic pollution as well as political decision- making in Mumbai
The research question and hypothesis are examined through the case of the world’s largest beach cleanup at Versova beach in Mumbai, Maharashtra.
12 Chapter 2. Theoretical framework – Symbolism and heroism The theoretical framework of this thesis is symbolism and heroism. As mentioned, bureaucracy is inefficient in India, at the same time as the population is massive, diverse and sometimes unwilling to wait for the central government to act. In the case of the Versova beach-project, the clean-up became a symbol for environmental activism that creates substantial change, and the effect resulted in a mass-movement. As Afroz Shah became the face of the efforts, he also became a hero people wanted to follow and an individual symbolizing the effect of one person’s initiative to clean up their local environment. Shah and the clean-up both served as symbols, and people have drawn parallels between Shah and the Indian hero Mahatma Gandhi (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Symbolism and heroism has thus, in this case, played a role in the development of an environmental project that has influenced environmental awareness and political and corporate action.
India has a long and eventful history, where spiritual leaders have united a complex, large and divided country. The country has one of the most diverse populations in the world, both in terms of income and religion, and can just as well be characterized as a continent (New World Wealth 2019; Business Today 2018; World Atlas 2018). In this complex society, symbols and heroes can guide others and simplify issues (Gill & Angosto-Ferrandez 2018:429). In Hinduism, India’s largest religion by far (World Atlas 2018), the Gods are, unlike in e.g. Christianity and Islam, actual human-like, perceptible figures that can be imaged and e.g. made into statues. Contemporary religious guides, or “Gurus” are also prominent in Hinduism. A Guru is a person that has status as a teacher or guide to the Hindu devotees, and is often seen as an embodiment of the spiritual knowledge of the deity: the God or supernatural, divine being (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2015). Gurus are also presented in temples in the form of statues and photographs, and can be found in the shape of a statue worshipped the same way as the Gods (Personal observation, A.H. 15.04.2019, Mumbai, India). Lakshmi (2016), Sridhar (2014) and Sanger (2007) describe a culture of exaggerated idolization and hero worship of celebrities in modern times. This mix of humans and Gods creates a setting where people arguably can enjoy significant status in society, should they represent something others can feel attached to or relate to on a personal level.
13 2.1 Symbolism in environmental action Through all of human existence, symbols have served important roles in societies and have been an element that unites people. Symbolism can be used to create group mentalities, and in this case, the unifying feature of symbolism can be used to move masses of people in the same, green direction. William York Tindall said: "the religious symbol, and the political too, can unite man with man and man with something greater than he, society or God.” (Walzer 1967:194). Graeme Gill and Luis F. Angosto-Ferrandez argue that symbols perform an essential service in making complex phenomena appear simple and legible (Gill & Angosto- Ferrandez 2018:429).
When something is symbolic, it represents something more than itself. Gill and Angosto- Ferrandez (2018:429) argue that symbols “… represent, in simplified form, complex ideas, reducing them to simple images which convey the complexity they represent”. When facing a global challenge such as plastic pollution and climate change, individuals can feel irresolute and thus symbolism can play a role in simplifying the issue and representing concrete ways in which they can contribute in battling it.
The Versova beach project has become a symbol for civic activism and environmentalism, showing the world that incredible change can happen if people unite and get to work. Photos and videos from the project and the beach’s transformation have been spread through both traditional media and social media and can thus inspire more people to join the project or take the same kind of action in their areas. A song and a music video were also made by a local musicians who are activists themselves, and has been shared online as well as played at the clean-ups.
In March 2018, Olive Ridley turtles returned to Versova beach after being absent for decades (Safi 2018). The clean-up had been going on for two years at this point, and was given the credit for the turtles returning as a number of hatchlings made their way from the beach into the Arabian Sea. This made global news, and became a symbol for the significance of the clean-up and thus what one can achieve with civic environmental activism. Images and videos of the turtles’ return were shared, and the turtles became a symbol for civic environmental action that works.
14 Gill and Angosto-Ferrandez emphasize that symbols can have this effect as it plays an irreplaceable role in the formation and maintenance of political communities. Groups seek to mobilize symbols in support of their cause, while trying to make people’s interpretation of these symbols in line with their own, knowing that all symbols are multivocal: they have different meanings to different people. Symbolism is also seen in symbolic action, where the actor is expressing their support for a moral principle (Pincione & Tesón 2001). Hence the actor does not necessarily have to work towards combating the threat of e.g. plastic pollution literally, but instead show their symbolic support of the cause. Celebrities visiting the beach clean-up have donated equipment and helped spread photos of the project in social media, arguably an important platform for information today (Mid-day 2017; Etimes 2018). In spreading these images and calling for action to essentially save marine species and the human environment, they connect with the intellectual and emotional underpinnings of society (Gill & Angosto-Ferrandez 2018:432)
2.2 Heroism in environmental action While the beach clean-up in itself became a symbol for civic environmental activism, Shah became a symbol in himself and a hero. Without it being his intention, he became the face of the Versova beach-project and a leader. His efforts symbolize his moral conviction in regard to environmentalism, and he inspires and guides the other activists. He is cherished as an inspiration both domestically and abroad (UN Environment 2016), and can by the other activists be seen as a guru and thus a hero (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19).
Heroism is usually characterized by great achievement either in the domain of competence or in the domain of morality (Allison & Goethals 2013:30). But, Allison and Goethals (2011) argue that a hero is a hero to anyone who sees them as that. As will be discussed later, activists have drawn parallels between Shah and Gandhi, as Shah represents the belief that Indians have a moral obligation to care for mother earth and has been successful in creating a movement of activists working together to beat plastic pollution (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19; Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). Heroes are often indirect leaders, as they act as an example or a model but do not address followers directly (Allison & Goethals 2011). Heroes also often work under circumstances of great personal cost, as they are investing primarily
15 their own being (Allison & Goethals 2013; Couto 2010:467).
Allison and Goethals (2013:32-33) lists eight characteristics they found to be associated with heroes: 1. Caring, 2. Charismatic, 3. Inspiring, 4. Reliable, 5. Resilient, 6. Selfless, 7. Smart, and 8. Strong. In this regard, they put emphasis on the fact that there are many similarities between how heroism and leadership are described in social sciences. But should a leader stray too far from a reasonable moral code, they cannot be considered heroes.
Shah appeals to Indian people’s love and respect for nature and “mother earth”, and thus he represents a moral code that from his personal observation is reasonable to his followers (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). Shah has expressed what he deems necessary and morally right to do, and has managed to convince others to join him in his work. Leithwood, Jantzi and Steinbach (1999:10) say that the moral leadership model “…assumes that the critical focus of leadership ought to be on the values, beliefs and ethics of leaders themselves. Authority and influence are to be derived from defensible conceptions of what is right or good.”
Today’s global climate crisis presents a need for environmental leadership. Léon Dion argued already in 1968 that “… the increasing complexity of society today produces a widespread demand for leaders” (Dion 1968:2). Egri and Herman (2000:2) defines environmental leadership as the ability to influence individuals and mobilize organizations to realize a vision of long-term ecological sustainability.’’ Allison & Goethals (2013:20) mention Gandhi as they explain that heroism and leadership are intertwined when leaders do as Shah and move people emotionally, moving their beliefs, and moving them toward positive action.
Heroes who also function as leaders have in environmental issues successfully influenced others and created movements that has had an impact on public policy. This is evident in e.g. the efforts of the 2015 Goldman Prize recipient Myint Zaw in Myanmar. Zaw was instrumental in engaging others to use symbols such as pictures, art and music to create a movement against the construction of a dam on one of the country’s rivers. As the result was a movement against the construction, policy makers on the highest level decided to stop the construction (Goldman Prize 2015). Another environmental hero is Leng Ouch, a Cambodian man who went undercover to expose illegal logging activity that in turn created a public discontent and forced policy-makers to cancel land concessions (Goldman Prize 2016). In
16 most cases, environmental heroes have created Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) to institutionalize their activism (The Guardian 2019; Goldman Prize 2016; Goldman Prize 2015). In this case, as with the two above-mentioned cases, there is no systematization of the efforts and only civic activism with no organization.
In the case of the Versova beach-project, Shah is the sole leader and front figure, and has gradually been growing into this role since being the initiator of the efforts. He never asked to lead and does not want to be characterized as the activists’ leader (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19), but nonetheless he has become the face of the world’s largest beach clean-up. When looking for answers, people direct their questions at him, and thus a great deal of responsibility lies on his shoulders. Activists have, since the beginning of the clean-up, looked to him for inspiration.
As the project has increased in size and Shah has been invited by politicians and corporations to create collaborations, he has become the sole representative for the project globally, while only reducing the pressure on himself by bringing along a select few of the local volunteers, whom have been involved since the start, as his personal “entourage”. This has become more challenging, as the project for which Shah works full-time creates no revenues and his closest friends and activists are unable to spend the same amount of time as Shah on the project. Should they do so, they must be privileged enough to have saved up capital.
He has become the main face of the project, and represents a meaning that is larger than himself; hence, he is a hero and acts as a symbol. While symbols in the case of the Versova beach project are, as previously mentioned, spread in the form of pictures and videos in the news and in social media, Shah also uses his presence at the beach and door-to-door visits in the polluted area to generate awareness (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). A leader who is a symbol or hero in this way represents a meaning, or perhaps a number of meanings, in a tangible form (Neuberger 1995). The leader assures the creation and maintenance of the meaning through behavior, and at the same time influences social behavior (Winkler 2010:59). Symbolic leaders exist in a particular social reality where community members share a common preunderstanding and frame for interpretation (Winkler 2010:60). A symbolic leader does not need to directly influence followers’ behavior, but their actions will, like a symbol, be interpreted by the followers. Therefore, it is important for the leader to make sure that the meaning is clear and thus interpreted “correctly” by the followers
17 (ibid).
Usually, a leader influences behavior indirectly through organizational structures and e.g. reward systems (ibid), but in the case of the Versova beach project, there is no organization and no clear structure, other than volunteers creating schedules for initiatives taking place the following week. Hence, the project is unstructured, but Afroz Shah and a select few of the volunteers make more of an effort than others when it comes to planning. Otherwise, he is dependent on people taking inspiration from his personal action (Allison & Goethals 2011). As Shah himself never asked to become a leader, and does not wish to be called by that characterization (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19), he can only influence through symbolic action and e.g. by putting the above mentioned meaning into words. Should he institutionalize his leadership, he might be able to create change through other channels. As Pondy (1978:94) states: “If the leader can put it into words, then the meaning of what the group is doing becomes a social fact.” Hence, he leads by being a spokesperson and writing and speaking about the issue of plastic pollution and the clean-up activities regularly.
18 2.3 Model of theoretical framework
Figure 2: Model of theoretical framework
In Figure 1 the theoretical framework is presented. Symbolism and heroism do in some ways overlap. The activists use symbols in the form of photos or videos of the beach’s transformation or the turtles returning to share a message and to mobilize support for the cause. In a symbolic or heroic leader, symbolism and heroism are combined in the shape of an individual whose being is both heroic and symbolic in itself. Symbols and heroes can have the same effect in regard to simplifying complex phenomena. Where symbols represent a complex message based on a specific meaning, the symbolic leader is a representation of the same. Symbols and heroes can, as previously mentioned, play a central role in shaping and maintaining political communities, and in this case both Shah and the symbols used and shared can unite the activists against plastic pollution.
