AUM Historical Review

AUM Historical Review # 1,Winter 2012

Editor Graydon Rust

Associate Editors Allison Hamilton Tracy Wilson

Graphic Designers Sam Blakely Melissa Holston (cover)

Advisor Steven Gish

Photographs Alabama Department of Archives and History Rob Atkins (Space Race, contents page) Frank Williams, Auburn University at Montgomery Joseph Postiglione / Birmingham Civil Rights Institute (Freedom Riders, contents page) Cameron Whitman (Brown v. Board, contents page)

Printing Wells Printing, Montgomery, AL

The ideas expressed in these essays are the sole responsibility of their respective authors and contributors and do not necessarily represent the official statements, opinions, or policies of Auburn University at Montgomery or the Department of History at AUM. Neither Auburn University at Montgomery nor the Department of History at AUM accept any liability for the content of this journal.

1 2 AUM Historical Review

Contents

Introduction Graydon Rust 4

The Space Race Begins Allison Hamilton 5

Freedom Riders: Soldiers in a Non-Violent Army Space Race Tracy Wilson 17

A Pirate’s Life for Me: Craig T. Sheldon and Anti-Communism Landon Ledbetter 21

A Conversation with Dr. Wyatt Wells Jennifer Kellum 37

Freedom Riders Brown v. Board: Alabama’s Initial Reaction Elizabeth Elder 41

Contributors 52

Call for papers 52

Brown v. Board

3 Introduction

In late January 2011, Dr. While we agreed that the criteria phy 2 students in the Department Steven Gish proposed his idea for should be open to allow for works of Fine Arts for the numerous the creation of a student-edited from all areas, I suppose it is only designs that they produced and to history journal and immediately natural for the best works to come Sam Blakely and Melissa Holston the suggestion garnered tremen- from the matter most familiar and for contributing the chosen designs dous support. Since then, time readily accessible for research. and the hours that they put in to has zoomed by and I cannot This year’s award-winning papers implement them. I am obliged to believe that we are now beginning include Allison Hamilton’s “The the staff at the Alabama Depart- another calendar year. With that Space Race Begins” and Landon ment of Archives and History for said, I am thrilled to introduce Ledbetter’s “A Pirate’s Life for their encouragement, for providing to you the inaugural issue of the Me: Craig T. Sheldon and Anti- us with the photographs included AUM Historical Review. Each Communism,” winning the Dodd throughout the Review, and for al- year, the History Department and Morse prizes respectively. In lowing us to distribute copies at the recognizes quality student scholar- addition to these, this issue also Archives itself. Specifically, I would ship with the presentation of two includes an essay titled “Brown v. like to thank Dr. Norwood Kerr for awards—the Dodd and Morse pa- Board—Alabama’s Initial Reac- answering the numerous editing per prizes—to the authors of that tion” by Elizabeth Elder, a review questions that I came across and year’s preeminent essays, and the of the 2011 PBS documentary for handling all the duties of my Review serves to further that ac- Freedom Riders and an interview job on the many occasions that I knowledgment. With the creation with AUM’s own Dr. Wyatt Wells, was preoccupied with the journal, of this journal, we hope to provide conducted by Jennifer Kellum. and also Steve Murray for the a forum of appreciation for not There are a number of advice and opportunities he pro- only the top two papers of the individuals whom I would like to vided. I am also grateful to Dr. Lee year, but to all exemplary histori- thank for their support and efforts Farrow for assisting in the develop- cal work produced by students at in producing the AUM Historical ment of a number of our papers as Auburn University at Montgom- Review. Without them, none of the authors progressed through her ery. Furthermore, we hope that we this would have been possible. I Historical Methods course. Most can instill both a sense of camara- would first like to express gratitude importantly of all, I would like to derie among history majors and a to the Associate Editors, Tracy thank all of the individuals who greater interest in history through- Wilson and Allison Hamilton, contributed pieces to the Review out the entire AUM community for their constant hard work and for the research, writing, and revi- while also providing students with dedication, and to Dr. Gish for not sions that they put forth, as well as experience in all aspects of the only providing us with this oppor- for the patience that they displayed editing world. tunity but also for his continuous as I bombarded them with an In our first issue, we have guidance and energy throughout incessant chain of emails. unintentionally acquired a theme the process. Thanks also go to centered on Alabama history. Breuna Baine and her Typogra- Graydon Rust, Editor

4 Introduction AUM Historical Review

The Cold War was put men and satellites in space, Allison Hamilton much more than a series the two nations constantly of battles for psychological pushed one another forward, gains; it expanded beyond the and eventually past what reaches of the atmosphere humans once thought possible. and penetrated the great On October 4, 1957, unknown—outer space. the Soviet Union successfully When the United States and launched Sputnik, the world’s the Soviet Union first began first satellite. It shook the scrambling to stake their claim free world as it flashed across on the experienced German the night sky—its mystery scientists and wonder beautiful, yet who terrifying. Much of the world developed marveled in disbelief. The the V-2 French exclaimed, “We had rockets, its expected the Americans to aims were do it; it was the Russians who weapons, succeeded.”1 The United States not space understood the implications exploration. of such an immense scientific However, gain and over the next few after months it scrambled to put countless its own satellite into orbit. experiments The journey was long and, at and tests times, embarrassing. Officials using these in Washington failed to missiles it make crucial decisions. Early was clear that attempts crashed and burned there was greater potential on the launch pad. At times for them outside of mass it seemed that the U.S. would destruction. Through fierce never reach outer space—that competition the arms race is, until the government shifted evolved into a space race its eyes to the Redstone Arsenal between the Soviet Union and research facility in Huntsville, the U.S that spanned from Alabama. Within only a few

The Space Race Begins 1945 to 1969. In competing to short months, the scientists

5 there were able to assemble and only nuclear weapons, but As Staver sought to successfully fire a rocket which the advancement of modern persuade the Germans, would eventually carry the U.S. technology as a whole. The Washington was striving into space. As the Jupiter C stage was set and the space to determine whether the rocket soared into the air it took race, not to mention the Cold German scientists would the morale of the American War, had begun. even be welcome in the U.S. people with it. Not only did it On May 27, 1945, Major Debates raged in the “War, secure jobs for the people of Robert Staver of the U.S. Justice, Commerce, and State Huntsville, Alabama, it showed Army received an order from Departments.” The officials the nation that the space race Colonel Holger Toftoy to sweep were not only fearful of was far from over. into the region of Thuringia, possibly disgracing American After World War II the some 4,540 square miles of scientists who had been alliance of convenience German territory soon to be working on missile projects of between the United States and under Soviet control, and their own, but also a potential the Soviet Union had fallen “evacuate all German missile Nazi uprising on American apart. The nations were on technicians and their families… soil. Howard P. Robertson of opposite ends of the modern and take them to the American the Field Information Agency, political spectrum—one the zone.”3 With only twenty- Technical, claimed, “In beacon for capitalism and one days until the Soviets allowing the Peenemunde boys free trade, the other the father would occupy the region, to continue their developments, of communism. When Nazi Staver began his scramble to we are perpetuating the Germany was defeated in convince some 500 men to activities of a group which, 1945, the two nations raced join the side of the United if ever allowed to return to to attain any resources that States. In the first few days of Germany or to communicate could help them promote their the mission it seemed that all with Germany, can in fact own agendas on the world was hopeless. With no promise contribute to Germany’s stage. Perhaps the most vital of permanent employment ability to make war.” However, resources lay in the minds of or security for their families, advisors in closer connection the hundreds of scientists who many of the scientists and with President Truman had catapulted Germany ahead technicians turned the convinced him that, in light of of the international scientific Americans down. It was not a more powerful Soviet Union, community with their work until Wernher von Braun, the refusing the scientists would on the V-2 rocket—a weapon leading missile expert in the be a foolish and maybe even that had been successfully fired world, flew to Nordhausen to fatal decision. After weighing some 25,000 times and had help the Americans persuade the pros and cons, President inflicted over 30,000 casualties the scientists that they began Truman concluded that it in England alone.2 The nation signing up in droves. However, was in the best interest of the that reached these scientists their compliance was not the nation to put pride aside and first would hold the key to not only problem.4 utilize the more-than-willing

6 The Space Race Begins

German scientists in the conditions were not ideal, and refused to let their surroundings advancement of American there were still numerous kinks bring down their work ethic. rocketry through Operation to be worked out, the Germans In 1948 and 1949, using their Overcast, “a secret plan to jumped at the opportunity V-2 rockets, they not only bring a limited number of to work for the United States photographed the earth for German scientists to the United and in September 1945, the the first time, but successfully States.” 5 However, merely first group of the selected launched a missile carrying deciding what to do was not 127 scientists and technicians the first living organisms into enough.The Americans and the reached American soil.6When space—including a colony of Soviets were not the only ones the scientists first arrived in fruit flies and, in June 1948, a interested in snatching up the the U.S., army officers treated monkey.7 By 1950, in order to scientists—France and Britain them more like POWs than test more powerful long-range were wooing the Germans vital assets to the country. The rockets, the scientists needed as well. While the Americans U.S. government transported to expand their testing ground had told the scientists they them to Fort Bliss, Texas where beyond the 120 miles available could not bring their families they would work on building at White Sands, and to this with them, the British and V-2 rockets for testing at the end, the government decided French were more than happy White Sands Proving Ground on Cape Canaveral in Florida, to accommodate them. This in New Mexico. The shift in providing them with some proved to be the sticking point surroundings, both climate 5,000 miles of Atlantic Missile for American negotiations and country, was tremendous. Range. When the question of until the U.S. government The men went from a country research facilities arose, officials decided to make concessions with a comfortable climate decided on a rather unexpected for the care of the men’s where they spoke the language location—Redstone Arsenal in families in what was unofficially to a foreign desert where the small town of Huntsville, deemed “Camp Overcast,” an temperatures would be as high Alabama.During World War II, abandoned German cavalry as 120 degrees Fahrenheit the city of Huntsville had been barracks near Munich. The during the day and drop below host to numerous chemical Third Army commandeered freezing at night. While there, weapons plants and facilities, furniture from homes in the army officers kept them under industries that brought not region and fixed the toilets and close surveillance to assure only a greater population to sinks to make the place livable, that no one harassed them the area, but boosted the local all the while working out the and that they were not sharing economy as well. When the logistics to provide medical any classified information with war ended in 1945, however, care and protection for some the outside world. Despite the plants were no longer useful 1,000 people. Although the these challenges, the Germans to the military, and by the end

7 of the decade, the government the need to integrate. Some Association.10 However, it put them on standby, shut of Huntsville’s citizens saw would not be until April 14, them down, or put them up the benefit of this also. In an 1955, that the Germans would for sale. It was a scary time editorial written on April 16, solidify their commitment to for the citizens of Huntsville 1950, one citizen expressed the country and the community who had learned to rely on the that it would be a mistake to by officially becoming citizens plants for their job security. “hold them off at arm’s length, of the United States. During the last few weeks of neglect them, or regard them On that momentous day, the existence of the Huntsville as strangers who will be here some 1,000 people gathered Arsenal, some 1,200 employees only a short time,” adding, in the Huntsville High School were narrowed down to only “it’s our business to make auditorium to watch their 270. However, when the them feel at home, a direct friends and neighbors swear federal government decided part of the community, and a binding oath to the nation. to revive the separate facilities as very desirable citizens.”9 Federal Judge Seybourn and combine them into the In the next few months, the Lynne said to the 109 future Redstone Arsenal for missile Germans would indeed prove citizens, “The presence here development, the community to be desirable members of so many people from this breathed a sigh of relief. While of the society.Many of the old city evidences the warmth chemical weapons required a scientists went on to make of welcome with which you fair amount of government valuable contributions to the are being received.” When he investment, it paled in community of Huntsville. addressed the audience, he comparison to the hundreds of Hannes Leuhrsen, a city reminded them “never to forget millions of dollars which would planner back in Germany and that our culture is distilled from soon be flowing into Redstone. head of the Marshall Center the culture of many lands. 8When the German scientists planning branch, designed a Immigrants to this country first arrived in Huntsville in belt highway system around brought their music and their April of 1950, feelings on both the city in order to decongest art… They brought strong sides were mixed. Many citizens traffic. Walter Wiseman hearts and a willingness for regarded the newcomers as became president of the labor.” The scientists and their mere short-term visitors and Huntsville Junior Chamber families then swore an oath to some of the Germans held to of Commerce, general renounce any allegiance to a that view as well. A few of the chairman of the Huntsville foreign country and to protect scientists considered developing Community Association, and the Constitution of the United a separate German community vice president of the Huntsville States. After the ceremony, and remain detached from the Civic Council. Perhaps two of one reporter asked Von Braun people of Madison County, but the most influential scientists, about his fateful decision to join the majority of the scientists, Wernher von Braun and Ernst the American side at the end of as well as some of the citizens Stuhlinger, went on to found World War II. He replied, “It of Huntsville, recognized the Rocket City Astronomical was about 10 years ago today

8 The Space Race Begins that we were faced with the inter-service rivalry for the The relative simplicity of these decision—we had to make up time being, it eventually led to changes would allow Redstone our minds to go East or West. an extremely heated debate to test launch its satellite in We moved to the West, and between the Army and the as little as four months, not I have never regretted it. We Navy. In 1955, President only saving the government felt that if we surrendered the Eisenhower was ready to money in funding new research weapon (the V-2) to a people expand the developments of and facilities, but also giving guided by the Bible, peace American rocketry through the U.S. a better chance to would be secured.” He went on a proposed satellite mission officially launch the satellite to say that becoming a citizen to be completed as part of within the parameters of the was “one of the proudest the U.S. contribution to the International Geophysical and most significant days of International Geophysical Year.14 As convincing as their my life.” Von Braun was not Year (IGY)—an 18 month arguments were, however, two the only one moved by the period dedicated to worldwide voices were not enough for a day’s events. The citizens of scientific research and majority. Despite the stability Huntsville now welcomed their exploration.12 In July, the of the Redstone rocket and the friends as fellow patriots. In an Navy, Army, and Air Force promise of an earlier launch editorial written on April 14, all presented their ideas for date, the committee decided to 1955, one citizen remarked, satellite development to the launch a satellite mission from “they have been citizens in Department of Defense’s scratch with the Navy’s yet-to- fact. Today’s oath of allegiance Ad Hoc Advisory Group on be-developed Viking rocket. A merely formalizes what has Special Capabilities.13 While majority of 5 members handed been taking place in their lives all three had convincing the Naval Research Laboratory for several years.” 11 By the arguments, it was clear that the the task and, after reviewing the 1950s, the space race was really Navy and Army were ahead. reports, President Eisenhower heating up both between the Two of the seven members agreed. The Vanguard Project Soviets and the Americans, of the committee supported had officially begun.At first it as well as between branches the Army’s Redstone rocket seemed that all was running of the U.S. military. Instead for obvious reasons. The smoothly. On August 22, 1955, of assigning to one branch of Redstone rocket was already in the Naval Research Laboratory the military the daunting task the testing phase at Redstone presented an optimistic of missile development, the Arsenal as an active weapon— schedule for the Vanguard Department of Defense gave with only a few changes to project, claiming that the first each branch authorization boosters and trajectory, the attempt to fire a satellite into for experimentation. While rocket would clearly be able orbit would be made in May this solved the problem of to carry a satellite into space. of 1957. By November 1955,

