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Uni International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8526219
McGary, Rudyard Keith
A RHEtORICAL ANALYSIS OF ADVERTISING APPEALS FOR PERSONAL COMPUTERS, 1977-1983
The Ohio State University Ph.D. 1985
University Microfilms
International300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
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University Microfilms International A RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF ADVERTISING APPEALS
FOR PERSONAL COMPUTERS, 1977-1983
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of the Ohio State University
By
Rudyard Keith McGary, B. Mus., M.Mus.
*******
The Ohio State University
1985
Reading Committee: Approved By
Dr. Goodwin Berquist
Dr. Joseph Foley
Dr. James Golden Dr. Got» RUDYARD KEITH McGARY All Rights Reserved VITA October 8, 1944...... Born, Greenwich, Ct. 1966 ...... B.Mus. Indiana University 1966-67 ...... Teaching Asst. Indiana University 196 7...... M. Mus. Indiana University 1967-69 ...... RCA Records, N.Y. A & R 1969...... Lecturer, University of Iowa, Music Theory 1971...... Asst to Charles Bruck, Paris ORTF Orchestra 1974...... President, Grands Vins Inc, Columbus, Ohio 1979...... Lecturer, Ohio State University, Marketing 1978-85...... President, Management Assessment and Programs Fields of Study Major Field: Public Address and Rhetoric Studies in Telecommunication Studies in Interpersonal Communication Studies in Music Theory Studies in •Music Literature Studies in Orchestral Conducting ii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Proofs used in appeals, by year...... 181 2. Proofs used in appeals, by company and year... 185 3. Topoi used in appeals, by year...... 194 4. Topoi used in appeals, by company and year.... 197 5. Number of new appeals listed by company...... 205 6. Relationship of proof and topoi, by company and year...... 206 7. Relationship of proof and topoi, by year...... 221 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page VITA...... ii LIST OF TABLES...... iii CHAPTER I. Introduction...... 1 Nature and Importance of Problem...... 3 Research Questions...... 7 Methodology...... 9 Prior Research...... 16 Limitations and Assumptions...... 21 Contribution to Knowledge...... 23 Preview...... 24 End Notes...... 26 II. Literature Search...... 28 Rhetorical Considerations...... 29 Modern Views of Aristotelian Theory...... 30 Overviews of Rhetorical Concerns...... 34 The Enthymeme...... 42 Proofs...... 44 Topoi...... 45 Invention...... 46 Persuasion...... 48 Technology and the Personal Computer 53 Societal and Philosophical Issues...... 54 Historical Computer Literature...... 61 Application Literature...... 63 Society and the Computer...... 64 Communication Journals on Computers...... 67 Innovations...... 69 End Notes...... 75 III. The Analytical Model...... 82 Proofs...... 84 Ethos...... 86 Pathos...... 90 Logos...... 9 3 Technos...... 94 Enthymeme...... 98 Topoi...... 99 Audience Adaptation...... 101 Summary...... 108 End Notes...... 110 iv IV. Data Decisions and Methods of Collection.. 112 Question One...... 112 Question Two...... 115 Question Three...... 130 Methods of Collecting Data...... 133 End Notes...... 144 V. Operationalization of Terms and Data Analysis...... 145 Technos...... 145 Pathos...... 151 Logos...... 154 Ethos...... 155 Compatibility...... 157 Relative Advantage...... 158 Complexity...... 160 Observability and Trialability...... 161 Research Questions...... 163 Question 1...... 163 Question II...... 171 Question III...... 173 Question IV...... 174 Question V ...... 176 Question VI...... 178 Table 1...... 181 Table 2...... 185 Table 3...... 194 Table 4...... 197 Table 5 ...... 205 Table 6..... 208 Table 7...... 221 VI. Summary, Conclusions, and Suggested Study...... 226 Summary...... 226 Conclusions...... 230 Suggested Further Study...... 237 APPEMDIX A ...... 242 LIST OF ADVERTISING...... 277 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 288 v Chapter I: Introduction It is like a fugue, a combination of voices that are heard and understood both in their linear singularity and in the harmony of all as they blend together to make a statement. New technologies require appeals both in the singularity of individual providers as well the harmony of their many appeals. The use of rhetorical appeals for new technologies is woven into our consciousness constantly as a variety of media sources inform us of the new and interesting, as well as the new and mundane. But as with a fugue, only voices that are interesting are remembered. And only certain voices become important enough to be the leaders in the time frame in which new technology is offered to the public. It is these voices, as well as the way in which they frame their appeals, that is the subject of this dissertation. If rhetoric is to be a studied as a means of communication in a modern context, the artifacts of those times can be examined to discover the ways in which persuasive communicationmolds around societal changes and is used by various segments of the populace to move others to action. In a capitalist society the 1. 2. vending and buying of goods and services becomes a part of the definition of the society. And in some cases the goods to be vended become a part of the change seen in the society. In order for the vendors to "move" their goods they must appeal to the public. These appeals must move the public to the decision to exchange capital for goods and services in order for the vendors to survive in the marketplace. Failure to do so will result in the failure of the product or service itself. The ways in which these vendors frame their appeals marks a part of the rhetorical action that is a fact of contemporary life. One of the manifestations of the rhetorical communication of our society can be seen in the advertising appeals done for a new technology, the personal computer. It is a new configuration of technology spun off from an older. Inclusion of the older mainframe systems within the social interactions of our lives gave the public the knowledge of the power of the computer. In addition, the mainframe technology prepared the way for the technologies involved in the personal computer as well as being a base of organizational usage which was the forerunner of private usage. The personal computer has become something more than the mainframe. The public can own their own 3. technology. The technology can be completely controlled by the individual. Personal computers are just that, personal possessions. In order for this technology to make its way into our collective consciousness, it is necessary that the companies manufacturing the technology make appeals to the public. It is this process that is examined in this dissertation. Nature and Importance of Problem The nature of the problem to be examined in this dissertation is the way in which personal computer companies organize their appeals in order to attract consumers to their new technology. In order for a personal technology to be assimilated by the public, the companies with the technology must make rhetorical appeals that are effective in persuading the public to buy them. The audience for personal computer technology is significantly different from that sought by the mainframe companies, changing from the organization technical expert to the individual consumer. Even in those cases where the personal computer is purchased for organizational use, the buyers are not generally as technically qualified as the buyers for mainframe. (Survey conducted for American Business Equipment, 1984) The key to the nature of this problem is that the 5. the importance of the study, the technology under examination, the personal computer, is of major interest in the print and electronic mass media. There are several manifestations of this interest in the personal computer and it is to these that we turn next. The importance of the personal computer in our society is documented in many different ways. From a general perspective the featuring of the technology by the two best read general news publications gives some indication of the importance attached to the buying and using of the personal computer. Newsweek was the first of the two to feature the personal computer as its cover story, doing so in its February 22, 1982 issue. Titled "Home is Where the Computer is," the cover story indicated the growth of use of the personal computer and the ways in which the general public was now integrating the technology into their home lives. Time magazine, in the January 3, 1983 issue, made the personal computer its "Machine (Man) of the Year." In all previous years the Man of the Year was a renowned newsmaker. The break with this indicates the enormous importance the staff at Time placed upon the new machine. Duringits existence Time could have placed the television, laser, atomic energy, the rocket, and other major technolgies on their cover. The personal 6. computer was the first to be so chosen. Yankelovich, Skelly, and White conducted a survey for the Time issue on personal computers. It indicated that nearly 80% of Americans expected that in the near future home computers would be as "commonplace as television sets or dishwashers." (p. 14) The respondents believed (67%) that the computer revolution would raise production and living standards and some 68% felt that it would improve the quality of their childrens' education, (p. 14) Jean-Jacque Servan-Schreiber suggested in the Time article that the computer revolution is, "the source of new life that has been delivered to us." (p. 14) Hyperbolic or not, Servan-Schrieber's comments reveal both the intellectual interest and the possible promise that new telecommunication technologies offer. The intellectual interest in new telecommunication technologies have been with us since the beginning of the electronic communication systems. In "Telegraphs and Progress-The Cause," published in volume 52 of Littel's Living Age in 1857, the author suggests that the telegraph has specific uses in the commercial, scientific, and literary areas. (p. 57) The unnamed author suggests that the speed of transmission is the factor that has the greatest value to the user. The author further suggests that the commercial and scientific areas would be the first to avail themselves of the new telegraphic technology, followed by the uses for the literary world. There are several analogs between the telegraph and the computer. First, the message must be coded before it can be useful within the context of the technology. Second, the technology is not controlled by the end user. This second analog is clear in the context of the mainframe computer. Finally, the commercial and scientific uses are explored first, before artistic or educational uses. This last analog has been true for many of the new communication technologies. They become important within the context of a business or scientific framework. (For scientific one might want to read military.) The importance of new telecommunication technolgies which are introduced to the public can be seen both in an historical perspective and in the modern publications that give the general public information concerning the use of the personal computer and the ways in which it impacts us all. Research Questions The major question to be examined in this dissertation is, "What are the rhetorical methods used by personal computer companies to attract the consumer 8. to their products?" This question will be the basis for the following, all of which are intended to give answers relevant to it. The second question is, "What kind of trends can be observed in the rhetorical appeals which give insight into the growth of the personal computer industry as well as specific companies within that industry?" It is suggested that by analyzing the appeals that certain rhetorical patterns will emerge, giving a clear picture of the rhetorical actions of the companies as they begin to introduce their products. A third question to be answered is, "What type of model can be constructed, based on prior rhetorical theory, that will reveal patterns of the personal computer rhetorical appeals?" This will be discussed further within the methodology section of this first chapter. "What modifications need to be made in extant rhetorical models which will sufficiently change the proposed model in order that it will be useful in examining the appeals?" becomes the fourth question. This is slightly different from question three in that the focus is on the changes necessary rather than the choice of prior rhetorical models. A fifth question is, "Will there be audience adaptation of the appeals based on the media in which 9. they are presented?" This deals with examination of personal computer appeals in various types of publications. Finally, "How can the findings of this research be generalized to other communication technologies in ways that will help reveal rhetorical strategies used by companies vending these other technolgies?" Methodology The research questions listed above guide the choice of methodology for this dissertation. In Critical Understanding, Booth suggests three major methodological options, pluralism, monism, and eclecticism. The basis of monism is, "one view will prove to be right and all others wrong." (Booth, p. 12) If one looks at modern rhetorical issues with a monistic screen, it becomes difficult, if not impossible, to find one single critical methodology which will answer questions posed about the wide variety of current rhetorical concerns. Booth writes, "It is naive to expect any one book, any one critic, any one mode, to be fully sound or fully mistaken...monism is clearly absurd." (Booth, p. 21) The pluralistic school accepts wide varieties of methodology, with each of them an acceptable way of 10. discovering answers to questions posed in research and criticism. "If it were the only alternative to imposing a single voice on all critics, our choice would be clear: rather Babel than a passive monotony." (Booth, p. 5) In Booth's lexicon however pluralism is not the only alternative to monism. Booth's third option, eclecticism, will be the one which is the basis for the methodology of this dissertation. Within this concept one chooses useful parts of various theories to construct a critical framework and model. The two principal theories to be used are those of Aristotle and Rogers & Shoemaker. The dissertation is thus given a methodological and theoretical base which takes a part of the classical heritage of rhetorical theory and combines this with a modern theory of diffusion of innovations. The choices implicit in this eclectic approach are discussed below. Wayne Brockriede, in "Toward a Contemporary Aristotelian Theory of Rhetoric," suggests that "although the Aristotelian theory itself should be modified or discarded, the Aristotelian approach to the theory may be applied profitably in the modification of the replacement." (Brockriede, p. 34) In this article Brockriede makes four claims. First, the essence of Aristotelian study of rhetoric is the empirical description of rhetorical situations and the 11. philosophical construction of an appropriate system of principles. Second, a modern application of such an approach should describe twentieth century situations. Third, a theory derived from the new description should be dynamic and comprehensive, and fourth, achieving a modern theory of rhetoric would yield advantages for the teacher, critic, and researcher. Beginning with Brockriede1s first argument, one can suggest that the categories of logos, pathos, and ethos be further expanded for use in analyzing modern technologies such as the rhetoric of computer appeals. One of the major theoretical concepts proposed in this dissertaion is the inclusion of a fourth proof, that of technos. Technos is a coined word derived from the Greek techne, meaning art or skill. The root word has been incorporated into modern English with "technology” as its basic form. Technos will be defined as a proof used in the rhetorical communication within those areas of technology and science which have become a major part of modern existence. In some cases enthymematic arguments concerning science have as their base the current modern faith in technology as a way of achieving ends heretofore not possible. It is this kind of proof which will expand the theoretical base. Technos has part of the other proofs within its scope but is a modern proof dependent upon technological 12. advances within society for its effectiveness. The rhetoric of scientific and technological appeals derive their persuasiveness in part from the historical advances made in the past centuries that have become an accepted part of our culture. This societal attention to and acceptance of new technologies becomes the basis for proofs which depend on technical superiority as the source of their persuasiveness. Rhetorical appeals made for certain types of technology do not question the need for technology nor even the side effects which the technology might inadvertently cause to happen. Rather the appeals feature the technology itself without recourse to other classical proofs and the appeals use a proof which is in constant use within our modern society. Technos becomes the defining term for this particular type of proof. It will be further operationalized within the data analysis chapter of this dissertation. The second area of concern to Brockriede is clearly covered in this type of dissertation. The examination of a modern technology with an empirically based method expands the use of the Aristotelian model, placing it in a modern rather than classical context. The use of this method in the context of computer rhetoric also answers the need for a dynamic type of rhetorical examination. The theory proposed is comprehensive inasmuch as it 13. can be used for examination of the rhetoric of current technologies as well as the rhetoric of technologies already in current use. In addition, the theory would be dynamic since it could be used to analyze the rhetorical appeals of modern technologies as they are introduced to the public. Finally, teachers, critics, and researchers would be aided because the use of the new theory could be helpful to all three in various ways. To the teacher it offers a new perspective helpful in explaining rhetorical appeals in boththe past and present. It might give insights that would further explain the use of rhetoric to students who live in a world in which rhetorical appeals for new technologies are common. The critic could use the theory in examinations of spoken and written rhetorical appeals for new technologies. The researcher might find the concepts useful in framing additional research projects, some of which are described in the suggestions for further study listed in this dissertation. The use of certain parts of the Aristotelian model of rhetoric would be the focus of the methodology. In particular the proofs and topoi from that model would be used in this dissertation. The question of proofs, in particular the concept of a new inartistic proof, technos, is one which is dealt with in chapter four. 14. However, while Aristotelian concepts are a major source of the model used in this dissertation, the topoi come from a major modern theory. The topoi used within this model come from Rogers and Shoemaker's Communication of Innovations. The five topoi coming from that work are: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability, and trialability. (Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 137) These will be linked to the proofs suggested in chapter three to give an overall model which is one based on expanded Aristotelian concepts with terminology based on Rogers and Shoemaker. The topoi will thus be taken from a modern theoretical base, combining this with an Aristotelian framework of explication. While the model used for examination of the data will be an eclectic one, this assumes conscious omission of other major theoretical foci. Among contemporary theoretical foci considered were those of Burke, Bormann, Perelman, and Toulmin. The reasons for their exclusion in this dissertation are given below. The Burkean approach has appeal, particularly using the concept of identification as a starting point for examining the materials. However, once having established the concept of identification as a bench mark, the question of operationalizing it becomes one in which the Aristotelian approach seems to offer greater 15. heuristic value. The question to be answered is that of how the companies structure their rhetorical appeals to identify with the potential consumers. By using an eclectic approach with Aristotelian rubrics as its base one focuses on the source, making it a theory which could be used in conjunction with the concept of identification, but not necessarily a theory dependent upon other Burkean concepts. A second approach examined was that of Bormann's fantasy-theme analysis. This model is rich in theoretical underpinnings and has a wide range of applications concerning rhetoric in society. The focus on a single technology and the audience for that technology negates its used in this dissertation. The Bormann approachseems more adapted to a sweeping concept than an emprical analysis would demand. The use of a Toulminian approach to the data was also explored. The model of argumentation proposed by Toulmin has several interesting facets that could be used in examination of rhetorical appeals on behalf of personal computer companies. However, an explanation of a new proof, which would be within the data section of his primary triad, seems to be better done in the context of the proposed framework. While all of the above theories can be useful in detemining how computer companies use rhetorical 16. appeals, an eclectic approach to rhetorical critcism based on Aristotelian principles is the best for examination of trixs specific topic, as well as one which may yield new theoretical concepts. Prior Research Before beginning the research for this dissertation, a search was done of prior dissertations to determine if there had been any writing in the specific topic area. Based on a topic search in the Comprehensive Dissertation Index (CDI passim,)there have been no dissertations published on this topic. First, the personal computer, (passim pc) is a relatively new technology and as such the likelihood of the topic being explored is small. Second, the use of an eclectic model with a neo-Aristotelian base to analyze the rhetorical appeals for personal computers has not been done. This is not to say that tangential topics have not been explored in prior dissertations. Certain of the dissertations cited in the CDI are salient to the specific issues within the present writing. The CDI was searched back through the year 1978 using a key word methodology. (This was not done mechanically, but manually.) Those key words are; advertising, communication, diffusion, computer, 17. rhetoric, and marketing. While many dissertations cited have titles indicating relationships with the topic proposed, further research showed that they were only minimally involved in examination of the issues which are the focus of this dissertation. There are four dissertations which bear on the topic. The first is Media Selection and Advertisement Scheduling Strategy by Ramalya Balachandra. ( CDI 1978, p. 60) While not directly concerned with technology or computers, this dissertation gives an excellent overview of the types of media used in campaigns and the efficiency of each of them. Variables such as market competition, pricing, and types of scheduling of advertising are examined in this dissertation. A second dissertation which has impact on the personal computer and advertising topic was authored by Ronald Lynn. It is entitled An Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Advertisement Structure, Message Sidedness, and Test Results on Selected Communication Variables . ( CDI 1979, p. 73) Specifically, this dissertation investigates the impact on readers of 1. comparative vs. non-comparative advertisements, 2. one-sided vs. two-sided messages, 3. product performance test results versus no product performance test results, and 4. variations in the differentiality of the test results. The dependent 18. variables were the reader's 1. perceived informativeness of the advertisement, 2. awareness of product features, 3. confidence in product claims, and 4. perceived credibility of the advertiser. While the research in this dissertation reveals certain patterns which are salient to the issue of new technology, it is a general dissertation. It also uses a taxonomy which would not be the same as that of a dissertation based on rhetorical theory. A third dissertation is that of William Bolton of OSU. Perception and Potential Adoption of Channel Implications for Diffusion Theory and Videotex Technology deals with dissimination of computerized information into the home via interactive home information services. ( CPI 1982, p. 484) This dissertation, using the diffusion theory model, suggests that perceived benefits of a new technology are instrumental in the adoption of the technology. The fourth dissertation of interest was that of Larry Newman. In The Effect of Communication Channels on Consumers' Responses to Advertising Newman suggests that attitudes of consumers are the most positive when the message is received through either audio or print media. ( CPI 1982, p. 68) The audiovisual medium is not a channel that has high positive reaction from the consumer when tested for attitude variables. 