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Symbols and heroes’ shared purposes are to inspire, mobilize, legitimize and maintain elements in the context of the project aiming to battle marine plastic pollution. They can inspire, as they represent a message that is shared trough social media or other media channels that readers are exposed to and may be inspired by. Heroes acting as environmental leaders can inspire others to realize their own vision, and even encourage the development of a shared vision (Couto 2010:25). Through inspiring, and thus making people aware of the issue and the ways in which one can participate in reducing it, symbols and heroes can mobilize the population to get involved in the work they do. Serving as representations of something that by the activists are considered a moral obligation to join the battle against plastic pollution, the cause and the actions taken are legitimized, as they represent an agreed- upon moral code (Allison & Goethals 2013). By sharing e.g. photos of the issue’s devastating effect and activities they have conducted that have improved the situation, they legitimize their activism. The leader, as a hero, conveys the message and invests the self in arguing why the project is legitimate and necessary. The continuous spread of images that convey this message, maintains the attention that is given to the cause. In the same way, the leader or hero’s consistent presence in acting as an example, can maintain the activism and the spread of symbols in regards to it. In other words, the leader or hero can ensure the maintenance of the activities through a consistent investment of self (Couto 2010:467). As complex societies create needs for leaders (Dion 1968:2), the activists may be too unorganized to move forward should there not be a leader present to guide them.
Symbolism and heroism operate in a society with a high or low degree of environmental awareness. Spreading awareness about pressing environmental issues and how to combat them is important and the basis for the discipline of Environmental Sciences (Mukherjee 2002:10). This awareness is about the conflict between human activities and the environment, and can be increased through education (Mukherjee 2002:9), which is the activists in the Versova beach-project’s approach as they document the issue and educate through storytelling in the media or social media. As they share pictures of the consequences of plastic pollution that is visible on the coast of Mumbai, they educate about the hazards of plastic pollution. Additionally, they do this directly through visiting schools and colleges. Generating an increase in awareness has been a goal for Governments and NGOs, but is also done by individuals through social media. The resulted knowledge can in turn generate activities (Narula et al. 2018), as social media, as a tool for awareness-campaigns, has proven to have a
20 positive effect on political participation (Wei 2016). It is the symbols and the hero that spread awareness about plastic pollution when they inspire people to join the cause and, in that way, mobilizes activists, legitimizes their work and maintains the activism and thus the Versova beach-project.
Through symbolism and heroism, awareness about plastic pollution might rise and in turn influence the behavior of political or corporate actors. It may affect political action, as the activists represent voters and the project poses an opportunity for politicians to get involved should they have political interest in the cause. India is a democracy, and thus civic activism can inspire or even demand political action. The activists in the Versova beach-project can affect policy-makers through public pressure as an indirect mean of influence. This is especially useful when they are given attention in the media (Böhm 2015:481) In addition, Shah has, due to his status, been invited to roundtables with policy-makers and other powerful actors and given a voice in fora where issues such as waste-management is discussed (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Royal Norwegian Consulate General 2018; Kremlin 2017). Thus, he has direct access to policy makers and can lobby to some extent.
Corporations are dependent on e.g. consumers or other target groups and hence, an increase in awareness about plastic pollution amongst the consumers can make corporations act accordingly. Studies have shown that impressions of corporations are formed based on their social responsibility and environmental impact (Khojastehpour & Johns 2014:331). Additionally, consumers’ positive or negative attitudes towards a brand can impact profitability, and it is therefore in a corporation’s interest to be perceived as environmentally friendly. In recent decades, this consumer attitude has become more prominent and re-shaped the competitive landscape that in turn forces brands to consider their environmental impact (Khojastehpour & Johns 2014:335).
Other corporations such as the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) has promoted the Versova beach-project as the organization’s primary aim is to highlight the world’s best examples of environmental action (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Foreign nations such as the Nordic countries have through the Nordic Council of Ministers/the Nordics been involved in the project through collaborations with Shah as a mean to ensure a branding of the Nordic countries that promotes them as countries at the frontlines of the
21 global engagement to combat environmental issues (Ollestad 2019).
Conclusion The theories described above will lay the foundation for the analysis of whether symbolism and heroism have influenced decision-making and the development of solutions to the issue of plastic pollution in India. The case of the Versova beach-project will be understood in light of these theories with the aim to answer the research question. I believe that this case study can be a valuable addition to the study of the power of symbols and heroes in the fight against global climate change.
22 Chapter 3. Methodology and research design To answer the questions in this research I will conduct a case study and use a qualitative research method. I have chosen to do a case study as an attempt to investigate, understand and explain how symbolism and heroism may play a central role in environmental awareness- building that leads to environmental policy and corporate action, and the case of the Versova beach-project in India can shed light on how such effects may come about.
The study can explain how we can broaden our view and take a deeper look into the effect of symbolism and heroism in environmental issues, something that have not yet been studied to a significant extent. Additionally, it can serve as an example of an actual case where an increase in environmental awareness has taken place that in turn could be beneficial for the development of environmental policy as we attempt to prevent or slow down global climate change. Covering the contextual conditions of the efforts to beat marine plastic pollution through the world’s largest beach clean-up in India’s largest city can shed light on the use of creative approaches to get citizens and other important actors on board with otherwise unpopular environmental policies.
Considering the complexity and size of the Indian population as well as India’s status as a rapidly growing economy with an annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth of more than seven percent (World Bank 2019), I believe that conducting research within the field of environmental governance in this exact location can be highly valuable. To collect data, I will use the methods of document analysis and interviews, and I will conduct research in the field in Mumbai and at Versova beach and Dana Pani beach as an observer. I have analyzed and evaluated data from documents, both electronic and printed, and linked the theoretical framework with the ongoing case. Interviews are conducted with the protagonist himself, Afroz Shah, a diplomatic representative from the Nordic countries, a state-level politician, a representative from the plastics industry in the area, a spokesperson for Adidas (as an MNC that has been involved in the efforts at Versova beach) and Erik Solheim, the former head of the UNEP who led the organization in 2018 when Shah was named a UN Champion of the Earth and the World Environment Day was held at Versova beach.
Through these qualitative interviews I was be able to ask questions that can lead to a broad view of the case and its developments, as well as an insight into the affected actors’ thoughts
23 in the matter and the influence of symbolism in their actions and/or understanding of environmental governance in Mumbai (Bryman 2008). All interviews were conducted in person, with the exception of the interview with the UNEP which was conducted over Skype.
In my analysis I will through these methods look at heroism and symbolism’s role in inspiring, mobilizing, legitimizing and maintaining in the context of Versova beach-project while influencing environmental awareness and political and corporate action. The analysis will be conducted by analyzing the interviews of the various actors in light of these theoretical framework. Chapter five consists of six sub-chapters where firstly, symbolism and heroism in the context of the project is analyzed, before one sub-chapter is dedicated to each of the four elements of inspiration, mobilization, legitimation and maintenance. Chapter six will consist of an analysis of the project’s influence on environmental awareness and political and corporate action, before chapter seven which presents a discussion of the results. Chapter 8 is the conclusion of the results in light of the research question and hypothesis H1.
3.1 Interviews I decided to conduct qualitative interviews with one representative from each of the actors or actor groups. The actors and interviewees are presented in Appendix A. I have conducted semi-structured interviews, where the preparation consisted of constructing a set of seven general questions, as well as sets of a few questions specified for each respondent, while still leaving the conversation open for follow-up questions. As can be seen in Appendix B, the questions were made fairly broad to allow the interviewees the freedom to elaborate on their answers and include various thoughts that may be connected to the question I asked.
According to their answer, I would be able to adjust the upcoming questions to what I might wish to know more about considering the first few answers the interviewees had given me, and remove questions that had already been answered. By leaving room for follow-up questions I had an opportunity to lead the conversation and dig deeper into the subject should it be necessary. I gave the interviewees the freedom to answer one question for as long as they wanted, allowing me to get a broader and deeper insight into their thoughts on the matter. If I was missing some information by the end of the interview, I would add follow-up questions to make sure I got the answers I deemed necessary for the research.
The interviews were conducted in the interviewees’ preferred location, which turned out to be
24 in corporate offices or at home. Afroz Shah and the politician Aaditya Thackeray represented themselves and wanted the interviews to be conducted in their respective homes, while the other three were conducted in the official offices of the organization the interviewee represented. The former head of the UNEP, Erik Solheim, was interviewed over Skype as a personal meeting was impossible. The interview was conducted with video with the aim of making it as natural as possible with a high quality of communication. By letting the interviewees choose the location, it was more likely that they would feel as comfortable as possible and thus give me answers of the highest possible quality. Leaving my personal opinions completely out of the picture, I stayed neutral and let the interviewees speak their mind. All interviews were recorded using a Samsung phone. I was thus allowed to take less notes and keep more eye contact with the interviewee so that I could assure that the circumstances for the interview was as comfortable as possible.
3.2 Participant observation From March to August 2018 I went to Versova beach and interacted with the volunteers approximately one day per week. I observed different actors as they came to the beach and got involved in the clean-up, and I learned about both these actors’ and the volunteers’ motivation behind their participation. I learned about what kept them coming back for years, and getting up at six or seven a.m. on weekends to pick up plastic. I went back to Mumbai in April 2019 and visited the beach clean-up again, this time at Dana Pani beach north of Versova, as the municipal authorities have taken over the Versova clean-up. Again, I observed the efforts, and personally participated in the clean-up to get more of a hands-on experience of the project and how it works in a practical sense. Through participating I believe I have obtained a broad overview of the project itself and insight into the dynamics that drive it.
3.3 Document analysis To obtain as much knowledge as possible, that would in turn assure that the answer to my research question was as solid and true as possible, I have also analyzed documents and texts of various sorts. This content consists of news articles, academic articles and reports. The content analysis has been done with the aim of developing an understanding of the Indian society, the developments of the Versova beach-project, the actors’ motivations and facts about the environmental issue of marine plastic pollution in Mumbai. The documents have
25 provided a basis for understanding the case, which was necessary for the formulation of questions for the interviews, as well as for the analysis and discussion of the statements given by interviewees. This will also give the reader a broader understanding of the case. The selected documents come from sources both in India and abroad.
Conclusion Through the three qualitative methods I have decided to use, I believe that I have obtained a nuanced and broad understanding of the issue. This chapter has presented the theoretical and methodological framework of this thesis as well as the reasons behind my choices in this context. The next chapter will provide a description for a better understanding of the Indian context in which the Versova beach-project has evolved.
26 Chapter 4. The Indian context This chapter will provide a foundation for understanding the environment in which the Versova beach-project has been developed. Causes for the challenge of plastic pollution in India as well as information about what measures are being taken to control or reduce the amount of plastic pollution will be presented.
4.1 Development, urbanization and waste-management issues India is a rapidly growing economy, in the midst of a transformational economic development. Since 1960, the national GDP has gone from USD 37 billion to 2.6 trillion in 2017 (World Bank & OECD 2019). The population is currently at 1.3 billion, and still growing. Most indicators have been pointing upwards in India since the acceleration in growth started in the 90s: The size of the population, the Gross National Income (GNI), the life expectancy and school enrollment (Dubey & Tiwari 2018; World Bank & OECD 2019). One thing that is pointing downwards is the poverty headcount ratio. But with all these positive numbers, other numbers that are increasing in size is the amount of CO2-emissions and absolute consumption of materials (World Bank & OECD 2019).
Figure 3: Future material consumption in India by category in scenario continuing current dynamic Source: IGEP 2013:21
What has been called an “urban awakening” is also taking place, as the portion of the population living in urban areas has grown from 220 million people in 1991 to 380 million in 2011. By 2030 the urban population is expected to have risen to 600 million. This rapid
27 process of urbanization is shaping the political, social and environmental contexts in which they happen (Ahluwalia et al. 2014; Hoelscher & Aijaz 2016). With Indians flocking to the country’s cities, at the same time as wealth and life expectancy is on the rise, the considerable governance issues they have in Indian cities is a cause for concern. Planning, management and political governance are major challenges, further complicated by an inefficient bureaucracy and business environment (Gowen 2014; Times of India 2017). With wealth comes consumption, and the already poor infrastructure is under immense pressure as the urban population grows (Hoelscher & Aijaz 2016). On the beaches of Mumbai, the infrastructural problems are clearly visible, as mainly plastic debris gather in tons and overwhelm the coast. India is one of the world’s countries that are most vulnerable to climate change (Cruz et al. 2007).