9 its calculations had slowed but Eisenhower. Thus, the U.S. overwhelming consequences remained hopeful, claiming would continue with the of the Soviet launch and a launch date sometime in Vanguard project. Goodpaster appreciate the mere scientific October of 1957.15 However, believed that there were gains. One citizen marveled, Wernher von Braun and the other reasons that the ABMA “its initial launching by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency was being looked over. In a Russians signifies that man at the Redstone Arsenal in memorandum on June 7, 1956, has burst his earth-bound Huntsville persisted that they he wrote: “At minimal expense barriers, and has taken the first could launch a satellite well ($2-5 million) they could have step toward space travel, with before Vanguard with their a satellite ready for firing by the moon as the first stop.”17 Jupiter C rocket, part of the the end of 1956 or January Others, like Irene Willhite, a Redstone rocket program. 1957. The Redstone project former employee of Redstone When this claim reached the is one essentially of German Arsenal, had mixed feelings. ears of President Eisenhower’s scientists, and it is American She recalls, “I was amazed assistant, Colonel Andrew J. envy of them that has led to a at the progress they made— Goodpaster, in 1956, he was duplicate project.”16 However, another thought was—now eager to turn the mission over Von Braun and his associates they may have a rocket that to the ABMA. He appealed to could not be ignored for long. could launch a bomb to our the Department of Defense, Vanguard was lagging behind shores.”18 and after reviewing its findings, its promised launch date of The overwhelming E.V. Murphee, Special Assistant May 1957 and by October feeling, however, was sheer for Guided Missiles, wrote: of the same year the U.S. was terror. On October 14, 1957, “I have looked further into officially lagging behind the the citizens of Huntsville the matter of the use of the Soviets.On October 4, 1957, expressed their concerns about JUPITER re-entry test vehicle the originally scheduled launch the capabilities of the rocket as a possible satellite vehicle… month of Vanguard, the Soviet that successfully launched I find that there is no question but Union firedSputnik , the world’s Sputnik: “The Russians have that one attempt with a relatively first satellite, into outer space. demonstrated a clear lead on small effort could be made in The free world stood in shock. the United States in the long- January 1957. Also, an earlier The implications were endless: range missile business. That attempt in September of this not only had the Soviet Union is the ominous significance of year is theoretically possible.” officially beaten the U.S. into the artificial satellite…while However, Murphee went on to space, they now obviously we are designing a propulsion argue that modifications to the possessed the technology for system for a laboratory device, Jupiter rocket would distract long-range missiles. Alabamians the Russians have designed one from its original purpose as reacted with wonder, terror, capable of handling a military a propulsion test rocket and and utter fear to the Soviets’ weapon.” Many space and that an earlier launch was new capability. Some citizens missile experts agreed. Arthur not specifically required by were able to look past the C. Clarke, former chairman

10 The Space Race Begins of the British Interplanetary officials had failed to realize community and an authority Society, claimed that any “the prestige the Russians on outer space, said that “the nation capable of launching a would gain if they got their Defense Department was deep satellite with a predetermined satellite up first,” certain that in the development of the orbit into space also had the Russia’s backwardness would Vanguard rocket for launching capability of firing a missile guarantee U.S. superiority in a satellite in the International to any predetermined target space. McGaffin concluded, Geophysical Year and decided in the world. Others feared “Considering the propaganda to concentrate on this rocket that the satellite was orbiting value the Russians are getting when the Jupiter C was already the earth snapping photos of out of their spectacular capable of accomplishing the Pentagon and other high- achievement, it would seem the task… it certainly let the security areas in the U.S. The that if the U.S. did not regard Russians score an astounding launch of one metal object led this as a race, but simply propaganda victory over the the entire nation to question its as one of the events of the United States.”22 The Huntsville once airtight security. 19 International Geophysical Year, Times began publishing articles The reaction in it goofed badly.”21 Washington from across the country Washington, however, proved would not admit that it had concerning this “astonishing to be starkly different from made a mistake in choosing piece of stupidity.” Apparently that of the public. Eisenhower Vanguard over Redstone at the the entire nation was appalled released a statement saying Ad Hoc meetings. Perhaps Mr. at the fact that the government that there was no reason for McGaffin was right—maybe had chosen to go with a yet concern over the launching they did not see the immense undeveloped rocket instead of Sputnik and even admitted psychological effects the launch of Redstone’s practically to the fact that the U.S. could of the first earth satellite would guaranteed success. Their have beaten the Russians by have. But one thing is certain: outrage was justified when merging the satellite and missile the people of Huntsville did. they learned that Von Braun programs under Redstone, The fear of potential himself believed that the blow but that it would have been Soviet attack only fueled to American morale could have “to the detriment of scientific Huntsville’s outrage when been avoided had the Advisory goals and military progress.”20 news about the Advisory Group on Special Capabilities The Pentagon went on to say, Group on Special Capabilities’ entrusted the ABMA with “This was not a race;” but decision surfaced in the press. the launch of the first the people were not buying On October 6, 1957, just American satellite.23Needless Washington’s excuses. William two days after the launch of to say, the people of Huntsville McGaffin of theChicago Daily Sputnik, Dr. I. M. Levitt, a were eager for a change in News Service wondered if U.S. noted member of the scientific command in the Department

11 of Defense. It seemed that the slow-moving Vanguard prospect of better jobs and a their wish would come true project. Donald A. Quarles, bigger income. Government when soon-to-be Secretary Secretary of Defense for investment into the Redstone of Defense Neil McElroy Research and Development, Arsenal increased by some paid them a visit the weekend told the President that $75,000,000 to fund extensive after Sputnik was launched. “Redstone, had it been used, research and development of He visited Redstone Arsenal could have orbited a satellite Jupiter C, benefitting not only as a part of the Pentagon’s a year or more ago” and, if Huntsville but the outlying tour of defense installations given the orders, they could communities as well. Little and was rather impressed by develop a working satellite did they know how vital this the accomplishments already and launch vehicle in a matter investment would prove to achieved by the German team. of four months, a full month be.27After years of preparation, It seemed that the government earlier than the promised Vanguard finally reached its might finally give Redstone Vanguard launch. However, launch date on December 6, the credit it deserved. In an “the President thought that 1957 at Cape Canaveral in editorial published in The to make a sudden shift in our Florida. After waiting for the Huntsville Times on October approach now would be to belie weather to clear, the countdown 7, 1957, one citizen claimed, the attitude we have had all began and the engines fired “There will be almost certainly along.”25 Even after the United up. After managing to make it much more activity in States had suffered a severe a few feet off of the ground, development of missiles, and blow to morale, the government “the Vanguard… toppled in this Redstone as a whole is continued to place pride into the water just before it destined to play an increasing above practicality.26 Shortly exploded, an inglorious end part.”24 It was clear that after Eisenhower’s decision to to a magnificent endeavor. McElroy’s visit had reassured stay on track with Vanguard, An orange ball of flame and the people that Redstone and however, he began to give billowing smoke engulfed the Huntsville would be on the some leeway to the scientists gleaming silver Vanguard Navy Pentagon’s radar in the future. in Huntsville. By October 14, missile at the moment it was Despite the hope generated by 1957, the government gave fired, 8:45 a.m.”28 The nation McElroy’s visit, the government Von Braun and the Army was devastated—not only continued to deny Wernher Ballistic Missile Agency official had the Russians beaten them von Braun and the Army authorization to restudy their into space, it now appeared Ballistic Missile Agency the findings on propulsion systems that the U.S. did not even opportunity to work on the capable of firing satellites into possess the capabilities to get satellite project. On October 9, space. Although the Jupiter a rocket into the air. However, 1957, a mere five days after the re-entry vehicle would only the Vanguard failure had Soviet satellite was launched, be used as a backup in case very different implications for President Eisenhower and his of a Vanguard failure, the Madison County, Alabama. advisors refused to give up on community was elated with the After the Navy had failed with

12 The Space Race Begins its attempt at launching a described the overall feeling Vanguard failure, President satellite, Eisenhower officially as “a gnawing anxiety.” The Eisenhower began keeping handed the mission over to the people of Huntsville had not closer tabs on U.S. satellite Army Ballistic Missile Agency forgotten the launch of Sputnik development. Although the at Redstone. Although the and they were clearly taking the government had allowed press government tried to keep its task at hand very seriously. Von releases about Vanguard, after actions private, the public’s Braun and his rocket team— its crash they decided to keep curiosity level remained high. Dr. Ernst Stuhlinger, W. A. any further satellite programs By December 8, 1957, just two Mrazek, Dr. E. D. Geisler, H. under wraps. In keeping with days after the Vanguard fiasco, H. Koelle, and H. H. Maus— this secrecy, it was logical The Huntsville Times was riddled were hard at work modifying that the attempted launch with articles on potential the Redstone ballistic missile would take place at night. On dates for the Army’s attempt into the Jupiter C missile January 31, 1958, the entire at launching a satellite. In an system. They had to adapt launch team was in a state article entitled “Target Time the missile to a different fuel, of controlled frenzy. Robert Now is Definitely Set,” the develop and assemble different Moser, test coordinator, paced author claimed, “Revelation guidance and control systems, around the blockhouse at the that there is a launching date and fabricate the rotational test launch center, checking is an obvious indication that launcher for the upper stages of gages and giving orders to the Army received additional the missile system. Needless to prepare for the launch, while orders since it was instructed say, they had their hands full. In Albert Zeiler and Karl Sendler, on Nov. 8 to only ‘prepare to early January 1958, members two assistants at the launch, launch’ an earth satellite… of the Senate Preparedness smoked nervously. Zeiler went The carefully-guarded date Subcommittee paid the arsenal on to say, “No matter how could be anywhere from now a visit. When the men returned many firings you do, it’s a until March 1, according to to Washington, Senator Frank nerve-wracking business.”31 statements by high-ranking Barrett of Wyoming praised After hours of running Army officials.”29 With all of the advanced capabilities of extended tests and monitoring this guesswork, it was clear that the Army’s Jupiter rocket as minute changes, Moser began Huntsville was ready to show well as the Army’s methods the countdown around 10:45 its capabilities to the world. of concentrated research and p.m. As the New Year approached, development. By the end of As the time for the launch fears still lingered concerning January, with Washington’s full of Jupiter C approached, the Soviet’s astounding space support, Von Braun and his Eisenhower remained in advances in the past year. On team were ready to put their close connection with the January 1, 1958, one citizen missiles to the test. 30After the sequence of events. Although

13 he was in Augusta, Georgia, that Explorer I was officially the it carried.”34 he was constantly informed first working U.S. satellite in The city of Huntsville as to the progress of the space.33 It made a complete erupted into elated launch at Cape Canaveral. orbit of the globe every 114 celebration. Police cruisers Colonel Goodpaster, longtime minutes, travelling at a speed and fire trucks circled the supporter of the ABMA of 18,000 miles per hour and town hall in celebration. Irene and Redstone, held close following a course that ranged Willhite recalls the midnight telephone communications with as high as 1,700 miles in celebration: “I remember Eisenhower’s press secretary altitude. thinking, ‘We have jobs!’ There James C. Hagerty. At each key The whole nation was was a gathering downtown step Goodpaster called Hagerty, extremely proud of the ABMA at the courthouse—pure old who was in Augusta with and its team of German fashion celebration!!! The Eisenhower, so that he could in scientists. Lieutenant General feeling was—‘We knew we turn relay vital information to E. L. Cummings, chief of could do it.’” Elation continued the president. After waiting for Army Ordnance, sent the as the realization that their such a long time for Redstone following message to Major jobs and community were to try its hand at the satellite, General H. N. Toftoy, Redstone secure sank in: “Their success Goodpaster could hardly Arsenal Commander: “You and also will be a big factor, we contain his excitement when the members of your command feel confident, in expanding the engines began firing: at Redstone Arsenal should the role of Redstone Arsenal The main stage lifted off at take great pride in the vital in rocket and missile research 10:48:16. contributions which you made in the nation…The Defense The program is starting O.K. to the success of the launching Department is certain to avail They are putting it in the right of the satellite Explorer… itself of them to the limit, attitude. Congratulations.” Newspapers and increase its investment… It is still going, they say. across the country praised For every advance or growth It is still going at 55 seconds. the success of the launch and at Redstone will be reflected It is still going and looks good at 90 highlighted its implications. in greater population and in seconds. The front page of the Syracuse expansion of Huntsville.” The Jupiter is on the way!32 Herald-Journal exclaimed, “We government had finally realized Eisenhower and Hagerty Did It—By Jupiter!” The El Huntsville’s capability and held their breath as they waited Paso Herald-Post said, “It had the “gnawing anxiety” waned to hear if the satellite, Explorer been an agonizing wait for in light of such promising I, was successfully in orbit. a nation which so long has potential. 35 At 11:37 p.m., Goodpaster thought of itself as first in After a long road of informed them that the satellite science and technology, and being denied again and again had passed over the first it was a thrilling and fantastic the opportunity to launch a checkpoint of Antigua and at thing to see the 76-foot rocket satellite, the German scientists 12:42 a.m. it was confirmed soar aloft with all of the hopes had finally succeeded not only

14 The Space Race Begins in being given a chance, but “marked the first successful American people at first, but in putting the U.S. into space. recovery of living beings after Wernher von Braun and his Many Americans may have their return to earth from legendary rocket team refused doubted their commitment outer space.” Their recovery to let their new country down. to the nation when they first was one of the most vital steps Through their diligent work arrived, but after dealing such toward putting man into outer at Redstone Arsenal, they not an important blow to the space. In 1960, the government only tied the Soviets for the Soviets, it was undeniable that transferred all space projects time being, they eventually these German scientists were to NASA. Although the Army accomplished what was once now true Americans. Although could no longer actively just a flippant thought— Sputnik and the subsequent participate in space exploration, putting a man on the moon. failure of Vanguard had dealt the Von Braun team continued Their determination and a heavy blow to the nation, testing the Saturn booster at the realized potential secured jobs the launch of Explorer I gave Marshall Space Flight Center for the people of Huntsville the American people the boost in Huntsville and eventually and fueled their economy for they needed to continue the launched the Apollo missions years to come. Alabama was Cold War with confidence. that put man on the moon. 36 no longer a state full of cow The significance of The Cold War opened pastures and red barns, it was the launch of Explorer I did up far more than just a world the modern scientific hub of not stop there. In 1958, race to win over countries space exploration. The race because of the success of to either communism or was on and the United States Redstone Arsenal, officials capitalism—it spurred on was not slowing down any time in Washington ordered it to the great space age. Through soon. n begin work on a propulsion the competition between the system capable of a lunar United States and the Soviet landing under the Saturn Union, technology advanced Booster Project. By 1959, the well beyond what mankind Army Ballistic Missile Agency once thought possible. After the at Redstone successfully highly influential years of 1957 launched three monkeys into and 1958, it was clear that outer space. Although the first the space race had officially monkey, Gordo, could not be begun. The contenders were recovered after his flight due well matched and ready for to nose cone float mechanism wherever their experiments failure, the May 1959 flight would take them. The road of monkeys Able and Baker may have been difficult for the