19. Newman's dissertation indicates that the study of print media as the focal point of this current dissertation has validity in terms of consumer attitudes towards advertising media. Another area researched was that of communication literature via major journals in the discipline. There were two instances of articles dealing with computers. Both could be found in the Journal of Communication which had a series of articles in volume 31, pp. 131-195, (1981) collectively entitled "The Information Society." The second collection is found in volume 33:1, pp. 92-173, (1983) with the collective title being "Computers, Education, and Public Policy." Individual citations will be found in chapter two. The Quarterly Journal of Speech, Communication Monographs, Human Communication Research as well as the regional journals had no articles concerning personal computers and persuasive appeals as researched back to 1977. There are, however, other articles in these journals relevant to the literature survey for this dissertation and these will be discussed in the literature chapter following. The question of strict neo-Aristotelian criticism is well covered in various forms in literature. Thonssen, Baird, and Braden's Speech Criticism focuses 20. on the neo-Aristotelian approach and gives a working philosophy for use with the method. Brock and Scott, in Methods of Rhetorical Criticism: A Twentieth Century Perspective, give a working explanation of what they title the "traditional approach" (Brock & Scott, p. 29 ff) as well as a section titled " The Eclectic Approach" (Brock & Scott, p. 147 ff). James Andrews, in The Practice of Rhetorical Criticism, also outlnes basic tenets of the neo-Aristotelian position. Brockriede's article discusses issues involved in the application of Aristotelian principles to modern rhetorical questions. All of these resources are basic texts concerned with the classical approach. Brock & Scott futher define both the classic approaches and the eclectic approach as well. In addition to academic publications there is a wide collection of literature found in personal computer magazines. Four which have articles salient to this dissertation and which will be a part of the focus of the dissertation are Byte, Computers and Electronics, Interface Age, and Personal Computing. There will be an extensive search of articles in these magazines concerning introduction of new products by companies to be researched in this proposed dissertation. One other area is that of popular books on the area of personal computing. One such book is Fire in the 21. Valley by Freiberger and Swain. This book gives an anecdotal history of the personal computer industry as seen in Silicon Valley in California. There are now some fifteen books published each month on various facets of personal computing and these will be part of a literature search within the dissertation. While not intended as a complete literature search, these basic articles, dissertations, magazines, and books indicate a large literature base to be explored in the preparation of the dissertation. These and other bases of literature will be further explicated in chapter two. Limitations and Assumptions The data collected will come from eight magazines dating from January 1977 through December 1983. This period is chosen because the pc's were first offered as assembled technology in late 1977 and the ending date gives a working frame of reference for the study. The eight magazines will be divided into three categories; news magazines, personal computer magazines, and business magazines. The news magazines will be Time and Newsweek. These are chosen because they represent the two highest circulation magazines available which 21. include computer advertising in their content. ( World Almanac 1984, p. 427) The personal computer magazines will be Byte, Personal Computing, Computers and Electronics, and Interface Age. These were chosen because they are the major circulation magazines concerned with personal computing and also because they date back to 1977. ( World Almanac, 1984, p. 427) The business magazines to be examined are Business Week, and Fortune, chosen because they are the two largest business magazines in terms of circulation. ( World Alamanac, 1984, p. 427) An explanation of the final choices of magazines can be seen in the third chapter of this dissertation. Certain magazines were excluded because their examination failed to add significant data. There will be five companies chosen for analysis of their rhetorical appeals. They are: IBM, Apple, Radio Shack, Commodore, and ComputerLand. Specific reasons for the choices of each of these companies will be provided in the third chapter. The research will cover the years 1977 through 1983. The reason for choosing this period is the fact that pc's were not sold in assembled form before 1977. Three of the five companies listed, Apple, Radio Shack, and ComputerLand, began to use rhetorical appeals in print media in 1977. Commodore began in 1978 while IBM 22. entered the market in 1981. The ending date of 1983 was chosen for ease of handling the data. The research will not deal with a history of the various computer companies, although in the cases where certain historical facts help to explain the rhetorical appeals offered by the companies, the reasons for these appeals will be examined. The research done for this dissertation is limited to personal computers for several reasons. First, the mainframe computer is not a technology available to a general audience, limiting the types of appeals that are done on its behalf. Second, by choosing the personal computer one can find the earliest attempts at rhetorical appeals of a new technology and trace them as they go from the enthusiast and hobbyist publications into the general audience publications. Finally, personal computers were chosen because of their current visability for the general public. While mainframe computers are used in many areas of our lives, the personal computer is a technology about which articles are written and appeals made in great numbers. It is a technology that has changed the way in which the public perceives computers and the enormous interest in personal computers was unmatched in the mainframe area. There are a wide variey of companies which have entered the personal computer market. This dissertation 23. will not attempt to deal with data from the industry as a whole but rather will focus only on the companies listed above. The assumption implicit in the choices listed above is that they will give data which reveal patterns of advertising for personal computers which is representative of the personal computer industry as a whole. A second assumption made is that the rhetorical appeals done in print media are a part of the reason for the success or longevity of personal computer companies but certainly not the entire reason. Contribution to Knowledge There are two possible areas of contribution to knowledge within the framework of this dissertation. The first is the data collected which will shed light on the primary research question. The fact that personal computer technology is still in its early stages means that this data will be collected for the first time, giving a basis for the prerent analysis as well as future work on this topic. The second area of contribution is that of a new methodology, drawing from both classical and modern communication theory to give a new working tool for scholars. The inclusion of a new type of rhetorical 24. proof is an example of the expansion of theory for use in a new methodology...one, it is hoped, that will help to give insights into both the examination of current and future technologies as well as those past communication technologies that affect society at the present time. Preview The dissertation will be divided into six chapters. The first gives the major research questions to be answered in the writing, the methodology to be used, the nature and importance of the topic, and the contributions to knowledge expected from the completion of the dissertation. The second chapter will be the literature search. There will be two broad areas covered within this chapter. First, . the area of rhetoric and society as these relate to the new inartistic proof, technos, will be examined. Various philosophers and communication scholars will be cited to make the argument that the concept of this proof has a strong base in previous writings. The second broad area covered in the second chapter will be that of books on technology in the generic and the personal computer in the specific. This section 25. will be the basis for the examination of both technical and societal issues concerning the personal computer. In addition, questions concerning the beginnings of the personal computer industry will be examined through the use of the major writings on the computer and the personal computer. The third chapter will be the model to be used for examination of the data. This chapter will give the theoretical underpinnings found on the new model and the rationale for its construction. The fourth chapter will discuss the decisions made on the data appropriate for the dissertation as well as the methods of collection used for the data so chosen. The fifth chapter will be the data analysis. This chapter will operationalize terms used in analysis, present the data collected during the research, and apply the model to these data based on the research questions found in the first chapter. The sixth and final chapter will be the summary of the data. In addition conclusions drawn from the research will be discussed. Finally, suggestions for further study will be considered in the last section of this dissertation. 26. End Notes Andrews, James. The Practice of Rhetorical Criticism. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1983. Bitzer, Lloyd, & Black, Edwin. The Prospect of Rhetoric. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971 Booth, Wayne. Critical Understanding. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979. Brock, Bernard, & Scott, Robert. Methods of Rhetorical Criticism. Detroit:Wayne State University Press, 1980. Brockriede, Wayne. Dimensions of the Concept of Rhetoric. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1968, 54:1, 1-12. Brockriede, Wayne. Toward a Contemporary Aristotelian Theory of Rhetoric. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1966, 52:1, 32-46. Rogers, Everett, & Shoemaker, Floyd. Communication of Innovations. New York: The Free Press, 1971. Simons, Herbert. Persuasion: Understanding, Practice and Analysis. Menlo Park, Ca: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1976. Telegraphs and Progress-The Cause. Littel's Living Age. Vol 52, 1857. Thonssen, Lester, Baird, A. Craig, & Braden, Waldo. Speech Criticism, Malabar, Florida: Robert Krieger Publishing Company, 1981. Chapter II:Literature Search Literature Search Aristotle defines rhetoric as the art of discovering all available means of persuasion in a given case. Not the art of persuading, but the art of discovering. In searching literature salient to this dissertation it becomes clear that a major issue is the means of discovering persuasive materials. By using the word "discovering," Aristotle clearly places the act in the mode of entities extant waiting to be found. However, in a revised model of the Aristotelian concept, one must also look at societal forces as places where arguments, or commonplaces, may be discovered. The concept of technos is found, not in a single place, but in society as a whole. In order to make this argument, literature has been searched in two distinct areas. First, the question of a definition of rhetoric in its various parts must be examined. The artistic proofs, the topoi, audience adaptation, and definitions of rhetoric are included in this examination which will be the first section of the present chapter. A second base of literature is that of technology 28. 29. and the personal computer. An examination of technology in the generic is a basis for the major argument of this dissertation. An examination of computers with a major focus on personal computers becomes the model with which the argument shall be made. In this chapter the literature searched includes technology issues, macro issues concerning computers, and the personal computer itself, an offshoot of mainframe technology. In order to arrive at the point where one can propose a theory concerning the rhetoric of computers and technology, it is necessary to find a starting point in rhetorical theory. The first section of this chapter will assess some of the theoretical writings which are salient to this endeavor. The second section will address specific computer and technology issues. Rhetorical Considerations The Aristotelian concept of rhetoric is still a subject of much learned debate. When attempting to posit a new theory of rhetoric it seems that much argument goes into explaining how the new theory differs from Aristotelian precepts. Burke, Toulmin, Perelman, Weaver and other major international writers all bow in the direction of Aristotle when making their arguments. The question of what rhetoric is and how it functions is 30. both interesting and continuous. To understand why these persons must still look to theory that is two millenia old to differentiate their new ones, we can examine some of the basic issues surrounding Aristotelian rhetoric through the writings of modern scholars. The work about which most of the modern writing centers is the keystone of the rhetorical arch, The Rhetor ic of Aristotle. Coupled with Poetics, Posterior Analytics, and Topica, the Rhetoric has within it a basis for examination of rhetoric, not only for the classical world, but also for modern study. In The Rhetoric of Western Thought a chapter entitled "The Scientific Approach of Aristotle," outlines the various major parts of Aristotelian rhetorical theory. The major parts of the theory are the five canons; invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and memory; the forms of proof; the topoi or major themes of argument; and audience adaptation. Although the division into five canons is first articulated in Roman times, the five divisions are clearly implicit in the Rhetor ic. Modern Views of Aristotelian Theory To jump from the beginnings to modern times the literature search began with the writings of James 31. Winans, specifically Public Speaking. Winans proposes, after an examination of the importance of public speaking in this society, that the speaker has four purposes; to interest, to make clear, to induce belief, and to influence conduct. (Winans, Chapter III, p. 63-88) As with many modern writers, (see Perelman) Winans suggests that the conviction-persuasion duality holds although suggesting that at times this distincton might be blurred. (Winans, pp. 249-251) Winans' contributions continued in the form of a series of essays written by others in his honor in Studies in Rhetoric and Public Speaking in Honor of James Albert Winans. In this series of essays two stand out which have affected rhetorical theory. One is Wichelns1 "The Literary Criticism of Oratory," in which Wichelns suggests several points concerning rhetoric and criticism. Wichelns suggests a tripartite division; biographical, biographical and literary, and oratorical productions. A second major contribution within Wichelns' essay concerns the notion of "effect." He suggests that rhetorical criticism is concerned with effect rather than with permanence or beauty. (Wicheln's in Brock & Scott, p 67) This concept has remained in much of the literature concerning literary criticism to this day. In particular a student of Wicheln's, Edwin Black, broke away from the Aristotelian search for effects in his work, Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method. The linkage between Winans, Wichelns, and Black gives an historical lineage of thought concerning Aristotelian methodology which extends from the early part of this century to the present day. Winans' contributions, through both his own writings and those of succeeding scholars, are crystallized in the statement in Speech Criticism that "Winans' Public Speaking still remains the greatest contribution to rhetorical theory since George Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. " (Thonssen p. 151) A modern review states, "Mr. Winans has produced something worthy of your attention. Read it, I pray!" (Harnak p. 265) Another landmark book was published first in 1948. Thonssen and Baird, (now Thonssen, Baird and Braden) authored Speech Criticism in that year. While the focus was primarily on criticism, the authors give an excellent overview of the Aristotelian methodology used in rhetoric. This work remains a standard in the area of Aristotelian explanation, giving a basis from which to do criticism in the classical mode. Certain newer books also contribute to the understanding of the Aristotelian model. James Andrews, in 1983 published The Practice of Rhetorical Criticism. 33. While acknowledging newer forms of criticism, Andrews uses the Wichelns' article as a departing point for his focus on criticism. He notes, "it is logical and eminently understandable that one possible function of rhetorical criticism is to assess rhetorical effect." (Andrews p.6) Bernard Brock and Robert Scott, in their Methods of Rhetorical Criticism also deal with the Aristotelian model. In their division of criticism into four perspectives, Brock and Scott give excellent background material on each of these perspectives. The four perspectives are labeled the Traditional, the Experiential, the "New Rhetoric," and the Meta Critical. (Brock & Scott, pp. 5,6) Within the traditional rubric Brock and Scott use the historical as well as the neo-Aristotelian approaches. (Brock & Scott, p. 5) It is interesting to note that Wichelns' essay is reprinted in full as an example of neo-Aristotelian conceptual thinking. All of the books cited above use the Aristotelian approach as a basis for their conceptualizing of rhetoric, if not in whole, then in part. The issue to be examined here involves the application of a methodology two thousand years old to a newly emerging technology. It is clear that the Aristotelian-based assessment of rhetoric is pervasive in a great many 34. views of modern rhetoric. It is also clear that writers such as Perelman and Burke are aware of the debt they owe to Aristotelian thought on rhetoric if for no other reason than these writers attempt to show how their conception of rhetoric differs from the founding father's. The basis for use of an Aristotleian method can be further argued by examining articles found in the various journals, for in these one can see expanding concepts of not only Aristotelian precepts but of the discipline of rhetoric as a whole. Overviews of Rhetorical Concerns Several journals appeared in the early part of this century which would contain much of the seminal writing on rhetoric to be used by scholars to follow. In 1915 the Quarterly Journal of Speech began publication, with others following. It is to these journals that one looks for further examination of questions of rhetoric and its dimensions. Although first published in 1915, the QJS did not have an article concering concepts of rhetoric until 1923. Hoyt Hudson's article on "The Field of Rhetoric" became the first in a series of articles stretching to the present that deal with rhetoric and its function. Much as the chapter in Rhetoric of Western Thought 35. deals with the nature and relevance of rhetoric, Hudson first dealswith the problem of a misunderstanding of rhetoric and the connotations of the word itself. "'Rhetoric' is one of those words which has been so unfortunate as to lose most of its good connections and to be known by the bad company it has sometimes kept." (Hudson p. 169) This theme, that rhetoric has become a field which is both misunderstood and misused is a common one. An interesting quotation comes from 1 Welldon, a translator of Aristotle who suggests that the Rhetor ic was, "perhaps the solitary instance of a book which not only begins a science, but completes it." (Hudson p. 169) This statement suggests some of the problems of the modern study of rhetoric. The Aristotelian lineage is not only a strong one, but some would say the end of the comprehensive study of rhetor ic. But Hudson goes on by noting that we begin with Aristotle in building a concept of rhetoric. "With him it is a useful art, the art of persuasion, based upon pure science." (Hudson p. 169) One might suggest that this "pure science" is more a methodology, empiricism, than it is a science. One turns to Aristotle as a basis for a study of persuasive communication. This study concerns a, "definite body of theory and practice, with an honorable history and an excellent academic 36. pedigree." (Hudson p. 180) As an argument for the use of Aristotelian methods to examine modern technology this article supports only a part of the overall argument. Simply, that in defining the uses of rhetoric one turns to Aristotle as a base, if not the final model, for examining rhetorical practices. Bryant, in "Rhetoric: Its Functions and Its Scope," suggests that rhetoric be defined as the, "rationale of informative and suasory discourse." (Bryant p. 405) He does not suggest that rhetorical theory ended with Aristotle but makes the point that, "Like his (Aristotle) poetic theory however, it (rhetorical theory) enjoys unequalled scientific eminence in its field though it has sustained many additions and modifications through the centuries." (Bryant p. 404) Of importance to this dissertation is Bryant's argument that, "Its (rhetoric) limitations are historical rather than philosophical. Like the limitations of his poetic, the limitations of his rhetoric derive mainly from his failure to consider phenomena which had not yet occurred and to make use of learnings which had not yet been developed." (Bryant p. 404) This argument is central to this disseration. The Aristotelian model is useable as a basis for an eclectic model because it offers scholars a framework from which 37. one can depart into examination of a wide variety of concepts. While the model can be used for a wide variety of examinations, at least with modifications, it is clear that one can look to extend the historical uses of the model through choices of topics salient to modern communication theory. If the limitations of Aristotle's rhetoric center around phenomena which have not yet occurred, one has the sense that these are small limitations indeed. For any model or concept which can deal with new phenomena as they occur becomes one which is constantly usable as a valuable tool. Karl Wallace offers another view of rhetoric. It deals not so much with methodology as it does with axiology. In "The Substance of Rhetoric: Good Reasons," Wallace begins to ask questions of value and the use of rhetoric suggesting that the basis of discourse is one of ethical and moral values as well as information relevant to these areas. From the base of ethics one looks at rhetoric as a system of discourse that will result in a modern system of topics. (Wallace, pp. 240 ff) The relevance of this article to the dissertation is that of modern technological rhetoric and the question of enthymematic argument concerning the worth of the new technology. Technology in and of itself has no axiology. The 38. humans working with, vending it, and using it are the ones who offer values, most often implicit, that are pervasive in the area of technos, or the rhetoric of technology. There is seldom a question concerning technology which deals with ethical or moral questions although further in this chapter authors who have taken positions on computers and human values will be examined. Maurice Natanson in "The Limits of Rhetoric" suggests that we look at rhetoric in a hierarchical sense. His tripartite divison goes from rhetorical intention in speaking or writing, to the general rationale of persuasion, to the philosophy of rhetoric. Clearly the Aristotelian model concerns the first and second of these divisions, but Natanson suggests that Aristotelian outlines do not include philosophical areas. (Natanson, p. 134) Having argued that at least one should include axiological dimensions in using technos as an artistic proof one can further argue that within the divisions of types of speeches suggested by Aristotle one can find the basis for philosophical discussion. The three divisions, epideictic, forensic, and deliberative, all have within them philosophical dimensions. Forensic speaking, based on accusation and defense, uses the societal values as a basis for 39. rhetoric. One argues from a given context of known legal practices to arrive at a decision concerning a given person's legal standing. Clearly a societal value is placed on this type of rhetoric. The deliberative branch of speeches approaches the audience with an attempt to make decisions concernng the future of a body of beings and their actions. Once again, values permeatethis division of the speeches, bringing philosophy clearly into the realm of Aristotelian rhetoric. The epideictic mode, using praise and blame as its means, is the easiest to posit as a philosophical type of rhetoric since it is asking an audience to make judgements based on values. To praise or blame is to take an axiological stance and clearly the use of the epideictic mode does this. Thus one can make the argument that Natanson's contention that the Rhetoric does not contain philosophical dimensions is not correct. When rhetoric is used in any of the three types of speeches, a valuative component is present. Clearly this is philsophical in nature as well as societal. Brockriede contributes to the literature with an article entitled, "The Dimensions of the Concept of Rhetoric." He offers five assumptions concerning rhetoric which are: 1) rhetoric as a study of how 40. relationships and attitudes are influenced assumes a diversity of situations including speaker-audience, speaker-mass media, groups conversing, writing efforts, and image projection by an organization; 2) rhetoric grows empirically from observation of contemporary as well as past events; 3) the rhetorical act occurs within a matrix of interrelated contexts, campaigns, and processes; 4) a wide range of definitions is possible; and, 5) every dimension of rhetoric has a relationship to the other dimensions. (Brockriede, pp, 1-2) In addition to expanding the breadth of rhetoric the assumptions that rhetoric comes from observation of contemporary as well as past events is crucial to this dissertation. Certainly in concert with Bryant's assertion listed above one can look at Aristotelian concepts as useful in modern rhetorical theory. The other assumption that bears on the dissertation concerns the matrix of interrelated events and processes that comprises rhetoric. The argument is being made in this dissertation that communication events are a part of a larger matrix of societal events in the case of technos. Brockriede's assumption that a matrix exists offers support for this claim, albeit without complete explication of the dimensions of the matrix. An article which deals specifically with Aristotelian method is Stanton and Berquist's study, 41. "Aristotle's Rhetor ic, Empiricism or Conjecture?" The authors argue that empiricism was the method used in Aristotle rather than conjectures concerning how rhetoric is practiced as a techne. (Stanton & Berquist, pp. 68-69) This article ties in with others in this chapter in making the point that the rhetorical concepts of Aristotle depend, in large measure, on the observation of actual phenomena, something which is undertaken within this dissertation. Ehninger deals with historical systems of rhetoric in his "On Systems of Rhetoric." He posits three divisions of historical rhetoric: the classical, the British, and the contemporary. He then proceeds to identify the major focus of each. The classical he terms "grammatical." By doing so Ehninger is suggesting that the Rhetoric and other classical writings are the foundation of modern rhetorical theory. The British period he describes as "psychological" because of the use of faculty psychology and attempts by the major writers of the period to explain the uses of rhetoric through the relationship of the communication act and the mind of the listener. The contemporary period is labeled sociological because of Ehninger's contention that modern rhetoric is viewed as an instrument for understanding and improving human relations. 42. Two of Ehninger's three divisions have direct impact on this dissertation. One can argue that the "grammatical" nature of the classical period is necessary for modern explanation of phenomena. Since one argument made in this dissertation deals with the use of Aristotle's concepts within the context of modern communication technological rhetoric it would appear that Ehninger's grammatical rubric is useful. The social nature of the modern period is less convenient from the standpoint of Ehninger because of the narrowness of his definition. However, the word "social" may be seen in a broader sense for use within this dissertation. Here the term is taken to mean the societal influences that go into making up the matrix of concepts that comprise rhetorical discourse. In suggesting technos as a proof the concept of rhetoric as social is an important element linked not only to persuasion but epistemological questions as well. While the above books and articles give a view of an overall concept of rhetoric, there are several topics under the general rubric of rhetoric which are important to the thesis of this dissertation. Each will be treated here before going on to considerations of technology and computers. The Enthymeme 43. One of the subtopics to consider is that of the enthymeme. While argument still is made over the nature of an enthymeme there are several writers who offer concepts which coincide with those used in this dissertation. The first such writer is McBurney, who in 1936 wrote his seminal article, "The Place of the Enthymeme in Rhetorical Theory." (McBurney) Although much deeper than this synopsis the article posits that the major part of enthymematic useage is its foundation of probability and opinion. The question of truncation seems overworked since argument can use truncated formal syllogism as well as enthymeme. The focus lies not in truncation but rather in the original arguments used in enthymemes. McBurney quite clearly deals with this and this dissertation will use his original arguments. A second article dealing with the enthymeme that relates to issues in this dissertation was written by Lloyd Bitzer in 1959. The key part of this article is Bitzer's argument that, "enthymemes occur only when the speaker and audience jointly produce them. Because they are jointly produced, enthymemes intimately unite speaker and audience and provide the strongest possible proofs." (Bitzer p. 408) It is this "joint production" at a more abstract level that is useful in the dissertation. 44. Aristotle suggests that there are three premises from which enthymemes are drawn: the sign, probabilities, and examples. (Aristotle, p. 10-15) One can go further than these three to find enthymematic materials if one uses both McBurney and Bitzer. The more abstract level of premise for enthymeme is constructed at a societal level, not at the level of speaker and audience alone. The premise for technos is not drawn from a single speaker but rather from both an historicity of argument about technolgy and the complete societal context in which western civilization now abides. The rhetor does not use only signs, probabilities, and examples as premises, although these are clearly used; the rhetor draws upon abstract concepts which are put within our communication patterns through constant repetition in spoken, written, and electronic form. The enthymematic reasoning surrounding technos is an example of this societal enthymeme, one which draws its premises from a larger boundary than those of Aristotle. But it draws upon certain facets of Aristotelian conception as explained by McBurney and thus is not a break with Aristotle but rather an expansion upon Aristotelian concepts. Proofs Another area »of concern is that of the artistic proofs. Of particular salience to this dissertation is the early discussion of ethos. In Book II of the Rhetoric Aristotle suggests that ethos consists of three parts: the perceived intelligence, character, and goodwill of the speaker. (Aristotle, p. 92) The focus in Aristotle is clearly on a single speaker and the time frame of the construction of ethical proof is that of the speech itself. The concern, within the scope of this dissertation, is that technos might be considered a different form of ethos. There are arguments to the contrary based on certain available literature. Baudhin and Davis suggest in their study, "Scales for the Measurement of Ethos: Another Attempt," that the search for a measurement of ethos could be based on several factors. Among them was one used in a research project in which two different presentors gave identical information to a target group of students. One presentor had credentials close to that of the target audience, the other was dissimilar. The credibility of the speaker with a similar background was higher than the dissimilar one. (Baudhuin & Davis, pp. 296 ff.) This concept, that background is one of the keys in ethos, is an implicit expansion of the Aristotelian concept. 