4.1.1 Slums and the lack of a functioning infrastructure Considering the rapid economic growth, the reduction in the percentage of the population living in poverty has been slow in comparison (Dubey & Tiwari 2018). In 2011, about 22 percent of the population still lived below the national poverty line (World Bank & OECD 2019). Mumbai has a fascinating combination of poor people living in slums alongside billionaires in what is the 12th richest city in the world (New World Wealth 2019; Business Today 2018). The city is simultaneously home to the world’s third largest slum. The slum, named Dharavi, is located in the middle of the city, and outside Dharavi there are also areas of slum in-between the richer city parts and along the beaches (Zhang 2016). The slum of Mumbai has been called the “informal” city, and is home to about one million of Mumbai’s approximately twenty-two million people (Press Information Bureau 2011; Totaro 2016). The slums lack access to fresh water, while having insufficient sewage drains. Some sewage drains are open and contaminated with plastic articles (Urbz 2011).
Underdeveloped slum-areas with a lack of infrastructure to handle the waste coming from the households leads to large amounts of plastic ending up in the city’s rivers and drainage systems. In a city that experiences heavy rains in the four-month long monsoon season, plastic debris has choked the drains designed to lead the water away from the streets (Nair 2018). Flooding is a direct consequence, posing risks to human life. The lack of an efficient infrastructure means that a large amount of the plastic consumed in Mumbai ends up in streets, drains and rivers, and is in turn transported to the sea.
28 According to Afroz Shah, the main sources of the plastic pollution on Mumbai’s beaches is garbage being dumped into nine creeks in the area (Chatterjee 2017). The clean-up efforts remove all plastic debris for a period of time, but until the structural issue behind the plastic ending up there in the first place is handled, the plastic keeps coming back. At the same time as India’s plastic use is fairly low seen in the global context, the Indian river Ganges transports the second largest amount of plastic to the sea after China’s Yangtze river (Sampathkumar 2019).
4.2 Plastic ban A state-wide ban of the use, manufacturing, sale, distribution and storage of single-use plastics was implemented in Maharashtra on the 23rd of June 2018 (Economic Times 2018). Banned items include one-time use plastic items such as cutlery and plates, plastic bags, plastic sheets, plastic wrapping and food/drink containers and plastic bottles carrying less than 500ml of liquid (Hindustan Times 2018). The city of Mumbai and the state of Maharashtra are ruled by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Shiv Sena coalition. The party Shiv Sena, led by Uddhav Thackeray and founded by his father Bal Thackeray, has a youth wing, Yuva Sena, led by son of Uddhav and grandson of Bal, Aaditya Thackeray. The plastic ban in Maharashtra came into place when Aaditya Thackeray, after extensive flooding in the midst of the monsoon season in 2017, suggested a ban of all plastic, not just the plastic bags below 50 microns that had been banned since floods in 2005. Plastics were given most of the blame for the flooding as it clogged the city’s drainage systems. The Environment Minister, also belonging to Shiv Sena, soon after announced that there would be a plastic ban coming into place (Naik 2017).
India hosted the United Nations World Environment Day in 2018, where also Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced his ambition to eliminate all single-use plastic, nation-wide, by 2022 (Sampathkumar 2019). Twenty-five Indian states have so far banned (at least) plastic bags, but the bans remain inefficient in several states (Parvaiz 2018).
Conclusion India’s population is growing in size while becoming wealthier and more urbanized. At the same time, the amount of materials consumed is increasing in a country that is unable to manage the amount of waste produced. This section has provided an overview of the Indian
29 context in regard to the country’s economic development, urbanization and consumer-society as well as the efforts by the Maharashtra state government to reduce the plastic pollution. Plastic bans are implemented, but the lack of efficient waste-management leads to coastal areas being covered in discarded plastic.
30 Chapter 5. Empirical findings on the effect of symbolism and heroism in the context of the Versova beach-project The following findings are based on interviews with the initiator of the Versova beach- project, Afroz Shah, the Immediate Past President of the All India Plastics Manufacturers Association (AIPMA), Hiten Bheda, the Nordics through the Norwegian Consul at the Royal Norwegian Consulate General in Mumbai, Tor Dahlstrøm, Shiv Sena-politician Aaditya Thackeray, former head of the UNEP Erik Solheim and Adidas’ Manager of Key Cities, Dean Gomes. The interviewees were selected based on the aim of acquiring information from all central actor groups who have become involved in the Versova beach-project. The actors and their representatives are presented in Appendix A.
This chapter presents the results from the empirical data collected through qualitative interviews with the chosen actors. In addition, documents received from the Norwegian Consulate General will provide additional information. The findings presented will highlight the various thoughts and experiences the actors have of the Versova beach-project itself, awareness-building, influence on political and corporate action and the work towards eliminating marine plastic pollution. All seen in the context of the use of symbolism and heroism in the project and the progress that has been made in the fight against marine plastic pollution in Mumbai.
5.1 Symbolism in the Versova beach-project The Versova beach-project started out with two neighbors whose intention was only to clean the local beach. They had not intended that it would turn into a symbol for the effect of plastic pollution and civic activism to combat it (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). Afroz Shah, who was one of the first two people picking up plastic on the beach, emphasizes that the clean-up is not merely a symbol as it is actual action, but acknowledges the symbolic effect and role it has. It is not merely a picture of action, it is actual change being created, but it serves as a symbol in the sense that it brings people to what he calls the “flashpoint” of pollution and shows them how extensive the problem is and that they need to change their lifestyle. Hence, it represents a meaning that is larger than itself. He thinks this has a major effect, and says:
31 “A beach clean-up is not just about clean beaches; beach clean-ups are the eyes of marine pollution and marine debris. So, when your eyes see it, your hands, your legs and your heart all starts working in coordination.” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19)
Erik Solheim believes that Shah and the activists have succeeded in building and developing the project into what it is today by focusing on sharing positive images on social media platforms. Before-and-after photos of the beach shows that the hard work pays off, and Solheim highlights the spread of photos and videos of the Olive Ridley turtles’ hatchlings, earlier mentioned in the introduction of this thesis, running through the sand and heading for the water after being born on Versova beach and thus returning after decades (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). When celebrating that the turtles have returned to what was earlier nothing but a landfill of plastic, the focus shifts from images of a hopeless situation to one where change is absolutely possible. It is likely that this has contributed to drawing a great deal of attention to the issue, as the positive story of the turtles have been shared by news channels and the media, both in India and abroad (Safi 2018; Iqbal 2018). A video of the beach’s transformation was shared by global media company Great Big Story on YouTube, and the video has currently close to 950,000 views (Great Big Story 2018). Having a global outreach, symbolic videos and photos are creating what the interviewees call a “buzz”, and people applaud the efforts. Solheim argues that people are sick and tired of the scaremongering from the environmental movement, and therefore Shah and the activists’ approach has a stronger effect (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19).
Positive symbols are thus arguably important in the promotion of the Versova beach-project, and symbols have been used in political campaigns since the beginning of time. These developments could also mean that a shift from scaremongering to positive symbols may be useful, but Aaditya Thackeray disagrees with this view as he is of the opinion that fear could be effective. In the case of Versova beach, evidence suggests that the positive symbols have made people cheer on Shah and the crew as well as join the efforts. Showing people that it is easy to give a helping hand and that the work pays off has been one of Shah’s methods. At the same time, Shah and the volunteers also share their concern for the marine species, and emphasizes the dangers of plastic pollution and e.g. microplastics when they conduct school visits (Personal observation, AH. 01.08.19, Mumbai, India).
32 Evidence suggests that there is a combination of both positive images and creating a form of fear towards the consequences of plastic pollution being used in the promotion of the project. Mumbai is a coastal area, and thus images of fish from Mumbai’s coast containing microplastics that in turn end up on people’s dinner plates are being used to inform about the severity of the issue (Personal observation, A.H. 01.08.19, Mumbai, India). Dean Gomes from Adidas agrees that one should focus on the consequences for people’s livelihoods, such as fishermen, to appeal to people on a personal level (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19). This has been done by Shah’s team, and it is likely that it has had a positive effect on the Versova beach project being perceived as a positive, optimistic symbol for environmental action.
Well-known Bollywood-celebrities visit the beach and share photos from the clean-up on their social media channels, and thus they use the clean-up’s symbolic effect to partake in the efforts to build awareness. Until now, several Bollywood-celebrities such as actor Amitabh Bachchan, Fashion choreographer Achla Sachdev, film-maker and actress Pooja Bhatt, actor Irrfan Khan and actor Deepak Dobriyal have visited the beach and cleaned alongside the volunteers (Shukla 2016; Bhatt 2018; ETimes 2018;). Amitabh Bachchan’s donation of a tractor and an excavator also received notable attention (Bhatt 2018).
5.2 Heroism in the Versova beach-project The project becoming a symbol has in turn led to Afroz Shah, the initiator of the clean-up and the man responsible for the Versova-beach project growing into what it is today, becoming a well-known person and the person the media will go to if they want to write about the project. Shah has thus received a great deal of attention and become a well-known figure. In Dean Gomes’ words: “Everyone knows about Afroz. He is everywhere.” (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19). In schools and colleges, Thackeray explains that he has observed that the youth are on a journey to “become Afroz”. He believes that all the actors that get involved have this desire to become like Shah, and follow his example. He thinks that the best part of the inclusiveness of the project; the support from various agencies, governments, companies and colleges, is that everybody has a desire to be Afroz Shah (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19).
33
Despite becoming one, Shah does not believe in the concept of being a sole “leader”. He believes that the concept of leadership is, in his words, “warped”, because he sees leaders as primarily acting through words and not by example. They talk, but they don’t deliver. “That is troublesome, and troublesome for the marine species the most” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). He believes that everyone should see themselves as a leader.
“Look at global warming. Look at the slums and fertility management. A rising population is causing major problems. Where is the fertility management? If plastic is causing a problem; where is the circular economy? Calling somebody a leader is warped in this manifestation. I think everyone is a leader. You are a leader, I am a leader, every day; become a leader and do something.” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19)
He acknowledges the complexity of leading a population of more than 1.3 billion people, and expresses his concern that the population in the Indian democracy believes that they can elect one person, in the shape of a Prime Minister, to lead them. Even in your own house, he says, you need several people to care for the building and give support in your daily life.
“My prime minister Narendra Modi has to deliver now, for 1.5 billion people. It’s impossible. We are fooling ourselves if we say that ‘my master delivers’. You see it one the ground level. Every weekend we see it. No politicians reach them. The toilets are a mess, their sewers are choked, their creeks are choked, the plastic pollution is increasing day by day.” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19)
He never wanted to be a leader and reacts immediately negatively upon being asked questions about his leadership, explaining that he is not a leader, he is merely someone who does what he deems necessary while people have decided to follow him. Being named a UN Champion of the Earth, is something he sees as a “pat on the back”, and a motivation for himself to work harder. He also acknowledges that the award helps bring attention to the cause, as it brings it to the center stage. Shah says that the award comes with a huge responsibility, and being named a Champion of the Earth comes with an expectation that he needs to deliver. He also mentions that he was recently in Norway, where he experienced broad support from “left,
34 right and center”. He then decided that he needs to make an effort of more than two hundred percent (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19).