15 Notes 13 John M. Logsdon, ed., Exploring 33 Ibid., 61, 62. 1 The Huntsville Times, October 6, the Unknown: Selected Documents 34 The Redstone Rocket, February 1957. in the History of the U.S. Civil 5, 1958; Syracuse Herald-Journal, 2 Frederick I. Ordway III and Space Program Volume IV: February 1, 1958; El Paso Hearld- Mitchell R. Sharpe, The Rocket Accessing Space. (Washington, D.C.: Post, February 1, 1958. Team (New York: Thomas Y. NASA History Division, 1999), 38. 35 Irene Willhite, October 7, 2010, Crowell Publishers, 1979), 239. 14 Ibid., 42. e-mail message interview; Editorials, 3 William B. Breuer, Race to the 15 Ibid., 48. The Huntsville Times, February 2, Moon: America’s Duel with the 16 Ibid., 50. 1958. Soviets (Westport, Conn: Praeger, 17 Editorials, The Huntsville Times, 36 “Pioneering Efforts in Space,” 1993), 94. October 11, 1957. http://www.redstone.army.mil/ 4 Ibid., 95. 18 Irene Willhite, October 7, 2010, history/pioneer/welcome.html 5 Ibid., 99-101. e-mail interview. (accessed December 9, 2010). 6 Ibid., 100, 108. 19 Editorial, The Huntsville Times, 7 Ibid., 114-115, 130. October 14, 1957; The Huntsville 8 Helen Brents Joiner, The Redstone Times, October 8, 1957; Editorials, Arsenal complex in the pre-missile The Huntsville Times, October 11, era: a History of Huntsville Arsenal, 1957. Gulf Chemical Warfare Depot, 20 The Huntsville Times, October and Redstone Arsenal, 1941-1949 9, 1957. (Redstone Arsenal, Ala. : Historical 21 Ibid., October 8, 1957. Division, Army Missile Command, 22 Ibid., October 6, 1957. 1966), 84, 85; The Huntsville Times, 23 Editorials, The Huntsville Times, July 3, 1949; “Redstone Arsenal October 8, 1957. Complex Chronology: The Redstone 24 Ibid., October 7, 1957. Arsenal Era, 1950-1955,” http:// 25 Logsdon, 52, 53. www.redstone.army.mil/history/ 26 Editorials, The Huntsville Times, cron2a/cron2a.html (accessed October 6, 1957. November 1, 2010). 27 Logsdon, 54; Editorials, The 9 Editorial, The Huntsville Times, Huntsville Times, October 13, 1957. April 16, 1950. 28 San Mateo Times, December 6, 10 Erik Bergaust, Rocket City 1957. U.S.A. (New York: The MacMillan 29 The Huntsville Times, December Company, 1963), 78, 79. 8, 1957. 11 The Huntsville Times, April 30 Editorials, The Huntsville Times, 14, 1955; Editorial, The Huntsville January 1, 1958; The Redstone Times, April 14, 1955. Rocket, February 5, 1958; The 12 D.C. Martin, “The International Huntsville Times, January 5, 1958. Geophysical Year,” The 31 The Huntsville Times, February Geographical Journal 124, no. 1 3, 1958. (1958): 18-20. 32 Logsdon, 59.

16 AUM Historical Review

In the landmark Morgan v. as waiting and dining facilities) Tracy Wilson Virginia decision of 1946, the in Boynton v. Virginia. Like the Supreme Court struck down Morgan decision, southern states state laws requiring segregation continued to ignore the Boynton in interstate transportation. ruling, just as the federal The following year activists government failed to demand from the Chicago-based its enforcement. Hence, the Congress on Racial Equality Freedom Rides of 1961, which (CORE) rode interstate buses were also organized by CORE, throughout the upper South were born out of a desire to to test the enforcement of test the Justice Department’s willingness to protect the rights of African Americans to use bus terminal facilities on a desegregated basis. In the 2011 PBS documentary Freedom Riders, Emmy award- winning filmmaker Stanley Nelson takes viewers on a two- hour journey through America’s shameful past. Based on Raymond the Supreme Court’s ruling. Arsenault’s book Freedom Riders: Known as the Journey of 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Reconciliation, the rides proved Justice and told by the riders to be anything but conciliatory, themselves, along with civil with activists being arrested rights leaders, politicians, and and assaulted upon arrival historians, the film retraces in the upper South. In 1960, the dangerous, yet courageous the Supreme Court further journey embarked upon extended the Morgan ruling to by an interracial group of include the desegregation of Americans, many of them Freedon Riders Freedon in a Non-Violent ArmySoldiers bus terminals (restrooms as well college students, throughout

17 the Deep South. The freedom to have been defeated. That is were prepared to die for the riders hoped to draw national until a fearless eighteen-year- cause of equality. attention to the injustices old Fisk university student As in Anniston and being suffered by African named Diane Nash got wind Birmingham, riders were met Americans while traveling on of the rides’ demise. Under with mob violence upon arrival the nation’s commercial buses Nash’s direction, a second in Montgomery. Freedom by deliberately violating the wave of riders was sent to rider Catherine Burks-Brooks South’s Jim Crow laws. The Birmingham from Nashville, remembers seeing women and trip began on May 4, 1961, as Tennessee. “It was clear to me children among the vigilante twelve passengers (six black, that if we allowed the freedom crowd in Montgomery yelling, six white) boarded two buses in ride to stop, just after so much “kill them niggers.” Alabama’s Washington, DC, and headed violence had been inflicted,” then Governor John Patterson South with the intention of explains Nash, “the message refused to provide protection arriving in New Orleans two would have been sent that for the riders prior to President weeks later to commemorate all you have to do to stop a Kennedy’s threat to call in the seventh anniversary of non-violent campaign is inflict federal marshals and troops. the Brown v. Board of Education massive violence. It was critical Once in Mississippi, however, Supreme Court decision. that the freedom ride did the riders were not greeted with Once in Alabama, however, not stop and that it continue violence, but rather with paddy the activists were greeted with immediately.” Nash’s refusal wagons and police escorts. repeated acts of mob violence to back down amid impending They were taken to Parchman that made escape from the state danger attracted the attention Penitentiary, the South’s most nearly impossible. In Anniston, of Attorney General Robert dreaded prison, where they after slashing the tires of the F. Kennedy, who demanded served time alongside hardened first bus, the blood-thirsty that the rides be ended before criminals. At Parchman, male crowd then firebombed it and someone was killed. In one of activists were forced to work brutally beat escaping riders the film’s most poignant scenes, on chain gangs while females with baseball bats. Likewise, John Seigenthaler, an aide to were subjected to dreadful at the behest of Birmingham’s Robert Kennedy, describes and humiliating vaginal exams notorious police chief Eugene the phone call that he made upon arrival. By summer’s “Bull” Connor, the Ku Klux to Nash warning her of the end over 430 activists had Klan was given “15 minutes to danger awaiting the freedom participated in the freedom burn, bomb, kill, and maim” riders if they continued rides, 300 of whom ended up at passengers aboard the second the rides. Instead of being Parchman. Instead of quelling bus while Birmingham police intimidated, Seigenthaler says the movement as President looked away. With no police that Nash calmly informed him Kennedy had hoped, allowing protection, no willing driver, that the activists had “all signed the riders to spend time in and CORE’s abandonment, their last wills and testaments” prison intensified it. “It became the freedom riders appeared prior to leaving Nashville. They a continuation of the freedom

18 Freedom Riders rides,” asserts historian Derek passengers aboard the non- while outside a menacing mob Catsam; “Parchman becomes chartered buses “who don’t of over 3,000 burned and every much a location in the have anything to do with this,” overturned cars and threatened freedom rides as the bus depots while failing to honor his duty to burn down the church. themselves.” As a result of the as the nation’s highest ranking Nelson skillfully and effectively relentless determination of a law enforcement official to employs photos, news clips, diverse group of Americans, protect the “innocent” riders interviews and film footage on September 22, 1961, who were being brutally from the time to illustrate the the Interstate Commerce assaulted for obeying federal extremely hostile environment Commission was forced to issue law. into which the riders willingly an order demanding an end to Former Alabama Governor placed themselves in their segregation on buses and inside John Patterson is one of pursuit of justice. terminals. the film’s most intriguing Still, hearing the story Freedom Riders also exposes characters. Patterson, who told by those individuals who the Kennedy Administration’s referred to the riders at the wittingly subjected themselves lack of support for the rides as time as “agitators,” “fools,” to the now inconceivable well as the riders. According and “rabble rousers,” today racial violence remains the to civil rights leader Julian appears strangely indifferent film’s greatest strength. Bond, the Kennedy brothers as he recounts his involvement Georgia Congressman John made a secret agreement with in the freedom rides. Signs of Lewis, who was a participant segregationist Mississippi remorse remain indiscernible in the rides from start to Senator James O. Eastland to as he confesses his avoidance finish and also served time allow for the violation of the of the president and admits at Parchman, recalls feeling riders’ civil rights by having reluctance to provide protection “good” upon their departure them peacefully arrested for the riders. from Washington. “I was like a “under laws which [had] A major asset of the soldier in a nonviolent army,” twice been invalidated by the film is its inclusion of actual declares Lewis. “I was ready.” Supreme Court” in exchange film footage revealing such Similarly, Pauline Knight- for their safety upon arrival in riveting images as the burning Ofoso remembers telling her Mississippi. Attorney General Greyhound bus from which family one morning in May, “I Robert Kennedy is shown passengers barely escaped in won’t be back today because questioning the effectiveness Anniston, and footage of a I’m a freedom rider.” In their of the rides as well as the mass meeting being held at a audacity to defy the nation’s wisdom of the riders. Ironically, local Montgomery church in power structure and challenge Kennedy expresses concern for which over 1500 activists and it to live up to its creed of the safety of the “innocent” supporters remained trapped liberty and justice for all, the

19 freedom riders demonstrated true heroism. The fact that today’s audience might find their undaunted commitment to equality astounding proves that not only did these American heroes accomplish their goal, but so did Stanley Nelson in conveying it. The PBS documentary Freedom Riders serves as a fitting tribute to a group of America’s unsung heroes, while offering a lesson in courage and resilience that will undoubtedly uplift as well as enlighten. In a society that would rather forget its painful past than honor those who endured it, the lesson is invaluable. n

20 AUM Historical Review

On New Year’s Eve, 1958, fledgling government proved Landon Ledbetter Fulgencio Batista, dictator of uncertain of what steps to take, Cuba, fled his nation before the Castro and his regime enjoyed charge of Fidel Castro and his unprecedented support from rebel army. The overthrown the Cuban people.1 In the spirit Batista regime, which reigned of nationalism, Castro began over Cuba since 1940, was disassociating Cuba from the a staple of corruption that U.S. for the first time since the repressed the impoverished in Spanish-American War and, favor of the status quo. The on April 16, 1961, officially revolutionary Castro regime, proclaimed the socialist nature of the Cuban Revolution; the next day, the United States, under the Kennedy Administration, launched the infamously botched Bay of Pigs mission in an attempt to oust the young dictator. According to author Piero Gleijeses, the failure of this assault caused Kennedy to obsess over the Castro problem for the remainder of his life.2 Kennedy, however, was not the only American who became obsessed; Craig Turner Sheldon was aghast that his nation could allow an enemy at the doorstep without taking direct military action. After on the other hand, promised all, Cuba was located only proactive political reforms ninety miles from the coast for Cuba; the nature of those of Florida and not much reforms, however, was unknown further from Sheldon’s home to the Castrista revolutionaries in Fairhope, Alabama.3 For A Pirate’s Life for Me Life for A Pirate’s Sheldon and Anti-Communism T. Craig at the time. Though the Sheldon, the fact that Castro’s

21 Cuba was in alliance with and In his search, he stumbled influenced his hatred of the funded by the Soviet Union upon an active anti-Castro Castro regime. implied that the Cuban nation organization known as Alpha Still eager to join in the was bedeviled; consequently, 66, headquartered in Hato anti-Castro fight and convinced he made the decision, in Ray, Puerto Rico. Alpha 66, that Alpha 66 was the most August 1962, to “go all out” according to Sheldon, was viable organization of its kind, in the war on Castro.4 His the anti-Castro organization Sheldon petitioned the group subsequent experiences with that stood out the most in for admission. He seems to have anti-Castro organizations were U.S. news and politics: “It done little research, relying on extraordinary, though often as a was the one that one heard the assumption that the most result of Sheldon’s hyperactive of.”6 In fact, Alpha 66 had publicized group was likely interest in “liberating” the received a large amount of to be the most effective. This Cuban nation. Although publicity in October 1962, in assumption would be proven Sheldon died on December news surrounding the Cuban false. The reply to Sheldon’s 12, 1997, he left an abundant, Missile Crisis. This was a time application came from Antonio miscellaneous collection of when the U.S. government was Veciana, the organization’s documents accumulated showing particular favoritism leader and co-founder. He through correspondence with to anti-Castro Cuban emigrant authorized Sheldon to act anti-Castro organizations. organizations such as Alpha on behalf of Alpha 66 as This collection shows that, 66, perhaps as a coercive show treasurer and representative though the lives of Sheldon of force against Castro and for Alabama. Eager to see and his compatriots were his Soviet backers. If this was firsthand the organization intriguing, they lacked tangible the case, it worked. Without which he had joined, Sheldon accomplishment from their conferring with Castro, Soviet decided to catch a plane to endeavors because they refused leader Nikita Khrushchev Hato Rey.9 Initially, he had to realistically and inclusively removed the problematic decided not to inform his analyze the facts of the Cuban missile stockpile from Cuba, wife of his involvement with situation. infuriating the Cuban dictator, Alpha 66 because he did not Sheldon first began his and with that, one historian want her becoming legally anti-Castro career by seeking notes, “the honeymoon was involved; however, unable to join an organization which over.”7 Castro no longer took to find transportation to the understood the import, as he Soviet advice willingly and airport, Sheldon asked her for did, of stymying communism’s criticized the Soviet Union a ride. Sheldon later recalled, spread in the West. Finding the openly for its lack of concern “The questions, naturally, flew right organization, however, in Latin America. Still, the right and left. Among them promised to be a daunting U.S. media lambasted Castro was this one - - ‘Who is she?’”10 task, as approximately sixty as a Soviet puppet.8 This, Explaining the situation to her, such organizations existed rather than the truth, was what he said, “[I’m] going to the in the fight against Castro.5 reached Sheldon’s ears and Caribbean to join a group of