45. A second group of articles, those by McCrosky and Dunham, Holztman, and Tompkins suggest that in order to analyze the ethical appeal of a speaker, one should pretest for the speaker's initial ethos level and then test after the speech is presented. Of importance to this dissertation is the concept that the ethical proof is brought to the situation, not derived solely from the rhetorical act itself. Technos stands apart from ethos, as seen in these three citations, because it does not involve a single entity as an artistic proof. Rather it is a proof derived from societal forces as much as from individual sources. In the area of technology, as will be seen in the technology section of this chapter, the societal forces provide a basis for the artistic proof. Informational writing forms one part of the proof but more importantly a long history of use of technology within western society becomes the basis for technos. It is not only source credibility, to use a "modern" term for ethos, it is a larger concept in which not only communication patterns but living patterns become a part of the proof itself. Topoi The topoi, or lines of argument within the canon of invention, are also of major importance to the model used for the research to follow. Donovan Ochs, in "Aristotle's Concept of Formal Topics," gives an excellent overview of various attempts at definition of the topoi. Ochs reviews past literature and suggests that King, McBurney and Cooper prefer to use "lines of argument" as the best definition of topoi. (Ochs, p. 419) Wilson and Arnold define topoi in a systematic manner suggesting that topics are a system that draw one to a specific area in which ideas suitable to particular speaking assignments may be found. (Ochs, p. 419) Others offer a variety of definitions making it clear that the identifying of topoi is something that is less than universally agreed upon. Ochs ends his article by suggesting that " For Aristotle, a dialectical topic is a relational principle enabling a person to locate and analyze the ways in which a specific predicate may be attributed to a subject." (Ochs p. 425) In the area of communication technology this definition would seem to be applicable for the topoi used in persuasive arguments for personal computers are based on specific topoi which will be considered in the model chapter. Invention One other part of the rhetorical concept of 47. Aristotle is extremely important to the dissertation, that of invention itself. The word invention, as Aristotle uses it, implies a discovery of the unknown, a fact that seems in conflict with definitions of topoi. Bacon suggested that invention in speech was not properly a new discovery but rather the act of recovering that which is already known. If we use the Aristotelian definition of rhetoric as one of discovering all available means for persuasion, a basis for the argument of this dissertation is in place. In the canon of invention one looks to various factors impinging upon the rhetor's decision in choosing materials to persuade rather than looking at the construction of totally new materials in order to make a rhetorical statement. A question can be raised concerning this definition of invention and the possibility of using it with new technology which certainly would have little or no past rhetorical history. The response to this problem lies in analogy and its uses. In presenting a modern technology, the rhetor (in the case of this dissertation the advertiser for personal computers) uses analogy with other past technologies in order to be persuasive. Thus within rhetorical discourse the computer becomes a "thinking machine," a "tool," a "calculating machine" and various other forms of extant past technology used 48. to persuade modern humankind of both its efficacy and perhaps to quiet fears concerning the power of the technology by showing its links to the past by use of comfortable analogs. Persuasion There are several books and articles which have relevance to this dissertation in the area of persuasion. Simons1 Persuasion; Understanding, Practice, and Analysis is an example of a work in which the author outlines broad perspectives. In response to the question, "Why study persuasion?" Simons suggests three major functions of study. First, a control function, defined as a personal function. Simons' assumption is that "each of us is a human engineer, involved in the task of constructing messages and manufacturing own own images in ways that are designed to influence others." (Simons p. 7) The second function is that of consumer protection. The study of persuasion can help us to "become more intelligent, descriminating consumers." (Simons, p. 7) This clearly has importance in the study proposed n this dissertation. The third function is termed a knowledge function. This study has less to do with practical utility than 49. with, "the insights about humanity and the social order that such study may provide." (Simons, p. 8) Simons states that the central thesis of his book is that, "persuasion can best be understood as an ongoing, open system of interactions in which the persuader's rhetorical choices and actions and the receiver's attitudes and behaviors are both influenced by historical, temporal, physical, political, and cultural 'givens' in particular situational contexts." (Simons, p. 17) The issue of rhetorical appeals for personal computers is clearly within the realm of this concept. Fotheringham, in Perspectives on Persuasion, suggests that persuasion is best defined as, "that body of effects in receivers, relevant and instrumental to source-desired goals, brought about by a process in which messages have been a major determinant of those effects." (Fotheringham, p. 7) As with most of the Aristotelian concepts the effects parameter becomes paramount. A tangential focus in persuasion research is that of the political campaign. There are several analogs between a political and a marketing campaign as can be seen in the following articles. In, "The Function of Presidential Campaigning," Gronbeck suggests that in order to move voters to action 50. one finds 1. Reinforcement-appealing to the predispositions and prejudices of party sympathizers, 2. Activation-creating "new" voters from the pool of non-voters, and moving current voters into more active forms of support, and 3. conversion-attracting undecided, non-aligned, and other-party voters to one's party and candidate. (Gronbeck p. 269) The analog of a person predisposed to use of personal computers and the first point is easily seen. Those people that are already enthusiasts or hobbyists are the first ones attracted to a new technology. Moving people from the state of knowing about the new technology to the buying of it is a combination of points two and three. This is one of the major focuses of the advertising campaigns of personal computer companies. In, "Presidential Surfacing: The Ritualistic and Crucial First Act," Judith Trent suggests that for the presidental candidate, the importance of the first act of the candidate is such that, "If it fails in either its symbolic or programatic roles, there may be no second act." (Trent, p. 284) Surfacing has three instrumental functions: 1. Public expectations about candidates begin to be established, 2. Important issues or themes of the campaign begin to emerge, and 3. Front runners or serious contenders begin to be determined. (Trent, p. 285) One can see the similarities between a 51. campaign for a political candidate and one for a new technological product. The time span of entry is different; the political campaigner generally announces his/her intentions at a press conference while the new technologies may be assimilated into the public consciousness over a period of months or years, but the initial surfacing and advertising strategies of a particularl personal computer company will help to determine if there will be in fact a "second act." The question of linking the literature of persuasion with that of the technology of computers is one which was at first problematic. However, one writer gives us a platform from which we can make the transition. Edwin Black, in Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method proposes that the Aristotelian methodology has faults within it that make it less than effective in modern rhetorical criticism. In the above arguments of this chapter the case for use of Aristotelian methodology has been made so that rejoinders to Black's arguments need not be restated. However, Black makes an overall argument for technos, albeit implicitly. He begins his seminal work with these lines, "The scientist is one of the cultural heroes of our age. He is consulted by senators, courted by corporations, and exalted by the popular mind." Further on, "The triumphs of science seem inexorable as the tide." (Black, p. 1) There are two points which need to be made. First, Black is arguing that modern critical methodology has become restricted to demonstrable generalizations. While this may be true in certain cases, the years since the writing of the book have given us a variety of methods, with empirical work only one among them. Second, and much more critical to this dissertation, is the fact that Black is not truly arguing about science but rather about technology. Science consists of discovering the unknowns of nature. Technology is applied science. Applied science has distinct ends towards which it is directed. The cultural "heroes" of our age are not necessarily those working in "pure science," i.e. those engaged in research concerning the unknowns of nature, but rather those technologists who apply scientific information in such ways that ends are reached. Whether these ends be benevolent, as in the eradication of disease, malevolent, as in the construction of instruments of awesome destructive power, or perhaps capitalistically driven, as with instruments which aid a commercial economy, the key descriptive word is not science but rather technology. Black gives us a transfer point from rhetoric to technology. The following books and articles concern themselves with technology in general 53. and, for the most part, with computers in the specific. TECHNOLOGY AND THE PERSONAL COMPUTER There is no one communication technology that can be seen as the most important in the changing of societal or communication patterns. All of the electronic technologies have brought about changes in interaction of human beings and each within its scope has been a force in communication as we see it today. The literature of computers is fairly recent, as is the computer. The literature of the personal computer is even more recent, dating from the mid 1970's for it was at that time that it was presented to the public. The year 1977 was the first time the general public could purchase an assembled machine, the Apple, although computer enthusiasts could have bought kits from which pc's could be built some two years prior to that date. The question of technology and its impact on society is one which was explored before the onset of the computer. The books and articles presented in this section are not intended to be complete, but rather to give a recent overview of the computer in addition to helping explain the use of the inartistic proof technos within the rhetorical communication concerning personal computers. 54. Societal and Philosophical Issues Jacques Ellul, in The Technological Society suggests that man is a single part in a larger complex. That complex is the overall use of technique in order to achieve ends. This technique should be laden with axiological values according to Ellul but modern society has become inured to the values associated with technology and has accepted technology as an end-in-itself. This view, coupled with rather dark previews of the lack of value within society seems to be rather European in nature. American writers seldom worry about problems posed by technology but rather are caught in a type of spiralling excitement about the possibilities of new technology. The implications of the Ellulian view for rhetoric are useful in describing technos as a proof. Technos lacks axiological tenets and responds not to moral issues but rather to the invention of new technologies. There are few voices raised to consider the problems of creation of new technologies; rather the rhetoric is full of promise. This rhetoric is based on societal values, and the dominant value, as expounded by Ellul, is that of technology itself. If it is technology, it must be worthwhile. Daniel Bell, in the essay "Technology, Nature, and 55. Society," defines technology as an effort to transform nature for utilitarian purposes. (Bell-A, p. 4) Technology changes the entire society in which it is present in two major ways. First, a change in the individual's proportion of return for a given effort. Humankind, through technology, can control the major means of production and this changes the view of economic theory. The change, according to Bell, is from supply to demand. (Bell-A, p. 22) Technology is promulgated in order to respond to the demand of the society for a variety of perceived needs. The second change which technology brings is more germaine to this dissertation. Technology brings about an enlargement of the boundaries of society. (Bell-A, p. 23) This notion of extension of society is akin to McLuhan's thoughts in Understanding Media: The Extension of Man, in which McLuhan singles out a specific technology, communication, and proposes that the phrase "The medium is the message," means that one has created a totally new environment, one which exceeds the previous boundaries of human interaction. (McLuhan-A, p. 7) The enlargement of the boundaries of society seems to stem from telecommunication capabilities in which instant information concerning people in far distant locations is made available to the public. The 56. enlargement of the boundaries of communication also leads to a change in the very fabric of society itself. Daniel Bell has coined a word which helps to explain both the explosion of information as well as the potential importance of the computer. In The Coming of the Post-Industral Society Bell presents a view of the computer and its importance based on basic changes in the general population's working skills and uses of information. (Bell-B, p. 104 ff.) There are three basic dimensions of Bell's post-industrial society. First there is a change from products to service as the major output of the workforce. Second there is a centralization of theoretical knowledge for use in innovation in technology. And third, there is a creation of an "intellectual technology" as a key tool in systems of analysis and decision making. (Bell-C, p. 163) The change from products to service is clear. By the 1970's, some fifty to sixty per cent of the U.S. population was involved in some type of service organization. (Bell-C, p. 185) The key is that one of the major services becomes information, and with information as a key ingredient in the mixture, the computer becomes a necessary tool. The centralization of theoretical knowledge can be seen in the availability of various data sources from 57. which people and organizations can draw in order to have bases from which to begin technological research leading to innovation. It should be noted that this is not Candide, not "the best of all possible worlds," because generally those with enough capital to expend to find the information are the ones with enough resources to do something applied with the information. This phenomenon creates a new version of the old dyad "haves" and "have-nots." The "haves" are able to get to the central information because of an ability to spend money to do so. The "have-nots" are unable to do so which presents the possibility of dialectical informational ism as an economic force replacing materialism. The question of the changes in societal patterns with infusion of new technologies is one which is a concern not only to scholars such as Bell, Ellul and McLuhan but also to popular writers. Alvin Toffler and John Naisbitt are two writers who have increased public awareness of these changes, albeit in differing ways. Toffler's two main works, Future Shock and The Third Wave, both deal with change and the future of society. Future Shock describes problems in changes that come with increasing rapidity, and means of dealing with these changes. The Third Wave primarily deals with new technologies and the ways in which these impact on society in general. Toffler deals mainly with 58. visions of the future based on current happenings. Naisbitt, on the other hand, employs content analysis to project trends as they impact current society. In Megatrends Naisbitt offers some ten major trends that are changing our society. As with Toffler, he owes a great debt to Bell and the concept of the post-industrial society. Naisbitt identifies several trends that are of importance to this dissertation. The first is the trend from the industrial to the information society. Not a new concept, but rather well documented in contrast to much of Bell's socio/philosophical writings. A second trend is that from "Forced Technology" to "High Tech/High Touch." (Naisbitt, p. 35) This concept has direct application in the use of pc's. High Tech/High Touch is a reaction, according to Naisbitt, to the increasing proliferation of technology. High Touch is a concept proposed by Naisbitt which has at its base the need to balance technology with human response. Without the human element within the technology, suggests Naisbitt, the general population willreject technology because of its lack of a counterbalancing humanism. Both Toffler and Naisbitt make excellent points in their books. There are, however, two topics that need to be examined in light of their arguments. The first 59. is the concept of change that Toffler presents. In his view we are bombarded with change at a pace which quickens in geometrical fashion. There is little question that more and more data are collected, stored, and manipulated today than in any other time in history. However one can question the assertion that we are going through more massive changes than in any time in history. If a person were born around 1800 and lived until 1860, s/he would have seen the introduction of railroads, steamships, telegraphs, gas lighting, and mass-produced furniture and clothing. Being born in 1860 and living until 1920 would mean seeing the introduction of the electric light, the car, the telephone, the airplane, radio, and the movies. Would these changes in technology be any less massive than the coming of television and the computer? The argument can be made that each generation has undergone changes in technology and that while modern technological changes may come at a more rapid pace, it does not mean that the changes are more severe. One could further argue that the difference in the changes are not in their importance, for all of the changes listed above are important in societal relationships, but rather that the available modern information technologies bring an awareness to the public of the new technologies that was heretofore impossible in so short a time span. The 60. communication technologies themselves help to speed their own progress. The second topic which is left out in both Toffler and Naisbitt is that of the personal computer. The Third Wave was published in 1980, Megatrends in 1982, well after the personal computer was available but yet the introduction of the pc as a technology is mentioned little in either of the two books. The personal computer changes the general concept of how computers are perceived by the public. The mainframe computer was a "hidden technology." By this is meant that while the public was aware of its existence, the mainframe was mainly used by large academic and corporate organizations. While most people were aware of the use of computers, few actually saw the technology in use. They received the end result, whether it was a bank statement, an airline reservation, or any of the other various uses for the early mainframes. In some ways the uses of the telegraph were analogous to the mainframe usage. While available to the public it was used by larger organizations to send and receive informationthat would then be used in dealing with the public. "Hidden technologies" can be implanted in societal patterns because they require tremendous knowledge in order to build and use them. The introduction of personal computer changed the pattern of usage of computers in general and by doing so had an impact that neither Naisbitt nor Toffler examines. Historical Computer Literature The major literature on computers does not deal with personal computers per se but rather with computer technology based on mainframe configurations. There are several excellent sources on computers which deal with the technology's history. Of these, three are typical of the books dealing with the history of the computer. The first of these is McCorduck's Machines Who Think. There is a certain commonality in all of the books which deal with the history of the computer and McCorduck's work is typical. There are generally sections within these books dealing with mechanical devices, such as the abacus, which are presented as the forerunners of modern computer technology. Another section deals with certain historical figures such as Pascal, Liebnitz, and Babbage. A third section will deal with modern figures in computer technology such as Von Neumann, Turing, Eckert and Mauchley, all of whom made significant contributions to the advancement of the computer. These three themes are common to all of the books on computer 62. history. Another commonality among the historical books is the examination of Watson and IBM. McCorduck's book is an early one in terms of personal computing, having been published in 1979. A complete work concerning primarily IBM is Fishman's The Computer Establishment, which deals with all companies purveying computers but focuses on the giant, IBM. In Bit by Bit, authored by Augarten, IBM is also a focal point in commercial history. One commonality not found in the books mentioned above is the history of the pc. McCorduck and Fishman's works were published in 1979 and 1981 respectively, before IBM entered the pc market. Bit by Bit includes sections on the pc as does Shurkin's Engines of the Mind. It seems that for McCorduck and Fishman, Apple's entry into the market was of modest importance and consequently had little impact at the time of their writings. IBM's entry, however, constitutes a major turning point for historical writing for many of the writers concerned with computers. A resource that deals solely with pc's is Fire in the Valley by Swaine and Freiberger. The style of the book is much like that of the personal computers and their inventors, loose and not well documented. It is a book filled with anecdotal materials about the people who populated the birthing room of the pc's, the Silicon 63. Valley in California. While lacking in documentation this book captures the spirit of the start of the pc's. People working without support from major companies, with limited resources but unlimited imagination, populate the pages of this book. It is both interesting and instructive with the stories of Job and Wozniak, Gates and Kildall brought into focus through direct comments from the people themselves. Application Literature Another set of books on computers deal with specific uses for the computer. There are literally thousands of publications dealing with programming, uses of specific software such as Lotus 1-2-3, and linking machines together through telecommuncation systems. A typical book dealing with programming is Applesoft BASIC Toolbox, Written for use with the Apple machines, it explains how to program BASIC for various uses. The realm of linking computers together is The Complete Handbook of Personal Computer Communications by Glossbrenner, subtitled "Everything you need to go online with the world." This is an excellent overview of linking devices such as the modem; it also describes in some detail the various major online data resources such as CompuServe, The Source, DIALOG, BRS, ORBIT, NewsNet, and Information Bank. Society and the Computer A final group of books on computers deals with societal impact of the computer and is spearheaded by a remarkably qualified writer, Joseph Weizenbaum. A professor of computer science at MIT, Weizenbaum is the author of numerous articles and books on computers. Perhaps the beginning of his impact can be traced to an article in Science titled, "On the Impact of the Computer in Society:How Does One Insult a Machine?" published in 1972. In this article Weizenbaum suggests the typical structure of an essay on computers in society. First the article tells of all the good things computers have done for society, followed by a caveat or "on the other hand" section. This section generally deals with issues such as privacy, large scale unemployment, and the threats to individuality that computers can bring. Finally, according to Weizenbaum, the typical article ends with a look at the marvelous present and the even more marvelous future along with a section indicating that the dangers presented in the second part can be alleviated by "sophisticated technological fixes." (Weizenbaum-A, p. 609) Weizenbaum was remarkably prescient in 1972 for all 65. of the books researched for this dissertation follow this pattern. George's Machine Takeover reads remarkably like Weizenbaum's standard as the author talks of information pollution, privacy and control, then speaks of the marvels that computers will bring to us, followed by a statement apprising the reader that all of the marvels described within the book such as AI and robotics will come to pass. "There is little doubt that it will be done," is the precise wording. (George, p. 96.) Silver's The Social Impact of Computers echoes almost exactly the words of George. There is a section on threats to society, once again privacy, individuality and humanism, as well as the thought that "the tool is not harmful, but its misuses and misdirection." (Silver, p. 212) The list goes on, with Laver, Bjorn-Anderson, Mehlman, and Stern & Stern all taking similar positions in their works. The end result one finds is that the rhetorical concept of technos reigns in these books. The final summation of most of these books is pure technos, the technology should be used because the technology is there. While axiological issues are examined, in the end technos wins the day as we are given all manner of wonderful futures to ponder. Some books do not give such a marvelous picture. 