Thackeray agrees that Shah’s Champion of the Earth-award incresed the attention drawn to the Versova beach-project. He explains that for India, with a population which makes up one seventh of the world’s total population, a number that is growing faster than in China, and with an economy that is one of the fastest growing in the world, being recognized as a country that is contributing to the global climate change battle or environment-friendly issues is important for the country’s reputation. The fact that Shah started off as an individual, not an agency or a lawyer which is his profession, and that he did not go to the government but did the work with his own hands, is in Thackeray’s opinion something that makes him especially important in symbolizing the importance of civic activism (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19).
Shah is an advocate for a form of civic activism that is based on a mission to create change rather than pressuring or encouraging political leaders to create change. As a politician, Thackeray says that this kind of action is greatly appreciated. When people start idolizing Shah, Thackeray argues that they want to act like Shah and therefore join the efforts. In turn, the politicians encourage them while giving political support to the clean-up. Thackeray emphasizes that they need heroes acting like influencers and making it “cool” to clean the beach, and that Shah has been successful in doing this. As a government, Thackeray argues that they need civic activism and influencers to make the people understand the reasoning behind policies.
“Today, influencers make things cool, make things acceptable in the society. If I say ‘let’s ban plastic’, they might see me in the perspective of being a government, saying ‘the easiest thing for him to do is to ban single-use, disposable plastics’. You need people like Afroz to go out and speak about it and say why we don’t need plastic; why people also should give up plastic when we are banning plastic. So that it becomes a movement rather than a ban.” (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19)
Further supporting this argument is the fact that brands like Adidas, who’s ultimate goal is to sell apparel and hence take advantage of what people are interested in, has entered into a collaboration with Shah. Based on this evidence it can be argued that Shah has become an
35 influencer, which in Thackeray’s opinion is an important and welcome role as it makes it easier for politicians to implement policies related to plastic pollution, because influencers like Shah may have encouraged people to willingly stop using the material in advance. In this way, Thackeray believes it becomes a movement rather than a ban, which can arguably have a crucial impact as this could prevent protests and unwillingness to comply with policies (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19). As the Versova beach clean-up had already gained popularity, Thackeray had a stronger basis for suggesting the plastic ban. When justifying the ban in an interview, he explained that there was already a movement to create awareness against plastic and that the people’s feedback had been positive (Press Trust of India 2018).
As the project has grown, a great deal of attention given to environmental issues in Mumbai, and as the sole spokesperson, a lot of emphasis and responsibility is on Shah as an individual. Dahlstrøm argues that too much emphasis may be put on one single individual in the shape of a leader or a guru, that in turn can pose a risk to, in this case, Shah’s health and the future of the beach clean-up. Dahlstrøm observes that Shah has become a leader that wants to do everything himself and not delegate responsibilities, perhaps, Dahlstrøm argues, because of a lack of trust (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). At the same time, other activists would have needed to have funds saved up to be able to spend all their time volunteering alongside Shah instead of being employed in a day-to-day job. Creating an NGO out of the project would also be a way to take more of the responsibility off Shah’s shoulders, but Shah has expressed to Dahlstrøm that he does not wish to do so because of the resources that disappear in the administrative work of an NGO (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). While the effect of his leadership has been prominent until now, both Dahlstrøm and Solheim argues that there is a serious need for organization (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19; Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). This is both to lift some of the responsibility off Shah’s shoulders, and to keep the efforts moving forward and growing in scale under the modern global circumstances.
Solheim believes that Shah’s leadership is essential, but that leaders and followers need to work together as a leader cannot lead in a vacuum. Still, “we need leaders at the frontline” (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). As the project became symbolic and Shah grew into a role as the hero at the frontline, he has taken almost all responsibility for the
36 management of the project on his shoulders. Symbols are, as mentioned in chapter two, interpreted differently, and as he has the sole responsibility for the project’s reputation there is a risk that he, as a symbol, may be seen in a more positive light or a more negative light in the future and influence the project’s symbolic meaning. Should his leadership style of not delegating responsibility or his personal reputation be damaged, he thus poses a risk to the project’s reputation. With the amount of responsibility that is consequently on him, heroism presents a risk to the hero himself should he not have substantial support in the shape of other people as the project grows into a global initiative with major resources instituted into it. As will be discussed later, several prominent Norwegian organizations have recently agreed with Shah on developing collaborations with him in regard to solutions to the issue of plastic pollution (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). Hence, the project is only growing and together with it, the responsibility and pressure on the project’s front-person, the hero.
5.3 A symbolic movement and a hero to inspire The project has become symbolic and the hero has been essential in driving it forward. The Versova beach clean-up turned into the world’s largest beach clean-up, and environmental action that has never been done before. Solheim emphasizes that the project is unique. It is unique, he argues, due to the fact that Shah never started out with the aim of creating a mass movement: He merely stood on his balcony and looked down at the beach and saw how incredibly polluted it was. He mobilized a neighbor, then they were ten, then they were a hundred and, in the end, they were thousands. It started with individuals’ commitment, and has become a genuine people’s movement in what Solheim calls Gandhi’s style (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Shah himself explains that he chose to lead by example and focus on what people can do on a personal level (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). This is what Solheim calls positive environmental action, where the focus is not on what someone else should be doing, or the negative in the fact that there is a lack of action, but instead on what we can do ourselves.
“You do not have to be a professor in plastic economy or have a deep insight into environmental issues to get involved; you see the problems right in front of you and start doing something. Afroz did not start out by calling his representative in
37 parliament or such to make him do something, he just acted himself. I think this has a large appeal and the way of communicating is a very important factor for success.” (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19)
Thackeray believes that the Versova beach-project has been successful in inspiring the population to care about environmental issues, and emphasizes that Afroz Shah has played a central role in this regard. Like Solheim, he stresses the fact that the activists started off being an unknown group of neighbors to suddenly becoming a well-known movement as people were flocking to the beach, whether it was to help out or to just see what is going on. Because of this, Thackeray says that Shah has been able to clean the beach as well as move on to other beaches, and has managed to inspire a new generation of school-children and youth (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19).
What Shah has been successful in doing, Hiten Bheda argues, is “hyping” the issue and drawing attention to the Versova beach. He thinks the publicity is “over-hyped”, especially since Shah was named a UN Champion of the Earth, but recognizes the value of his work. Bheda is part of a group of local residents who clean the beach next to Versova, called Juhu. This beach has received almost no attention in comparison with the Versova beach, something Bheda thinks is unfair (Hiten Bheda, personal communication 19.04.19). This is nonetheless evidence that Shah and the Versova activists have been successful in creating a stir and drawing attention to the Versova beach clean-up.
As his main approach in regard to his leading role is to lead by example, Shah does not see himself as the leader or spokesperson of the efforts, but says that he simply does what he deems necessary and if people call it leadership then so be it (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). Every week, he cleans, and he puts up a schedule on his and the Versova beach-project’s social media accounts on Twitter and Facebook. The next week, he presents what was done by himself and the volunteers the previous week. Thackeray observes that people want to “become” Shah (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19). Without aiming to create a mass movement he has succeeded in doing so, which suggests that his approach of leading by example has been successful. Dean Gomes believes that the Versova beach-projects and Afroz Shah represents the best example globally, which is Adidas’ reason for getting involved. Shah expresses a strong belief in the importance of starting with himself and attempting to create change without considering the circumstances.
38 Even while expressing a lack of hope that permanent change will ever come or that there is a global solution, he sets out to do as much as he can even if it has minimal effect (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19).
He does not worry about being heard by the policy makers, as he says he only cares about his personal efforts creating change for the marine species (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). Instead of focusing on politics he encourages the general population to change their daily lives by decreasing their consumption and handle their waste properly, as well as teach others to do the same. He believes that everyone should do their bit, and make sure that the human existence does not threaten the existence of other species (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). By leading by example, he acts as a symbol for the environmentalism he stands for.
5.4 Heroism and symbolism’s role in mobilization As discussed in chapter two, India has a history involving famous symbolic leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and a religion where humans are especially important; often in the form of Gurus. Having inspired others through his own actions and leading by example, Shah can mobilize those he has inspired to join the clean-ups or change their own habits in their daily lives. By utilizing his function as a symbolic leader and hero, he can reach out to people on an emotional basis and mobilize support for the cause.
Three of the interviewees, namely Shah, Dahlstrøm and Solheim, refers to Mahatma Gandhi and the importance of this Indian leader and his “spirit”, which they argue lives on in the Indian people (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19; Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Dahlstrøm has observed that activists also draw parallels between Shah and Gandhi (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). Shah believes that the “language of love” has a significant presence in the Indian culture, and Solheim mentions that there is an Indian tradition of being close to “mother earth”.
Hinduism, the country’s largest religion, teaches conservation, which can be seen in Picture 1 that was found in Hiten Bheda’s office at AIPMA. The picture is an image of one of the most worshipped Hindu Gods, “Ganesha”, where all the elements in the picture are given specific
39 meanings linked to conservationist thinking. Bheda argues that this proves that it is not people’s mindset or a lack of willingness to avoid waste that is the issue, and thus the issue will be solved with infrastructural improvements. Emphasizing that it is not the Indian culture or way of thinking that is creating the crisis of plastic pollution, Bheda argues that it is quite the opposite.
“It is not our culture to throw things. We are more conservative. If you go to a small hut you will see a kitchen full of items that in other societies would just be thrown away. The ‘need’ in the Indian society is quite different. A jar would be a single-use plastic in Western countries, whereas in India it probably never gets thrown away for 10-15 years.” (Hiten Bheda, personal communication 19.04.19)
Picture 1: The teachings of the God Ganesha, from a poster on the wall of the President’s office at AIPMA House, Mumbai. Photo source: Private - Amalie Henriksen
Because of the fact that the Indian households will re-use e.g. jars and fill them up with other foods when they are empty, Bheda argues that one cannot compare the measures taken in Western countries to those that need to be developed in India. Although, he argues that the issue is most profound in urbanized areas that are influenced by Western, developed societies.
40 “It is part of the culture. Wasting is looked down upon. It is only the urban societies within India that has blindly followed part of the Western societies. That is a very small percentage of the population. If you look at the affordability of such practices, it is not very high. The moment you go out of Mumbai people cannot afford to eat out every day in a disposable container. So that percentage would drop considerably. If you see per capita consumption, you see that there is a large disparity between urban areas and rural areas.” (Hiten Bheda, personal communication 19.04.19)
On the one hand, Bheda argues that the issue of plastic waste is less serious than it seems, but he also acknowledges that it is an issue in urbanized areas such as Mumbai. Still, while referring to the conservationist thinking Picture 1 represents, he argues that mind-set change is unnecessary. The Versova beach-project has targeted the part of people’s mindset that can be traced to the Hindu god Ganesha, but have simultaneously argued that there is a need for more conservationist thinking and emphasis on environmental concerns (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). All the other interviewees disagree with Bheda when he argues that mind-set change is unnecessary, and argues that this is the first priority and structural changes must come second in line.
With this in mind, Shah approaches the general population with the aim of making a connection trough conversation. He believes that the people of Mumbai already have an interest in creating change and are aware that change must start in their own, personal lives, and thus he tries to target this part of their awareness as well as their religious culture of conservation (as seen in Picture 1) in conversation with the locals (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19).
Solheim underlines the importance Shah and the activist’s way of communicating, and how they have succeeded because of their way of getting close to people and targeting their values.