22 A Pirate’s Life for Me

Cuban raiders and probably Front of the Escambray) split Alexander Morgan, another get my fool head shot off,” the group in half. According Castroite and a Major in after which his wife became to Sheldon, Segundo Frente Segundo Frente, joined with the pensive, but then exclaimed, was a similar organization to pro-Batista forces of General “OH DARLING, HOW Alpha 66, composed of fifteen Pedraza, which were amassing WONDERFUL!”11 hundred men at the time to counterattack Castro’s forces. The group of Cuban of his visit. Eloy Gutierrez However, Menoyo and Morgan raiders with whom Sheldon Menoyo, a former confidant betrayed Pedraza to Castro was prepared to die, Alpha 66, to Castro whose reputation after having convinced him to began most likely in either late was somewhat blemished capture the city of Trinidad 1961 or early 1962, under the among those who knew of his in the Las Villas Province and leadership of Antonio Veciana past, headed the organization. to funnel troops and expenses and Tony Cuesta. Prior to the As a result of his tarnished into that area. With the help group’s inception, Veciana was reputation, some Alpha 66 of Menoyo and Morgan, the a Certified Public Accountant members who were wary of city and the troops were easily in Havana.12 Nathaniel Weyl, an alliance with Menoyo left to recaptured by Castro. Although author of Red Star over Cuba form another group under the Sheldon believed this was and a social commentator sole leadership of Cuesta. This planned with Castro’s consent, on Castro and anti-Castro group came to be known as Weyl contended that Menoyo activities, would later explain to Commandos L.14 was a communist sympathizer Sheldon that the group began Whether Menoyo deserved and that he and Morgan had “as a strictly non-political such suspicion is disputable. He betrayed Pedraza only to save united action organization,” was born of communist parents themselves from being branded meaning it was intended to who fought in the Spanish Civil as traitors.15 Furthermore, depose Castro militarily but War. As a young boy, he was Morgan also had a checkered not to get involved politically.13 brought to Cuba, where his past. Weyl declared that The implication of this elder brother eventually joined Morgan, though portrayed by statement was that Alpha 66 the Cuban Communist Party. the U.S. media as an American ought not to have aspirations Both brothers fought with hero, was a “superannuated for power, financial wealth, Castro against Batista; in fact, juvenile delinquent, addicted etc. However, despite these Menoyo rose to prominence to crimes of violence and to promising beginnings, the in Castro’s army, eventually betrayal.”16 While serving unity of the organization did heading his secret police, but in the U.S. Army, he had not last. The recent merger remaining aloof from the been placed in confinement of Alpha 66 with Segundo communist movement. In in Kyoto, whereupon he Frente del Escambray (Second 1959, Menoyo and William overpowered his guard and

23 escaped. He was later caught, of his surprise upon seeing and distributing propaganda tried, and sentenced to five large flyers advertising the as well as educating Alpha years penance at Chillicothe group in the streets. Despite 66 officials on the finer Federal Reformatory.17 If these appearances, however, the points of North American characterizations of Menoyo group did maintain a degree idiosyncrasies.23 Sheldon did and Morgan were correct, there of secrecy. Having been not favor these orders, desiring was no assurance that their driven from their previous instead to be an active part of involvement in Segundo Frente headquarters in Santurcy only the military operations. To this and Alpha 66 was anything a month earlier, the members effect, Sheldon wrote, “While more than selfish opportunism. decided to be more covert my 46-year-old, ex-Marine Sheldon’s lack of inquiry with their operations in Hato metabolism cried for a place in into the character of Segundo Rey. Consequently, a vending the boats, I had a feeling that Frente’s leadership and the machine business, Bush they would hand me the job reason for Tony Cuesta’s International, acted as a cover I have now.”24 He took pride departure caused him to waste for the organization, protecting in his position nonetheless, almost a year funneling money and publicly legitimizing its writing on the importance of into the dying organization. activities. Despite its recent the faculty in which he was He became swept up in the relocation, the group was employed: “We [civil units] are positive fervor of the remaining quite well established, as well the ones who enable (or hope to members and naïvely believed as advertised, in Hato Rey. enable) the Military to continue that the partnership between According to Sheldon, when at their efforts against Castro Alpha 66 and Segundo Frente he went to pay his bill upon 24 hours a day without having was “a great deal.”18 In fact, leaving the hotel at which he to work at jobs to support Sheldon wrote glowingly of was staying, he was told that themselves and their families.”25 Menoyo during this period. Alpha 66 owned the place.21 Believing this job to be of the He called Menoyo both “the In applying for utmost importance, Sheldon one great name feared by Fidel membership, Sheldon hoped to took extra responsibility upon Castro” and “the ‘Face to Face make use of the radio operating himself to keep aware of goings with the enemy’ hero of our experience he gained serving in on within the anti-communist organization.”19 In this state the Marine Corps during World movement. of ignorance, he served Alpha War II to assist in Alpha 66 One area of interest 66 from December 1962 until raiding operations; according to Sheldon, almost out of September 1963.20 to Sheldon, “after two minutes necessity, was the workings of Upon arriving in Hato of listening to [his] Spanish, the Kennedy Administration. Rey in December 1962, they looked at each other and Kennedy publicly took a Sheldon discovered that politely shook their heads.”22 stance of careful, peaceable Alpha 66 was not only being The group instead upheld compliance with the communist advertised in the U.S. but in Veciana’s orders that Sheldon sphere of influence—a stance the Bahamas as well. He wrote ought to work at fundraising with which Sheldon heartily

24 A Pirate’s Life for Me disagreed.26 Sheldon satirized He further expressed his themselves upon a nation in Kennedy’s methods by stating, disgruntlement with Kennedy’s times of stress than these weird, “JFK joined forces with a troika pronouncement in a statement if not treasonable, creatures to form the KHRUSHCHEV- which he jotted along the we employ at the moment.”34 KENNEDY-KASTRO edge of a memorandum: Nonetheless, Sheldon often FRONT against Freedom,” “President Kennedy had said, implicated Kennedy when almost certainly a pun in with subtlety, Cuban freedom discussing the unfavorable reference to the infamous must come through the Cuban state of the nation, rather than and oppressive KKK.27 On people and by the means of pointing more particularly to April 1, 1963, Kennedy dug subversion. – This was it!”32 his cabinet and subordinates. his heels in by threatening all Although Kennedy claimed to Whether he truly blamed active members and supporters hope for Castro’s demise and Kennedy, or simply pegged him of vigilante groups, such as offer support to Latin American as a convenient scapegoat, is Alpha 66, with a three-year nations seeking aid against unclear. term of imprisonment and a communist encroachment, Although Sheldon derived $25,000 fine for violating the Sheldon felt that all Kennedy all his judgments on Kennedy Neutrality Acts.28 According was accomplishing was from the image which the to Sheldon, this decree struck “defending the enemy and president presented to the the raiders “quite sober.”29 In doing battle with those who are public, this image seems to have the previous month, March fighting for human freedom been contrary to Kennedy’s 1963, Alpha 66 had carried and dignity.”33 true character. He did treat out a raid on Isabela de Sagua However, Sheldon also Soviet-American relations under the direct influence felt that Kennedy was not with caution; however, his of the CIA, attacking two intentionally subversive. He record also shows that he freighters, sinking one, and upheld that the president’s took a hardline approach wounding twelve Russians.30 advisors had “brainwashed” to the Castro problem. For Now, President Kennedy was him with misinformation on instance, on November 4, forbidding the same men from the subject of Soviet relations 1962, a White House meeting participating in such activities early on in his tenure and gave birth to a new “covert as the CIA had explicitly that his decisions and rhetoric action program aimed at condoned less than a month thereafter were merely overthrowing the [present] before. Sheldon’s personal offshoots of his miseducation. Cuban government,” named opinion was made plain when “He must rely on his family of Operation MONGOOSE.35 he described this crackdown as advisors,” Sheldon wrote, “and Kennedy formally established “what amounts to direct orders a more questionable family of the new program by a signed from Moscow and Havana.”31 advisors have never saddled memorandum on November

25 30, with counterinsurgency took much in the way of arms. has established you squarely specialist General Edward Perhaps foolishly they were on the side of justice.”42 Lansdale at the head. taken to Puerto Rico where the Hoover was “the single most According to James G. Blight men wanted to use them in a important figure in the history and Peter Kornbluh, authors of fundraising rally. The following of anticommunism,” so not Politics of Illusion, the program day . . . the CIA came and surprisingly, Sheldon had involved thirty-two separate seized them all.”39 (We, in this an enduring faith in the FBI tasks designed to motivate case, is not entirely accurate under Hoover: “[It] has to do insurrection within Cuba and as Sheldon had not joined with an innate desire to see culminate in direct U.S. military with Alpha 66 until December justice triumph in the realm of assistance if necessary.36 Still, 1962.) The failure of the Bay humanity’s tortured passage President Kennedy felt that the of Pigs infiltration exacerbated on this earth.”43 However, plan was not ambitious enough, Sheldon’s dislike of the CIA, this faith was not impervious later expressing “general though he placed much of to strain. Around March dissatisfaction” with the the blame on Kennedy. In 1963, when Sheldon wanted progress of the program.37 If this incident, about 1,300 to send first aid kits to Alpha Sheldon had known, or allowed Cuban exiles, trained by the 66 and Segundo Frente, the himself to understand, the CIA, landed at Playa Girón doctor who assisted Sheldon truth of Kennedy’s position, he in Cuba with the intention in putting together the kits would no doubt have respected of infiltrating the public and insisted that he first secure the the man for his policy and causing an uprising against authorization of the FBI. The principles. the Castro regime. Three days local FBI office, however, told As much as Sheldon later, the exiles surrendered Sheldon that such decisions despised Kennedy and en masse to Castro.40 Despite were out of their hands and his advisors, however, he the CIA’s involvement in this that he would need to contact despised the CIA more. In incident, Sheldon noted that the CIA for authorization. The his own words, “With those it was “in the managing hands CIA declined his request, so fellows, there’s never anyone of the President . . . [and] no he returned to the FBI, writing in charge.”38 As he was organization can possibly be Hoover and his subordinates with Kennedy, Sheldon was better than the man at the head for support in circumventing discontented with the CIA’s of it.”41 CIA authority.44 In an attached meddling in anti-Castro affairs. Although Sheldon report, he argued, “The In a letter to J. Edgar Hoover, wholly disliked the Kennedy gallant men of Alpha 66 are Sheldon related information Administration, he seems to dying for lack of adequate which he had received from have been fond of Hoover medical supplies, while Castro’s fellow Alpha 66 members: and his policies overall. In men are being treated with “On October 8th, ’62, we March 1963, Sheldon wrote American-donated drugs.”45 raided Isabella de Sagua in to him, “Your books and The FBI replied that there was the Las Villas Province and your record over the years nothing which could be done,

26 A Pirate’s Life for Me that the CIA was the final politically-minded. They were they had not called for,” he authority in the matter.46 This for those who Sheldon targeted later wrote, “and I knew set a precedent for Sheldon’s with flyers reading, “When you from former letters that there further interaction, or lack are mad enough… support were trained men throughout thereof, with the FBI. Later, ‘Alpha 66’.”48 They were for the Caribbean just jumping while investigating Menoyo’s people who, like Sheldon, were for action.”51 Furthermore, origins, Sheldon wrote ruefully, personally excitable regarding Sheldon expressed worry that “So long as the FBI is under the subject of anti-communism. he had finally managed to send the thumb of Robert Kennedy, He wrote that sometimes he his first aid kits to Dr. Armando I think it will be useless to would become uncontrollably Flietes, “the titular head of take the information to them enthused about plans for direct the Second Front,” but had if we do find that Menoyo assault on Castro and that “it not received any word back.52 is a red-hearted Commie. was always [Alpha 66] who Sheldon was beginning to While Hoover may want to simmered me down with calm have other doubts as well. He do something, I know the explanations of why my idea recalled when a boat owned by very answer we shall get. . . would injure the cause.”49 Alpha 66 and Segundo Frente . ‘Our hands are tied.’”47 To Sheldon’s time with Alpha was captured with Menoyo Sheldon, the two organizations 66, for whom he had so much onboard while travelling in the were autonomous units, rather enthusiasm, however, was Gulf of Mexico. The British than part of a centralized quickly coming to a close. He Royal Navy intercepted the government. He seems to have later lamented, “Along about ship and took all the passengers believed that, if Hoover did not July [1963], the philosophy to Nassau for trial—all except concur with the CIA’s decisions, of Alpha 66 began to become Menoyo.53 Although Sheldon he ought to undermine those rather fuzzy.”50 Menoyo posted contacted his correspondent decisions, rather than comply. a bulletin to Segundo Frente in Alpha 66, Carlos Astencio Meanwhile, Sheldon and Alpha 66, stating that all Martinez, in this matter, he did worked feverishly as a the planned raids for the next not answer Sheldon’s inquiry as propagandist and fundraiser for three to six months would be to why Menoyo had not been Alpha 66. He wrote riveting, called off. The reason given tried as well. Sheldon claimed vivid tales of heroism in raids was that the organization he had boiled this down at the on Castro, despite having taken needed to focus instead on time to a “bureaucratic foul- no active part in the attacks gathering supplies and further up.”54 which they depicted. These training the raiders. When Sheldon also claimed that tales evoke romantic notions Sheldon read this, he was he had read articles when of glory and virtue and, as confused and infuriated. “I he first visited Hato Rey that such, were not intended for the had a lot of equipment that stated Alpha 66 “was under

27 infiltration attack by the CIA just a fund gathering gimmick mailing list. Sheldon had and Castristas.”55 One such for the leadership.”59 Although carefully nurtured a web of article, Sheldon recalled, told it began as an apolitical correspondents throughout how two CIA agents, Walt movement for the liberation his tenure with Alpha 66. Rostow and Richard Goodwin, of Cuba, it had become, He maintained, for instance, travelled with then Vice according to Weyl’s informants, contact with those who wrote President Lyndon Johnson on increasingly “leftwing,” a label him regarding his published his trip to tour Puerto Rico which reeked of maleficence articles. Other correspondents and how Alpha 66 welcomed to Sheldon.60 It was in this included those requesting them and gave them tours of atmosphere that the question of more information on Alpha the boats and their bases in Menoyo’s allegiance surfaced 66, sending money orders and the Bahamas.56 Confronting and Sheldon consequently offering support, and even some the leadership of Alpha 66, discovered the reason for wishing to become active in Sheldon “explained that Cuesta’s abandoning the the military front of the war on Rostow and Goodwin were organization. Furthermore, Castro. Through this mailing highly questionable people and Weyl discovered that Alpha 66 list, Sheldon solicited donations that they could expect a stab in supposedly took credit for some when the need was great and the back at the first opportunity raids performed by L-66, Tony disseminated propaganda. presented,” but the leadership Cuesta’s offshoot group which Sheldon wrote that Alpha 66, assured Sheldon that nothing consequently changed its name in particular, was interested had come of the meeting.57 In to Commandos L to avoid in the fundraising faculty of light of the recent events and further incident.61 Sheldon his employment. However, despite this exchange, however, admitted, around this time, when Sheldon found, in July Sheldon concluded that “with that he felt the Commandos 1963, that Alpha 66 was no the advent of the Second L raid on Isabella de Sagua, longer as virtuous as he had Front, Rostow, and Goodwin, about a week after the Alpha thought, a great portion of things began to come unglued, 66 raid on the same location, his mailing list was useless and the morality of the group was a “far better job.”62 Having because his constituents lost became eroded.”58 researched and conveyed his faith in the cause and Sheldon’s In tandem with findings to Sheldon, Weyl judgment. For his part, Sheldon aforementioned author recommended that Sheldon was sympathetic to these Nathaniel Weyl, Sheldon began transfer his support from Alpha complaints.64 He lamented investigating Alpha 66 for 66 to Commandos L, which this turn of events in a letter sinister elements. He reported remained under the certain in which he wrote, “I must that he, Weyl, and Weyl’s web leadership of Cuesta.63 repay (somehow) all of the of informants found that Alpha The outcome of their contributors that have made 66 had “become so filled with unofficial investigation the effort through my hands. Commies and CIA that it had eviscerated Sheldon’s Then, I must destroy this ground to a halt and become meticulously constructed organization.”65