66. Weizenbaum, in Computer Power and Human Reason,argues brilliantly, albeit implicitly, against the automatic use of technos as a major form of argumentation. The ability to do justice to this marvelous work in a short summation is limited. However if one can suggest a central theme, it centers around the question of what the computers ought to do rather than what they can do. The importance of this work lies not only in its philosophical clarity but also in the fact that Weizenbaum is clearly a technological expert in the computer. Many of the books which give less than whole-hearted views of computing may be argued against, and frequently are by the true believers, because the writers fail to have the necessary technical credentials. Weizenbaum does and is instructive because of his depth of background. Shallis, in The Silicon Idol, also argues that computers are going to bring social changes which negate the effect of having the enormous power of computers to do certain types of work. Brod, in Technostress, gives an excellent account of certain problems being already encountered by those that are using computers. The problem with books such as Weizenbaum, Brod and Shallis lies not in the materials nor the credentials but rather in the concept of technos. All of these books reject technos as a legitimate argument for use of 67. computers and ask axiological questions. It seems, however, that they are making arguments against the mainstream of modern rhetorical communication in that they are challenging the use of technos as a proof. Perhaps the reason why books such as these seldom have great popularity is that they go against this dominant societal proof, technos. The inartistic proof is rooted in society and as such becomes one which is accepted in general. To write against it is to be thought of as a modern day Luddite and as such, authors writing these counter-arguments have little societal acceptance. Technology will march forth; it is the way of the our new world. Communication Journals on Computers Communication journals have little literature on the subject of computers. There are some exceptions, however. In the winter, 1981 issue of The Journal of Communication a section entitled "The Information Society" deals with telecommunication innovations. In a rather mixed bag of writings, topics ranging from privacy, by McLuhan, to the future of telecommuncations, by Pelton, offer a wide ranging view of issues salient to the area. Most of the articles deal with technological advances but all of them deal to some 68. extent wth the computer and its potential uses within the realm of telecommunications. Within this frame of reference, electronic libraries, software issues and digital technology are primarily issues of technology. Societal issues such as the boundaries of the information society and the future of telecommunications are one other set. One article which deals with issues concerning computers is titled, "The Survival of Human Values," by Cater. Here the term "compunication" is used to identify the use of computers as links within the various telecommunication technologies. (Cater, p. 193) In addition, many of the issues already cited, information access, privacy, free speech, and the new "illiteracy gap" caused by computers are at least touched on if not dealt with in detail. The whole series of articles seems to follow the pattern of Weizenbaum's example. While dealing with the societal issues the tenor of the writing is one of acceptance and even wonder as the various technologies are explained and extolled. Perhaps one could call this series of articles an example of technos winning out over other types of proof, if only from the standpoint of space alloted to the various topics. Again, in 1983, the Journal of Communication published a thematic series of articles under the heading, "Computers, Education, and Public Policy." This 69. series asks few questions concerning problems or issues in computers and is more a compendium of descriptions of current usage of computers in education. The rest of the standard journals in communication do not offer any writing concerned with computers. While there may be implicit information in some of the articles, there are no explicit titles dealing with computers, per se. Innovations The topoi to be used in the model for analysis of this dissertation come from Rogers & Shoemaker's Communication of Innovations. Within chapter four of this work the authors suggest five perceived attributes of innovations and theireffect on rate of adoption by the public. The five are: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. (Rogers & Shoemaker p. 137) These five were selected based on past writing and research as well as "a desire for maximum generality and succintness." (Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 137) The hypothesis used in prior research on the category of relative advantage as a perceived attribute is, "The relative advantage of a new idea, as perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of adoption." (Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 350) 70. Forty-three studies reported previous to the publication of Communication of Innovations are cited, the first in 1952, among which twenty-nine support the hypothesis and fourteen do not. (Rogers & Shoemaker p. 350-351) The category of compatibility is framed with the following hypothesis, "The compatibility of a new idea, as perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of adoption." Twenty-seven studies are cited in testing this hypothesis in which eighteen support it and nine do not. The earliest of these studies was conducted in 1952. (Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 351) The hypothesis concerning the perceived attribute of complexity is stated, "The complexity of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system is not related to its rate of adoption." Sixteen studies are cited with nine supporting it while seven do not. The earliest studies concerning this hypothesis was done in 1952 also. (Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 351) "The trialability of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of adoption," is the hypothesis used in studies of the topoi trialability. Rogers & Shoemaker cite thirteen studies of which nine support the hypothesis and four do not. The earliest of these studies is found in 1955. (Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 352) Finally, the hypothesis "The observability of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of adoption," is used in the nine studies cited by Rogers & Shoemaker. Seven of these studies support the hypothesis while two do not. The earliest of these studies was conducted in 1961. (Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 352.) Of the five hypothesis, four are stated in the positive. According to the previous research, compatibility, relative advantage, observability, and trialability are positively correlated to the adoption of an innovation. The fifth, complexity, is negatively correlated to the adoption of an innovation if it is seen as a perceived attribute by members of the social system. Rogers, writing in the Journal of Consumer Research, gives several sources for his work in diffusion research. Gabriel Tarde is credited with pioneering the S-shaped diffusion curve as well as the role of opinion leaders in the process of imitiation. (Rogers, p. 290) A major influence on Roger's later work is taken from the "seminal study" of Ryan and Gross, a study of the diffusion of hybrid seed corn among Iowa farmers conducted in 1943. (Rogers, p. 290) In addition , the reader interested in diffusion theory research can be directed to the studies cited on pp. 250-352 in 72. Rogers & Shoemaker for further information. Diffusion research grew in the decades following Ryan and Gross' work. Rogers cites 100 studies done between 1943 and 1952, over 450 between 1953 and 1962, and over 1,250 between 1963 and 1974. (Rogers, p. 291) He suggests that there are over 2,700 publications about the diffusion of innovations, including some 1,800 empirical research reports and 900 "other writings." (Rogers, p. 291) He also suggests that this trend will probably continue as many different disciplines begin to work within the area of diffusion theory. Rogers & Shoemakers' work is cited in three books used recently or currently by the marketing department at Ohio State. In particular the work done on the model of innovation-decision process has become a standard for use in consumer behavior models. In Marketing:Basic Concepts and Decisions, Price and Ferrel use the model in sections entitled, "Product Adoption." (Price & Ferrel, p. 196) In Stanton's Fundamentals of Marketing both the adoption model and the classification of innovaton adopters in used. (Stanton, p. 114) Engel, Kollat and Blackwell, in Consumer Behavior cite Rogers & Shoemaker stating that Rogers work, "has had the most profound effect on marketing thinking." (Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell, p. 541) Although the categories used by Rogers & Shoemaker 73. are relatively new constructs, one can see analogs with some of these and topoi proposed by Aristotle. The heading "compatibility" can be seen as analogous to the large heading of topics of past fact. This topoi deals with events in thepast and through enthymematic argumentation the past is shown to have direct bearing on present and future actions. (Aristotle, p. 145) The new topoi of compatibility, as used by Rogers & Shoemaker, deals with, "existing values, past experiences, and needs of the receivers." (Rogers and Shoemaker, p. 145) The topoi of "relative advantage" has an analog in topoi 16, labeled, proportional results. Aristotle states that this topoi is "the proportion between this and that result." (Aristotle, p. 167) Rogers & Shoemaker state that relative advantage is "the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes." (Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 138) The categories of trialability, observability, and complexity do not have analogs in the twenty-eight topoi of Aristotle. While this dissertation is based on certain Aristotelian constructs, it is eclectic in nature, as described in chapter one. The use of new topoi for examination of modern rhetorical practices expands the categories of the older topoi and does so in response to modern societal communication practices. 74. While not intended as a complete overview of all available resources for this dissertation, the works listed above all have impact on the argument made as the major thesis. 75. End Notes Andrews, James. The Practice of Rhetorical Criticism. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1983. Aristotle. The Rhetoric. Trans. Lane Cooper. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Pentice-Hall, Inc., 1960. Augarten, Stan. Bit by Bit: An Illustrated History of Computers. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1984. Baudhuin, Scott, & Margaret Davis. Scales for the Measurement of Ethos: Another Attempt. Speech Monographs, 1972, 39:4, 296-301. Bell, Daniel.(A) The Winding Passage. New York: Basic Books, 1980. Bell, Daniel.(B) The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society. New York: Basic Books, 1973. Bell, Daniel. (C) The Social Framework of the Information Society, in Dertouzos & Moses. The Computer Age: A Twenty Year View. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press,1980, 163-211. 76. Bitzer, Lloyd. Aristotle's Enthymeme Revisited. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1959, 45:4, 399-408. Black, Edwin. Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method. New York: MacMillan Co., 1965. Brock, Bernard, & Scott, Robert. Methods of Rhetorical Criticism. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1980. Brockriede, Wayne. Dimensions of the Concept of Rhetoric. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1968, 54:1, 1-12. Brod, Craig. Technostress. Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley Publishing Company., 1984. Bryant, Donald. Rhetoric: Its Function and Scope. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1953, 39:4, 401-424. Cater, Douglass. The Survival of Human Values. Journal of Communication, 1981, 31:1, 190-194. 77. Ehninger, Douglas. On Systems of Rhetoric. Philosophy and Rhetoric, Summer, 1968, 131-144. Ellul, Jacques. The Technological Society. New York: Vintage Books, 1964. Engle, Kollat, D, & Blackwell, R. Consumer Behavior. Holt, Rinehart, Winston: Hinsdale, 111, 1978. Feigenbaum, Edward, & McCorduck, Pamela. The Fifth Generation:Artificial Intelligence and Japan's Computer Challenge to the World. New York: Signet, 1983. Fishman, Catherine. The Computer Establishment. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. Fotheringham, Wallace. Perspectives on Persuasion. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1966. Freiberger, Paul, & Swaine, Michael. Fire in the Valley. Berkeley, California: Osborne/McGraw Hill, 1984. George, Frank. Machine Takeover. New York:Pergamon Press, 1977. Golden, James, Berquist, Goodwin, & Coleman, William. The Rhetoric of Western Thought. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1983. Gronbeck, Bruce. The Function of Presidential Campaigning. Communication Monographs, Vol 45 4, 268-280. Hudson, Hoyt. Can We Modernize the Theory of Invention? Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1921, 7:4, 325-334. Hudson, Hoyt. The Field of Rhetoric. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1923, 9:2, 167-180. Laver, Murray. Computers and Social Change. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982. McBurney, James. The Place of the Enthymeme in Rhetorical Theory. Speech Monographs, 1936, 3, 49-74. McCorduck, Pamela. Machines Who Think. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1979. McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. Naisbitt, John. Megatrends. New York: Warner Books, 1982. Natanson, Maurice. The Limits of Rhetoric. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1955, 41:2, 133-139. Ochs, Donovan. Aristotle's Concept of Formal Topics. Speech Monographs, 1969, 36:4, 419-425. Pride, W., & Ferrell, 0. Marketing Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1977. Rogers, Everett. New Product Adoption and Diffusion. Journal of Consumer Research, March 1976. 290-301. Rogers, Everett, & Shoemaker, Floyd. Communication of Innovations. New York: The Free Press, 1971. Shallis, Michael. The Silicon Idol. New York: Shocken Books, 1984. Silver, Gerald. The Social Impact of Computers. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1979. Simons, Herbert. Persuasion:Understanding, Practice and Analysis. Menlo Park, Ca: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1976. Stanton, Donald, & Berquist Goodwin. Aristotle's Rhetoric: Empiricism or Conjecture. Southern Speech Communication Journal, 1975, 41:1, 68-9. Stanton, William. Fundamentals of Marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. Thonssen, Lester, Baird, A. Craig, & Braden, Waldo. Speech Criticism, Malabar, Florida: Robert Krieger Publishing Company, 1981. Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. .New York: Random House, 1970. Toffler, Alvin. The Third Wave. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1980. Trent, Elizabeth. Presidential Surfacing:The Ritualistic and Crucial First Act. Communication Monographs. 1978, 5:4, 281-292. Wallace, Karl. The Substance of Rhetoric: Good Reasons. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1963, 49:3, 239-249. Weizenbaum, Joseph. Computer Power and Human Reason. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1976. Weizenbaum, Joseph. On the Impact of the Computer on Society. Science, 1972, 176, May, 609-614. Wichelns, Herbert. "The Literary Criticism of Oratory." in Brock & Scott, Methods of Rhetorical Criticism. Detroit:Wayne State Press, 1980 Winans, Albert. Public Speaking. New York; The Century Company, 1916. Chapter III: The Analytical Model The function of rhetoric is not to persuade, but rather to discover all available means of persuasion in a given case. If this Aristotelian concept of rhetoric is accepted, we then can go on to make the assertion that rhetoric is an art. This assertion, that rhetoric is an art, is made by Aristotle in the Rhetoric with the following lines of reasoning. Everyone makes some use of both dialectic and rhetoric, for all persons make attempts to support or defend theses. Most people do this at random, or else with a "knack" acquired from practice. Success is possible both in using random impulse or acquired facility, the second option raising the possibility of reducing the process to a method. If it is possible to investigate the reasons for success a given speaker has in gaining his/her end, this inquiry performs the function of an art. In providing a theoretical model for use in a dissertation concerning the rhetorical appeals made by personal computer companies, one must consider the basis of rhetoric, that it is an art which is one of inquiry into the success of rhetors when using various types of 82. 83. proofs in their rhetorical appeals. It is specifically this artistic concept of rhetoric which forms the basis of the theoretical model. One could argue that the art in this case is in fact research in an empirical mode. Further, that in order for the dissertation to be true to the concepts proposed by Aristotle, there must be a rhetorical explanation of the findings of this research in the sense of argumentation over the conclusions to be drawn from the data collected. The model to be presented is based on the tenets and categories of Aristotelian rhetoric, taken, for the most part, from the primary source, the Rhetoric. The purpose of the model is not to do away with the basic concepts of Aristotelian rhetoric but rather to select several and expand upon them in a way which may be useful in examination of modern phenomena. The genus of phenomena to be examined with this proposed model is communication technology while the species is the personal computer. The superordinate family would be that of modern technology. There are three major parts of the model which must be explicated. First, the area of proofs. Second, the area of topoi, and third, the area of audience adaptation. Each will be examined as a separate entity with the summary of this essay giving interrelationships of the three major parts. Proofs "Proofs are of two kinds, artistic and non-artistic. By 1non-artistic1 proofs are meant all such as are not supplied by our own efforts, but existed beforehand, such as witnesses, admissions under torture, written contracts, and the like. By 'artistic' proofs are meant those that may be furnished by the method of Rhetoric through our own efforts. The first sort have only to be used; the second have to be found." (Aristotle-A, p. 8) Aristotle's division into artistic and non-artistic proofs will hold through the proposed model for examining computer rhetoric. In the case of the non-artistic proofs, the use of technical proof will form another category of proof useful in the examination of modern communication technologies. There are times in the progression of advertising when the computer companies use technical proofs to provide the audience with persuasive materials. For instance, once personal computers became a nationally advertised consumer good, the various companies would compare their RAM capabilities to one another. The idea that one computer had 48K and another had 68K led to the enthymematic assumption in the advertising that the machine with the 68K was superior to the one with less. In exploring the data for this study, there will be periods in whichtechnical proof of the non-artistic type will predominate, particularly as companies seek to differentiate their brand name from others. It is not artistic to use machine speeds in magazine appeals as a means of persuasion, nor the amount of peripherals one machine can use. Nor does the amount of RAM available or the type of storage available draw on artistic proofs. All of these proofs are non-artistic since they "exist beforehand" in the design capabilities of the machine. An argument might be made that the designers of personal computers use certain choices in mechanicsso that the public will buy the machine; it is difficult to draw the conlusion from this fact that the proofs based on technical capabilities are indeed artistic. The technology is formed, then the rhetorical appeals are set as a result of the design. The new part of this model concerning non-artistic proofs is that of technical information being a part of the proofs used. It is an area of non-artistic proofs not seen inany of the writings of the classical school since the technologies did not exist. The question of the specific parts of the technologies which may dominate in the rhetorical appeals will not be considered within this model since this requires 86. technical writing beyond the scope of this dissertation and this writer. It is suggested that, for the most part, the technical appeals in the advertising are also beyond the technical ken of the audience for whom the appeals are written. While a new type of proof will be proposed in this dissertation, the artistic proofs remain a base from which to build a new theoretical model. The classic division of the artistic proofs is threefold: ethos, pathos, and logos. Each will be discussed with the modifications suggested for this expanded model. In addition, the argument will be made that a fourth type of rhetorical proof has a place in examination of communication technologies, this proof to have the name technos. Before examining the proof technos, the classic proofs will be examined to give a better understanding of their uses within the rhetoric of personal computer appeals. Ethos The artistic proof, ethos, consists of the persuasive image created by the speaker during a given speech. The persuasive force of ethos consisted of the time of the speech and a single rhetor became the focus of the ethos. Aristotle suggests that ethical proof comes about when the speech is spoken (designed?) so that the speaker becomes credible. In this concept of ethos the modern notion of source credibility is a figurative, not a functional analog. For the Aristotelian concept of ethos focuses on a time span of the speech, not on the time span leading up to the speech in which the speaker could have contributed to the success of the speech by his previous actions.(The notion of antecedent ethos or prior reputation affecting speaker credibility originates three centuries later with Cicero.)(Berquist, lectures) In order to build a model for use with modern technology and advertising the Aristotelian concept of ethos must be changed so that it becomes a more useful conceptual tool. The first and most obvious change deals with the spoken vs. written message. It has been suggested by many writers following Aristotle that written rhetoric has a place in methods of rhetorical appeal. Three examples of this are Hudson, Brockriede, and Bryant. Brockriede suggests that rhetoric can be found in such diverse acts as a speaker, a group of people conferring, or, a writer. (Brockriede, p. 1) Bryant states, "rhetoric must be understood to be the rationale of informative and suasory discourse both spoken and written." (Bryant, p. 407) Hudson suggests, "in our 88. own day if we run over the principal manifestations of the persuasive art we find as many of them in type as in the spoken word. Editorial writing, pamphleteering, the immense business of advertising and the still more immense business of propaganda— these are occupations which modern rhetoricians may follow." (Hudson, p. 171) Since the Greek society depended on oral presentation the concept of ethos from a written standpoint was not included in the ethical parts of the artistic proofs. Dealing with modern technology would need this part within the model to make it complete. A second innovation in deriving a modern model from the Aristotelian standard deals with corporate forms rather than single rhetors. While a single source, the rhetor, was the standard provider of ethical proof within the classical rhetorical context, printing technology and mass communication technology have changed the concept as their inclusion into cultural information patterns became established. Thus, within the model suggested for this dissertation the concept of ethical proof will be expanded to include corporate bodies, whether these are communication corporations or business organizations using rhetorical appeals to further their ends. (An example of the first would be NBC, of the second, IBM, etc.) Within the context of this dissertation, the entry of IBM into the personal 89. computer market is an example of corporate ethos, or to use the more popular modern term, image. IBM used its well-known position in the computer industry as the basis for its advertising in late 1981, the year in which it formally entered the marketplace. Each company to be examined has made attempts in its rhetorical appeals to establish a sense of ethos with the public. Two have been the most successful, Apple and IBM, with the others trying to establish positions in the marketplace based on a variety of ethical appeals. The third issue in designing a new model of ethical appeals deals with the temporal dimension of these appeals. Within the context of ethical appeals in the Aristotelian sense, the temporal span of creation of ethical appeals rests within the speech itself. Within the context of this dissertation, the temporal aspect of ethos will be the long term creation of a corporate image. While certain companies, such as Apple, created an ethical appeal based on corporate image, that rhetorical undertaking was done over a period of time, not with the publication of a single rhetorical appeal. Others, such as IBM, had already created a form of ethical proof when they entered the personal computer market but clearly their ethical appeals were built over the history of the company. Thus, the suggested model will deal with a longer time span of ethical appeals 90. then is the case with the Aristotelian model and attempt to show ways in which the companies project their images over an extended time span. Pathos According to Aristotle, pathos is a proof brought about through the audience as they are, "brought by the speech into a state of emotion." (Aristotle-A, p. 9) Men reason differently when they feel deeply about a matter than when the atter at hand has no direct effect upon them. Given that the dissertaton will not deal with oral rhetoric, the concept of persuasion through appeals to emotion is one used by the various companies in written form. This seems to be the major difference, written form, although the categorizing of the emotional appeals in the dissertation will deal with emotional aspects of appeals not apparent in the classical period. An example of emotions noted by Aristotle which has relevance in the advertising of technology is the emotion classified as emulation in Book II of the Rhetoric. "Let emulation be defined as a pain at what we take to be the presence, in the case of persons who are by nature like us, of goods that are desirable and are possible for us to attain— a pain felt, not because 91. the other person has these goods, but because we do not have them as well. Accordingly, emulation is a good emotion, and characteristic of good men." (Aristotle-A, p. 129) The advertising strategies of the pc companies will sometimes feature the thought that the reason one should buy a pc is not because what it will do, but quite simply because others, presumably in the same demographic sectors, already have them and possess some type of "edge" because of their possession. The key in the advertising would seem to be to identify correctly those people who already own pc's that are like the people the pc company wishes to buy the computer. Then the pc company can portray the current owners in such ways that the non-owners will wish to emulate, in this case buy a computer. While Aristotle's catalogue of feelings and their opposites give us a beginning for examination of pathetic appeals, it should be noted that in some cases Aristotle's fifteen categories do not exhaust the pathetic appeals of new technology. Aristotle's categories are anger-mildness, love-hatred, fear-boldness, shame-shamelessness, benevolence-unkindness, pity, indignation, envy, emulation-contempt. (Aristotle-A, pp. 93-131) It is unclear how to explain certain types of pathetic appeals adapted for a business audience with the above categories. The IBM/Charlie Chaplin ads are examples of this problem. Clearly there is an emotional appeal to corporate persons having problems with information control in these advertisements. You will perform better, be rewarded, etc., if you use the pc to control your information. While at first glance love, particularly of self, may seem to be the emotion sought, this conflicts with the definition offered by Aristotle of his category of love/friendship. "Let loving be defined as wishing for a person those things you consider to be good— wishing them for his sake, not for your own." (Aristotle-A, p. 102) It is hard to imagine that the advertising done for technology in the business realm is trying to persuade one to purchase because of a love for others. So in the business appeals this model will use business competence as one of the emotional types of appeals not listed in Aristotle. It is clearly an emotional appeal and yet does not fit into the former categories. Most of the appeals for the pc in a non-business setting are explainable using the fifteen categories of Aristotle and while some definitions are needed, the categories themselves will serve for this model. It would seem that pathetic appeals, with the exception cited above, do not change dramatically for different types of objects but can be formed by attending to 93. categories given by Aristotle. Logos The logical proofs found in pc advertising seem to cluster around the abilities of the machines in certain technical areas. Most are clearly enthymematic, using both the notion of suppressed premises and conclusions as well as the notion of probability. The logical appeals may center around a competitive advantage gained by use of the computer. Your company will run its inventory better, keep its books better, etc. The logic of the appeals generallystems from the notion of importance of a single functon, i.e., business bookkeeping, learning for children, and makes the enthymematic assumption that by using a computer you will be able to do these things better and that they are needed functions within a given lifestyle. Very few advertising appeals simply list the quantitative advantages of the advertised machine as compared to others offered in the marketplace. The comparative advantages are linked to emotional appeals for the most part. If one could suggest an enthymematic phrase that is pervasive it would be "which means to you that...." An example would be an advertisement which explains the amount of RAM a machine has or can be made to produce through internal enhancement. While RAM capabilities are important logically, most advertisments go on to use the phrase, "which means to you that...." in their appeal. You get a better RAM capability which means to you that you can run more programs which are user friendly, which means to you that you will be better able to perform the needed operations on your pc, which means to you that your "business competence" will be greatly heightened. It is this type of chaining enthymematically which is found in the advertising for pc's, and while the logical part of the argument is found at the beginning of the argument, clearly logic is not a complete explanation of the final attempt at persuasion. While logical argument plays a part in the model of new technology advertising, it is suggested that logic will not be a major thrust in the types of appeals found in the computer companies' advertising. Technos In the Aristotelian model the artistic proofs are divided into three categories, ethical, logical, and pathetic. For the model to be completed a fourth area of proof will be added, that of technos. A coined word, technos comes from techne. Techne is defined as the 95. knowledge and application of principles involved in the production of objects. For Aristotle episterae implies disinterested knowledge of principles while techne implies the application of principles and relates to productive science. Technos will be defined as the proof that is given importance in cultures whose formation rests heavily on scientific and technological advancement. Technos is the proof which makes the assumption that technology, specifically new technology, is the road to the formation of a society in which technological advances will negate many of the unfortunate social ills. Technos, as a proof, seldom asks axiological questions. Indeed, in much of the writing on modern technology, and specifically in writing dealing with computers, philosophical questions are seen as aberrations of "old fashioned" minds. The pejorative nature of "old fashioned" indicates some of the strength of the technos type of proof. Marvin Minsky of MIT, a well-respected name in the field of artificial intelligence, based much of his writing on the technos type of proof that is proposed within this model. Don't ask questions about the impact of the technology before we invent the technology, ask whether or not we can make the technology. The invention of the new technology seems to be the end within itself. Technos. In examining both advertising appeals and selected writings done on computers in general, the concept of technos can be seen as pervasive. Computers will serve us in ways hitherto unavailable. We can communicate, number, catalog, write, invent, and be done with numerous tasks that are necessary