“They have a way of talking that is very close to people and has a strong moral appeal, they talk in a warm way and speak warmly about nature and mother earth. They have a broad appeal to absolutely everyone.” (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19)
41 Dahlstrøm emphasizes the positive effect of Shah’s charisma (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19), and Solheim says that Shah and the volunteers have a way of communicating which successfully targets people’s values and is “close to people”. In environmental movements, Solheim argues that there is a need for leaders whom one can identify with and have faith in. He argues that Shah’s leadership is crucial, and that he speaks a simple language that fits into the Indian tradition of being close to nature. Saying that Shah has a way of being or acting that makes him come close to people, Solheim emphasizes that Shah acts in a way that is not authoritarian or sublime. In this way, he follows Gandhi’s footsteps (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). It must in this context be noted that all interviewees and other people I have been in contact with in my participant observations, call Shah by his first name; Afroz. Solheim’s argument that Shah’s way of communicating reaches people on a personal level and feels “close” to them, is further supported by the fact that they are all on a first-name-basis with Shah in a country where it is most common to call people by the honorifics of Mister and Miss, followed by their surname (Personal observation, A.H. 2019, India).
When Shah goes to clean up the beach he calls it “a date with the ocean”. Shah emphasizes that there is something within the Indian way of thinking that makes people susceptible to this message. He says that the language of love cuts across India, but one has to know how to connect with people and what language to speak, and also how much time needs to be spent before the message has reached them to the point of a new awareness. The country’s population is enormous, diverse and complex, but if one reaches out to their common values, one can, according to Shah, unite them against marine plastic pollution (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19).
Since the clean-up started in 2015, the number of activists has continuously been growing and there has been constant progress in the project and its outreach. Shah says that he managed to engage other people to join the cleanup through reaching out and communicating with them on a personal level. He believes that the Indian people are able to take environmental issues personally, because Mahatma Gandhi’s spirits live on in the country. Through one-on-one conversations he is able to communicate with that part of the people’s awareness.
“I think they strongly believe that the change has to happen and the change must start with ‘you’. They are in a zone where they start telling themselves, like I told myself, I
42 can do it, I should do it. When you get into that state then everything falls in place.” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19)
He believes that the people understand that the change needs to happen with them – on the grassroots level. If you need change to happen in your own house, for example, “you solve it yourself. You don’t wait for your government and you don’t wait for an outsider.” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19).
“One, you communicate with people, second, you connect with people. Communication is easy and you can do it through social media, phone calls and personal meetings. And this communication in turn leads to a connection. That connection then takes you to a step where what you believe in and what you’re doing, is what that opposite person has connected with.” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19)
As the number of volunteers has grown, so has the attention the clean-up is getting in the media. The very first step, Shah argues, is communicating what he himself is doing. He does this through social media channels, and people may become eager to follow his example. The main approach is to meet up with people, have conversations, and talk about having a circular economy, a use-and-recycle attitude in their personal lives. Some will come to the clean-ups once in three or six months, or pay some checks and then stop. Shah argues that it takes time to get people involved in a more persistent way, but he believes that this communication is the correct and necessary approach.
Every week the activists post a schedule on the project’s social media channels, making it easier for people to know in which way they themselves can participate, and they also posts a summary of what has been done in the previous week to show that there is constant activity and that the project continues moving forward. In addition, Shah and other activists post photos of the clean-ups that are taking place. Adidas’ Dean Gomes emphasizes that social media platforms are crucial, and recognizes the value of the additional involvement of celebrities when they share it on social media (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19). Bheda believes that the Versova beach-activists have managed to “over-hype” the situation through these channels (Hiten Bheda, personal communication 19.04.19).
43 Thackeray agrees that one should target people’s emotions to inspire them to understand the issue of plastic pollution and in turn mobilize them to join the efforts of reducing it (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19). Inspiration and education are in his opinion the two most important focus points, and he argues that we must mold the minds of the young parts of the population (mainly between the ages of eight to fourteen). Using visual aids, and their symbolic effects, can be useful in this regard (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19). Thackeray explains that he watched a movie called “The Day After Tomorrow” when he was younger, in 2003 or 2004, that scared him. Still, the apocalyptic scenario in the movie would not happen until a hundred years from now. Today, on the other hand, we see these apocalyptic scenes from extreme heat or floods in different parts of the world, similar to those in the movie, and realize that it is actually happening right now. As Thackeray says himself, “it is not the day after tomorrow, it is today” (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19). Therefore, he says that a balance of positive inspiration, information and fear should be effective.
In conversations and through social media, Shah and the other volunteers have used a combination of targeting Indians’ love for mother nature and their religious conscience, while showing pictures of the overwhelming hazards of plastic pollution. Thackeray may therefore be right in arguing that this combination is effective, considering the project’s success in regard to mobilization.
5.5 Symbolism, heroism and the project’s legitimacy Having initially been made fun of for thinking that his two hands could make a change, Shah’s reputation is arguably very different today as a result of people becoming aware of the positive change he actually managed to generate. Today, the clean-up is being recognized by politicians and diplomats who e.g. invites Shah to roundtables with some of the most prominent Indian businesspeople, politicians or other actors. This includes e.g. a roundtable on oceans hosted by the Royal Norwegian Consulate General in cooperation with the think- tank Gateway House, and a conversation with the Russian President Vladimir Putin in Sochi (Royal Norwegian Consulate General 2018; Kremlin 2017). As some interviewees also mentioned, he is praised by the Indian Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, in public speeches, and the UN Champion of the Earth-award is another evidence of Shah and the cleanup’s
44 positive reputation.
All interviewees believe that the symbolic effect of the efforts has led to awareness-building and attention being drawn to the issue of plastic pollution. They also believe it has had the ability to affect policy-makers and create visible change. The project has presented opportunities for politicians to get involved and win political gains, and has been highlighted by the politicians as a result of this. Symbolizing successful civic activism and local environmental action, the project has become well known and caught the attention of organizations such as the UNEP whose aim is to highlight these “best examples”.
The Nordics, UNEP and Adidas are looking for activism like this to use in their own campaigns, and the Versova beach-project has, due to its symbolization of positive environmental action, become the best candidate (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19; Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19). The project has been successful in creating a “buzz” in regards to the attention environmental concerns has received in Mumbai, and, as will be discussed in the next chapter, it seems to have played a central role in creating a basis for an environment where it was possible for state politicians to implement a single-use plastics ban.
5.6 Symbolism and heroism in the project’s maintenance The project’s symbolic effect and the hero’s efforts have inspired and mobilized, and has proven efficient and successful in creating a famous beach clean-up and an environmental effort consisting of all-in-all thousands of volunteers. Now, the project might have to rely less on symbolism and heroism to move forward. Tor Dahlstrøm and Erik Solheim both have vast and long experiences within diplomacy and international politics, and are advocates for turning the Versova beach-project into an organization (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Shah explains that his aim is only to do as much as he can personally even if it does not have a large impact, and shows no interest in creating an organization with administrative capabilities. He expresses that he does not wish to be a leader, but wishes to mobilize support for the cause. He still acknowledges the importance of being politically active now that he has become a symbol, as he accepts invitations to meet with policy makers or media actors.
45
Today, Dahlstrøm stresses that the Versova beach-project is at a crossroads. The project needs a proper structure or the Norwegian Foreign Ministry will back out. He emphasizes that administrative developments are necessary for the project’s survival, and so is a structure that is less dependent on one individual (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). Norway has offered Shah and the project funds in the form of Norwegian foreign aid, but, for the project to receive the available aid from the Norwegian Foreign Ministry, it needs an administration to manage it (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). As of now, Shah has not been willing to delegate responsibility to others, and indicates that he has a lack of trust in NGOs as resources and funds tend to disappear in administrative and organizational matters in such organizations. A direct consequence of the lack of administration and organization is that the available aid will not be transferred.
Dahlstrøm recognizes the value of Shah’s charisma, and mentions how people have drawn parallels between him and Mahatma Gandhi. Still, he argues, these are different times, and although leaders can “make things happen”, or “flower”, a proper structure is needed or the project will fall apart (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). Dahlstrøm expresses a concern that projects like these may put too much emphases on leaders, or in India, “Gurus”, and build their initiatives at the expense of their leaders. There is no money coming out of the project, and thus no-one will be getting paid for their work, which has led to volunteers backing out due to the need to spend more time making a living. Shah seems to have savings or funds and thus he manages. There is therefore a fear that he will get ill from being overworked. Dahlstrom says that Shah always says yes, and that critical voices do not seem to be welcome. Hence, he argues that Shah needs to “stay grounded”, as well as cease to mix his role with his identity (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19).
The need for an administration and turning the project into an organization is pressing, as there are funds available that cannot be transferred unless an organization is created. In addition, the collaborations agreed upon between Shah and Norwegian organizations, will be challenging should there only be one man – Shah – to handle the projects from the Versova beach-project’s side (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). At the same time, Solheim argues that the project will not continue to grow unless politicians and corporations continue to get involved. He emphasizes that the Versova beach-project has managed to mobilize citizens, and furthermore, they have affected the country’s politicians. The citizens
46 have also proven that they can clean the beach, but for substantial and long-lasting change, politicians and corporations need to be engaged.
“It started with the beach clean-up, but as soon as you have done this for a while everyone understands that this will go on forever if you do not stop the inflow of plastic to the beach. That’s when corporations come in, to see what they can do, and politicians look at which regulations can be implemented. Afroz was absolutely central in making Prime Minister Modi phase out single-use plastics in India by 2021. This promise will probably be hard to keep but it is likely that they will come a long way on the road there.” (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19)
Solheim believes there is an almost universal recipe for success when it comes to battling environmental issues. There will be major changes when you have three factors simultaneously: 1) Individuals’ efforts on the grassroots level, 2) political leaders’ leadership and visions as well as market regulations, and 3) businesses that can develop new products and new technical solutions and bring these up to scale. He adds that the way the activists have been working this far has had results, but if they wish to take this further, also geographically, and not just do it locally in Mumbai, they will need a stronger structure (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19).
Shah believes that the people need to act on a grassroots level and not wait for politicians. He says that people should stop looking at the big picture in search for a global, permanent solution, and just try and change our lives in a way that is non-threatening to the marine species. It’s about acting, on a personal level, and “just do it”.
“This whole question [if politicians are influenced by the clean-up] is one based on the fact that we have a solution in the future. But I must burst the bubble and say; there is no solution. For thousands of years mankind has seen men of wisdom, men of leadership, wars have been fought, people have been conquered, and in the end of the day mankind comes back to the same problem. I don’t know what to do. That’s the reality. I’m also in a situation where I don’t know what to do. But I know how to do something good so I’ll go and do it. That’s all.” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19)
47
Although Shah expresses his negative prospects for the future, he simultaneously says that he will not stop cleaning the beaches, mangroves and rivers of Mumbai. Thus, he will continue to act and lead as an example and thus his power as a symbol and the project’s symbolism will continue to exist.
Conclusion Symbolism and heroism have proven effective in inspiring, legitimizing and mobilizing support for the project and for the battle against the issue of plastic pollution. Nonetheless, the strength of symbolism and heroism’s effect on the engagement in the battle against plastic pollution seems to be limited to the impact it has now. Hence, the project is at a crossroads, and should Shah and the project contribute to a more extensive change in the issue of plastic pollution, evidence suggests that an administration and thus an organization needs to be created.
48 Chapter 6. Symbolism and heroism’s effect on awareness and political and corporate action
6.1 Symbolism and heroism in the Versova beach-project’s effect on environmental awareness All six interviewees express that they see an increase in awareness, both in the population in general or in their own company, organization or in politics. Erik Solheim pointed out that the development of an increase in awareness about marine plastic pollution has happened rapidly, with the issue of plastic pollution rising to the top of the political agenda globally, despite the fact that it was almost invisible on the same agenda two to three years ago (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Globally, Solheim argues that plastic pollution as an issue has received increasing attention over the last few years, in a way that is “unparalleled”.
“It is not more than two or three years ago since plastic was not on the agenda at all, no one was talking about it, and today it is on the top of the political agenda everywhere.” (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19)
The argument that the issue has been given more attention and become prominent on the global political agenda, is strengthened by the fact that the Norwegian and Indian prime minister has agreed on an MoU about clean and healthy oceans (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Press Information Bureau 2019), and that both local and state politicians as well as the Prime Minister himself are talking about the Versova beach-project, in broadcasted speeches and in the media or on their personal social media platforms (Bhatia 2018; Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19).