28 A Pirate’s Life for Me

Sheldon, however, did Brigade served very much the for Cuba, so his support was no not destroy Alpha 66, nor did same function Sheldon had in longer evident when Sheldon he join with Commandos L, his service with Alpha 66. joined.68 as Weyl had recommended. Like Sheldon, Frank The other two chairmen Instead, Weyl put Sheldon in Fiorini, the IAB’s president, of the IAB were the vice contact with Jim Buchanan, a was an ex-Marine who served president, Geraldine Shamma, journalist for the Miami Sun- during World War II. He and the secretary-treasurer, Jim Sentinel and Secretary of the fought in Castro’s revolution Buchanan, aforementioned International Anti-Communist and later served as third-in- journalist for the Sun-Sentinel. Brigade (IAB). Since 1959, command of Castro’s Air They were both U.S.-born, like the IAB had been an active Force until he and Pedro Diaz Fiorini and Sheldon. Shamma, element in anti-communist Lanz, the first-in-command, though, had previously been and anti-Castro efforts but had discovered evidence of the a prisoner in Castro’s Cuba, been deactivated to an auxiliary dictator’s communist leanings. where she was a statistical role under Kennedy’s threats They subsequently left Cuba anomaly as a North American concerning the Neutrality and began waging a campaign woman.69 Shamma had been Acts. In fact, according to against Castro as Menoyo involved with the Revolutionary Sheldon, the Brigade’s head, had done. Sheldon wrote Student Directorate (DRE) in Frank Fiorini, had been one that, in exile, Fiorini and Diaz Cuba during the Revolution. of six Americans who received Lanz threw in their support The DRE was an organization a personally-issued Executive for Evillio Duque, who was which had aimed to overthrow Order to cease and desist responsible for constructing the Batista and had been somewhat in actions against Castro. original Army of the Escambre cooperative with Castro’s rebel Although the Brigade stepped in Central Cuba, an army of army; however, when Castro down actively, they continued to about 1,200 which operated ascended to dictatorship, support other anti-communist in the mountains. Fiorini he ordered that all non- groups, fund speakers, and and Diaz Lanz supplied the members of his rebel army otherwise promote their cause army from the U.S. and flew relinquish their armaments. in any way they could without bombing missions until Castro Some members of the becoming active in the fight.66 invaded the Escambre and DRE, including Shamma, For instance, Sheldon wrote easily wiped out the Army of would not; Castro’s police after his admission into the the Escambre. This was the consequently arrested her and IAB, “We secure boats and beginning of the IAB. While her compatriots on charges planes [and] supply flyers, Fiorini continued to support of “possessing an arsenal.” arms, gasoline and the other the cause, Diaz Lanz eventually Thereafter, Shamma was necessities of war.”67 The drifted away from the struggle sentenced to thirty years in

29 Guanajay Prison.70 Sheldon and financial obligations. An too involved to put on a flag, insisted that Buchanan was artist in his spare time, Sheldon a placard, or to write on a instrumental in her release had begun to sell his artwork wall.”77 He also recommended because he had written several for minimal returns and was that a “quasi-factual” novel be stories on Shamma’s case, forced by his obligations to written about the Brigade, to bringing public attention to Alpha 66 to borrow heavily.74 get the group’s name out and “American Women in Castro His work was, Sheldon boasted, inspire interest. “The book may Prisons.”71 “one of those things of which not completely pay its way,” he On Weyl’s unsung martyrs are made.”75 jested, “but the film rights at recommendation, in September To Sheldon’s delight, several the moment would.”78 Alpha 1963, Sheldon contacted of the members of the IAB’s 66, he clarified, had used all Buchanan and discussed joining constituent body were under of these tactics to great effect the IAB. The board—Fiorini, the same constant test of and speculated that the IAB Shamma, and Buchanan— willpower, financial ingenuity, might benefit similarly. In the conferred and concluded that and patience. In fact, in a same letter, Sheldon warned Sheldon would be offered a letter to Sheldon, Buchanan Buchanan of the apathy of position as Southeastern U.S. mentioned, as if in passing, Americans to matters of anti- chairman. Sheldon readily “I just walked outside and communism, insisting that most accepted the offer.72 “During found that the bank had just supporters would be unwilling the month of September,” repossessed my car.”76 This was to put photos on the new he wrote, “I eased myself out something to which Sheldon identification cards that the of the Alpha 66 group and could certainly relate. IAB was developing.79 Besides, into the IAB.”73 Sheldon was Apart from valuing his he later mentioned, “I’m so content to have joined an position in the IAB, it seems handsome I’m sure death on organization of people just like the group also valued him. fine cameras, y’know.”80 him – U. S. born supporters of Sheldon brought knowledge Together, Sheldon and the revolution against Castro. that he had acquired from the IAB attempted to further For this and other reasons, his work with Alpha 66 to the the cause of anti-communism Sheldon found a new sense of IAB and attempted to apply in whatever way they could. equality and camaraderie in this knowledge in order to Around June 1964, for his interactions with the IAB, better the group and make it instance, the group claimed especially with his economic more viable in the fight against to have located radar gaps background. Unpaid in his Castro and communism. To in South Florida and to have services to Alpha 66, Sheldon this end, he suggested a change petitioned the Department of worked during the day as a of slogan and the adoption Defense to allow the IAB to carpenter for an hourly wage. of a symbol only a couple demonstrate the alleged gaps so His zealous commitment to the months after having become a that they might be fixed. The Cuban cause did not change part of the group. The slogan, department, according to the the fact that he had a family he claimed, “seems a trifle Brigade, refused to investigate

30 A Pirate’s Life for Me these allegations; in fact, there insane and has withdrawn from his decision to become a part seems to be no other record of the world.”83 of the anti-Castro movement such gaps ever being reported. It appears that by 1968 upon his belief, which he On the subject, however, the the IAB was on the way to lamented frequently in his IAB printed in their bulletin the becoming an active fighting correspondence, that those who poignant question, “Remember force again. An incomplete valued freedom ought to resist Pearl Harbor?”81 Also in 1964, letter from a man named the spread of communism. the Brigade funded an art Francisco Quesada, presumably One of the root causes for this exhibit for Guillermo Miguel sent to Sheldon, suggests that belief was that he equated Diaz Lanz. According to the group was attempting communism to slavery. He the IAB, the Castro regime to raise a mercenary army.84 believed, moreover, that the had Guillermo imprisoned Also, Sheldon’s possession of fight against communism in Modello Prison on Pine a “Secret Army Organization was not one that ought to be Island. While incarcerated, Contract” and an equipment fought modestly, but virulently. Guillermo made numerous list of guns, uniforms, food, To this effect, he wrote in an sketches, illustrating what and medicine further advances advertisement, “It is the duty IAB advertisements called this suggestion.85 Both Cubans of every citizen to bear arms the “decline of the human and North Americans seem if necessary to defend his spirit and the degeneration to have constituted, or been freedom [emphasis added].”87 of the mind under prolonged intended to constitute, this This stands in sharp contrast imprisonment by the army. Fiorini suggests this in to what most people would Communist regime in Cuba.”82 a letter to Sheldon in which call, and believe to be, a right Guillermo’s family smuggled he states, “Any American who to bear arms against a foreign forty-three of his sketches from goes, regardless of experience, enemy, yet it is characteristic of Modello Prison and gave them will become an officer.”86 This Sheldon’s zeal in regarding the to the IAB. The IAB, in turn, statement also seems to imply communist problem. smuggled them out of Cuba that Fiorini, and perhaps the Sheldon expected his fellow and into the U.S., where they rest of the IAB, did not trust Americans to express the same were shown in a fundraising Cubans at this point—at least zeal, and he was surprised and national awareness exhibit not enough to put them in and disappointed when he in support of the anti-Castro official positions. Beyond this, found that “the American was movement. The advertisement however, little inference can be not as interested in Freedom for the exhibit claimed, “A made about the state of affairs Fighters as I had thought [he] recently liberated cellmate in the IAB from that time on. would be.”88 To this effect, reports from Miami that From the beginning, he countered the famous Guillermo is now completely Sheldon seems to have founded Kennedy quote by writing in

31 a memorandum released in the demise of the free world. unfortunately for Sheldon, he 1963, “Now is not the time to “In the end,” he wrote, “we are and his compatriots tactlessly ‘ask what you can do for your going to wind up in the middle disposed of their chances, never country’ but for everyman to of our great country, huddled to have another. n do what he thinks he can.”89 about our missiles, whimpering, He feared that, while the ‘It might start a war!’”94 American sat on his hands, the Although Sheldon’s communist was making swift involvement with Alpha 66 progress and would soon be and the IAB was a source of too entrenched in the Western great pride to him, the tangible world to be removed.90 He accomplishments of both expressed this fear in a letter to groups were minimal. Neither supporters which threatened, group is given any serious “The time will shortly come attention in the historical when all of us will wish we had accounts of the Cuban given all that we own, plus all Revolution or its aftermath. that we could borrow, to stop Castro, in fact, is still alive, and the thing that has come upon his brother is now dictator of us.”91 Yet Americans had other Cuba. The causes of these two fears, which Sheldon could group’s failures are various, but not or would not appreciate. a central root of all the causes One of these was the fear of is the unwillingness of these encouraging a nuclear war with “freedom fighters” to study and the Soviet Union—a fear which treat the facts of the Cuban Sheldon countered by arguing situation diplomatically rather that the same danger presented than militarily. They created a itself in the war in Vietnam.92 fantasy world in which direct, Furthermore, he argued that gung ho attacks by a small force the U.S. stance of avoiding upon Castro could win the day escalation was a one-way street without regard for political that the Soviet Union was not tact. Oftentimes, they merely going to travel. He placed the succeeded in undermining the blame for this squarely on more judicious workings of the Khrushchev in emphatically U.S. and allied governments. writing, “KHRUSHCHEV With clearer vision and open- DOESN’T GIVE A DAMN mindedness, one or either of ABOUT ESCALATION.”93 the two groups may have made Sheldon feared that the result a difference in the outcome of these dueling behaviors was of the Cuban Revolution, but

32 A Pirate’s Life for Me

Notes Simon & Schuster, 1992), 170, 290; 3, Container 2, Sheldon Collection; 1 Marifeli Pérez-Stable, The Cuban Gleijeses, 10. Sheldon to Weyl, August 24, 1963, Revolution: Origins, Course, and 8 Gleijeses, 12-13. Folder 10, Container 1, Sheldon Legacy (New York: Oxford Univer- 9 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, Collection, 1. sity Press, Inc., 1993), 6-61. July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 16 Nathaniel Weyl, Red Star over 2 Piero Gleijeses, The Cuban Drum- 1, Sheldon Collection, 1; Antonio Cuba: The Russian Assault on the beat: Castro’s Worldview: Cuban Veciana to Sheldon, December 10, Western Hemisphere (New York: Foreign Policy in a Hostile World 1962, Folder 2, Container 1, Sheldon The Devin-Adair Company, 1960), (London: Seagull Books, 2009), Collection; “A Report on Cuba” by 173. 6-7; Hugh S. Thomas, Georges Sheldon, July 23, 1964, Folder 1, 17 Ibid., 172-173. A. Fauriol, and Juan Carlos Weiss, Container 1, Sheldon Collection, 1. 18 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, The Cuban Revolution: 25 Years 10 Sheldon to The Reader’s Digest, July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container Later (Boulder: Westview Press, Inc., November 24, 1963, Folder 13, Con- 1, Sheldon Collection, 2. 1984), 1; Pérez-Stable, 3, 57; James tainer 1, Sheldon Collection. 19 Alpha 66 Article by Sheldon, G. Blight and Peter Kornbluh, eds., 11 Ibid. April 6, 1963, Folder 6, Container Politics of Illusion: The Bay of Pigs 12 Nathaniel Weyl to Sheldon, Au- 1, Sheldon Collection, 1; Sheldon Invasion Reexamined (Boulder: gust 28, 1963, Folder 10, Container to The Atlanta Constitution, April Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1, Sheldon Collection, 2; “A Report 6, 1963, Folder 6, Container 1, 1998), xiii-xviii, 53. on Cuba” by Sheldon, July 23, 1964, Sheldon Collection. 3 “Communism Is Our Mutual En- Folder 1, Container 1, Sheldon Col- 20 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, emy: Help Us to Fight It” by Alpha lection, 1. July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 66, Folder 1, Container 3, Craig T. 13 Weyl to Sheldon, August 28, 1, Sheldon Collection, 5. Sheldon Anti-Castro Collection, 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- 21 Ibid., 1-3. 1955-1993, Alabama Department of don Collection, 2. 22 Ibid. Archives and History, Montgomery, 14 Alpha 66 Article by Sheldon, 23 Veciana to Sheldon, December Alabama. April 6, 1963, Folder 6, Container 10, 1962, Folder 2, Container 1, 4 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 1, Sheldon Collection, 1; “A Report Sheldon Collection; “A Report on July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, on Cuba” by Sheldon, July 23, 1964, Cuba” by Sheldon, July 23, 1964, Sheldon Collection, 1. Folder 1, Container 1, Sheldon Col- Folder 1, Container 1, Sheldon Col- 5 Hans Tanner, Counter-Revolu- lection, 2; Weyl to Sheldon, August lection, 1. tionary Agent: Diary of the Events 28, 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, 24 Sheldon to D.G.M. Coxe, August Which Occurred in Cuba Between Sheldon Collection, 1-3. 24, 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, January and July, 1961 (London: 15 Alpha 66 Article by Sheldon, Sheldon Collection, 1. G.T. Foulis & Co. Ltd., 1962), xii. April 6, 1963, Folder 6, Container 25 “’Alpha 66’: Freedom Fight- 6 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 1, Sheldon Collection, 1; Weyl to ers for the Americas” Memo by July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, Sheldon, August 28, 1963, Folder Sheldon, January 1963, Folder 3, Sheldon Collection, 1. 10, Container 1, Sheldon Collec- Container 1, Sheldon Collection, 1. 7 Robert Smith Thompson, The tion, 1-2; “Cuban Exile Leader 26 Sheldon to J. Edgar Hoover, Missiles of October: The Declassi- Menoyo: An Enigma in Dark March 2, 1963, Folder 5, Container fied Story of John F. Kennedy and Glasses” Clipping from The Miami 1, Sheldon Collection, 2. the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: Herald, September 15, 1963, Folder 27 “How Close We Came” Article