for the "post industrial" society of Bell by using technology. One particular aspect of computers and the future concerns artificial intelligence, AI. Feigenbaum and McCorduck, in The Fifth Generation, are pleased to announce that the Japanese firms involved with AI have stopped asking the question of what intelligence or thinking is and are going full speed ahead with research on how to make the machines do what it is they can't quite define. An excellent example of technos, cultural certainty of the primacy of technology. Give us something to invent and we will throw so much technological power at it that sooner or later we will have worked it out. There are some few misguided writers and thinkers who dare to ask axiological questions but they are obviously unhinged. Brod, in Technostress, points out that computers have caused many kinds of human stress problems in the American working place because of a lack of concern of the consequences of technological advance. Weizenbaum goes so far as to ask not only what tasks computers can do but whether or not they should be 97. allowed to do them. But these, and others who question the rapid advance of technology in computers, are against the mainstream of technos, and it is technos which is a predominant force in the rhetoric of our times. In forming a model for this dissertation the use of the fourth proof, technos, will be included and argued for as a modern inclusion in rhetorical practices concerning technology. One can see some analogies in those non-technical consumer products, such as toothpaste and mouthwash, in which the major promise of the advertising is that the product is "new" and usually "improved." Don't ask what the new and improved things in the product are; be satisfied that they are new and improved. Computer advertisers have a phrase they regularly use, based on technos. "State-of-the-Art" appears everywhere and is used as a proof in and of itself. If you don't have the "state-of-the-art" machine then you are in some way either disadvantaged or at least behind those of your social group who are able to obtain the newest of the new. Technos is the proof; it is the newest of the new, and this newness of the technology in and of itself makes its not only worthy of your attention but certainly deserving of your consumption. While technos is to be seen on a more abstract level then ethos, pathos, and logos, which are explainable at a less than cultural level, it is suggested that the concept of technos is one which will help to explain uses of rhetorical appeals in the area of personal computers and possibly give a theoretical construct which will be helpful in explaining rhetorical communication in various areas of modern life. Enthymeme The enthymeme is the principal form of rhetorical argumentation. Within this model explanation of data will depend in some part on the distinguishing characteristics of the enthymeme. While much has been written concerning the enthymeme, McBurney in Speech Monographs (1936) has set the standard for interpretation of the use of the enthymeme. The most important concept, and the one which will be used throughout the dissertation is that an enthymeme is built upon accepted premises of a probable nature. The counterpart of the enthymeme in dialectic is the syllogism, a form in which major and minor premises are built upon certainty. (The issue of argument from first principles is not one that will be a part of this dissertation) The question of a suppressed premise is not one which is of major concern in the definition of the enthymeme. It is possible to show examples of syllogistic truncation which are commonly used and thus truncation is not a defining characteristic of the enthymeme alone. (An example of a syllogism given in truncated form would be; Socrates is a man, therefore mortal, which leaves out the major premise, all men are mortal.) While the enthymematic reasoning used in the rhetoric of the computer companies certainly has a great deal of truncation in it, this truncation is not, as suggested above, its defining variable as an enthymeme. The enthymeme can be seen in two forms, the demonstrative and refutative. With a demonstrative enthymeme "we draw a conclusion from consistent propositions; by the refutative we draw a conlusion from inconsistent propostions." (Aristotle-A, p. 158) The model used for this dissertation will include examination of the enthymematic reasoning with the definition of the enthymeme being one in which premises used to make an argument are in the area of probable rather then the certain. Topoi Rogers and Shoemaker, in Communication of Innovations, have suggested five perceived attributes of innovations and the relationship these five have to the rate of adoption of innovation. The five categories are; relative advantage, complexity, trialability, compatibility, and observability.(Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 135)) These five categories will be used as additional topoi in the dissertation to give better understanding of how the arguments of the computer companies are constructed. Relative advantage as a topoi revolves around two arguments. First, that the pc in question will perform better than others offered to the consumer, and second, that a pc will be better in its task than the current method. Some computer companies, particularly as pcs become more common, argue that complexity is a key issue. Apple in particular appeals to the public using an argument based on the premise that the Apple machine handbooks are easier to use than those of other companies. This topoi is one which has specific applications for technological innovations and is useful in explanation of certain types of computer appeals. Compatibility will be a useful line of argument in examining the rhetoric of computer advertising. Rogers and Shoemaker suggest that success in the diffusion of innovation depends to some degree on the perceived compatibility of the innovation with past experiences 101. and social constraints of the audience. (Rogers & Shoemaker, p. 145) In the dissertation the topoi of compatibility will be one that has use in explaining certain types of advertising campaigns. The concept of trialability is not one which has a great % deal of use in dealing with the data for this dissertation. The concept of observability is used by one company in particular, as noted in the next chapter. Thus the four topoi to be used in this model will be complexity, compatibility, relative advantage, and observability. The use of Rogers & Shoemaker's categories add to the theoretical base of his model. By choosing topoi which are modern concepts the model will be an expanded one based on classical theory. The use of the five categories indicates the salience of Rogers & Shoemaker's theory to rhetorical criticism and makes possible an examination of a modern technology which will reveal rhetorical strategies made by corporations vending personal computers. Audience Adaptation In the Rhetoric Aristotle states, "...rhetoric will consider, not what seems probable to the individual— but what seems probable to a given class."(Aristotle-A, p. 102. 11) In proposing a model for use in this dissertation the question of audience adaptaption will give us several categories that will be useful in explaining certain types of computer rhetoric. In reviewing the data collected there are several clear classes of end users towards which the appeals of advertising are pointed. The period of advertising examined goes from the beginning of pc advertising in 1978 through the proliferation of pc advertising into 1983. At the beginning of this period the technology of the pc is not understood by the general public and the earliest advertising deals with a large audience, all those who potentially might be consumers of personal computer technologies. In order to understand more fully how the audience adaptation is done one can draw on Rogers and Shoemaker for categories of consumers in new product diffusion. They suggested, in Communication of Innovations that there are five categories of consumers for all innovations.(Rogers & Shoemaker, pp. 175-198)) This five-fold division of consumers is still used in marketing classes and has become something of a standard in the marketing field. The first class is that of the "innovators". Generally about 2.5% of the overall population, this group will be the first to buy new technologies, not only because they see specific use, but also because the innovations are new and purchasing of new products is a defining characteristic of this Innovator class.(Rogers & Shoemaker, pp. 182-83) The second class is that of the "early adaptors." This is an extrememly important class for within this group of people one sees opinion leaders and persons that can influence others within their socio-economic range. About 13.5% of the entire consuming public is found within this class and they are extremely important in gaining larger public acceptance for innovations.(Rogers & Shoemaker, pp. 182-184) The third class is titled "early majority." This comprises some 34% of the total consumer base for a product and is generally the class of consumers that signals a large scale acceptance of a product or service by consumers. (Rogers & Shoemaker, pp. 182-184) The "late majority" comprises, again, some 34% of the total consumers who are possibilities to purchase a new innovation. The fifth class is titled the "laggards," people who generally wait until the market is saturated with the product and in such common use that it is unusual to find consumers who have not responded to the innovation. (Rogers & Shoemaker, pp. 182-185) These five classes are reached in different ways, 104. although the key issue in this dissertation will not deal with all five, but rather with the first three. In the case of the innovators and early adaptors, one often has to turn to specialized advertising channels to find early rhetorical efforts. In the case of the personal computer the advertising channel which was the first print medium to be used was that of the personal computing magazine. Thus, one class of magazines to be used in this research is the computing magazine which will attract the innovators and early adaptors, those people who will search for possible channels to find the new technology. While this audience can be defined as innovators and early adaptors it can also be defined as a general audience, an audience which is seeking information on new technology without complete consideration of the end uses of the product. The Apple pc company, in the earliest ads, is clearly seeking a base of people interested in the computer as a new technology without ultimate concern for the uses of the machine. The audience adaptation process is begun in the pc advertising by choosing those media which will best reach a general audience of people interested in technology. Other divisions of audiences are found in the advertising as special audiences are approached in various media channels. In the model for this dissertation it is suggested that one look at some four different audiences and that audience adaptation takes place in this advertising in order to attract specific target audiences. The first of these audiences is labeled general. A second audience can be labeled as educational. Not specifically educational institutions but the segment of the populace which perceives the pc as a tool for education of children. Another audience is that of the business world. This audience became a major one in 1981 when IBM comes into the market with its PC. Even though there were business software programs available before its entrance into the marketplace, i.e. Visicalc, IBM's entrance into the market signaled an attempt to reach the target market of the business world. This target audience was reached through the media channel of the business magazine. Two of these periodicals will be used to gather data on the types of advertising used in attracting the business client. The area of games and recreation is one which delineates an important market for pcs, at least at the beginning of their existence. This market is best reached by advertising in general magazines and a group of general news magazines has been chosen for collection of advertising in those magazines. Thus we have four categories of audiences for the pc which will be the basis for examination of the data collected for this dissertation. There are, however, other considerations which will become clearer as these data are categorized. The first consideration is that of specific companies choosing specific markets. Apple for educational uses, IBM for business, Commodore for games, etc. A key question to be considered is whether or not some of the companies attempt to change their target market as new software becomes available or marketplace opportunities appear which are needed for growth of a consumer base. Certain companies approach one market, i.e. IBM, and stay there, while others attempt to attract consumers in more than one audience category. A second consideration is the change in the advertising from ads targeted to the general audience to ads targeted for specific audiences. It is this change which is extremely important in the growth of a new technology. Perhaps it is important to define more precisely the general audience in terms of how it is approached with the new technology. By general audience advertising is meant that the advertising is generic in nature. Not "buy the personal computer for a specific purpose," but rather, "buy the personal computer because it is an interesting product." It is in this general mode that the computer becomes a part of the general public's awareness. The change from generic to specific consumers marks a change in the pc companies' conception of the marketplace from an audience unaware of the technology to one of specific uses for an understood technology. The question becomes one of expanding the generic advertising from the innovators and early adaptors to the early and late majorities. As the advertising is placed in general news magazines, a change from the early placement in low readership specialized magazines, the technology, at least in the marketing perceptions of the pc companies, is accepted more and more as a generic technology. This pattern may indicate that the technology has become a part of the general public's perception. By using four audiences in this model(general, business, education, and recreational,) it is possible that the data can be categorized so that patterns of acceptance as well as rhetorical appeals to specific audiences can be viewed. Searching for changes from generic to specific appeals and company identification with a given audience, may yield a pattern of rhetorical appeals that can be generalized to other communication technologies. 108. Summary The proposed model for examination of rhetorical appeals used by personal computer companies is based on three major divisions. First, the area of proofs as seen in the fourfold division. Ethos deals with corporate entities rather than with single rhetors. Logos will have certain considerations dealing with technical proofs. Pathos deals with those emotional appeals which the pc companies believe are compelling to certain audience segments. Technos deals with a cultural proof, that of the technology being accepted because it is new technology rather than using any of the other three appeals. The topoi used to examine the data will be drawn from Rogers and Shoemaker. By examining the data it is possible that patterns will emerge which will lead to generalization of advertising appeals for new communication technologies based on choices of topoi used. Finally, the division of the appeals into their adaptation for four audience groups may reveal patterns which will be generalizable into other technologies. This may help to expand the theoretical base of rhetoric in examination of other related communication technologies, both past and present. The three areas will be cross indexed to give matrices of rhetorical appeals and an anlysis of this final matrixing of categories will be the final output of the model. 110. End Notes Aristotle. The Rhetoric. Trans. Lane Cooper. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Pentice-Hall, Inc., 1932. Brock, Bernard, & Scott, Robert. Methods of Rhetorical Criticism. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1980. Brockriede, Wayne. Dimensions of the Concept of Rhetoric. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1968, 54:1, 1-12. Brod, Craig. Technostress. Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley Publishing Company., 1984. Bryant, Donald. Rhetoric: Its Function and Scope. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1953, 39:4, 401-424. Feigenbaum, Edward, & McCorduck, Pamela. The Fifth Generation:Artificial Intelligence and Japan's Computer Challenge to the World. New York: Signet, 1983. Hudson, Hoyt. The Field of Rhetoric. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 1923, 9:2, 167-180. McBurney, James. The Place of the Enthymeme in Rhetorical Theory. Speech Monographs, 1936, 3, 49-74. Rogers, Everett, & Shoemaker, Floyd. Communication of Innovations. New York: The Free Press, 1971. Chapter IV:Data Decisions and Methods of Collection Data Decisions Three questions affected the collection of the data for this study. First, which data best reveals the persuasive arguments put forth by the various companies over the years 1977 to 1983? There were various modes used by the companies chosen to appeal to a variety of audiences. At the beginning of the introduction of the personal computer to the public, the one source employed was that of the electronic and computer magazines. The first cover article written on personal computers can be found in the January, 1975 issue of Popular Electronics. An interesting anecdote concerning the picture appearing on the cover is provided in Fire in The Valley which states that the computer that was to be shown on the cover of the magazine was lost in transit to the magazine's offices. In fact, the picture on the cover of the magazine was a photo of an empty metal box masquerading as a computer. (Freiberger and Swaine p. 34-35) While a great deal of the early personal computer 112. sales were generated through word ofmouth or at meetings of groups such as the Homebrew Computer Clubs, the major breakthroughs in sales occurred as various magazines began to run advertisements for the various personal computers and their components. Thus the decision to make the personal computer magazines one of the groups of mass print media was taken. The issue of which of these magazines to use in the research was solved in a pragmatic fashion. The magazines had to have been published from 1977 onward. This led to the choices included in this research of the following magazines; Byte, Interface Age, Popular Computing, and Popular Electronics. The popularity of the personal computer topic may be seen in the decision, taken in 1982, for the magazine Popular Electronics to change its name to Computers and Electronics as of the November, 1982 issue. While the initial appeals for purchase of the personal computer were done in the computer magazines, a major step for the industry was the placement of advertising in general readership magazines, marking a change in the audience as well as a potential change in the rhetorical appeals because of the audience. At the beginning of the research thfcee general news magazines were chosen; Time, Newsweek, and OS News & World 114. Report. These were chosen because they represent the three largest general readership magazines in the news category. (AFA, p. 167) The magazines were analyzed in the order of largest circulation to smallest/ that is the research began with Timey progessed to Newsweek/ and then to US News & World Report. By the time the research was completed in Time and Newsweek it became apparent that there was a duplication of advertising materials in the two magazines. US News & World Reportr at least through 1982/ did not have a single advertisment that was different than those found in the other two magazines. Thus the decision was made to include only Time and Newsweek since the data collected was not selected to show the number of advertisements each company used but rather to show new advertising done in any of the three categories of magazines. The third category of magazines was that of the business news magazines. As with the general news magazines, three specific publications were chosen prior to the beginning of the research. They were Business Weekf Fortune, and Forbes. As with the general news magazines it soon became apparent that redundancy was occuring in the placement of specific advertisments. Thus the decision was made to limit the research to Business Week and Fortune. These magazines were 115. chosen, as were the general news magazines, on the'basis of their circulation. The reason for choosing these three categories deals with the hypothesis that the rhetorical appeals in the various categories would change with the need for audience adaptation. As will be seen in the data, this occurred, although not to the extent expected. One should note that the personal computer industry is still very young, that changes in advertising patterns are occuring as new products and audiences are identified and companies attempt to vend their products to various target markets. Amajor change in channels of appeals has been in the use, at least by the two biggest personal computer companies, Apple and IBM, of electronic media, in particular television. Question Two Second which computer companies merited study? Three of the five companies chosen were obvious choices. This first choice was Apple. It was the first company to bring out an assembled personal computer and for a time it was the largest of the personal computer companies. From its rather humble beginning in the garage of Jobs and Wozniak, Apple has progressed to 116. become a billion dollar company. (Business Week, Oct. 3 83, p. 79) While no longer a small enterpreneurial enterprise it positioned itself against the computer establishment. One can see this in the current (1985) advertising which uses the phrase, "The computer for the rest of us." The rise of Apple closely parallels the history of the personal computer industry. Apple's sales were $775 thousand by the end of 1977, grew to $335 million in four years and were pegged at over one billion dollars by the end of 1983. (Augarten p. 280) This rocketing of sales was a story that was to be copied by various other companies, at least for a time. The personal computer industry was a tinkerer's world at its beginning, with information passed between interested parties in ways that large corporations would not allow. In the various computer magazines, particularly Byte, companies, or at least the inventors within the companies, would print the specifications of their machines. Wozniak, in 1977 issues of Byte published most of the electrical and mechanicalinformation needed to assemble an Apple computer. One company, Franklin, took this information and built a business around it. It should be noted that in 1984 Franklin filed for Chapter 11 protection so one can not assume that having 117. most of another company's technology is sufficient to make a profit. (Electronic News, June 24, 1984) But back to Apple. It was a company run, at least in the beginning, by Jobs and Wozniak, neither of whom had any business background. The major difference between Apple and the rest of the small companies, i.e. MITS, IMSAI, North Star, Altair, Cromenco and a variety of others, lies in both the aggressive advertising and decisions made concerning the technical capacities of the machines made. (IMSAI and MITS were bankrupt by 1979)(Augarten p. 276) The Apple advertising, from the very beginning, used wit, sometimes to the point of cuteness. Apple advertising broke new ground, since the personal computer was not a known product to the general public. The idea of using something other than the standard business and technical ads of the older mainframe companies clearly set Apple apart from previous national advertising. As with the personal computer industry, Apple set its own rules concerning rhetorical appeals and in part (although this is difficut to quantify absolutely), this accounts for the national rise of the company. One of the many innovations used by Apple in its advertising was the interaction with the audience. In the November 1979 issue of Byte Apple ran an ad stating, 118. "We're looking for the most original use of an Apple since Adam." (Appendix A-Ad 23) Within the ad Apple asked its user to write to the company with stories of their Apple computer uses. If the story was unusual enough the writer would receive a one-week, all-expense paid tour to Hawaii. Apparently many people wrote in because in one unusual ad placed in both Time and Newsweek in the November 29 issue of that year, 100 different uses were given with specific names of the users included. Prior to this ad, there had been several ads which dealt with people who were using the Apple computer in new and interesing ways. This type of audience interaction was typical of the freshness of Apple's approach to the market. While Apple was inventive and now has some 26% of the market, there are problems in the overall position of the company; in 1985 the company is still selling the Apple II as its major product, (Shaffer, p. 37) Apple III failed; Lisa has been less than a success; and Macintosh sales are not where the company expected them to be. (Shaffer, p. 37) It would seem that IBM has been able to become the alternative choice in schools and the home while Apple has scarcely become the IBM alternative in business.(Shaffer, p. 37) When one writes of the computer establishment one is speaking of a single company, IBM. While there are many other major companies vending mainframe and personal computers IBM is clearly the pace setter in the minds of the personal computer companies. The announcement of IBM's entry into the personal computer market was made in August of 1981. (Business Week. Oct 3, 83 p. 76) The first advertisment for the IBM PC was placed in October of the same year, using corporate ethos for the first time in the rhetorical appeals for personal computers. "IBM is a big company," said Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft. (Freibergr & Swain p. 269) It became, by October 1983, not only the biggest mainframe computer company but also the leading personal computer company with some 28% of the market to Apple's 26%. (Business Week, Oct 3, 1983 p. 77) IBM's entry into the marketplace altered the advertising of most of the other companies significantly as well as their marketing strategy. None of the other computer companies had the enormous financial strength of IBM nor did they have the long-term corporate identification with computers. Everyone was now playing the game with the largest computer company in the world and the competition was fierce. When asked how much of the market he thought IBM was trying to attract, analyst Richard Dyson of 120. Rosen Research responded, " 1 0 0 % (Business Week, Oct 3, 1983 p.83) This is reflected in the appeals of the "other" companies. No one doubted that IBM would be a force in personal computers except for a company that had the greatest vested interest. Doyle Dane Bernbach handled $70 million in billings for IBM's corporate and office system advertising. When IBM sought an advertising company it turned first to its corporate advertiser which thought, "PC? That little thing? Let 'em (some other company) have it!" according to one now rueful executive. "After we saw what it was becoming we thought, 'Holy s !'" (Business Week, Oct 3 1983, p. 62) A company called Lord Geller Frederico Einstein got the PC account, started the use of the Charlie Chaplin image, and now is billing more than the original IBM corporate account. (Business Week, Oct 3 1983 p. 62) The billings for the advertising indicate the intensity of the use of public appeals. While IBM changed the personal computer market significantly, the personal computer market changed IBM in many ways, at least the division that was making the personal computer. David Bradley, one of the designers of the IBM PC stated, "If you're going to compete with five men in a garage, you have to do something 121. different." (Business Week, Oct 3 1983 p. 90) One of the early problems, although obviously IBM has managed to overcome it, was the question of IBM's image within the community of personal computer users. The company was generally secretive about any technological advances it made, used only parts that it could control, and tried to control all of the manufacturing processes including software design and programming capabilities. The introduction of the personal computer changed all of these facets and IBM's choice of rhetorical appeals placed in a variety of magazines is an indication of some of these changes. For a company used to design secrecy, the ad placed in the December, 1981 issue of Byte is a remarkable change.