After four years of cleaning the beach, Shah observes that there is now is a “buzz” in the population, hence an increase in attention to the issue of plastic pollution (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). In a practical sense, there is a noticeable reduction in the use of plastic items, especially the single-use items that were recently banned in the state where Mumbai is the capital city. Since the introduction of the state-wide single-use plastics ban, Thackeray explains that he has seen substantial change in the people’s use of plastic materials. Although the use of these items is now banned, Thackeray says that people have had a habit of using single-use plastics, and to change this habit he believes they will need
49 about five years. What has already created visible change, however, is the fact that all large establishments have removed plastic from their inventory and thus made it significantly less available. This is a direct result of public policy, but the policy itself may even be a result of a new “trend” that is based on it being “cool” to cut out plastic, which is both the result of, and a reason for, an increased awareness about the issue.
“What happened is; our plastic ban really coincided with the UNs big plastic pollution team, that coincided with this whole movement of “being cool” and not using plastic. Every company, every industry and every establishment that wanted to be really “cool” was saying okay, we give up plastic. So for sure, there is a lot of awareness.” (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19)
This trend was according to the politician himself a reason for implementing the plastic ban, and now individuals and establishments, restaurants and hotels are removing plastic from their inventory (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19). Thus, the trend of cutting out plastic may have been a catalyst for the ban.
Because of this trend, Bheda of the AIPMA argues that politicians started making decisions based on their emotions towards plastic, while not taking the plastic manufacturers or other affected businesses’ future into account (Hiten Bheda, personal communication 19.04.19). While all the other interviewees see this “buzz” and “trend” as an exclusively positive development, Bheda thinks the issue is “over-hyped”. Although he recognizes that the issue needs to be dealt with, his opinion is that especially the politicians’ reactions are overdramatic as it is primarily the visibility of the issue in our environment and the trend the clean-ups have created that makes them act in this way. He argues that the plastic that enters the ocean is just a fraction of what is consumed (Hiten Bheda, personal communication 19.04.19). In addition, the trend seems to only encompass beaches, while plastic pollution on roads are overlooked (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19).
The Versova beach-project has targeted people’s emotions to generate awareness about marine plastic pollution and make people wtop using plastic as well as join the clean-up, and thus fueling the trend. Solheim, Thackeray, Dahlstrøm, Shah and Gomes all agree that increased awareness and mind-set change should be the main focus-point in the battle against plastic pollution, and supports the trend (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19;
50 Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19; Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19; Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19). Making people realize that climate change is real and happening right now, is crucial (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19) The recipe is in Thackeray’s opinion to create awareness as well as stop the production of plastic through public policy and law.
“If the population starts responding to it, nothing else is needed. Because it is all behavioral patterns of humanity. Who is responsible for the pollution that we have created today? It is humanity. Who is responsible for cutting trees? It is all of us. It is a man-made problem so you will have a man-made solution as well.” (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19)
When attempting to build awareness, it is easy to take photos and videos that present the severity of the plastic pollution in Mumbai. The plastic is highly visible in the environment, and especially in Mumbai where the collection systems are not capable of managing the amount of waste that is produced. Bheda argues that the visible plastic is only a fraction of what is consumed, and that India has a culture of re-use of plastic items whenever possible. This visibility has in Bheda’s opinion “sentimentally” influenced politicians in a way that made them act based on their emotions towards the waste and not scientific facts (Hiten Bheda, personal communication 19.04.19).
The pollution’s visibility in people’s immediate environment makes the issue closer to people and easier for them to be influenced by. It is a fact that Shah himself started out on his mission to clean the beach after looking down on it, and the layers of plastic covering it, from the balcony of his home. He says that his main goal is to expose people to the pollution, to essentially show them the devastating effect it has on the beach, as he then believes that people will have a physical reaction in the form of using their own hands to clean it up. Shah expresses a belief that people generally know that change has to happen in regard to plastic pollution, but that they often wait for their politicians to act. Exposing them to the visible pollution will change this, as he believes that people have the desire to help when they personally see an issue (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19) Solheim agrees, and argues that this reaction is also possible as it is easy to get involved:
51 “It is easy to get engaged because the solutions exist, and the problem is very visible for people; it is close and easy to relate to. One can do something politically, by supporting and electing the right politicians, one can do something about the market and choose to buy the right products and you can personally do something actively by for example cleaning the beaches like in Mumbai. It has a great potential to mobilize and engage people, and it is much easier than with other, more abstract issues.” (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19)
Solheim argues that the visibility of the issue also simplifies it for the general population, as other, less visible issues can require a deeper insight or knowledge about environmental pollution for individuals to fully grasp it. Plastic pollution is simply right in front of you, thus there is no denying it. Gomes supports this argument by saying that he believes change will happen when also the roads are covered in plastic for people who do not live by the beach to visually experience (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19). The visibility seems to be able to function as a prerequisite that has made it possible for the Versova beach clean-up to become a symbol of successful environmental action, as it is easy to display through visual aids. The visibility also seems to simplify the methods used to engage people in social media or the media in general, as it is unnecessary to add explanations to the pictures. These symbols thus have a straight-forward meaning that is easy to grasp. It can thus be argued that the visibility of the issue and its symbolic effect makes it easier for the activists themselves to engage the community or recruit people.
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Figure 2.1: Symbolism and heroism affects environmental awareness
Explaining how the awareness that develops in people will lead them to use their own bodies to do the work, Shah expresses a strong belief that humans have a desire to help when they see the need for it. He says that this awareness develops the same way as it does in romantic relationships. If you see a guy or a girl that you like, you may think that “this is it”, and in turn the bodily mechanisms react. He says that the same process takes place when humans see a helpless situation, and they think; “how can I help?”. The main reason to get the people to the beach cleanup is to expose them to the pollution, because they will have an experience where they react physically by making use of their hands and picking up the plastic they saw and that shocked them. Creating this “epiphany” so to say, is the main goal of the project, and making the beach clean is not the purpose or solution in itself. He states this, saying that he would know after cleaning continuously for four years (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19).
53 Conclusion The Versova beach-project appears to have played a role in the development of a “trend” of cutting out plastic. The trend is developed through using the visibility of the issue and the meanings the Versova beach-project symbolizes to create awareness in the population. As celebrities that are looked up to, including Shah, argues that people should cut out plastic, it has according to the interviewees become “cool” to battle plastic pollution. Having the people’s interests on their side has made sure politicians were in a better position to implement policies that prevent people from using plastic. The project has thus arguably contributed to the increase in awareness about marine plastic pollution in the population.
6.2 Symbolism and heroism’s effect on political and corporate action Corporations got involved in the Versova beach-project to utilize its symbolic value with the aim of reaching their own organizations’ goals. Politicians have also publicly acknowledged the efforts as legitimate and gotten involved and visited the clean-up drives. While Shah did not wait for politicians to act, the politicians got involved in the project he started. Bheda believes that the politicians get involved because they tend to take advantage of what he calls “low-hanging fruits”. In this way, they engage in pre-existing projects to encourage a type of action (Hiten Bheda, personal communication 19.04.19). They do not need to initiate or start a project themselves, but still get work done in their areas of interest through including themselves in civil society action. It can also be argued that the visibility of the marine plastic pollution has consequences that makes it necessary for Mumbai’s politicians to act, as plastic hurts parts of the economy such as tourism. Solheim stresses that tourist areas are overflowing with plastic, and Thackeray said in an article in the newspaper NDTV that the city’s reputation is at risk (Thackeray 2018; Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19).
The rise of attention to plastic pollution, and what Thackeray calls a “trend” in regard to cutting out plastic from our personal consumption patterns, appears to make the Versova beach-project attractive to actors of various kinds. Prime Minister Narendra Modi showed his support to the project after he announced his “Swachh Bharat”-mission to create a clean India. By applauding Shah and the Versova beach clean-up in public, they encourage others to reflect on the issues and get engaged.
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Figure 2.2: Environmental awareness affects political and corporate action
Erik Solheim points out that the politicians are searching for votes, so getting involved in issues the Indian population believes is important is beneficial in regard to winning future elections. It seems to be a win-win situation, because as Solheim argued, projects that have started out as civic activism will also need politicians’ involvement in the long run for it to become a long-lasting and sustainable project (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Thackeray emphasized the importance of civic activism and influencers in creating awareness or engagement about an issue in the population that in turn makes it easier for politicians to enforce policies in these areas that might negatively affect citizens’ daily lives. If they are already aware of the importance of battling plastic pollution, there may be a reduction in protests toward the plastic ban. Thackeray is also grateful that Shah has managed to shift the focus from politicians and their responsibilities, to civilians and theirs. Normally,
55 Thackeray thinks that civilian activists usually take matters into their own hands as a way of demonstrating and exposing the failures of a government. In this case, he argues, Shah has instead approached the issue from another angle and said that it is not just the government’s duty but the citizens’ as well, and therefore they have to stand up and do the work themselves (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19). The result is not a battle but instead an environment where collaborations are welcome. The Versova Beach-project has also entered into a collaboration with the BMC who have now taken over the clean-up at Versova beach.
6.2.1 The United Nations Environment Programme – highlighting the best examples Solheim explains that the UNEP’s goal is to accentuate the world’s best examples of environmental action. He was the Executive Director of UN Environment (UNEP) between May 2016 and November 2018, and during this time, the UNEP got involved in the Versova beach-project and held its World Environment Day celebration at Versova Beach. They were also the organization that named Afroz Shah a Champion of the Earth.
Solheim says that the UNEP wishes to highlight and accentuate the best examples from around the world, as the UN has little to contribute when it comes to money. Money, he argues, is less important because people are to a larger extent after good ideas and inspiration. The UNEP chose to show its support to the Indian project as Solheim says it is important to shift the focus more to developing countries where the issues are more precedented, and the measures can be followed more easily by other developing countries in the same situation. This is especially important as the share of plastic waste that is inadequately managed is largest in developing countries in Africa and Asia (Jambeck et al. 2015). Their involvement in the Versova beach-project can thus be seen as an acknowledgment of the initiative’s success and value.
“[People are after] ideas that are being carried out one place and can be followed in other places. A large amount of the international environmental movements has been dominated by people from Western Europe and the United States, and therefore it is incredibly important with a movement like this that springs out of India. This makes it easier to have an appeal in other developing countries where it is easier to picture that
56 the Indian conditions look more like those in e.g. Africa than those in Norway or the United States.” (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19)
6.2.2 The Nordics utilizing the project’s symbolic value for branding The Nordic Council of Ministers signed an agreement on the 20th and 28th of February 2018, where they stated that they would support and sponsor what they called the mind change project. The support went to the Versova beach-project through finances of 50,000 DKK (Approximately 7,500 USD) and equipment or merchandise with the “Nordics” logo. During the year the Nordics collaborated with Shah and the activists on twenty-five school visits, where they handed out metal bottles and reusable cotton bags with the Nordics logo on it. Focusing on branding, they sought to expose the Nordic approach to environmental protection. For them, Afroz’ mentions of the Nordics in his social media channels and his school and college lectures have been valuable (Ollestad 2019)
Dahlstrøm explains that the Nordic countries’ involvement in such projects is profitable due to its ability to promote the Nordic countries and their involvement in the efforts to combat environmental issues. Aspiring to be a country that takes the lead in the fight against marine pollution, Norway has invested in self-promotion in regards to environmental issues in Mumbai. Collaborating with Norway can be advantageous in this regard, Dahlstrøm says, as it is a country with a population that has a close relationship with nature and especially the ocean – considering the fact that the country has a long coastline and therefore large parts of the population lives near the sea. Norway also has a long history as a maritime nation. In India, on the other hand, most of the population lives far away from the ocean and as a result their relationship to the ocean may not be of the same significance (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). On the 6th of February 2019, the Indian Union Cabinet approved a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between Norway and India on a joint ocean dialogue. With the MoU the two countries agreed to cooperate through the framework of a joint task force, on issues concerning marine resources, ports, hydrocarbon, fisheries, aquaculture and tourism (Press Information Bureau 2019).