33 by Sheldon in American Concept, Collection, 6. don Collection, 1. July 1963, Folder 4, Container 3, 43 Joel Kovel, Red Hunting in 56 Ibid., 3. Sheldon Collection, 6. the Promised Land: Anticommu- 57 Sheldon to Coxe, August 24, 28 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, nism and the Making of America 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 87; don Collection, 3. Sheldon Collection, 3-7. Sheldon to Hoover, March 2, 1963, 58 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 29 Ibid. Folder 5, Container 1, Sheldon Col- July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, 30 Thompson, 348. lection, 1. Sheldon Collection, 5. 31 “Exile Leader Laments US 44 Ibid., 5. 59 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, Policy” Clipping in New Hampshire 45 Alpha 66 Report by Sheldon at- July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container Sunday News, April 15, 1963, Folder tached to Hoover Letter, March 16, 1, Sheldon Collection, 4; Weyl to 3, Container 2, Sheldon Collection. 1963, Folder 5, Container 1, Sheldon Sheldon, August 28, 1963, Folder 10, 32 “How Close We Came” Article Collection. Container 1, Sheldon Collection. by Sheldon, April 1963, Folder 5, 46 Sheldon to John McCone, March 60 Weyl to Sheldon, August 28, Container 1, Sheldon Collection. 16, 1963, Folder 5, Container 1, 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- 33 “Kennedy Pledges Support in Sheldon Collection. don Collection, 3. Cuban Overthrow of Castro,” 1963- 47 Sheldon to Coxe, August 24, 61 Weyl to Sheldon, August 28, 1964, Folder 3, Container 2, Sheldon 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- Collection; Sheldon to Hoover, don Collection, 5. don Collection, 3. March 2, 1963, Folder 5, Container 48 “How Close We Came” Article 62 Sheldon to Coxe, August 24, 1, Sheldon Collection, 2. by Sheldon, April 1963, Folder 5, 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- 34 Sheldon to Hoover, March 2, Container 1, Sheldon Collection. don Collection, 3. 1963, Folder 5, Container 1, Sheldon This is only one example. Sheldon 63 Weyl to Sheldon, August 28, Collection, 2. typed much of his correspondence 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- 35 Blight and Kornbluh, eds., 170. on this flyer paper, during his tenure don Collection, 4. 36 Ibid. with Alpha 66. 64 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 37 Ibid., 170-171. 49 “How Close We Came” Article July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, 38 Sheldon to Hoover, March 2, by Sheldon, April 1963, Folder 5, Sheldon Collection, 3. 1963, Folder 5, Container 1, Sheldon Container 1, Sheldon Collection. 65 Sheldon to Coxe, August 24, Collection, 4; “Lee Harvey Oswald 50 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- Visits Spring Hill” Article in Mobile July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, don Collection. Bay Monthly, Vol. VIII, 8 (Sept. Sheldon Collection, 4. 66 Weyl to Sheldon, August 19, 1993), Folder 5, Container 2, Shel- 51 Ibid. 1963, Folder 7, Container 1, Sheldon don Collection, 24. 52 Ibid. Collection, 1; “A Report on Cuba” 39 Sheldon to Hoover, March 2, 53 Sheldon to Alpha 66 Con- by Sheldon, July 23, 1964, Folder 1963, Folder 5, Container 1, Sheldon tributors, April 13, 1963, Folder 6, 1, Container 1, Sheldon Collection, Collection, 4. Container 1, Sheldon Collection; 5-7; Jim Buchanan to Sheldon, Oc- 40 Veciana to Sheldon, December Sheldon to Coxe, August 24, 1963, tober 16, 1963, Folder 11, Container 10, 1962, Folder 2, Container 1, Folder 10, Container 1, Sheldon 1; “The Story Behind the Interna- Sheldon Collection; Gleijeses, 7-8. Collection, 2. tional Anti-Communist Brigade,” 41 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 54 Sheldon to Coxe, August 24, Folder 9, Container 2, Sheldon July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- Collection. Sheldon Collection, 2-3. don Collection, 2. 67 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 42 Sheldon to Hoover, March 2, 55 Sheldon to Coxe, August 24, July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, 1963, Folder 5, Container 1, Sheldon 1963, Folder 10, Container 1, Shel- Sheldon Collection, 7.

34 A Pirate’s Life for Me

68 “Alexander Rorke, Jr.” Article, 27, 1963, Folder 13, Container 1, Sheldon Collection, 3. Folder 11, Container 2, Sheldon Col- Sheldon Collection, 2. 89 “’Alpha 66’: Freedom Fighters for lection; Julia E. Sweig, Inside the Cu- 76 Buchanan to Sheldon, April 1, the Americas” Memo by Sheldon, ban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the 1964, Folder 14, Container 1, Shel- January 1963, Folder 3, Container 1, Urban Underground (Cambridge: don Collection. Sheldon Collection. Harvard University Press, 2002), 77 Sheldon to Buchanan, November 90 “Exile Leader Laments US Poli- 103; Weyl, 150; Edwin Tetlow, Eye 10, 1963, Folder 13, Container 1, cy” Clipping from New Hampshire on Cuba (New York: Harcourt, Sheldon Collection, 2. Sunday News, April 15, 1963, Folder Brace & World, Inc., 1966), 74-78; 78 Ibid., 3. 3, Container 2, Sheldon Collection. “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 79 Sheldon to Buchanan, November 91 Sheldon to Alpha 66 Contribu- July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, 10, 1963, Folder 13, Container 1, tors, April 15, 1963, Folder 6, Con- Sheldon Collection, 5-7; Buchanan Sheldon Collection, 2. tainer 1, Sheldon Collection. to Sheldon, September 12, 1963, 80 Sheldon to Buchanan, October 92 “How Close We Came” Article Folder 11, Container 1, Sheldon 29, 1963, Folder 11, Container 1, by Sheldon, April 1963, Folder 5, Collection, 2. Sheldon Collection. Container 1, Sheldon Collection. 69 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 81 The International Anti-Com- 93 “Is Escalation a Hoax?” by July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, munist Brigade Bulletin, no. 7, June Sheldon, Folder 15, Container 2, Sheldon Collection, 5. 8, 1964, Folder 10, Container 2, Sheldon Collection, 3. 70 Pérez-Stable, 56-58, 78; Buchan- Sheldon Collection. 94 “Exile Leader Laments US Poli- an to Sheldon, October 16, 1963, 82 “Art of a Prisoner” Ad, 1964, cy” Clipping from New Hampshire Folder 11, Container 1, Sheldon Folder 15, Container 2, Sheldon Sunday News, April 15, 1963, Folder Collection; Ian Michael James, Collection. 3, Container 2, Sheldon Collection. Ninety Miles: Cuban Journeys in the 83 “Art of a Prisoner” Ad, 1964, Age of Castro (Lanham, Maryland: Folder 15, Container 2, Sheldon Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Collection. Inc., 2006), 9. 84 Letter from Francisco Quesada, 71 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, Folder 18, Container 1, Sheldon July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, Collection, 2. Sheldon Collection, 5. 85 Secret Army Organization 72 Buchanan to Sheldon, October Contract, Folder 18, Container 1, 23, 1963, Folder 11, Container 1, Sheldon Collection; Equipment List, Sheldon Collection. Folder 18, Container 1, Sheldon 73 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, Collection. July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1, 86 Frank Fiorini to Sheldon, 1968, Sheldon Collection, 5. Folder 18, Container 1, Sheldon 74 Sheldon to Hoover, March 2, Collection. 1963, Folder 5, Container 1, Sheldon 87 “Greetings from Alpha 66” Ad Collection; Speech by Sheldon, by Sheldon, April 1963, Folder 7, Folder 13, Container 1, Sheldon Container 1, Sheldon Collection. Collection, 4. 88 “A Report on Cuba” by Sheldon, 75 Sheldon to D.E. Greer, November July 23, 1964, Folder 1, Container 1,

35 36 AUM Historical Review

History professor Dr. Wyatt What was your high school Jennifer Kellum Wells joined the AUM faculty like? in 1997. Born and raised in It was an all-boys prep Nashville, Tennessee, Dr. Wells school called Montgomery Bell was a history enthusiast from Academy. The more distance the start. He received his B.A. I’ve gotten from it, the better from Vanderbilt University in I’ve thought of it. There was a terrific emphasis on self- discipline and accomplishment, and a good deal of pressure. When you’re under that pressure you don’t necessarily like it. Particularly since I was a student in the 70s and the very early 80s, which was very much a do-your-own-thing as a matter of principle, not just do-your-own-thing because it’s a do-your-own-thing era. There was always some feeling of rebellion.

Do you think you found 1986 and his M.A. and Ph.D. a good balance between from the University of North the pressure of walking a Carolina at Chapel Hill in straight line and that rebel- 1988 and 1992, respectively. lion? He has authored several articles Yeah. I’m not an actual and books on economic his- rebel (laughs). tory, including Economist in an Uncertain World: Arthur F. Burns How did your family and and the Federal Reserve, and also friends react to your choice served as the assistant editor of of major? the Andrew Jackson Papers at the They’ve always been okay University of Tennessee. with it. My father was a doctor, A Conversation with A Conversation Wells Dr.Wyatt

37 but he was also an academic— sort of pushed me onto some- Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal he taught at a medical school thing that was entirely different. was that it at least began the and was a full-time faculty What is it about economics process of fully integrating Jews member—so he understood. that interested you? and Catholics into American There’s always a concern about It’s intellectually challeng- society. We focus with good whether you can find a job ing trying to sort it all out but reason on race, but the truth is doing this. There’s never any there is this wonderful irony; that there was a lot of ethnic problem with history as an un- it’s an area where people think and religious discrimination dergraduate major because you they know exactly what they’re then too. The bigger project is can decide to go into law school doing and exactly what will a history of the 1890s and the or go into business. Going happen and as often as not, great populist revolt and politi- to graduate school in history they’re just dead wrong. cal upheaval of the 1890s -- the however the question is: “What very complicated financial op- can you do? Can you get a job What do you think has erations. What they’re arguing doing this?” been your most significant about is finance: “What should professional accomplish- be the basis of the currency? Did you know what you ment? How should we stabilize the wanted to do? We’d all like to say our government’s finances?” I think I think I did. I think I books, but we’re never quite we need a history that puts all wanted to teach in life, to be sure how many people read of this financial stuff front and a historian and a writer. I was them. I think when you add it center. always interested in this. up over time, it’s the students. Over ten years you could eas- Why do you think someone What’s a tough assignment ily teach a thousand students. should major in history? you remember from your Even if they’re not historians Almost all our knowledge college career? and you’re not the chief influ- in the beginning is history, I wrote a big senior thesis ence in their life, there’s still a that’s where it all begins. So- on the politics of Richard part of their mind you shaped ciologists or economists, they Nixon and the South. I had and had a hand in. start off with all of this histori- no idea what I was getting into cal data and then they come up and I had never done anything What are you working on with theories. You could almost remotely like it before, so there now? say that there are two sorts of was a lot of making it up as I I have a smaller project knowledge, historical knowl- went along. I was fortunate to and a larger project. The edge and literary knowledge, have a very good and very tol- smaller project is about ethnic and so history is sort of the erant advisor. I can remember minorities in the New Deal. beginning of figuring out what getting things that clearly were I think one of the greatly we know. It’s not the end of it, not right, and he very gently overlooked accomplishments of but it’s where you start.

38 AUM Historical Review

arm, in the sixth grade, I was What’s a significant his- playing football, and that was Do you have a specialty torical or political event the end of my football career, dish you like to cook? you’ve experienced in your which was fine by me. I never I haven’t made it in a lifetime? was made for football, either while, but I used to make a Part of the problem, and psychologically or physically, really good cheese pudding. It this is one of the fun things but I did get to go to the emer- looks sort of like a soufflé, but about of being a historian, is gency room wearing football it’s very cheesy. that a lot of what seems trau- pads. matic at the time, we all forget. Do you watch TV? However, the things that you Any phobias? A little, but more out of the don’t pay attention to, in the I don’t like high places, but corner of my eye. The thing long run, take on substantial “phobia” may be too strong my wife and I follow right now significance. A lot of the eco- of a word. If I’m in a high is Castle. It’s in many ways a nomic reforms of the Reagan open place—I’m uneasy. And tongue-in-cheek cop show and administration, particularly the strangely enough if I’m playing it’s very entertaining. And we’re regulatory stuff like breaking a video game where you have slowly making our way through up AT&T, were significant. We to jump over something high, I The Sopranos. have multiple phone com- can feel this tension. It’s not like panies, even though they’re I can’t play the game or I’m in If you could possess one narrowing down now, but lots a cold sweat, but it is fascinat- superhuman power, what of companies came along and ing. would it be? offered cell phones. Whether You’re talking to someone that would have happened with What’s your gaming plat- who read comic books a lot! I AT&T, with one big company, form? What kind of games like the power of Cyclops of I don’t know. It made a huge do you play? the X-Men where you get to difference in our daily lives. I play on the PS3. I like zap stuff. I’m not quite sure games that mix action with what I would zap, but I think Have you ever had any bro- thinking. Right now I’m playing if people knew you could zap ken bones? the new Deus Ex game where them, they would be a lot easier In second grade, I broke you alternate between figuring to deal with. n my right arm, and in sixth out things, how to get out of grade, my left arm. In the sec- a situation and the occasional ond grade, I was playing; they fire-fight where you just blow were building somewhere and things up and get rid of your I fell off a pile of dirt. The left frustrations.