(Appendix A-Ad 24) The ad is two pages and has the entire inside of the IBM PC laid out for all to see. While a person could buy the PC and remove its insides, the use of a national ad with all the components laid out is a rhetorical gesture of some significance. IBM recognizes the audience that dominates the PC market and the placement of this ad is used to identify with that audience. In addition to giving up its traditional secrecy, IBM also began to use components which they didn't control. Lee Felsenstein, a pioneer in the Homebrew 122. Computer Club, got one of the first delivered IBM's and opened it at a Homebrew meeting. He said, "I was surprised to find chips in there I recognized. There weren't any chips I didn* t recognize. My experience with IBM so far was, when you find IBM parts in a junk box you forget about them because they're all little custom jobs and you can't find any data about them.” Felsenstein continued, "IBM is off in a world of its own. But in this case (the IBM PC) they were building with parts that mortals could get." (Freiberger & Swaine, pp. 276-77) Not only could mortals get the parts, all of them, they were also brought into the software and programming part of IBM through ads run in 1982 and 1983. These ads mark another departure from the traditional protectionism within the company. In the September 1982 issue of Byte, and in following ads, IBM asked outside programmers to design software for the IBM PC. With copy such as "Attention all programmers. Here's a chance to reach the top. If you've written software that's completed and runs on the IBM PC, we could be interested in publishing it."(Byte Sept 82 pp. 116-117) Another ad in this series, published in Byte in February 1983 begins with the appeal, "Draw attention to yourself. Write a program for the IBM PC." These ads, 123. and others like them, offered programmers the opportunity to become involved with the largest computer company in the world. And this company, IBM, solicited the aid of outside programmers, something the company had never considered doing with its mainframe computers. It is interesting to note that IBM felt that appeals could, and should, be made through mass print media. Another facet of IBM rhetorical appeals which changed with the introduction of the PC was the corporate symbol. The first ads for IBM dealt with corporate ethos. Headlines such as "Introducing the IBM of the Personal Computers," depended on the corporate ethos of the parent company. (Apendix A-Ad 15) By early 1982 the PC was represented, not by the "Big Blue" IBM logo but by the figure of Charlie Chaplin. Actually not Charlie Chaplin, but his comic alter-ego, The Little Tramp. The tramp figure is still in current use. Early ads play upon Chaplin pictures with copy such as "Keeping up with modern times." At the same time the corporate signature at the end of the ad became, "The IBM Personal Computer. A tool for modern times." IBM's use of a secondary figure, other than their famous blue IBM logo, marks a distinct departure for this staid company. While still remaining IBM (Every now and then they will remind you of their heritage) they also have 124. positioned their advertising, in both print and electronic media, with a popular clown from the 20's and 30's. Truly it seems that they were thinking like the "five men in a garage." The third company researched. Radio Shack/Tandy, had the third largest share of the personal computer market, some 12%. (Business Week, Oct 3, 1983) Radio Shack brought out their first assembled personal computer the same year Apple did, in addition to starting their advertising in 1977. There was a significant difference in their operations from the rest of the computer companies which affected their appeals and the types of both proofs and topoi used in these appeals. Radio Shack was an already established electronic retail chain which branched into personal computers. It already had in place a chain of stores, some 8,868 in 1983, which could be used to sell the personal computer. (Business Week, Oct 3, 1983 p. 83) Radio Shack was the first personal computer company to run an advertisment in the general news magazines, placing their first one in December of 1978 in Time magazine. The advertising for personal computers is like that for their other products, such as electronic components for radios and stereo equipment. As such, the appeals used by Radio Shack are different in nature 126. from those of the other companies researched. As with IBM, Radio Shack departed from their earlist rhetorical appeals with the use of ethos. In this case it was the use of Issac Asimov as a spokesperson for the company in its advertising. The pre-eminent science fiction author can be seen in advertising beginning in 1982 with their introduction of the pocket computer. The face of Asimov is in the background over the copy, "A few years ago, the idea of a computer you could put in your pocket was just science fiction." (Appendix A-Ad 25) Asimov was used intermittently through 1983 with the last Radio Shack ad of that year being found in Interface Age in December. There, the "renowned science and science-fiction author" is quoted as saying, "What a value! This Christmas save $80 on a new TRS-80 Color Computer!" (Appendix A-Ad 26) As if this isn't embarrassing enough, later in the ad Asimov is quoted as saying, "During the day I might write about starships. At night, I blast 'em on my Color Computer!" Radio Shack has the dubious distinction of using the most obnoxious appeal of all the companies researched. The copy in the October, 1978 issue of Interface Age states that, "Everybody with brains is buying Radio Shack's $599 personal computer." ( Appendix A-Ad 6) One wonders what the buyers of other company's computers were using in making their choices. This was one of the few times that Radio Shack used a proof other than technos. It would appear that the company wasn't very skilled at using pathetic appeals. The fourth company chosen for inclusion in the research was Commodore. Commodore was not in the top five in 1983 but was chosen because of its longevity in the marketplace. Commodore ads appear in 1978 and are found continuously through the next five years. In addition it has retained its image in the marketplace and continues to this date to advertise while gaining larger shares of the market each year. Commodore represents the smaller companies which began in 1977 or 78 and whichhave endured to the present. There are others such as Cromenco, North Star and Altos but Commodore has consistently advertised in major magazines and has found a niche in the market through its advertising that is distinctly different from the other companies selected for research. One of the reasons for Commodore's continued survival and success may be its low price. Of the four personal computer manufacturing companies, the VIC-20 and the Commodore-64 are easily the lowest priced. This poses a problem for the company which is rather neatly 128. handled in the advertising. Three ads show Commodore's attempt to do away with the low price problem. In the September 13, 1982 issue of Time the lead for the Commodore ad reads, "A real computer for the price of a toy." (Appendix A-Ad 27) A second ad of this type can be found in Computers and Electronics of July 1983 in which the question is asked, "If personal computers are for everybody, how come they're priced for nobody?" (Appendix A-Ad 28) These appeals give the impression that Commodore was sensitive to the suggestion that the price of the machine was too low to be included in the "serious" computer buyer's choices. As with IBM and Radio Shack, Commodore tried to use ethos as a part of their advertising and in doing so made an interesting choice of spokesperson. William Shattner, better known to most people as "Captain Kirk," (now Admiral Kirk) of "Startrek" is the person used in ads in 1981 and 1982. It is difficult to imagine whom Commodore thought Shattner would appeal to in the ads but perhaps their research department turned up the fact that "Trekies" bought personal computers in large numbers. The fifth company to be researched was ComputerLand. The first retail store was the Arrow Head Computer Store opened by Dick Heiser in 1975.(Freiberer 129. & Swaine, p. 185) ComputerLand soon followed, opening its first store on November 10, 1976 in Hayward, California and its first franchise store on February 8, 1977 in Morristown, New Jersey. (Frieberer & Swaine, p. 194) ComputerLand, and stores like it, offered a wide variety of personal computers to the public. While certain personal computer companies, such as MITS, would sell computers to stores promising not to have competitive products, the general trend was to find as many possibilities for retailing as the market offered. ComputerLand was started in response to the original marketing mode, mail order. Most companies were ethical in their mail order advertising, but there were some that offered products that either didn't exist or didn't work well. (One should remember that the original cover story concerning the Altair computer in 1975 was done with a picture of an empty box rather than a working computer, hardly an auspicious beginning to the industry.) Retail stores offered the consumer a chance to see the machines as well as a place where repair work could be done. Because of these variables the rhetorical appeals were different in many respects from those of single companies. One type of appeal omitted from this research involved co-op advertisements. Co-op advertising is a 130. term indicating that both • the retailer and the manufacturer pay for part of the ad that is placed. In most cases these ads were simply copies of specific ads for personal computer companies and thus were not included in the research since they had been examined under the personal computer company's name. One facet of the rhetorical appeals that underlines the status of IBM and Apple in the personal computer industry through 1983 is the use, beginning in 1982, of comparative advertising. Both Commodore and Radio Shack compare their machines to those of Apple and IBM, sometimes using comparisons of both within their appeals. It is clear that there is a wide gap between Apple and IBM and the rest of the computer companies. Neither Apple nor IBM use any ads which compare their computers with any others. The others must come to them. The five companies finally chosen were Apple, IBM,' Radio Shack, Commodore, and ComputerLand. Each of the five had specific characteristics which made them important entities in the use of rhetorical appeals on behalf of the personal computer. Question Three 131. Third, how can the variables identified in the research model in chapter 3 best be arranged? The variables have been organized in four sets. First, the companies themselves. In this set the question of the type of proof most often used by a company as well as the topoi are examined. Certain companies use specific proofs throughout their advertising. An example of this is Radio Shack which uses technos as its dominant proof over the seven year period. Other companies change the proof during certain time periods. All of the companies, with the exception ofRadio Shack use different types of proofs in their rhetorical appeals. (Radio Shack, as can be seen in the data section of this chapter, rarely changes from technos.) Each company is examined to ascertain the dominant type of proof. An issue to be examined in the company set of information is the impact of the entry of IBM into the marketplace. The question to be answered is whether or not the rhetorical appeals change as IBM becomes a major force in the personal computer industry. The power of IBM, as well as its corporate ethos, may cause changes in the types of appeals other companies use. A second set of variables deals with the changes in appeals based on the year in which the companies place 132. their advertising. In organizing the data, each year was researched separately. The data were then examined over the seven years to find trends emerging in the types of proofs and topoi used in rhetorical appeals. This information can also be correlated to the individual companies themselves. A question to be examined is the proofs used at the time of introduction of the personal computer and the changes that occur in these appeals over time. A third major organizing set is that of the type of magazine in which the advertising appears. This is not as clear a set as the others since many advertisements appear in more than one magazine. There are, however, several ads that appear only in one type of magazine and these have been examined for proof and topoi. An example of this is an IBM set of ads which were run only in the computer magazines. They are clearly intended for a technical audience and are not replicated in any other magazine. In the cases where the advertisement appears in several magazines, the first insertion of the ad is used. Once again, the data does not deal with the number of times an ad is placed but rather with the number of different advertisements. 133. Methods of Collecting Data The collection of data for this dissertation went through several stages. The first was to determine if there was an on-line data base which would track the various appeals in the magazines chosen for examination. There are three major encyclopedic databases; DIALOG, BRS, and ORBIT. BRS, or Bibliographic Retrieval Services, was founded in May, 1976 and can be accessed on Telenet, Tymnet, and Uninet. (Glossbrenner p. 159) It offers some seventy individual databases and is used primarily in tracking articles found in periodicals listed within these various databases. In addition, a user can link into the Dow Jones News/Retrieval Service as well as the New York Times Infomation Bank II and the California Union List of Periodicals. If one connects with BRS during daytime hours, the cost is approximately $30 per hour, plus charges for the data base in which one is searching. In November, 1982 a second service was offered titled, "BRS/After Dark." This requires that the user access between the hours of 6:00 pm and midnight E.S.T. with a basic connect rate of $6 per hour. (Glossbrenner p. 160) This database, while excellent for use in retrieving articles concerning the personal computer industry, does not segment out 134. advertising. ORBIT is a subsidiary of Burroughs. It offers some 80 individual databases and has some fifty-five million citations and abstracts. The cost of use is determined by the database being searched. For instance, if one searches the CHEMDEX files the cost is $125 per hour while databases such as AGRICOLA, an online version of the Bibliography of Agriculture, is offered for $40 per hour. In addition there is a charge of $8 per hour for accessing ORBIT through Telenet or Tymnet.(Glossbrenner pp. 162-63) As with BRS database, this database does not offer access to advertising information but once again is excellent as a tool for tracking information on individual companies as well as finding abstracts of articles useful in the overall research. The third major database is DIALOG, a subsidiary of Lockheed Missile and Space Corporation. Begun in 1969 as a system designed to supply NASA with a documentation collection program, this program changed its name in 1972 to DIALOG which is actually the name of the language used to search the various databases. The costs vary by database, from $300 connect per hour for CLAIMS/UNITERM to ERIC at $25 per hour. In addition online bibliographic citations range from $.15 to $.25 a piece.(Glossbrenner p. 156) 135. It should be noted that these three databases are actually delivery mechanisms for individual databases supplied by information providers, or "IP's." Each organization decides which IP's to carry and then contracts with them as a delivery service. The DIALOG database has within it a service called AdTrack, founded in 1980 by a St. Paul consulting group. In this database advertisements are listed by industry and periodical and the base can be searched for citation, each of which costs $.25. In order to use this database there are two options. The first is to buy a modem, pay the fee to use DIALOG, and search the database through a personal computer or other end terminal. There are several problems with this method. First, the use of the database consists of the searcher's ability to find key words that will call up citations. Unless the user accesses the database often it is probable that he or she will take a great deal of time learning the best way to use the database. Since the user is paying for on-line time whenever a connect is in progress, this can be a rather expensive learning curve. A second problem deals with the rate of transmission of the data. If a modem is used with a 300 baud rate, the connect time is considerably higher than using a modem with a 4800 baud 136. irate. The cost for the higher rate modem may be as much as four to ten times higher. Thus the home user has to decide if the additional cost for a high speed modem is worthwhile. The question to be answered is the cost of line time, longer with the slower modem, vs. the cost of the higher speed modem, with shorter line time needed for transmission. A second option, and perhaps the more practical one, if the user is not constantly connecting with the database, is to use an end terminal with professional searchers. These are to be found at the various major libraries in the community. In the case of this research, the Franklin University Library was used because of the combination of equipment and expertise of the research librarians. Their professional service is free with only the line time and "hits" being billed. (A "hit" is a single citation found. The better the research librarian in using the database, the more often they will "hit" citations that are relevant to the research question being asked.) Using the DIALOG database with the subsystem AdTrack, the year 1980 was searched for ads dealing with personal computers in the magazines selected. The first problem was that the computer magazines were not in the database, but at the beginning it was decided to use AdTrack to gather whatever materials might be found within it. However, when the year 1981 was searched some 1000 plus hits were made. This was because IBM came into the picture and the database does not break down the category of computes into corporate image, office systems, and personal computers. In addition Radio Shack runs ads which have electronic components which are not computer-related and the database could not differentiate in its search between those ads run strictly for pcs and those for other home electronic devices. A second problem deals with the nature of the data for this dissertation. The data is not based on the number of times a single appeal is placed but rather on the number of different appeals made by a personal computer company in the course of the year. Thus in 1983 a search for computer appeals run in general news magazines and business magazines would have cost some $800 for that year alone. Sadly, the use of an encyclopedic database was dropped because of cost as well as efficiency. All of the magazines used were searched in microfilm form. The computer magazines all have an advertisers' index in them which can be searched for the companies to be examined. In this manner, the computer 138. magazines were searched for the five companies listed in the data. Once having found the companies, the appeals were examined. Duplications in computer magazines were dropped as the research was done. There were instances where the same pictorial content was used for several ads with different copy. An example of this can be found in the Apple ads run in 1977. If the copy was found to be different the appeals were treated as separate entities. There were some instances in which the same appeal for a given company was started in more than one magazine in the same month. In this case the appeal which gave the clearest copy was the one used. In the case of the general news magazines and the business magazines the method was fairly simple, if time consuming. The microfilms were put on the viewing machines and then "crawled." The microfilms would be forwarded at slow speed and each time an ad was found which was placed by one of the companies, it was copied. The first magazine so searched was Time, it having the largest circulation of all of the magazines searched. The sequence then went to Newsweek and as mentioned previously, to U.S. News & World Report. The business magazines were searched in the same manner, with Business Week being the first, Fortune the second, and finally Forbes. Duplications in each category, 139. computer, general news, and business were deleted by category and then a final list was compiled by cross-checking one category against another. At the end of this process the total number of different appeals came to 180 with each successive year revealing more appeals placed. It should be mentioned that certain companies such as Texas Instruments and Digital had as many or more ads in 1982 and 1983 than did some of the companies used in the research. While this is true, these two companies came into the marketplace too late to give a tracking in the research. (Both are getting out of the personal computer market at the present time.) Once having assembled the data, the questions of analysis and mechanics next were viewed. The analysis deals with a set of seven variables: the magazine type, the date of publication, the company, the primary proof, the secondary proof (if used), the primary topoi, and the secondary topoi (again if used.) These variables were put into a relational database with additional fields numbering the appeals as well as space for comments. The question of examining secondary proofs and topoi was one which was done after having analyzed some one third of the data. While not used more than fifty 140. percent of the time, appeals in each of the years can be found presenting more than one form of persuasive proof and topoi. The question of the relationship of proofl and proof2 as well as topoil and topoi2 is treated in the data to be presented later in this chapter. In addition it will be discussed in the final chapter. The manipulation of this data was done on a Zenith pc, an IBM compatible, and used the Condor Database. There were three choices of software and hardware available for the use of the database. The hardware choices were an Apple lie, the Zenith W152, and the Digital Rainbow. On the Apple lie the database available was the PFS File. While acceptable as a filing system with rudimentary correlation possible, the PFS simply didn't have the manipulating power necessary to examine the correlation within the data. The Digital Rainbow had as its software DBase II or III. While these are more powerful databases than the PFS and have many of the features needed for manipulation of the data, the language used in manipulation is not as user friendly as the database chosen. In addition, the Digital runs on a CPM system and is not as fast as the Zenith. The Condor database was chosen because it is user friendly, has the manipulating power needed to work with the data collected and analyzed, and works as a 141. relational database. In addition the Zenith has a 10 Meg harddrive so that the data could be stored and worked with in one storage medium without the need to use or interchange floppy disks. The appeals were examined on the basis of the operationalization given above and the coding was then entered into the fields of the database. Having finished this process the database was used in several different manners. First, sorts could be done on any of the variables which would then list the key sort field in either ascending alpha or numerical order. Second, in order to begin to build a set of correlations for the summary and conclusion chapter the data was examined using both a select and display function. In the select function a new result list of variables can be viewed and printed without changing the shape of the original data. An example of this function would be to use the command, "Select dat80 (1980 data) where the company is Apple and the Proofl (primary proof) is T (Technos) and the Topoil (primary Topoi) is compatability." The computer will then search all records for 1980 and send these into a result set. One can then manipulate the result set further if desired. As is evident with this type of command, the database is user friendly. By using fairly common 142. English commands the computer can select variables and deliver these rapidly either to the printer or the screen. The display function is much the same except a result set is not created. In this the commands are identical to the select function but the end result is seen on the screen and cannot be manipulated further. It can be printed as well as viewed, but once either of these functions are done the information ceases to exist. With select, a result set exists, can be named, and called up at any time. The display command is useful to find out how many times a particular relationship occurs between the data and is best used at the beginning of the research to ascertain if there are certain relationships occurring often enough to have significance. The Condor database has many other commands that were used in the research and they can be found in the reference manual for Condor. While it is not a particularly well-known database, Condor has features not available in better known databases and can be a valuable research tool in a wide variety of settings. The retail cost of Condor is $695 which might be a deterent to its use in many cases. Finally the Condor database has a function called report writer which can be used as a print command for the data. The word processing of ths dissertation has been done on an Apple lie using Apple Writer II, but the numerical data has been printed using the report function. The same printers can be used by both machines. 144. End Notes Augarten, Stan. Bit by Bit; An Illustrated History of Computers. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1984. Freiberger, Paul, & Swaine, Michael. Fire in the Valley. Berkeley, California: Osborne/McGraw Hill, 1984. Glossbrenner, Alfred. The Complete Handbook of Personal Computer Communications. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983. Personal Computers: And the Winner is IBM. Business Week. Oct 3, 1983. Shaffer, Richard. Apple Computer's Uphill Battle. Personal Computing, May, 1985. 37. Chapter ViOperationalization of Terms and Data Analysis Technos The first issue, indeed a key to this dissertation, is the use of the proof technos. While other chapters deal with the sociological use of technos its direct definition may not be clearly inferred from the writing. Technos is an inartistic proof that uses technical information without explanation of how the technology is to be used. The enthymematic assumption in a technos-based appeal is that superior technology, in and of itself, is sufficient reason to be persuaded to use a machine. The best example of a generic technos proof is the use of the words, "State of the Art." These can be seen in advertising done for a wide variety of communication technologies including television, radio, stereophonic equipment, video-disks and VCR's. The implication is that the technology should be purchased, or at least used, because it is the newest technology available. The audience for these appeals are given a type of proof 145. 