As the mind change project was ending, the Norwegian Consulate General invited Afroz Shah to Norway in early April 2019, where he met with several Norwegian organizations to discuss potential collaborations. Shah has been voicing a strong message about the importance of the
57 development of a circular economy, which is these organizations’ expertise (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). He was also interviewed on a popular Norwegian talk- show called “God Morgen Norge”. The collaborations that were agreed on during the visit in Oslo included a project with TOMRA Systems ASA (the company responsible for the sorting and recycling of waste in Norway), Snøhetta (an international architecture firm), REV Ocean (provides platforms for cooperation and innovation in regard to environmentally responsible ocean solutions), SINTEF research institute, the Norwegian Shipowners Association and a school collaboration between 8th and 9th graders in a school located in Oslo and one in Mumbai (Ollestad 2019; REV Ocean 2019; TOMRA 2019).
Although the Nordic Council of Ministers and the Nordics together have ended the cooperation with Afroz Shah and his team, financial resources, in the form of Norwegian aid, is in theory available for the Versova beach-project. However, this money will not be transferred before Shah creates a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) with an administrative body. Today, the project is still without an administration and mainly based on Shah’s personal work and volunteers who agree to help him out (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19).
6.2.3 Adidas involved because of increased awareness about plastic pollution Adidas, who’s main goal is to sell apparel to customers, sees the potential recycled plastic has to generate profits for their business. Gomes, who is the Manager of Key Cities, argues that the significance of dealing with the issue has also reached the people who run the organization and their conscience. Their aim appears to be to use the Versova beach-project’s symbolic value for their organization’s benefit in regard to reaching their corporate goals.
He explains that Adidas is taking plastic pollution seriously, and as their awareness has increased they wish to contribute in the effort to reduce the issue. Globally they have tied up with Parley for the Oceans, and with this collaboration they have committed to stop plastic from entering the ocean. They use that plastic to make threads and in turn they make footwear and apparel out of it. By 2024, Adidas has an ambition that all of their products will contain some form of plastic that has been stopped from entering the ocean. Every year, they also have events related to plastic pollution such as the Adidas Run of the Oceans, which also takes place at Versova beach in Mumbai. During World Ocean Week they will continue to
58 have such runs, and the money that is being donated to the Parley Ocean School youth education programs will this year increase from 1 million USD to 1.5 million USD (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19).
Gomes argues that Adidas is aiming to do something long-term within sustainability and that the company is not getting involved in the issue of plastic pollution as a “marketing- gimmick”. He admits that it has importance to Adidas in terms of marketing, but that the main reason for their involvement is not marketing but to battle plastic pollution. He argues that it must have a larger purpose than only marketing, as they have put a large amount of resources into battling the issue. He points out how plastic bottles have been banned in their offices, and they have reduced the number of waste-bins to encourage the employees to waste less as well as removed snacks that come in plastic wrappings.
Gomes explains that they, at least In Mumbai, are looking at making their involvement in the work to beat marine plastic pollution a long-term project. Last year they donated boats to Afroz Shah, to clean up the creeks on the coast of Mumbai. In February this year they obtained the licenses necessary to go ahead with the activity. In cooperation with the local community, these boats are now collecting plastic on a daily basis and reporting back to Adidas. Now they are looking for a way to collect data about the amount of plastic that is being collected by these boats on a monthly basis. He explains that Adidas is aiming to work with people who are already well-established, like Afroz Shah. Adidas made a push in the direction of dealing with the issue of plastic pollution globally in 2018, and Gomes explains that they believed that the best example of this kind of activity is in Mumbai.
“The best example, probably in the world, is sitting in Mumbai; in Afroz Shah. When other countries are calling him to do things then why are we not? That is how it started last year. And now the association will move forward year on year.” (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19)
As a brand, Adidas’ involvement is also likely to create engagement amongst people as it is a popular sports brand. Adidas has visited the United Nations to talk about the Parley- cooperation, and Gomes believes that their presence as a well-known brand will help increase awareness in the population (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19). Still, he believes that MNCs will have to take a supporting and not a leading role in the efforts, as the
59 governments and the law will continue to have the most significant power in this regard. Therefore, Adidas is working with people like Shah who already has connections in the government. Gomes emphasizes that Adidas are not experts, and will therefore focus on supporting what he calls the “right people”, and stresses the fact that Shah asks for hands to join the clean-up and never asks for money (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19).
Thus, the Versova beach-project as a symbol is attractive to corporations. Having a sole leader who is seen as a hero to front it, also seems to simplify the project for corporations as Shah is not asking for funds and represents a sole contact person. At the same time, as was discussed earlier, issues can arise now that several corporations or organizations want to get involved on a larger scale and the pressure becomes too high on the leader or “hero”.
Conclusion Politicians are positive towards the Versova beach-project, is it contributes to an awareness- change that makes it possible for them to implement environmental policies that would otherwise be too unpopular. Simultaneously, the project is operating on a large scale and has mobilized broad support, and thus politicians aiming to collect votes can get involved in the environmental issue that these people find important. corporations get involved for their personal benefit in a society that is increasingly concerned with environmental issues. Foreign nations want to brand themselves as countries at the frontline of battling environmental challenges, and MNCs are involved as the environmentalists represent consumers and because they acknowledge their responsibility.
60 Chapter 7. Discussion The Versova beach-project started out as a small initiative by two people, with the sole purpose of cleaning up a local beach buried in plastic. The project was never intended to become a symbol or the basis for a mass movement, and neither was Afroz Shah. Shah still wanted to convey a message by acting as an example of a way of thinking that he believed others should adopt. Seeing someone use their own hands to improve the situation inspired people that in turn became willing to listen. By acting as an example of what he believed everyone should do, Shah has become an inspiration for the citizens, who already are susceptible to his message considering their love for “mother earth” and the conservationist thinking that is evidently present in the Indian culture. The result is an initiative and a person both becoming symbols for successful civic activism in regard to the issue of plastic pollution.
The Versova beach-project has developed into a symbol for successful environmental action as the beach was completely transformed from a landfill to a turtle-hatchery due to the activists’ persistent work. The case of Versova beach is one of positive environmental action, which arguably has inspired through conveying a message that creating positive change in massive environmental issues is not impossible. When this is combined with a message of the severity of the consequences of plastic pollution, the result is scaremongering that simultaneously presents possible solutions and ways to act that creates change.
Shah invests primarily his self and acts as an example, which is an approach that seems to have a significant effect in a country where several interviewees argue that Gandhi’s spirit lives on and affects the public mind-set. Parallels are also drawn to the Hindu Gurus, and the result is that he is seen as a hero to follow. In a complex society and massive population such as that of India, Shah’s message about taking personal responsibility and not waiting for policy-makers has been cherished. Leading by example has evidently had the ability to inspire to the extent that a mass movement has been created. Not aiming to become a leader, spokesperson or hero, the project’s hero has grown into his role and utilized it in the media or in the company of politicians and decision-makers.
As Shah inspired through his devotion to cleaning the marine areas of Mumbai, the activists have used social media to spread images and videos of the work that is being done, and in
61 addition to being present in the media and speaking loudly about the efforts, they have managed to draw a great deal of attention to the issue and in turn mobilize support. By targeting people’s shared values with the knowledge about cultural and social traits in the population forming a basis, they have succeeded in being present at the most basic level in society and communicating with people in a way that feels close to them. Shah’s charisma has also been highlighted as a characteristic that creates a positive effect in this regard. Using personal communication as the primary approach, the knowledge of how to connect with people has made it possible to convey a message about the value of taking personal action.
The attention given to the project and the hero has created what interviewees call a “buzz” in the population, where plastic pollution is in the spotlight. People are thus becoming more aware of the issue’s impact on the coast of Mumbai and also about the project and how they can join the clean-ups and help improve the situation. The interviewees describe the development of a “trend” of cutting out plastic, and the Versova beach-project is likely to get more attention as it was developed in a time where a trend is simultaneously developing. As it is “trendy” to cut out plastic, cleaning the beach has become “cool”, and thus people are interested in joining. Global attention is on the issue of plastic pollution, and the beach- cleanup’s success in inspiring and mobilizing has made it “cool” to care about plastic pollution in Mumbai, and people are becoming more aware of the issue and ways to combat it. The visibility of the issue makes it easy to use visual effects to generate awareness. As the project and the hero is gaining popularity both domestically and abroad, all interviewees see an increase in environmental awareness in the population in Mumbai.
The trend that the Versova beach-project has fueled and the resulting increase in environmental awareness has made it possible for the state Government to implement a single-use plastics ban without it being protested by the citizens. The project has, through symbolism and heroism, thus contributed to creating a foundation of environmental awareness that made a plastic-ban possible. The project is a symbol of environmental action that has been welcomed by politicians as they wish to promote it as an example to be followed by citizens, and they may in addition collect votes from people who are engaged in these issues. The project and Shah as its representative have acquired a great deal of respect, which is evident in Shah’s invitations to closed fora with decision-makers and the praise he and the project has received by the Prime Minister and the United Nations. As it has developed into a symbol, its status and Shah’s status as a hero seems to contribute in legitimizing the efforts.
62
As a symbol it has also become attractive to – and been utilized by corporations that can reap benefits from getting involved. The Nordics can take advantage of the project’s symbolic effect by getting involved and thus and symbolizing themselves that they are environmentally friendly countries. As the project is popular and the leader is seen as a hero, corporations such as Adidas get involved in the issue of plastic pollution and collaborate with Shah to connect with their customers. Their involvement can be beneficial for Adidas as the symbol and hero are part of, and fueling, a growing trend. Multiple Norwegian organizations are also developing partnerships with Shah, after inviting him to Norway. This is evidence that he has become a recognized actor in the battle against plastic pollution due to his status as an environmental hero.
Being present in the project also seems to present an opportunity for organizations to take a public stand and promote their work as they are involved in a well-known symbol of successful environmental action. For foreign organizations, Shah has thus evidently become a public persona they can contact and that knows how to produce successful environmental projects in India. Further contributing to the Versova beach-project’s symbolic status is the fact that it has been recognized by the UNEP and promoted as one of the world’s best examples of civic environmental action. Tor Dahlstrøm expressed a concern that the project may risk becoming too symbolic, and hence actors are getting involved in a symbolic way without taking actual action. It appears that the symbolic project has the ability to create environmental awareness and political and corporate action, but the risk is that politicians and corporations are symbolically involved while substantial action is not actually taken.
The project has grown quickly and considerably, from consisting of two neighbors cleaning their local beach to becoming the world’s largest beach cleanup. But now, it is arguably at a crossroads where organizational structure and the creation of an administration is crucial for the project’s ability to grow further. For now, Shah has not shown willingness to create an NGO, and the project’s future is uncertain.
63 Chapter 8. conclusion The aim of this thesis was to answer the following research question:
How does symbolism and heroism affect awareness about marine plastic pollution as well as political and corporate involvement in and development of solutions to the issue in Mumbai, India?
This study has sought to answer this question through a case-study of the world’s largest beach cleanup and now the Versova beach-project that has developed on the basis of symbolism and heroism. Through the methods of qualitative interviews with a representative from six central actor groups, as well as content analysis of news articles and reports about the project and the hero I have obtained a broad overview of relevant developments. I have personally spent time in Mumbai and at Versova beach as well as another beach that the project has expanded into including, and have through participant observation collected additional empirical evidence.