39 40 AUM Historical Review

The United States the National Association for Elizabeth Elder established its policy of the Advancement of Colored separate but equal institutions People (NAACP) and countries 2 with the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson around the world. This decision. In that ruling, the negative image motivated the Supreme Court stated that United States to take an active 3 the law, or the application role in desegregation. In 1954, of it, could not correct the the Court, under Judge Earl Warren, reversed the legal acceptance of separate but equal educational institutions with the decision made in the collection of cases known as Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The Court found that the segregation of American schools was unconstitutional.4 However, in the first year after Brown v. Board, the southern portion of the country made no recognizable improvements on the issue.5 The Court

Albert Boutwell (center) served recognized that the South as Chairman of the Alabama would experience a more Interim Legislative Committee on Segregation in the Public difficult time adhering to the Schools and was later elected Lieutenant Governor, as seen in decision and, in fact, many this photograph at the inaugura- southern states experienced tion of Governor John Patterson (left). harmful regression.6 In (Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, Alabama) 1955, the Court revisited engrained social inferiority Brown v. Board and ordered of African-American that “all provisions of citizens.1 The continued legal federal, state, or local law segregation of society damaged requiring or permitting such America’s international discrimination must yield to 7 image, a fact recognized by this principle.” Unfortunately, Brown v. Board v. Brown Initial Reaction Alabama’s

41 the 1955 opinion still made State Senators J. Miller Bonner rested on the final findings no requirements as to how and Herbert Byars as well as of the committee and the or when desegregation must State Representatives Robert G. recommendations of Governor occur, which gave Alabama Kendall, Jr., Ira D. Pruitt, and Gordon Persons.14 the opportunity to study Jack C. Gallalee.11 The AILCSPS formally desegregation before deciding Although the committee met in July 1954, and created upon a course of action.8 formed in 1953, it had eight possible constitutional Consequently, politicians and not formally met before amendments.15 Released educational leaders capitalized the announcement of the to explain its findings, the on fear and engrained social Court’s decision in Brown v. committee’s October 1954 attitudes in order to persuade Board. Immediately after the report suggested that violent citizens to disregard their right declaration, stories concerned protests and disruptions would to public education. with desegregation flooded occur along with desegregation Before the Court the Montgomery Advertiser’s and repeatedly stated that announced the Brown v. front page. Most of the stories “compulsory integration” Board decision, the Alabama cited the lack of established would cause schools to legislature initiated an timelines and initiation plans operate in two conflicting investigation into the effects in the Court’s final opinion, functions, as educational desegregation could have and noted that it would only institutions and “correctional on Alabama schools and the apply to the states specifically programs.”16 Furthermore, citizenry as a whole. During involved in the original cases.12 the new functions of the the 1953 legislative session, In addition, suggestions of schools would hinder teacher the Alabama Legislature different possible ways to fight recruitment. The committee created the Alabama Interim desegregation inundated the feared that Caucasian teachers, Legislative Committee on Montgomery Advertiser. Among who were already in short Segregation in the Public the suggestions were multiple supply, would be unwilling Schools (AILCSPS) to study the private school plans, specialized to join a desegregated school possible consequences of forced zoning restrictions, powerful system.17 Not addressed by the desegregation in Alabama.9 local school boards, and the committee were the threats to The committee, chaired by complete equalization of African-American teachers. State Senator Albert Boutwell, separate school facilities.13 The However, African- American who would later be referred articles also acknowledged teachers who relocated to to as “ultra liberal” by violent the amount of pressure and predominately-Caucasian segregationists in Birmingham, dependency placed on the schools anticipated unjust met shortly after the committee. Attorney General dismissal because of their race. announcement of the Court’s Si Garrett and Senator John 18 ruling.10 The other members J. Sparkman both stated that While the possibility of of the committee were fellow any legal or political action scaring away new teachers

42 Brown v. Board was serious, the committee arrangements could fall committee embraced the belief focused more on the immediate through.20 that members of both races threats to the already fragile In the case of the children, had the capacity to become relationship between citizens of there was a clear consensus that belligerent and violent in the different races. The committee desegregation would initially wake of desegregation and outlined a series of possible hurt young African-American proposed that even those societal conflicts that might students.21 There would be, at sworn to uphold the laws follow a forced integration of minimum, a “sharp disclosure” would become victims of the public schools, insisting that of the differences in scholastic the overwhelming forces of there was a “basic harmony” aptitude between the races. 22 hatred. These forces could between the races and that no The committee failed to realize cause “peace officers” and “dormant attitude of hostility” that the threat of significant other elected persons to deny existed.19 Consequently, the differences in students’ and, in some cases, become committee predicted that aptitudes damaged its claim unable to perform the duties a forced integration of the that segregated schools were entrusted to them by their schools would cause a rise already equal. If the schools offices.24 Noncompliant parents in incidents of employment, were truly equal, there would also concerned the committee, housing, and business be no dramatic difference in and it cited proposals from discrimination between parents students’ intelligence. The the state of Delaware in of different races. Caucasian disparity would surely cause which nonconforming employers could refuse to hire psychological damage to the parents would be subject to an African-American parent if African-American children’s prosecution for disobeying that meant the parent would already fragile minds. However, the tenets of desegregation.25 then be able to send their child the physical separation of the These proposals illustrated to a predominately-Caucasian races also produced profound the extremes of desegregation school. Similarly, Caucasian psychological damage in young policies and served to remind realtors and homeowners African-American students. the legislature that southern would be less likely to accept Psychologists and sociologists and northern states held an African-American family found that segregation caused different historical standings into a neighborhood attached the development of feelings of on race relations. Reforms, to a desegregated school inferiority, stating that some like those suggested in system. Regarding business African-American students Delaware, were “intolerable discrimination, the committee’s even idolized their Caucasian and impossible” for Alabama’s explanation was vague, counterparts.23 citizens and could not be stating that various business Regarding resistance, the regarded as plausible in any

43 plan for Alabama.26 districts, pursuant to the any school official or employee After considering these constitution as heretofore throughout Alabama.30 issues—teacher recruitment, amended, for public school With this addition, the the effect on children, and purposes, shall be applied to committee ensured that all discrimination—the committee the support and furtherance of legally responsible parties would chose to amend eight sections education.29 have adequate representation of the state constitution that This passage indicated a if prosecuted for either concerned education. Five of stark difference in connotation enforcing segregation or not the amendments dealt with between the terms “public enforcing desegregation. In various means of funding public schools” and “education.” Section 139, the committee education, while the other The changes also revealed the suggested modifications to give three gave the legislature more committee’s true intent to allow those same legally responsible abilities to fight desegregation. the abandonment of the public parties new power as judicial The modifications in all of school system in Alabama. officers. The committee the sections dealt with a Two other sections to believed that the state should few particular words. For which the committee proposed “provide that all action example, the original language alterations were Articles 5 and taken by them…requiring of Sections 258, 259, 260, 6 of the constitution, dealing the exercise of discretion or 269, and 270 allocated funds with the executive and judicial judgment in connection with from various sources to the departments respectively. In school matters be judicial “maintenance,” “support,” or Section 137, the committee action.”31 This alteration “benefit” of “public schools.”27 added language that required would give unprecedented The new draft directed the the Attorney General to defend legal power to those who had funding for the blanketed cases pertaining to education. previously wielded only a small “furtherance of education.”28 Specifically the changes called amount while also decreasing This subtle rewording nullified on the Attorney General to accountability for school the state’s requirement to [d]efend any or all suits officials. maintain and fund a healthy brought against the state, or The last amended section public school system. The any subdivision thereof, or would comply with the Brown changes to Section 260 against any state school board v. Board decision and formally especially noted the objective of or state board of education, abolish the right to public all of the amendments: or against any county or city education in Alabama. Section all proceeds of income school board or board of 256 originally required the state or other taxes levied by the education, or against like boards to maintain an educational state, and of all special ad or commissions by whatever institution for all children valorem or other taxes levied name designated, or against any between the ages of seven and by the counties and other members, officers or employees twenty-one provided there was municipalities, or school of any such boards, or against no mixing of the races within

44 Brown v. Board the schools.32 Considering that progress one year after Brown retirements in case the schools this particular portion was v. Board claimed that the closed.38 now federally unconstitutional, amendments had done just Even though the the committee suggested that that and “pave[d] the way for committee prepared for the new version declare the abolition of public education repercussions to its suggestions, state’s responsibility to “foster in the state.”35 Moreover, the the state government did not and promote the education committee’s report suggested fear the 1954 ruling because of its citizens,” adding that abolition as a “final resort” to the inconsistencies between “nothing in this Constitution nullify the Supreme Court’s the ruling and its application shall be construed as creating decision. This facet of the allowed the state to delay all or recognizing any right to report was important because official actions. While the education or training at public many believed that southern surrounding states immediately expense.”33 These words, states would discard the public asked legislative bodies to find above all others, struck the school system altogether. a proper course to avoid the requirement for segregated Former Chief Justice Fred ruling, Alabama waited until schools, completely nullified Vinson struggled with this fear the “final decree” came down any right to education, and during the original presentation in 1955.39 Other southern allowed for the possibility of of Brown v. Board.36 Vinson’s states quickly implemented a total elimination of a public worries never fully materialized constitutional changes, but school structure of any kind in in the state of Alabama, Alabama lawmakers only Alabama. even though Sam Englehardt seriously considered the matter Although the committee (committee member J. Miller after the announcement of described its proposed Bonner’s son-in-law) pushed the second Brown v. Board amendments as “essential” for the privatization of ruling, delaying voting on any to acquire the legislative education prior to the ruling, constitutional amendments flexibility needed to control and revisions of the private until the federal government desegregation, it misrepresented school plan were already in issued its last word on the the consequences of the process in order to apply it in subject. Ultimately, the state amendments by specifically Alabama. The private school depended on the committee’s rejecting the idea that the plans aimed to disband all suggestions. recommendations “call[ed] for public schools and allocate While the committee [the] abolition or abandonment “public funds to finance private presented the possible of the public school system.”34 institutions of learning.”37 consequences of the Brown However, a comprehensive Finally, the committee discussed v. Board decision, the politics study on southern states’ contingency plans for teachers’ of Alabama’s educational

45 system slowly shifted. The the section of the national particular bylaw. This schism National Congress of Parents policy urging members to between the National Congress and Teachers issued its newly support integration. The and the Alabama branch adopted policy dealing with modified policy would declare signified a greater division Brown v. Board at its directors’ that states should “study and between national and state meeting in Atlantic City on pursue effective means of politics. The northern portion May 22, 1954. Its policy constructively solving the of the country was beginning to “urge[d] parent-teacher problems resulting from the oppose segregation and racial leaders, in cooperation with Supreme Court’s decision.”43 inequality, while the southern schools and other governmental This change in wording portion entrenched itself even authorities in each community, would release the Alabama further.46 to study and pursue effective branch from the earlier A micro example of the means in working toward recommendation by the division between national and integrated education for all National Congress to support state views presented itself in children.”40 The Alabama integration in its schools. Montgomery County. The Congress of Parents and Additionally, the Alabama Parent-Teacher Associations Teachers, a subsidiary of Congress speculated that (PTAs) of Catoma and the national organization, advocating integration violated Cloverdale both operated in requested clarification on the the National Congress’s own Montgomery, less than fifteen policy in March 1956.41 After policies. The Alabama branch miles away from each other, receiving the policy from Mrs. stated that the National and both organizations joined Rollin Brown, then president Congress had long been an the National Congress and the of the National Congress, opponent of federal control of Montgomery County Council the directors of the Alabama the public school system and of Parents and Teachers. Congress convened to adopt its that the insistence to comply Despite the obvious similarities, own policy on segregation and with Brown v. Board conflicted in August 1956 the Cloverdale a firm position on theBrown v. entirely with this view.44 It also PTA unanimously decided to Board decision. cited the National Congress’s continue its affiliation with the On September 13, own bylaws, which declared, National Congress, while the 1956, the directors of the “[I]ts local units and its Catoma PTA unanimously Alabama Congress met in branches shall not seek to direct recommended that its members Birmingham and decided on the administrative activities break away from the national a resolution to the conflict of the schools or to control chapter to form another that was now developing their policies.”45 The Alabama group.47 between the National Congress Congress felt that by adhering Another prominent and the Alabama branch.42 to the National Congress’s organization, the Alabama The Alabama Congress policy on desegregation, Education Association (AEA), requested modifications to it would be breaking that a large advocacy group for

46 Brown v. Board teachers, issued its opinion on for each race” and effectively Montgomery Advertiser quoted the desegregation of Alabama void the Court’s decision, the many members of the local public schools in March 1956. AEA suggested that every police who claimed that while It described Brown v. Board as a voter carefully consider the there were many shoppers in means for “Federal Control of amendments proposed by the area, the scene did not public education by court order the AILCSPS.51 The AEA receive a great amount of without Federal Aid,” which presented the amendments in a attention. The group behind starkly contrasted with its earlier way that allowed its constituents the demonstration claimed desire for the opposite. 48 The to view the exact changes to the to have the support of the AEA also mocked the Supreme constitution, pending approval Committee on the Preservation Court, saying that the justices later that year in August. The of Segregation (COPS). Among did not even fully understand AEA also recognized that the those involved were Jack D. the Tenth Amendment of the amendment to Section 256 Brock, publisher of the Alabama United States Constitution would abolish the right to a Labor News, and Eugene S. Hall, that dealt with states’ rights.49 state-funded education for director of the Montgomery In support of segregation, citizens, but did not attempt White Citizens Council. Both the AEA argued that the state to persuade its members to men were printers for the of Alabama was developing accept or deny this provision.52 Montgomery Advertiser. Brock equal educational institutions Overall, it seemed that the stated that COPS asked him and, beyond that, the state had AEA did not fully support the to help with the demonstration facilitated the ability for many committee’s recommendations, and he printed an open African-American students to but was willing to do anything invitation to the event on the seek higher education outside in its power to impede front page of the Alabama Labor of Alabama through various desegregation in Alabama. News. Hall claimed that while scholarships. The AEA further Other groups also members of the Montgomery blamed the Supreme Court for developed strong opinions White Citizens Council were helping disband the “friendliest about the amendments. involved, it did not initiate the race relationships in the For example, opponents event.53 world.”50 to integration staged a The proposed amendments Although the AEA demonstration in Court Square received a lot of support in expressed opposition to the in August 1956 where they Alabama, but also elicited Supreme Court as a whole, hung renderings representing some resistance. One notable it especially disapproved of an African-American NAACP instance of opposition was desegregating Alabama schools. member and a Caucasian the wavering position of State In order to “improve education integration supporter. The School Superintendent Dr.