146. which does not fit into the other three classic appeals, since at the time when these appeals were identified and categorized technology was not available in the society. In the computer appeals there is a great deal of use of technos as a proof as the collected data will show. All of the manufacturing companies examined in this dissertation use it as a primary proof in their appeals at some time. The primary use of technos is through a listing of the technological parts of the personal computer. An example is the appeal Apple placed in Newsweek in the February 8, 1982 issue. The lead for the ad is, "Now that you've seen their first generation, take a look at our third." (Appendix A-Ad 1)In the ad, which refers to IBM but does not mention the name, a listing of the various technical parts of the machine is given. Broken into standard memory, maximum memory, expandability, diskette storage per drive, mass storage per drive, and display graphics capability, the ad attempts to show how the technolgy of the Apple is clearly superior to the other machines listed. There is no attempt to explain what these various categories are and the enthymematic assumption is that the better technology provides the buyer with the better machine. One part of the technos-based appeals which is seldom brought out is the selectivity of the technical 147. variables used in the advertising. For instance, the IBM computer has a faster machine speed as well as a 16-bit processor, both of which are technical advantages over the Apple machine. In comparative ads the company placing the ad is careful not to include technical areas where their machine might suffer in comparison with another. Radio Shack consistently uses technos as its primary proof. An example of this can be seen in the January, 1979 issue of Interface Age in which the copy begins with the lines, "If you haven't looked carefully at the Level-II TRS-80, you're in for a big surprise. Level II BASIC gives TRS-80 advanced features like comprehensive string handling, multi-dimension arrays, multi-letter variable names, named cassette files, full editing, integer arithmetic, single and double precision arithmetic, formatted printing, memory-mapped video, 128X48 video graphics, error trapping, auto line numbering... to name just a few." After this stunning exposition of technology the ad goes on. "Because Level II is in ROM, TRS-80 powers-up ready to go with the full 16K RAM available for your use. This means that TRS-80's memory is equivalent to a 28K RAM-based system." (Appendix A-Ad 2)One wonders how anyone could have stopped themselves from buying this personal 148. computer after such an appeal. A different type of appeal based on technos can be seen in the ad appearing in the Newsweek issue of July 26, 1982. (Appendix A-Ad 3) Some 95% of this ad consists of listings of various software programs that can be used on the Apple machine. There is only a small amount of persuasive writing which is the ending paragraph of the two page ad. In this the conclusion "you can do more things with an Apple than with any other computer you can buy," solidifies the technos appeal. The appeal is clearly enthymematic in nature with hundreds of software programs listed. None of the software programs are explained according to specific function, none of them are priced, and none of them are rated as to their abilities vis-a-vis the other programs. It is an overwhelming array of technolgical additions to the machine itself and shows that use of technos can extend beyond the actual personal computer machine to software for use with the machine. An ad which uses technos as its dominant proof with logos also included is one found in Time in the May 23, 1982 issue. (Appendix A-Ad 4) The basis of the copy is taken from the headline, "The IBM Personal Computer: More bang for your buck." The more bang is technos. A system including 64 K of user memory, 160K diskette 149. drive, and a color/graphics adapter is the basis for the appeal of this machine. Growth options including color monitors, printers, and more memory are also available to enlarge upon the technical capabilities of the machine. All of this at a price that is "better than ever," which can be interpreted as a logical appeal. The ad uses technos as its primary proof and ends with a relative advantage for the consumer. By getting all of the technical advances, as well as software programs (unlisted) you will be able to make "your system a truly useful, valuable, and versatile tool." There is no information on how his last phenomenon is going to occur. Simply that the listing of the technology within the ad carries with it the enthymematic assumption that the more of the technology you possess, the better your use of it will be. A final example of technos in the personal computer advertising can be found in the March, 1983 issue of Interface Age. (Appendix A-Ad 5) It is an interesting blend of several proofs but the dominant one is technos. First it shows the machine layout in the pictorial part of the ad, second the copy refers to the technical advances made in the machine. This is the technos of the ad. (An argument can be made that this is an example of an ethical proof with a machine as the source 150. of the ethos. The Apple II series, as has been documented, was themost popular of all the personal computers until the introduction of the IBM PC. Is this an attempt by Apple to assign an ethical appeal to a machine? Probably not, but that interpretation is conceivable.) The appeal is based on the technical improvements of the machine and has paragraphs which are pure technos and others which are logical in character. The fifth paragraph cites the expandable memory and then goes on to explain that you can "create fatter files and crunch larger numbers of numbers," a combination of technos and logos. The next paragraph is pure technos with no potential uses for the technical advances listed. The seventh paragraph is also pure technos. The improved peripheral ports of paragraph eight are then given a logical appeal since these ports, " make it a lot easier to connect and disconnect game controllers, printers and all those other wonderful things that go with an Apple Personal Computer." The ad changes from paragraph to paragraph in terms of using technos alone or with another type of proof. But the overall proof of this ad is an excellent example of technos. This type of appeal is repeated by all the companies, not only in the computer journals but in the 151. general news magazines and business magazines as well. The use of technos as the principal proof can be found in 54% of the appeals found, with n=180. Technos is a dominant proof in these ads and, as can be seen in the above examples, is a category of proof which can be found only in a technological society. The complexity of the technos advertising makes it difficult, in many cases, for anyone but the initiated to read many of these ads, and yet ads in general news magazines also use technos. The assumption may be made that the various computer companies expect the readers of these appeals to have a background in the language of the computer. Pathos The three classical appeals, logos, pathos and ethos are all readily seen in the ads for computers. Pathos is used in various forms. An example already cited is the Radio Shack appeal which begins with the line, "Everybody with brains is buying Radio Shacks $599 Personal Computer." (Appendix A-Ad 6) One trend that holds through the years is that Christmas brings out the pathos in all the writing done in the appeals. At that time of year technos clearly is secondary to pathos as 152. the major form of appeal. There are other ads that are better done in terms of using pathos as their basic form of proof. In the Time issue dated January 15, 1982 one can see an excellent use of pathos by IBM. (Appendix A-Ad 7) The question of family life is used as a basic appeal. In this ad the personal computer is projected to be something that is akin to having a son "borrow a tie." It is an appeal to parents, probably upper middle class in nature, and in using examples from family life in the copy it clearly makes a pathetic appeal. It is interesting to note that this ad is from IBM and yet it is attempting to place the purchase of a personal computer in the family domain rather than in the business domain, an unusual departure for IBM. Another type of pathetic appeal has a twofold objective. In the Byte issue of June, 1983 IBM places an ad which appeals to the computer hackers of the world to become allied with the world's largest computer company. (Appendix A-Ad 8) The emotional part of the appeal is to the various programmers who are possible sources of new programs for IBM. In a scenario in which the programmer is being notified of acceptance of his/her new program, an emotional appeal, IBM is reaching out to those who help them in a way that is new 153. to the IBM corporate image. By placing this ad in Byte, IBM is showing that its well-known corporate secrecy and internal workings are to be different in the case of the personal computer to the specific audience of the magazine. The two objectives of the ad are to attract independent programmers and to establish a new corporate identity in the minds of the computer enthusiast and hobbyist. The use of a pathetic appeal rather than any of the other choices may help to lighten the attempted transition from the image of a large corporate giant to simply a maker of personal computers which happens to be a large company. Radio Shack uses a pathetic appeal in its ad appearing in the October 11, 1982 issue of Newsweek. (Appendix A-Ad 9) In this ad the appeal is to a wide range of users with the copy stating that "Your computing needs are unique." Because of the variety of people that can use the TRS-80 each one can find some type of Radio Shack pc that will fit his/her needs. There is no technos, no logos, no ethos, only a simple pathetic appeal to people that says that each one of them is important. A final example of pathos as a dominant appeal can be seen in Interface Age in the July, 1982 issue.(Appendix A-Ad 10) By beginning the copy with the mention of "unprecedented pressures, problems and paperwork of this information age," IBM is presenting an emotional appeal aimed at all those who may be stressed in their work or play. The answer to this stress is an IBM computer, "A tool for modern times." Logos Logos takes the form of explaining how the computer will aid in a specific situation. A Commodore appeal from the June 9, 1980 issue of Time illustrates the use of logos. (Appendix A-Ad 11) Headlined, "The Great American Solution Machine," some of the copy reads, "A car leasing company's customers were terminating too early for account profitability. Solution: a 16K Commodore. It analyzes cash flow in over 1200 accounts, identifies those for early penalties, and even writes up lease contracts." In general the logos ads follow this pattern. A problem is set up and the solution is given based on the capabilities of the computer. IBM uses logos in a series of ads. In Time issues of August 30, 1982, September 13, 1982, and December 20, 1982 we can see three of these ads. (Appendix A-Ads 12-14) In these ads different uses of the personal computer are explained. Moving a paragraph with the 155. EasyWriter software, teaching BASIC, and business forecasting are the three uses that are chosen in these logical appeals. There is no sense of technos in the writing, simply a statement of act concerning the ways in which these three functions can be carried out by use of the IBM personal computer. Ethos Ethos is not used until the introduction of the IBM PC. "Presenting the IBM of Personal Computers," is an example already cited. (Appendix A-Ad 15) The corporate history is used as a proof in the appeal and the persuasive approach is linked to the past performance and public perception of the corporate entity. IBM is the company that uses ethos the most, perhaps because it has the most of it. (Although out of the range of this study, the current (1985) advertising for Apple uses the slogan, "the computer for the rest of us," an appeal designed to use the Apple ethos and differentiate Apple from the IBM company and its clones.) A second ad showing the use of ethos was placed in the November 16, 1981 issue of Time. (Appendix A-Ad 16) The lead headline clearly places ethos as the proof of choice. "My own IBM computer, imagine that," reads this 156. headine and this is another example of IBM attempting to divorce itself from the notion that only large corporations can afford the new technology. IBM is the dominant force in the mainframe market and by showing that a single person can own a part of that immense company the ad plays upon the longtime ethos of the company as well as showing a subtle change in positioning in terms of appealing to its perceived audience. It is worth noting that although IBM has the longest history of computer manufacturing of all the companies in this study, its use of ethical appeals tries to not only capitalize on this fact but at the same time to show that it is a company that will attend to the single consumer as well. In the September 20, 1982 issue of Newsweek IBM runs an ad that is a play on the size of the company and uses the company's ethos as a proof. (Appendix A-Ad 17) The headline is startling. "IBM is a small computer company," is scarcely something that would occur to most consumers. By showing how IBM fits into the pc market IBM is using both a novel approach to attract customers as well as reminding them, in the fifth paragraph of the ad, that small consumers can have the same benefits of larger organizations, "IBM experience, service and reliability." The company may 157. be small, but its ethical appeal is a large one. Topoi Compatibility The topoi used in examining the data, as previously cited, are taken from Rogers and Shoemaker. While there are five categories in their work, only four were found in the research. The first is compatibility, which must be defined in several different ways. One type of compatibility is that of a technology which can be used in performing tasks that are currently done in other ways. For example, an Apple ad in the June, 1979 issue of Byte has copy speaking about a store owner who uses his Apple to chart sales. (Appendix A-Ad 18) The manual system of charting sales is a standard procedure needed in business so that using a computer to do the same process is compatible with already existing modes of operation. This same ad also has another type of compatibility within it: it speaks of educators and students using an Apple in the classroom as well as parents who use the Apple with their children. Both of these examples are compatible with life styles of the general audience Apple wishes to reach and become 158. persuasive based on the topoi of compatibility. Ad 7 is another example of the use of compatibility as a topoi. Within the ad the reminders of family life make the appeal one which is compatible within the life styles of most of the readers. There is a feeling that the personal computer will "fit" into already established familial patterns, a compatibility with past history that makes the appeal persuasive. Likewise Ad 10. The pressures of everyday life are featured in the ad, something compatible with the lives of most of the audience. In the sixth paragraph of the copy of this ad a wide range of uses are explained, all of which would be compatible with the life and history of most of the audience. Letters at the office, attendance records at school, tax records at home, teaching kids (sic), and keeping track of accounts receivable are all listed as uses for the pc. By choosing multiple uses IBM gives itself a wide range of activities which may be compatible with a wide audience. Any one of the various functions may give this topoi credence to the reader. Relative Advantage Relative advantage is also used as a topoi in this 159. research. One type of relative advantage is that of a personal computer over a manual system or some other type of electronic system. A second type of relative advantage seen in these appeals is that of one company's product vs. another company. In ads where comparisons are made the topoi is always relative advantage since the persuasive appeal is based on the superiority of one machine over the other. Ad 5 is an example of the use of relative advantage as a topoi. By listing the new features of the computer and then, in alternate paragraphs, listing what this means to the user, relative advantage is established. It may be argued that in this case Apple is suggesting a relative advantage over its own machines since this is an ad for Apple lie, the newest model. (E stands for enhanced) But later in the copy the relative advantage turns to Apple over other companies wth the copy, "bear in mind, the lie still has all those other virtues that made the Apple II so very popular. Including access to more accessories, peripheral devices and software than any other personal computer you can buy." A Radio Shack ad appearing in Time October 24, 1983 is typical of the ad using relative advantage with other companies in a comparative ad. (Appendix A-Ad 19) While the copy suggests that TRS-80 Model 4 is the 160. logical choice this type of relative advantage ad is selective in the features it chooses to illustrate rather than scrupulously logical. Some that are left out are machine speed, peripheral availability, software support, and compatibility with other manufacturers equipment. This type of relative advantage always shows the machine in the best possible comparative light, but generally leaves out comparisons which would be unfavorable. Complexity Complexity, as a topoi, is not used by the computer companies until 1983. An example of this topoi can be found in the Apple ad run in Fortune, October 31, 1983. (Appendix A-Ad 20) The headline of the appeal is, "If you can find the trash can, you can run a computer." This refers to a set of graphics in which a trash can is clearly different from the rest of the objects. The copy then goes on to explain how simple it is to run a computer. It appears that as the personal computer industry matures the question of ease of use of the machine becomes more and more important to the consumer. It is interesting that the computer companies didn't worry about the question of complexity until seven years 161. after the introduction of the pc. A second example of the complexity topoi can be found in the May 2, 1983 issue of Fortune. The Apple company is introducing its new computer, Lisa, and uses the headline, "So advanced, you already know how to use it." (Appendix A-Ad 21) The persuasive appeal for ths machine is built around the simplicity of operation of the machine. While this machine is less complex to use than most of its contemporaries, it hasn't sold well as has been cited before. It may be that the public expects to deal with complexity as a part of using a pc and this type of appeal, mechanical simplicity, does not attract a large base of customers. Observability and Trialability The topoi observability is seen in the appeals of only one company, ComputerLand. Because the personal computer industry started with a vast mail order business, the question of observability was used only by retail stores. These stores wished to position themselves in such a way that the buyer of the personal computer would understand that he or she could come to the store and try the machine rather than buying a computer through the mail. Apparently, the idea of 162. sight unseen merchandise is still a problem for many people because the best prices for computers, peripherals, and software are still to be found in the advertising done by the computer mail order house. This advertisng can be found, in great quantity, in the back pages of the computer magazines, and in some, such as Byte, these mail order ads comprise over a third of the print space in the magazine. While the best prices are found in the mail order advertising, the retail stores do a flourishing business, based to some extent on the persuasive topoi, observability. An ad which shows this type of infrequently used topoi can be found in the Byte issue of September, 1977. (Appendix A-Ad 22) The ComputerLand store will, "present everything you ever wanted to know about computers." Since it is a retail store, using observability as a topoi is natural. In later ads ComputerLand uses other topoi such as relative advantage as independent computer stores proliferate. The use of trialability as a topoi in the appeals examined is one which did not occur until after the close of the time span for this data. In 1984 Apple offered a "test drive" of its Macintosh machine to those who were interested in taking it home over a weekend. Other than that specific appeal, there is no persuasive appeal that uses trialability as a persuasive topoi. 163. Research Questions The principal research question in this dissertation isf "What are the rhetorical methods used by personal computer companies to attract the consumer to their products?" The answer is complex and needs several stages of development. First, the pc companies use mass print media as one means to reach the consumer. At the beginning of the introduction of the technology to the public, magazines with readerships likely to be favorable to the product were used. The personal computer magazines were the only ones used from 1977 to the end of 1978. (See List of Advertising) The rhetorical appeals in these magazines were generic during that time, appealing to the readership with the assumption that the audience was receptive in nature. Technos is used as the main proof, as can be seen in tables A and B. Of the thirteen advertisements placed in 1977 and 1978 eight of thirteen used the proof technos. (Table A) Table B shows that Apple, Commodore, and Radio Shack used technos as their major proof with only ComputerLand using other proofs during the 1977-78 period.This may be linked to the fact that the advertising medium employed was the computer magazine. Readers of these magazines could be 164. expected to have some interest in technology and the computer companies were certainly aware of this. By using these particular channels for rhetorical appeals together with technos as the major proof, the personal computer companies attracted a base of customers which was the most likely source of sales necessary to expand their operations. Once having established their technology in the small interest groups, the personal computer companies next placed their appeals in the national news magazines. This marks a change in audience and thus might lead to attendant changes in rhetorical strategy which would take the form of different proofs and topoi. Table 1, proofs used in overall appeals, table 2, individual company proofs, table 3, topoi in overall appeals, and table 4, individual company topoi, show that this did not occur. While there is some change in the percentages of different proofs and topoi, the various companies do not make significant changes in the types of proofs and topoi they use over the seven year period. There may be several explanations for this in the case of the personal computer. First, at the outset, the most successful company was Apple. Apple set the pattern of rhetorical strategy with the advertisements 165. using either pathos or technos as a proof and with the major topoi being compatibility. (This can be seen under the Apple figures in Tables 2 and 4.) It is the choice of compatibility as the topoi which is the key to the overall strategy. By choosing to use compatibility as a topoi, Apple was appealing to an audience which was defined as having something in their backgrounds which was compatible to the use of a computer. The first ads were placed in computer magazines, giving rise to the use of relative advantage as a possible topoi. (The readers were technically oriented and so would accept new innovations as relative advantages over old technology) Apple chose not to do this but rather broadened their potential audience, even at the beginning of their rhetorical campaigns, by using compatibility. When national news magazines were entered, the topoi compatibility was one that needed no change; a diverse audience could respond to compatibility more easily than to relative advantge. One of the reasons for the long-term success of Apple’s appeals lies in the fact that the compatibility used by Apple was persuasive to a larger group than simply computer ethusiasts. Radio Shack uses technos and relative advantage in concert. Table 6 shows that 60% of all appeals used by 166. Radio Shack used this combination. In addition, Table 4 shows that the topoi relative advantage was used some 73% of the time by Radio Shack. They are now third, a distant third, in the marketplace. The use of relative advantage as a major topoi rather than compatibility was certainly a factor leading to this position for Radio Shack. One question to be asked by a reader of an appeal using relative advantage is how large an advantage is perceived. It appears that the size of the advantage offered by Radio Shack was insufficient to persuade the public to buy the machine in great numbers. It also appears that unless the public finds the technology compatible with past experiences it will not be accepted as quickly as those that are portrayed as compatible. It can also be speculated that Radio Shack was, and is, satisfied with their share of the market and for that reason may have decided that their appeals of the past and the current ones are functioning at an acceptablelevel. In any case, Radio Shack never changed its basic format of appeals. Commodore somehow never attracted significant customers with its appeals. They are not a major force in the market even though they began in the same year as Radio Shack and Apple. One factor is the use of relative advantage as the major topoi, as can be seen in 167. Table 4. The topoi relative advantage is used some 75% of the time, even higher than the percentages of Radio Shack. In addition, as can be seen in Table 6, the combination of technos and relative advantage is used 55% of the time in Commodore's appeals. Once again, as with Radio Shack, the combination of technos and relative advantage, as well as the use of relative advantage as a topoi with all proofs, is not a rhetorical strategy that has given Commodore a significant share of the market. There is another consideration in the advertising appeals of Commodore; they are the lowest priced of all the companies. Perhaps a new technology needs a leader in pricing; Apple was the one in personal computers, and somehow below that price there is a level of unacceptability. As cited previously, they used rhetorical campaigns which dealt with their low price but were unable, based on their lack of market penetration, to overcome consumer perception based on the prices of other comparative companies. IBM was able to use a totally different rhetorical strategy than any of the other companies. It had corporate ethos and used it during the beginning of its rhetorical campaigns. Table 2 indicates that IBM used the proof ethos in its first year some 50% of the time. 168. As was discussed previously in this chapter, IBM began its rhetorical appeals with ethos as a proof. No other company started with the level of ethos of IBM and no other company has grown at the pace set by IBM. While the initial appeals were based on ethos, it should be noted that IBM used this proof explicitly. The ..ppeals changed to pathos, technos, and logos after the introduction of the machine, but the explicit use of ethos in the first appeals helped set the stage for antecedent ethos in all later appeals. While ethos was the major proof at the beginning of IBM's entry into the market, the use of the other parts of rhetorical constructs can also be seen. One key is that the most often used topoi is compatibility, as with Apple. Table 4 indicates that compatibility was chosen as a topoi by IBM 62% of the time. While IBM could certainly have used relative advantage as a topoi, it chose compatibility. An argument can be made that because the ethical appeal is so strong in IBM's case, implicitly and explicitly, they must counterbalance this with compatibility as a topoi in the personal computer appeals. To explain the basis of this argument one should first look at the type of ethos linked with IBM. It is a large company, making large computers that are 169. primarily built for large organizations. IBM did not approach single consumers at all before the introduction of the PC. Thus, while the ethical appeal of the IBM name is strong, it is not necessarily linked to the audience interested in personal computers. By choosing compatibility as its major topoi in rhetorical appeals, IBM does away with some of the negative aspects of its corporate ethos. Had IBM chosen relative advantage, it would have remained a large monolith, something that is antithetical to the appeal of the personal computer in general. ComputerLand did not do much advertising in the major magazine media. Table 5 shows that only 7% of all the advertising done by the five companies chosen was done by ComputerLand. The reason for this may lie in the fact that many of the ComputerLand outlets rely heavily on local advertising to attract the public. National advertising is more effective for the manufacturer than the retailer in many cases and the lack of significant advertising in national magazines reflects ComputerLand's position in ths respect. The two most successful companies, IBM and Apple, used the same strategy. They both use technos as their dominant proof and compatibility as their dominant topoi. While the proofs are important, the topoi seem 170. to offer the best insight into the introduction of a new technology. By using compatibility the companies choose to appeal to the reader on the basis of past experience. The new technology is then related to that past experience so that the reader can make enthymematic connections within the context of the rhetorical appeal. The strategy of using this topoi would seem to be one that would be useful to any company offering a new technology to the public. In particular it would be beneficial to those companies offering technologies which require some literacy with the new machine, as is the case with personal computers. Since it requires some training to run a personal computer, portraying it as compatible with past actions helps to alleviate apprehension concerning the use of the machine. Radio Shack, which chose to use relative advantage as its major topoi, was not as succesful in the marketplace. Its appeals are not creative and the dominant appeal is one of superiority, relative advantage. The general audience did not accept this type of appeal to the extent of either Apple's or IBM's. This may give pause to some companies which use relative advantage as a major topoi in their advertising campaigns. It should be noted that from the standpoint 171. of sheer numerical usage, Radio Shack was the company with the largest number of new appeals. (Table 5 shows that 34% of all the advertising researched was done by Radio Shack.) While Radio Shack may be satisified with their market share, one has to wonder what would have happened had they modified their appeals more along the lines of IBM and Apple. Can trends be observed in the rhetorical appeals which give insight into the growth of the personal computer industry as well as specific companies within that industry? Certain trends do emerge which give insights into the growth of the personal computer industry. First, the increase in number of appeals from year to year indicates a growth in and of itself as can be seen in Table 5. In 1982 and 1983 more ads were placed by the companies analyzed than were placed in the previous five years. The growth in the market and the competition for the consumer can also be seen as a trend in terms of the use of relative advantage topoi. Many of the relative advantage topoi at the beginning of the personal computer industry can be defined as showing an advantage over a previous method; 172. for instance, word processing vs. typing. As the industry goes into its fifth and sixth years the trend is to comparative advertising, matching one company against another. An interesting adjunct to this trend is that both Radio Shack and Commodore use comparative advertising which includes the names of the competitors; Apple and IBM do not. If you are the largest two companies apparently you need not name the others in your appeals. Only companies who are in a subordinate position in the marketplace need to show how they compare against the established leaders. Another trend is that of going into more general magazines after the first two years of the industry's inception. The first two years, 1977-78, were ones in which the major magazine advertising was done in the computer magazines. While the computer magazines continue to be used to this day, the change to the general magazines indicates that the