The theory of symbolism and heroism were used to research the phenomenon of a beach- cleanup that became symbolic and its leader who became a hero and went on to influence environmental awareness and political and corporate action. The symbolic project’s development and expansion, as well as its hero’s influence was by interviewees noted as unique, and symbolism and heroism’s function seem to be in line with the arguments of Gill and Angosto-Ferrandez (2018), Pondy (1978) and Allison and Goethals (2011;2013). Symbolism and heroism as concepts contributed to an understanding of how a clean-up initiated by two neighbors has become a mass movement highlighted by e.g. India’s prime minister and the UNEP.
The thesis’ hypothesis H1, was formulated as follows:
H1: The Versova beach-project has through symbolism and heroism influenced the population’s general awareness about marine plastic pollution as well as political decision-making in Mumbai
64 As a symbol, the Versova beach-project has represented a larger meaning and simplified the complex issue of battling plastic pollution by presenting efficient solutions that the general population can partake in. It has also grown into a movement and in turn been promoted as a project to be followed, and enjoyed status and respect as a result. As the initiator of the project involuntarily became the leader and spokesperson, he developed into a hero by leading by example and inspiring others to partake in the battle against plastic pollution. Symbolism and heroism has thus arguably indeed, through successfully inspiring and mobilizing the population of Mumbai on the basis of a personal approach, as well as legitimizing the efforts and maintaining it through constant progress, increased the population’s general awareness about marine plastic pollution.
Politically the project and its leader have been praised, as they have contributed to the diffusion of a social trend of cutting out plastic that reduced the risks of the implementation of a single-use plastics ban. Additionally, the project has served as a “low-hanging fruit” that politicians can get involved in for the sake of votes, and the leader has been promoted as someone to follow. In this way, the symbolism and heroism has influenced political action in the state of Maharashtra in which Mumbai is the capital. The hero has become respected and given power in political fora. Hence, the hypothesis H1 can be confirmed, as there has been some degree of influence both on environmental awareness and political decision-making in Mumbai.
Corporations have deemed the symbolism and heroism present in the Versova beach-project an opportunity the organizations included in this thesis can reap benefits from. Being visible in a well-known and popular environmental project can be profitable for the organization’s reputation, or for its revenues as evidence shows that consumers are increasingly concerned with environmental issues. Foreign states have also used the symbolic effect of being involved to brand themselves. Hence, symbolism and heroism has evidently to this degree affected awareness about marine plastic pollution and political and corporate action, and through the power it has obtained it has been in a position to influence the development of solutions to the issue in Mumbai, India.
65 8.1 Recommendations for further research Environmental governance is a challenging field due to public environmental politics often being disputed by citizens as it usually involves measures that will negatively affect their personal life. Examples are measures such as taxes or restrictions on environmentally damaging behavior such as means of transportations that are used in daily life. Therefore, I aimed through this thesis to research alternative methods in dealing with environmental issues that involve an awareness-building in the population that decreases the risk of civic protest. With the knowledge of how symbolism and heroism played a central role in the developments of the Versova beach-project and the creation of an environmental hero in Afroz Shah, and the resulting influence these developments had on political and corporate action, one may better understand similar cases should the same theoretical framework be applied. This is especially relevant in developing countries where bureaucracy and public governance is inefficient or ill equipped to combat environmental issues. As this study researched an isolated case it naturally has its limitations, but it can add knowledge that is useful in the study of methods for battling issues related to global climate change, in a time where solutions are being developed.
In this case, citizens have for these reasons taken matters into their own hands, and being aware of efficient approaches as well as perhaps learning how to use them more systematically can be beneficial for further developments of activist-driven projects. Bottom- up efforts as such can thus have an impact on the future prospects for combating environmental issues.
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77 Appendix
A. Presentation of the actors and interviewees
Actor Interviewee Date
Afroz Shah Afroz Shah 20.04.19
Shah was the initiator of the Versova beach clean-up and has become the face of the project. Shah is a lawyer by profession, but has devoted most of his time to the efforts against marine plastic pollution and spends his daily life cleaning, having speeches at schools, doing interviews, speaking in the media or meeting with policy-makers and other actors that might wish to join the efforts and enter into cooperative partnerships. Hiten Bheda, Immediate Past President and AIPMA Chairman of the Environment Committee 19.04.19
The All India Plastics Manufacturers Association was founded in 1946 and is one of the oldest and largest Apex bodies of the plastic industry in India. They work for making India an international sourcing base for plastics, while promoting plastics in compliance with national and international standards and certifications. They provide assistance, information and training programs to their 22,000 members, and describe themselves as an organization that assess global or national challenges for the growth of the Indian plastic industry while remaining alert on environmental issues and anti-plastic campaigns. Among their members are polymer manufacturers, machinery manufacturers, processors, mold & dye makers, traders, exporters, manufacturers, processors and consultants (AIPMA.net 2019). I have conducted an interview with Hiten Bheda, the Immediate Past President and chairman of the Environment Committee.
Politician, Shiv Sena/Yuva Sena Aaditya Thackeray 27.04.19
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Aaditya Thackeray is a 28-year-old politician for the party Shiv Sena and works primarily in the state of Maharashtra. He is highly visible in state politics as well as politics in Mumbai, and takes credit for suggesting the plastic ban that has now come into place. Being raised by another famous politician, Uddhav Thackeray, the leader of Shiv Sena, he is also the grandson of Bal Thackeray, the founder of the party. Shiv Sena is a dominant political party in the state and in Mumbai (Hollar 2019). Today Aaditya Thackeray is the leader of the Yuva Sena, the youth wing of the party, and has publicly expressed his support to the Versova beach clean-up and participated in the clean-up at the beach himself. I met Thackeray at his family’s residence in Mumbai. Tor Dahlstrøm, Consul at the Norwegian The Nordics Consulate General 26.04.19
The Nordics is a joint initiative under the Nordic Council of Ministers, and is a mutual branding project for the Nordic countries or territories of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Aaland, Faroe Islands and Greenland. The group is commissioned by The Ministers for Nordic co-operation, and works on a global level with sharing “Traces of North” and telling their common story (Nordics 2019). The interview has been conducted in Norwegian and subsequently translated to English. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Erik Solheim 15.05.19
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was created in 1972 and is the leading global environmental authority. Their aim is to provide leadership and encourage partnerships in relation to the care of the environment at the country, regional and global levels. The UNEP uses its expertise to strengthen environmental standards while helping implement environmental obligations, and has six areas of concentration: 1. Climate change, 2. Post- conflict and disaster management, 3. Ecosystem Management, 4. Environmental governance, 5. Harmful substances, 6. Resource efficiency/sustainable consumption and production (UN Environment 2019b). I have interviewed Erik Solheim, who is the former Executive Director of the UNEP and Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations. He has also served as chair of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organization for Economic Co-operation
79 and Development, UN Environment’s Special Envoy for Environment, Conflict and Disaster and a Patron of Nature for the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. In addition, he is the former Norwegian Minister of the Environment and International Development. He is an experienced peace negotiator, and has received multiple awards including the UN Environment’s Champions of the Earth award, TIME Magazine’s Hero of the Environment, and an honorary doctorate from TERI University in Delhi, India. He has also written three books: Den store samtalen, Nærmere, and Politikk er å ville (UN Environment 2019a). The interview has been conducted through Skype and in Norwegian and subsequently translated to English.
Adidas Dean Gomes, Manager – Key Cities 22.04.19
Adidas is a multinational company that sells sports clothing globally. The company has its roots in Germany, and generated sales of €21,915 billion in 2018 (Adidas 2019). They have employees from about 100 nations and have been visual in the Versova beach clean-up in Mumbai through representation by employees at the beach and a cooperation with Shah about the Adidas “Run for the Oceans” on June 16 in 2018. They have been working with Parley - For the Oceans, an organization that brings together various actors to collaborate on projects that can assess the threat to our oceans and ecosystem in general (Parley 2019). Adidas and Parley has organized runs for the ocean in 15 major cities, where one USD for every kilometer that is run will be donated to Parley Ocean School youth education programs (Takeaction.Parley 2019). The Mumbai Run for the Oceans took place at Versova beach. I have spoken to Adidas in their offices in Mumbai.
80 B. Interview guide All interviewees were asked the same general questions, as well as a selection of questions formulated specifically for that interviewee
1. General questions 1. Do you see an increase in awareness about climate change and plastic pollution in Maharashtra? Why do you think this increase occurred? 2. What do you think about the Versova beach-project’s ability to create awareness about the issue? 3. How important do you think these cases (like the world’s largest beach clean-up) are for the battle against plastic pollution? a. What about leadership? Public figures. Examples? 4. Do you think the attention that has been brought to the beaches of Mumbai has impacted state policies like the plastic ban? 5. Do you think that, because of heroism and the status of celebrities in India, that this type of action, with a hero in the front, can have a significant effect on the population? Additionally; celebrities visiting the beach and/or donating equipment. Special for India? 6. What is, in your opinion, the most effective way to raise awareness about plastic pollution? a. Through which channels? 7. Is the issue of plastic pollution best approached through raising awareness or through structural measures?
Specific questions for Afroz Shah 1. How did you get people to join you in the clean-up from the very start? Diversify per group (companies, public, politicians). 2. What do you think are the most important reasons why people in Mumbai want to get up early on weekends to clean plastic? 3. Who have been the most important players when it comes to supporting the project? 4. Do you think the fact that you got the UN Champion of the Earth-award helped create awareness?
81 5. What do you think about the fact that you have become the leader and spokesperson? What are the main challenges and opportunities that comes with this status? 6. Do you feel heard by the state or national authorities? What about the people, are they listening? 7. How important do you think it is for the people in Maharashtra to have symbolic efforts such as the Versova beach-cleanup in the media? 8. What do you think are the most important elements that can unite and engage people in the efforts against plastic pollution? 9. How can your effort be multiplied to other beaches/states/countries? 10. Do you see a general increase in awareness in the population in Mumbai? 11. Do you think that the attention that has been brought to the efforts have influenced the plastic ban?
Specific questions for AIPMA 1. How has your members been impacted by the plastic ban? 2. What are your future expectations with regard to plastic use and recycling? 3. What is your perception of the (public) governance of plastic use and recycling, what is good and what can be done better? 4. Can you map out the main players in the plastic recycling and ban movement? 5. Do you think the campaigning by activist groups such as those on Versova beach had an impact on policy making? 6. What is, in your opinion, a good way to move forward in reducing plastic pollution?
Specific questions for Aaditya Thackeray 1. Did the attention that has been brought to the beaches of Mumbai affect your initiatives? a. Is the municipal authorities’ involvement in the project a strategic choice? Why…? The elections are coming up – its use in campaigning? 2. How important do you think it is for the people in Maharashtra to have symbolic efforts such as the Versova beach-cleanup in the media? 3. What do you think are the most important elements that can unite and engage people in the efforts against plastic pollution?
82 Specific questions for the Nordics 1. What are the future prospects for the collaboration? a. For the project in itself? 2. Can you elaborate on the collaboration, why it was created and what has come out of it? 3. Why support a project like this that takes place in India? a. What’s in it for the Nordic countries? 4. How important is Shah as a leader and hero for awareness-building and political or corporate influence? 5. To what extent do you believe the symbolism in the project influence politicians or make corporations to get involved?
Specific questions for the UNEP 1. Why is UNEP involved in this particular project? a. Why is support for such projects important? b. What does the UNEP gain? 1. What do you think of using symbols such as pictures from the beach (before-after), the turtles as symbols that it works, Shah as a symbol of activism? a. To what extent are they useful? 2. How important is Shah as a leader and hero for awareness-building and political or corporate influence? 3. How do you see the project moving forward from here? Future prospects?
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