47 Austin R. Meadows, who the few voices of opposition and the state believed it had vowed in his campaign to were not enough to stop the nullified the Court’s decision, “find a legal way to maintain committee’s plan from reaching the amendments ultimately segregated schools.”54 The the ballot. failed to stop desegregation, Montgomery Advertiser quoted After consolidation, the which prompted research Meadows frequently as an recommended amendments into race relations.63 Between opponent to the amendments. became the “Freedom of 1963 and 1982, sociological Unfortunately, the quotes were Choice” bill. The State researchers at the University not from any interview with Legislature presented the of Alabama polled ten percent Meadows, but instead the amendment to Alabama voters of the Caucasian population claims about his opposition on the August 28, 1956 ballot.58 about their relationships and surfaced from letters he wrote Even though the amendment feelings towards African- to city and county school had far-reaching consequences, American students and officials. The Montgomery expectations for participation workers. The report concluded Advertiser described Meadows’ remained low and many that over time race relations opposition as extremely counties reported low voter in Alabama progressively vigorous towards the section turnout. Montgomery County improved in most aspects. that would abandon the state’s served as a great example of Caucasian students reported requirement to maintain a low voter turnout as only one- feeling more comfortable in public school system.55 third of those registered voted.59 social situations with African However, Meadows The “Freedom of Choice” Americans, but personal repeatedly denied that he ever bill, however, passed with an and romantic relationships disapproved of the plan.56 In incredibly high margin despite still lacked acceptance. This addition to Meadows, Ace the low participation rate.60 All study exhibited how attitudes Carter, leader of the North of the counties in the southern adapted over time and Alabama Citizens Council, and central portions of the illustrated that the integration and many Protestant ministers state, except Macon County, of society would have taken publicly condemned the which received a large amount much longer without the Brown amendments. The ministers of African-American voters, v. Board decision.64 had a particularly difficult strongly approved the bill. Before Brown v. Board, problem with the plan, as they North Alabama, however, was the federal government believed it would interfere with not as clear on the issue and desegregated its workers; the separation of church and only two counties—Madison however, it did not provide an state by forcing integration and Marshall—approved the adequate model of success for on religious institutions.57 amendment.61 Nevertheless, the states to follow. The lack of an Regardless of the limited ratio of approving votes was too appropriate model combined opposition, citizens supported high to stop the bill. 62 with inherited ideas about race the recommendations and Even though the bill passed relations, severely damaged

48 Brown v. Board the possibility for immediate Notes Court Under Earl Warren, 1953- desegregation in Alabama.65 1 Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 1969 (Columbia, S.C.: University Beyond that, the state deferred (1896). of South Carolina Press, 2004), 2, 2 Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War 25, 46. Belknap cites numerous oc- to the AILSCPS on the issue Civil Rights: Race and the Image of casion when the Justice Department and its plan reshaped the American Democracy (Princeton, involved itself in cases dealing with constitution. Consequently, N.J.: Princeton University Press, segregation and civil rights by filing citizens in Alabama forfeited 2000), 18-46, 12-13. Dudziak cites amicus curiae briefs on behalf of their right to public education numerous international articles that the defendants. These briefs were and created the opportunity contained information about pro- prepared using the latest psychologi- for the state to discontinue vocative examples of racial discrimi- cal and sociological studies. nation in the United States against 4 Brown v. Board of Education, 347 funding for public schools. citizens and diplomatic visitors. U.S. 483 (1954); Belknap, 35, 49. Collectively, the divisions The countries listed include China, The “separate but equal” doctrine within Alabama, engrained Japan, India, Greece, Jamaica, and was only reversed in schools. social attitudes concerning the United Kingdom, among others; 5 Lewis W. Jones, “Desegregation of segregation, and the ability of Ibid., 36-37. Dudziak specifically Public Education in Alabama,” Jour- organizations to manipulate refers to internal race relations as nal of Negro Education 24, no. 3 the public created problematic America’s “Achilles Heel,” quoting (1955): 165. Jones outlined the series an article in a conservative Greek of events that had taken place not constitutional changes for newspaper; Mary L. Dudziak, long after the decision. In the outline future generations. If nothing “Brown as a Cold War Case,” The he compared incidents occuring in else compels the state to revise Journal of American History 91, no. Alabama to those in the surrounding its constitution, the threat that 1 (2004): 36. states. citizens may never recover 3 Azza Salama Layton, International 6 Belknap, 29, 39-40. Belknap the right to public education Politics and Civil Rights Policies specifically referred to the notion should. n in the United States, 1941-1960 that desegregation would demand (Cambridge: Cambridge University “a radical transfomation of southern Press, 2000), 107-139. Layton points school systems.” out that the State Department began 7 Brown v. Board of Education, 349 providing legal help in cases that U.S. 294 (1955). involved racial issues. She also clari- 8 Belknap, 41, 48; Keith M. Finley, fies the United Nation’s position that Delaying the Dream: Southern the US had essentially violated the Senators and the Fight against Civil tenants of Articles 55 and 56 of the Rights, 1938-1965 (Baton Rouge: United Nations Charter with its ra- Louisiana State University Press, cially discriminatory practices. These 2008), 138; Gerry Lee, “School De- two points exemplify the interna- cree No Burden On U.S. Judges In tional pressure for policy change and Alabama,” Montgomery Advertiser, America’s response to that pressure; June 1, 1955. Michal R. Belknap, The Supreme 9 Geoffrey Birt, “Governor Plans No

49 Special Call of Legislature,” Mont- the conclusions of the committee. islative Committee on Segregation in gomery Advertiser, May 18, 1954; The phrase “correctional programs” the Public Schools,” 11. “Report of Alabama Interim Leg- is quoted because an acceptable 34 Ibid., 2, 6, 7. islative Committee on Segregation synonym could not be found. The 35 Jones, 167. in the Public Schools,” 1, Auburn terms “prison” and “detention facil- 36 Belknap, 26. University Montgomery Archives ity” seemed too strong to accurately 37 Jones, 167; Thomas, “State Has & Special Collections, Otis James convey the committee’s meaning. Time To Revise Segregated School Goodwyn Papers, Box 3, Education- 17 Ibid., 4. System”; Birt, “Governor Plans No General #162. 18 Willard E. Gandy, “Implications Special Call of Legislature.” 10 “Birmingham Bulletin,” Auburn of Integration for the Southern 38 “Report of Alabama Interim University Montgomery Archives Teacher,” Journal of Negro Educa- Legislative Committee on Segrega- & Special Collections, ACPTA tion 31, no. 2 (1962): 195. tion in the Public Schools,” 9. “The (Alabama Congress of Parent and 19 “Report of Alabama Interim Leg- protection of rights of tenure and of Teacher Association) Papers, Box 14, islative Committee on Segregation in the retirement system for teachers Integration, 1963-64 #6. the Public Schools,” 2. who might be affected by discontinu- 11 “Report of Alabama Interim 20 Ibid., 3. ance of schools or otherwise, and Legislative Committee on Segrega- 21 Belknap, 27, 35. like problems, can be solved without tion in the Public Schools,” 9; Birt, 22 “Report of Alabama Interim material difficulty.” “Governor Plans No Special Call of Legislative Committee on Segrega- 39 Jones, 169. Jones cites constitu- Legislature.” tion in the Public Schools,” 3. The tional changes in South Carolina, 12 Birt, “Governor Plans No Special phrase “sharp disclosure” is quoted Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana; Call of Legislature”; “Alabama De- to emphasize the conclusions of the Birt, “Governor Plans No Special laying Any Legal Steps On School committee. Call of Legislature.” Ruling,” Montgomery Advertiser, 23 Belknap, 27, 35. In the case 40 Letter from Mrs. Rollin Brown May 19, 1954; Rex Thomas, “State arguments, many psychological and to Mrs. Clyde C. Sellers, March 27, Has Time To Revise Segregated sociological studies are cited that 1956, Auburn University Montgom- School System,” Montgomery Ad- state segregation had already had a ery Archives & Special Collections, vertiser, May 23, 1954. profound impact on African Ameri- ACPTA, Box 14, Subject Files #6. 13 Trudy Cargile, “Sparks Asserts can students. 41 Letter from Mrs. Rollin Brown Supreme Court Crucified Dixie,” 24 “Report of Alabama Interim Leg- to Mrs. Clyde C. Sellers, March 27, Montgomery Advertiser, May 20, islative Committee on Segregation in 1956. 1954; Thomas, “State Has Time To the Public Schools,” 4. 42 Letter from Board of Managers Revise Segregated School System”; 25 Ibid., 3-4. of the Alabama Congress of Parents “Culp Opposed To End Of Ban On 26 Ibid., 4. and Teachers to the Executive Com- Segregation,” Montgomery Adver- 27 Alabama Constitution, art. 14, mittee of the National Congress of tiser, May 19, 1954. sec. 258, 259, 260, 269, and 270. Parents and Teachers, September 14, 14 Birt, “Governor Plans No Special 28 “Report of Alabama Interim Leg- 1956, Auburn University Montgom- Call of Legislature”; “Alabama De- islative Committee on Segregation in ery Archives & Special Collections, laying Any Legal Steps On School the Public Schools,” 10-12. ACPTA, Box 14, Subject Files #6. Ruling.” 29 Ibid., 12. “Unrest and grave concern have 15 “Report of Alabama Interim Leg- 30 Ibid., 10. been growing throughout the State islative Committee on Segregation in 31 Ibid. of Alabama since the Board of the Public Schools,” 1. 32 Alabama Constitution, art. 14, Managers of the National Congress 16 Ibid., 5. The phrase “compulsory sec. 256. of Parents and Teachers issued integration” is quoted to emphasize 33 “Report of Alabama Interim Leg- the statement re: Supreme Court

50 Brown v. Board decision in 1954. Within the past Group Votes To Stay With National Move To Hike Tax.” few weeks, several local units have Group,” Montgomery Advertiser, 58 Bob Ingram, “Amendment rejected membership in the National August 28, 1956. Among Six On Ballot,” Montgom- Congress.” 48 “Where Are We in Public ery Advertiser, August 28 1956. 43 Letter from Board of Managers Education in Alabama,” Address 59 Steve Lesher, “Light County Vote of the Alabama Congress of Parents to Alabama Education Associa- Okays Segregation Amendments,” and Teachers to the Executive Com- tion, March 22, 1956, 2, Auburn Montgomery Advertiser, August 29, mittee of the National Congress of University Montgomery Archives 1956. Parents and Teachers, September & Special Collections, Otis James 60 Ingram, “Poll Discloses ‘Choice’ 14, 1956. Goodwyn Papers, Box 3, Education- Bill Likely To Pass”; Lesher, “Light 44 “Statement of Position in Answer General #162, “Up until a few years County Vote Okays Segregation to Issue of Segregation,” April 25, ago many of us were urging Federal Amendments”; Ingram, “2-1 Margin 1956, Auburn University Montgom- Aid to public schools without Federal Blocks Move To Hike Tax.” ery Archives & Special Collections, Control.” 61 Ingram, “2-1 Margin Blocks ACPTA, Box 14, Subject Files #6. 49 Ibid. The address states, “educa- Move To Hike Tax.” “It has been a long established policy tors are supposed to have taught the 62 Ingram, “Poll Discloses ‘Choice’ of the National Congress of Parents nine judges that the Tenth Amend- Bill Likely To Pass”; Alabama Con- and Teachers to insist upon state ment makes education in America a stitution, amend. 111. and local control of education and State function….The U.S. Constitu- 63 Ingram, “Amendment Among Six to oppose any encroachment by the tion nowhere provides for the Fed- On Ballot.” Ingram quoted support- Federal Government upon the ad- eral Government to operate public ers from the Alabama Bar Asso- ministration, supervision or control schools. We educators thought that ciation. They almost unanimously of schools.” A printed copy of this we could read and we still think so.” agreed that the “choice” bill was the statement was given to all the del- 50 Ibid. “The nine U.S. Supreme best plan that had been devised at egates present at the April 26, 1956 Judges are leading us to dissolution that time. Alabama convention and members in this State where we have for sev- 64 Donal E. Muir and C. Donald of the press before being sent to the eral years enjoyed the friendliest race Mc Glamery, “Trends in Integration National Congress. relationships in the world.” Attitudes on a Deep-South Campus 45 “Statement of Position in Answer 51 Ibid. During the First Two Decades of to Issue of Segregation,” April 25, 52 Ibid. Desegregation,” Social Forces 62, no. 1956. 53 “Integration Opponents Hang 2 4 (1984): 965. 46 Belknap, 25. Belknap states, Effigies In Court Square,” Mont- 65 “Report of Alabama Interim Leg- “Outside the South the climate of gomery Advertiser, August 5, 1956. islative Committee on Segregation in opinion was increasingly inhospitable 54 Jones, 166. the Public Schools,” 4. to segregation,” and that “America’s 55 Bob Ingram, “2-1 Margin Blocks version of apartheid” was “oppresive Move To Hike Tax,” Montgomery and incompatible with democracy.” Advertiser, August 29, 1956. 47 “Catoma P-TA Urges Members 56 Bob Ingram, “Poll Discloses To Form Independent Group,” ‘Choice’ Bill Likely To Pass,” Mont- Montgomery Advertiser, August 30, gomery Advertiser, August 8, 1956. 1956; Jim Hall, “Cloverdale P-TA 57 Ingram, “2-1 Margin Blocks

51 Contributors GRAYDON RUST is currently goal. During his time at AUM, he has in her second year as a history major a junior in the History Department at won several awards including the Fair- at AUM. She has managed to do very AUM. Although he has always been Robinson Scholarship in 2008-2009 well for herself, winning both the Van- interested in history, it was not until and the Dodd Southern History Paper ity Tags merit scholarship for 2011- taking Dr. Fitzsimmons’ history class Prize in 2009-2010. After graduation, 2012 and the History Department’s his first year that he decided to pursue Tracy plans to pursue an M.A. and Patricia J. Bradley Memorial scholar- his Bachelor’s in the subject. During possibly a Ph.D. in history so that he ship in the spring of 2011. If she could his time here, Graydon has received can one day share his passion for his- live anywhere in the world, Jennifer several scholarships and awards, tory with others. says she would like to live in Portland, including the Academic Excellence Oregon because “it’s one of those few Scholarship for 2008-2012 and the LANDON LEDBETTER of cities that seems to strike a balance Fair-Robinson Scholarship for 2011. Montgomery, Alabama is a 2011 grad- between the diversity of a big city and Along with his academic pursuits, he is uate of AUM’s History Department. the feel of a small town.” also extremely involved on campus, be- While completing his degree, he not ing a member of the School of Liberal only obtained a minor in philosophy, ELIZABETH ELDER is a Arts Representatives (SchOLARs), Phi but also participated in Theater AUM senior at AUM majoring in secondary Alpha Theta, College Bowl, as well and the Way Off Broadway Theater in education with a subject concentration as President of the University Honors Prattville. Even with his busy schedule, in history. Not only has she done well Assembly. Outside of school, Graydon he was able to win several awards, academically and achieved a books also works part-time at the Department including the Durr Lecture Series Es- scholarship from AUM, she also par- of Archives and History as a student say Competition and the Dr. Richard ticipates in the Charitable Fundraising clerk inside the Research Room. After Evans Morse Memorial History Prize, Program, which provides hundreds of he graduates, Graydon plans to go on both in 2011. Now that he has gradu- thousands of dollars to schools and or- to graduate school and pursue a Ph.D. ated, Landon is currently pursuing a ganizations across the Southeast every in history, so one day he can become a career in video game design, with the year. After she graduates, Elizabeth history professor and inspire others the intention of attaining a doctorate later plans to return to AUM as a graduate way his professors have inspired him. in life. student in order to prepare herself for a full-time teaching position, ideally ALLISON HAMILTON is a Originally from San Diego, Cali- at an institution that encourages its senior history major from Montgom- fornia, JENNIFER KELLUM moved faculty to continue learning. ery, Alabama and a founding editor of to the South in 2003 and is currently the AUM Historical Review. During her time at AUM, she has won the Academic Excellence Scholarship for 2008-2012, the Patricia J. Bradley CALL FOR PAPERS Memorial Scholarship in the spring of We are looking for history-oriented papers for future 2010, and the Dodd Southern History publication in the AUM Historical Review, a student-run journal Paper Prize in the spring of 2011. After sponsored by the Department of History at she graduates, Allison plans to get a Auburn University at Montgomery. taste for the cultures of the world by traveling to and working in as many Submissions may include: countries as she possibly can. Papers on World History, United States History, or Alabama History – Movie and Documentary Reviews – Book Reviews – Articles on Historic TRACY WILSON is a senior Sites – Oral Histories – Interviews – and more. history major from Titus, Alabama and one of the founding editors of the We are interested in publishing the work of students at AUM, AUM Historical Review. His interest regardless of major or classification. in history was sparked by a desire to learn more about the contributions To contribute a work, or for more information, please contact that African Americans made in the [email protected]. development of the United States and he has worked hard to achieve this