companies vending the machines believe that the technology is sufficiently acceptable to the general public to pursue a larger base. One major trend developed after the introduction of IBM's pc in the marketplace in late 1981. The single most-used combination of proof and topoi in 1982 and 1983 is that of technos and relative advantage. Table 7 shows that 43% of the combinations found in 1982 were technos and relative advantage and 48% in 1983. While compatibility is still the most commonly used topoi for all proofs, the combination of technos and relative advantage becomes one that all the companies use in their rhetorical appeals. This trend may be due to the impact the IBM had on the marketplace. When the largest of all the computer companies in the world comes into the personal computer market, the rest of the companies seem to feel that they must respond by using technos and relative advantage. The trend towards relative advantage and technos may show that the other companies, particularly Apple, were aware of the immense power of IBM and therefore positioned their rhetorical appeals in a manner that would show the advantage of having a computer that was not an IBM product. What kind of model can be constructed, based on prior rhetorical theory, that will reveal patterns of the personal computer rhetorical appeals? The model which came out of this research uses both empirical examination of data as well as basic tenets of rhetorical criticism. The question of how one looks at this data in the best possible light has several 174. dimensions. An argument can be made that there may be a sequence through which rhetorical research might go in examining the rhetoric of new technologies. It is possible to construct a different model which will look at other rhetorical concepts within the context of appeals for new technology. For instance, looking at the Burkean concept of identification would be a possible second step. However, for the first attempt at explication, use of an empirically based model gives future researchers a base from which to work with more abstract concepts. Specifically, the model is constructed on the basis of Aristotelian theory. The use of proofs is examined as well as the use of topoi in rhetorical appeals. The topoi are a modification of Aristotelian theory based on the modern work done in innovations by Rogers and Shoemaker. It is an attempt at both assembling the data in usable form for other researchers and presenting a beginning of an interesting technological innovation. For this reason the eclectic mode, using classic concepts as well as modern, gives a model which may lead to future insights into both the personal computer and other communication technology rhetorics. What modifications need to be made in extant rhetorical 175. models which will sufficiently change the proposed model in order that it will be useful in examining the • appeals? There are two major changes which are used in the final model for this dissertation. First, the addition of a proof called technos. In order to use an Aristotelian base for the proofs, expansion of past theory is necessary. By suggesting a new proof, technos, the model encompasses modern rhetorical practices. At the same time, the theoretical base of rhetoric is expanded, one of the major challenges offered by Brockriede in his article on new Aristotelian theory. The second change involves using a set of topoi which conform to the task of examining modern technology. Rogers & Shoemaker give a five-fold classification of the reasons for adaption of an innovation. Although their work was not in the area of rhetorical theory, it can be used within a rhetorical examination of modern communication technologies, giving both a modern theoretical base as well as using the Aristotelian concept of topoi. The use of two different bases of communication theory, one modern, one ancient, offers the researcher a 176. tool which has heuristic value in a wide variety of rhetorical areas. The changes made in the overall model stem from Aristotelian concepts but do not conform with a neo-Aristotelian approach in the whole. If the classical basis of rhetorical theory is to be something more than an interesting historical artifact, it may be that new theoretical models can be found in other areas of interest to researchers which take parts from both ancient heritage and modern theory. Will there be audience adaptation of the appeals based on the media in which they are presented? The most significant response to this question is the lack of audience adaptation. In the first years of a new technology the growth of the technology depends upon its diffusion into the marketplace to a variety of consumers. Each of the companies is trying to reach a large market to be successful. The use of compatibility is a strategy which helps to align the companies with as large an audience as possible and in using compatibility the companies do not adapt to different audiences but rather try to reach as broad an audience as possible. There is very little adaptation of the appeals found in the different categories of magazines used in this 177. research. While there is some (IBM's use of an ad in Byte which shows the insides of its new personal computer complete with specifications comes to mind) there is less than anticipated when beginning this research. Another consideration in response to this question is the lack of differentiation between the four groups suggested in Chapter III. There is no significant change in rhetorical structure for appeals to business, science, education, or recreation. The rhetorical strategies already outlined do not show a change in the types of appeals used. It is suggested that this part of the model is one that offers little insight into the rhetorical practices of the various companies. The appeals for the computer companies do not change dramatically from one magazine to another. In most cases the same ad can be found in two or three different types of magazines. It is not a question of cost. The companies involved in this research all have sufficient capital to put any type of ad they choose in any type of magazine. As the market expands the companies must make the best use of their advertising dollars and apparently the ads prepared for the general public are deemed appropriate for use in computer magazines as well. How can the findings of this research be generalized to other communication technologies in ways that will help reveal rhetorical strategies used by these other companies? The answer lies in the adjustments made based on the type of technology. The personal computer is the most technical of all communication devices sold to the public, not from the standpoint of overall technology but rather from the standpoint of the end user's interaction with the technology. For instance, the telephone is a simple instrument for the end user. The technology needed to make it simple is very complicated but unseen by the end user. The personal computer requires input for use, a dimension not found in audiovisual devices usually advertised to the public. It requires a literacy about the technology unusual for a communication device. While these factors make it different from most of the other technologies and must be held in account when examinng them there are areas of generalization which make this model useful and the findings salient to other technologies. First, the pattern of rhetorical appeals from a 179. small group of knowledgable people to the overall public is one that takes place in many of the other technologies. This also relates to the categories of Rogers and Shoemaker found in Chapter III. The innovators and early adopters are found in the relatively small group of people who read the computer magazines. While it may be stated that the simpler the end use, the faster the acceptance of the technology, there still must be a group of early users of the technology and the companies vending the technology must be aware of this dimension in order to build a base of consumers. Rhetorical appeals using the topoi compatibility may be a general pattern that could be examined in other specific technologies. The issue of acceptance of an innovative technology may depend on the rhetorical strategy of showing how the new technology is compatible with past actions. The use of the topoi relative advantage is also a pattern which can be seen in other modern technolgies. The use of the technology in place of some other method and then the appeal to the consumer based on the relative advantage that one brand has over another are two types of relative advantage that can be examined in various contexts. 180. The use of a new proof, technos, is also something that can be generalized to other technologies. Once having operationalized the word, it can be seen in a wide variety of contexts, including not only communication technologies but also standard ones such as automobiles and appliances. As the micro-chip is placed in more and more standard consumer products, there will be a use of he technos proof as technology advances. Technos is a new form of rhetorical proof, and as such can be generalized to examine much of the rhetorical strategies modern technological companies use. 181. Table 1 This set of data deals with the proofs used in the appeals, the years in which these occurred, and the number of times a particular proof was used. These are summarized below. 1977 n=4 Proof Number Percentage Technos 3 75% Pathos 1 25% 1978 n=9 Proof Number Percentage Technos 5 56% Pathos 3 33% Logos 1 11% 1979 n= 13 182, Proof Number Percentage Technos 4 31% Pathos 8 61% Logos 1 8% 1980 n=13 Proof Number Percentage Technos 10 77% Pathos 1 8% Logos 2 15% 1981 n=25 Proof Number Percentage Technos 10 40% Pathos 10 40% Logos 2 10% Ethos 3 15% 183. 1982 n=49 Proof Number Percentage Technos 27 55% Pathos 9 18% Logos 5 10% Ethos 8 17% 1983 n=67 Proof Number Percentage Technos 39 58% Pathos 14 21% Logos 12 18% Ethos 2 3% The totals for the seven year span for the proofs are the following. 1977-1983 n=180 Proof Number Percentage 184, Technos 98 54% Pathos 46 26% Logos 23 13% Ethos 13 7% 185. Table 2 This set of data consists of the individual company's use of proofs in their appeals. These are arranged by year with the totals at the end of the set. Keys T=Technos P=Pathos L=Logos E=Ethos APP l e Year Proof Number Percentage 1977 100% 1978 100% 1979 T 1 20% P 4 80% 1980 T 4 66% L 1 17% P 1 17% 1981 T 1 14% P 6 84% 186. 1982 T 7 70% P 1 10% E 2 20% 1983 T 13 72% PI 6% L 4 22% Apple Totals 1977-1983 Proof Number Percentage T 29 59% P 13 26% L 5 10% E 2 5% Commodore Year Proof Number Percentage 1978 T 2 100% 1979 P 1 100% 1980 L 1 100% 1981 T 1 50% L 1 50% 1982 T 6 75% P 1 13% E 1 12% 1983 T 2 33% P 3 50% L 1 17% Commodore Totals 1978-1983 Proof Number Percentage 188. T 11 55% P 5 25% L 3 15% E 1 5% ComputerLand Year Proof Number Percentage 1977 100% 1978 L 2 66% E 1 34% 1979 T 1 50% P 1 50% 1980 No Data 1981 E 100% 1982 T 1 34% P 1 33% L 1 33% 1983 P 1 34% L 2 66% ComputerLand Totals 1977-1983 190. Proof Number Percentage T 2 14% P 5 36% L 5 36% E 2 14% \ 191. IBM Year Proof Number Percentage 1981 T 1 25% P 1 25% E 2 50% 1982 T 6 40% P 3 20% L 2 13% E 4 27% 1983 T 8 47% P 5 29% L 4 24% IBM Totals 1981-83 Proof Number Percentage T 15 42% P 9 24% L 6 17% E 6 17% Radio Shack Year Proof Number Percentage 1977 T 1 100% 1978 T 2 67% P 1 33% 1979 T 2 40% P 2 40% L 1 20% 1980 T 6 100% 1981 T 7 63% P 3 28% L 1 9% 1982 T 7 53% P 3 24% L 2 15% E 1 8% 1983 T 16 70% 193. P 4 17% L I 4% E 2 9% Radio Shack Total 1977-1983 Proof Number Percentage T 41 66% P 13 21% L 5 8% E 3 5% 194. Table 3 This set of data consists of the uses of the various topoi. These are also broken out by year. 1977 n=4 Topoi Number Percentage Compatibility 3 75% Observability 1 25% 1978 n=9 Topoi Number Percentage Compatibility 3 33% Relative Advantage 5 56% Observability 1 11% 1979 n=13 Topoi Number Percentage 195. Compatibility 7 54% Relative Advantage 5 38% Complexity 1 8% 1980 n=13 Topoi Number Percentage Compatibility 5 38% Relative Advantage 8 52% 1981 n=25 Topoi Number Percentage Compatibility 13 52% Relative Advantage 12 48% 1982 n=49 Topoi Number Percentage Compatibility 21 45% Relative Advantage 28 55% 196. 1983 n=67 Topoi Number Percentage Compatibility 24 35% Relative Advantage 38 58% Observability 1 1% Complexity 4 6% 1977-1983 n=180 Topoi Number Percentage Compatibility 76 42% Relative Advantage 96 53% Observability 3 2% Complexity 5 3% 197. Table 4 The topoi used by the individual companiescom forms another set of data. These are listed below and totaled at the end by company Keys C=Compatibility RA=Relative Advantage 0=0bservability Cp=Complexity Apple Year Topoi Number Percentage 1977 C 2 100% 1978 RA 1 100% 1979 C 4 80% RA 1 20% 1980 C 3 50% RA 3 * 50% 1981 C 5 71% RA 2 29% 198. 1982 C 5 50% RA 5 50% 1983 C 6 34% RA 8 44% Cp 4 22% Apple Totals 1977-1983 Topoi Number Percentage C 25 51% RA 20 41% Cp 4 8% 199. Commodore Year Topoi Number Percentage 1978 RA 2 100% 1979 C 1 100% 1980 C 1 100% 1981 RA 2 100% 1982 RA 8 100% 1983 C 3 50% RA 3 50% Commodore Totals 1978-1983 Topoi Number Percentage C 5 25% RA 15 75% ComputerLand Year Topoi Number Percentage 1977 0 1 100% 1978 C 1 34% RA 1 33% 0 1 33% 1979 C 1 50% Cp 1 50% 1980 No Data 1981 C 1 100% 1982 C 3 100% 1983 C 1 34% RA 1 33% 0 1 33% ComputerLand Totals 1977-1983 201. Topoi Number Percentage C 7 54% RA 2 16% 0 3 23% Cp 1 7% 202. IBM Year Topoi Number Percentage 1981 C 3 75% RA 1 25% 1982 C 10 67% RA 5 33% 1983 C 9 53% RA 7 41% Cp 1 6% IBM Totals 1981-1983 Topoi Number Percentage C 22 62% RA 13 35% Cp 1 3% Radio Shack Year Topoi Number Percentage 1977 100% 1978 C 2 67% RA 1 33% 1979 C 1 20% RA 4 80% 1980 C 1 17% RA 5 83% 1981 C 4 37% RA 7 63% 1982 C 3 23% RA 10 77% 1983 C 5 22 % RA 18 78% Radio Shack Totals 1977-1983 204. Topoi Number Percentage C 17 27% RA 45 73% 205. Table 5 This set of data gives the company and number of new appeals used by the company in the years 1977-1983. 1977-1983 Company Appeals % of Total Apple 49 27% Commodore 20 12% ComputerLand 13 7% IBM 36 20% Radio Shack 62 34% Total n=180 100% 206. Table 6 This table consists of the relationship between the proof and topoi as used by the individual companies. These are broken out by year. Keys T=Technos C=Compatibility P=Pathos RA=Relative Advantage L=Logos 0=0bservability E=Ethos Cp-Complexity The first letter represents the proof, the second letter the topoi. E.g. T/C has technos as the proof and compatibility as the topoi. 1977-Apple Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/C 100% 1978-Apple 207 . Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 1 100% 1979-Apple Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 1 20% P/C 4 80% 1980-Apple Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 3 50% T/C 1 16% P/C 1 16% L/C 1 16% 1981-Apple Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 1 14% P/RA 1 14% P/C 5 72% 1982-Apple Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 4 40% T/C 3 30% P/C 1 10% E/RA 1 10% E/C 1 10% 1983-Apple Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 8 44% T/C 3 17% T/Cp 2 11% P/Cp 1 6% L/C 3 17% L/Cp 1 6% 209. Totals for Apple Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 18 37% T/C 9 18% T/Cp 2 4% P/C 11 22% P/RA 1 2% P/Cp 1 2% L/C 4 8 % L/Cp 1 2% E/RA 1 2% E/C 1 2% 210. 1978-Commodore Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 100% 1979-Commodore Proof/Topoi Number Percentage P/C 100% 1980-Commodore Proof/Topoi Number Percentage L/C 100% 1981-Commodore Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 1 50% L/RA 1 50% 211. 19 82-Commodore Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 6 75% E/RA 1 12% P/RA 1 12% 1983-Commodore Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 2 34% P/RA 1 16% P/C 2 34% L/C 1 16% Totals for Commodore Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 11 55% P/C 3 15% P/RA 2 10% L/C 2 10% L/RA 1 5% E/RA 1 5% 213. 1977-ComputerLand Proof/Topoi Number Percentage P/0 1 100% 1978-ComputerLand Proof/Topoi Number Percentage P/C 1 33% P/RA 1 33% L/0 1 33% 1979-ComputerLand Proof/Topoi Number Percentage P/C 1 50% T/Cp 1 50% 1980-ComputerLand No Data 1981-ComputerLand 214. Proof/Topoi Number Percentage E/C 1 100% 1982-ComputerLand Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/C 1 33% P/C 1 33% L/C 1 33% 1983-ComputerLand Proof/Topoi Number Percentage P/RA 1 33% L/0 1 33% L/C 1 3 3% Totals for ComputerLand Proof/Topoi Number Percentage 215. T/C 1 8% T/Cp 1 8% P/C 3 24% P/0 1 8% P/RA 2 16% L/C 2 16% L/C 2 16% E/C 1 8% 216. 1981-IBM Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 1 25% P/C 1 25% E/C 2 50% 1982-IBM Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 4 27% T/C 2 13% P/C 3 20% E/C 4 27% L/RA 1 6% L/C 1 6% 1983-IBM Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 6 3 5% 217. T/C 2 12% P/RA 1 6% P/Cp 1 6% P/C 3 18% L/C 4 24% Totals for IBM Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 11 31% T/C 4 11% P/C 7 19% P/RA 1 3% P/Cp 1 3% L/RA 1 3% L/C 5 14% E/C 6 17% 218. 1977-Radio Shack Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/C 100% 1978-Radio Shack Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 1 33% T/C 1 33% P/C 1 33% 1979-Radio Shack Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 2 40% P/RA 1 20% P/C 1 20% L/RA 1 20% 1980-Radio Shack Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 5 8 3% T/C 1 17% 1981-Radio Shack Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 7 6 4% P/C 3 27% L/C 1 9% 1982-Radio Shack Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 7 54% P/RA 1 7% P/C 2 15% L/RA 2 15% E/C 1 7% 1983-Radio Shack 220. Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 16 70% P/C 4 17% L/C 1 4% E/RA 2 8% Totals for Radio Shack Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 37 60% T/C 3 5% P/RA 2 3% P/C 11 18% L/RA 3 5% L/C 2 3% E/RA 2 3% E/C 1 2% 221. Table 7 This table shows the relationship between the proof and the topoi. These are also broken out by year. Keys T=Technos C=Compatibility P=Pathos RA=Relative Advantage L=Logos 0=0bservability E=Ethos Cp=Complexity In this set the first letter represents the proof, the second represents the topoi. E.g. T/RA has Technos as the proof and Relative Advantage as the topoi. 1977 n=4 Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/C 3 75% P/0 1 25% 1978 n=9 Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/C 1 11% T/RA 4 45% P/C 2 22% P/RA 1 11% L/0 1 11% 1979 n=13 Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 3 24% T/Cp 1 8% P/C 7 46% P/RA 1 8% L/RA 1 8% 1980 n=13 Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/C 2 15% at* T/RA 8 62% 223. P/C 1 8% L/C 2 15% 1981 n=25 Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/RA 10 40% P/C 9 36% P/RA 1 4% L/C 1 4% L/RA 1 4% E/C 3 12% 1982 n=49 Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/C 6 12% T/RA 21 4 3% P/C 7 14% P/RA 2 4% L/C 2 4% L/RA 3 7% E/C 6 12% 224. E/RA 2 4% 4f 1983 n=67 Proof/Topoi Number Percentage T/C 5 7% T/RA 32 48% T/Cp 2 3% P/C 9 14% P/RA 3 4% P/Cp 2 3% L/C 10 16% L/0 1 1% L/Cp 1 1% E/RA 2 3% Totals 1977-1983 Proof/Topoi Number As % of Proof As % Total T/C 17 17% 9% T/RA 78 80% 43% T/Cp 3 3% 2% 225. P/C 35 76% 20% P/RA 8 17% 4% P/Cp 2 4% 1% P/0 1 2% 1% L/C 15 65% 8% L/RA 5 21% 3% L/Cp 1 5% 1% L/0 2 9% 1% E/C 9 69% 5% E/RA 4 31% 2% Chapter VI:Summary, Conclusions, and Suggestions for Further Study Rhetorical practices function within a framework of a societal context. The major thesis of this dissertation is that technological innovations bring about a change in the type of rhetorical communication used by manufacturers of new technologies in their efforts to attract a base of consumers. The specific technology examined in this dissertation is the personal computer, a technology extant only since 1977. In order to examine rhetorical appeals in a modern context it becomes necessary to construct a model that deals with societal changes in communication. The model used for this dissertation incorporates concepts from classical rhetoric, specifically Aristotelian constructs, as well as using a modern communication model. The Aritotelian concepts deal with the types of proofs used in rhetorical appeals as well as giving a basis for the topoi or lines of argument used in these appeals. The modern theory, constructed by Rogers and Shoemaker, brings a modern set of these topoi to the model used in this dissertation. 226. 227 . The classic proofs, as suggested by Aristotle, consist of logos (logical proof), ethos (ethical proof), and pathos (emotional proof). In order to make the analysis salient to modern communication practices a fourth type of proof is suggested in this dissertation. This proof, called technos, consists of rhetorical arguments based on the technology in and of itself, without recourse to the other three types of proof. Technos, as a basis for persuasion, is a proof built upon the enthymematic assumption that the more advanced the technology, the better the product. "State of the Art" is the phrase used in advertising appeals that most clearly defines technos in the generic. The use of Rogers and Shoemaker's categories of perceived attributes of innovations as topoi for modern rhetorical appeals is also included within this model. The five categories suggested by Rogers and Shoemaker are compatibility, relative advantage, complexity, observability, and trialability. The categories compatibility, relative advantage, observability, and trialability are positively correlated to adoption of innovations. Complexity is negatively correlated to adoption. In the research only four of these categories were used as modern topoi; there was no usage in the advertising appeals of the category trialability. 228. The data collected for this dissertation came from eight magazines, originally divided into three groups. Byte, Interface Age, Computers and Electronics, and Personal Computing were the magazines chosen from the computer magazine group. Time and Newsweek were chosen from the general news magazine group and Business Week and Fortune were chosen from the business magazine group. Each of these were chosen based on their position in their separate categories. The data themselves were the advertising appeals which appeared in these magazines from 1977 through 1983. The companies chosen to be examined were Apple, IBM, Commodore, ComputerLand, and Radio Shack. These five control some two thirds of the market for personal computers in the United States. The findings of the data indicate that there is a pervasive use of the proof technos in personal computer advertising, and it is suggested that this proof can be generalized to other modern communication technologies and their rhetorical appeals. Other findings indicate that companies that combine either technos or pathos as proofs, together with compatibility as their major topoi, have had the greatest success in attracting buyers for their products. IBM and Apple did so and were the most 229. successful, Radio Shack and Commodore did not and were less so. While the assumption is not made that only advertising creates interest among consumers, nonetheless rhetorical appeals on the part of the company vending the good are an important means of attracting customers and in many cases are the first way in which the consumer comes in contact with the company name. The data also indicate the strength of ethical appeals as evidenced in IBM's rhetorical strategy. In its earliest appeals, IBM uses explicit ethical proof. From the time of IBM's introduction of its PC to one year later it had captured over one quarter of the market and is currently the largest vendor of personal computers. The fact that it was able to call upon rhetorical appeals based on its ethos is one of the keys to its current success. Finally, the model has proven useful in examining modern rhetorical appeals where the basis of the appeal is technological innovation. Both patterns of successful appeals as well a strategies are explicated more fully by use of this eclectic model. It is suggested that the findings of this dissertation will give heuristic aid to others who are researching modern rhetorical practices of technologically-based innovation. 230. Conclusions Communication becomes rhetorical based on both interpersonal and societal interaction. In the case of this dissertation a rhetorical proof is proposed which takes into account the overall societal communication patterns. The proof, technos, becomes rhetorical because of the pervasiveness of technology within the framework of our existence. A first conclusion is that this proof can be operationalized and analyzed in order to find patterns of communication that relate to new technologies as they enter the public's consciousness. Bell and Ellul, as cited in chapter two, suggest that modern society cannot be divorced from the technology which is used to maintain certain functions in it. The rhetorical consequences of this philosophical view are manifested in the ways in which technology vendors, in the case of this dissertation personal computer companies, present their appeals to the public. By using a proof which is constructed by societal interaction of technology and humans, the various computer companies attempt to appeal to the public on an abstract basis with the enthymematic assumption in the appeals that the public is predisposed to the use of new technologies. The work done in this 231. dissertation indicates that this type of proof is a major factor in the rhetorical strategies of personal computer companies. A second conclusion is that the type of topoi suggested in this dissertation will affect the adoption of new technologies by the consumer. Using the rubrics of Rogers and Shoemaker as a part of the analytical model, the topois of compatibility and relative advantage become extremely important. It is suggested that there is a certain amount of apprehension surrounding the use of a new public technology. There will always be enthusiasts and hobbyists who embrace the new technology early on but in order to build a large consumer base this apprehension must be overcome. Based on the findings in this dissertation the best possible topoi to use in rhetorical appeals at the outset of introduction of a new technology is that of compatibility. Until the technology has been established as compatible with past actions and patterns of use, the consumer will remain apprehensive. The use of compatibility as a topoi in rhetorical appeals helps to persuade the consumer that the new technology is one which can be used within his/her personal context without having to make severe changes in work or living 232. patterns. Two companies, Apple and IBM, used compatibility as their major topoi when they introduced their personal computers. They now combine to control over fifty percent of the market as discussed in chapter five. A third conclusion deals with the appeals for the technology after the question of compatibility is somewhat settled in the consumers1 mind. At this point the appeals tend to have relative advantage as the major topoi. Once having persuaded the public that the technology is compatible, the question becomes one of choice of the company that can best fill the needs of the consumer. By using the topoi of relative advantage, the companies are seeking to make the consumer choose their particular brand. ’ It is interesting to note that often the relative advantages suggested within the advertising appeals fail to give a true comparison of like features of the personal computers. This may indicate that the public is somewhat less than sophisticated in their knowledge of the technical parts of the personal computer even though technos is a major proof used with the topoi relative advantage. A fourth conclusion deals with the lack of audience adaptation in the various groups of magazines. The most % successful long-term campaign, that of the Apple 233. company, did not vary from one magazine type to another. The significance lies in the fact that the original appeals, even though they were in computer magazines, did not target themselves specifically to the computer enthusiast but rather were persuasive to the general reader as well. If a company is to expand past a small group of enthusiasts this is necessary. The use of an appeal to a general audience even in a media which is not designed for that general audience is a strategy which worked for Apple and would be a wise one for future technology companies to consider. A fifth conclusion is that as specific demographic groups are selected as targets of the advertising appeals, the topoi compatibility should be used within the context of that specific group. For instance, if farmers are to be selected as a target market for personal computers, the advertising appeals should show the personal computer in the context of usage on a farm or agronomic setting in order to be effective. (This strategy will work only after the technology is accepted by the general public.) A sixth conclusion deals with the topoi complexity and its increasing importance in rhetorical appeals for personal computers in the future. At the outset of the personal computer technology, the appeal of having a 234. computer in the home or office that was personally controlled was one which was persuasive to the consumer, as evidenced by sales of personal computers. Once acceptance is made of the technology and it proves to be useful in certain functions, the question of its ease of use becomes important. (The topoi complexity was not used until the last year of this research) The technology of personal computers was such a breakthough in the late 70's that little or no attention was paid to the complexity of operation of a personal computer. It seems that simply having the technology available was sufficient reason for the sale of the computer. However, as more and more of the public becomes involved with the use of the personal computer in the work place, the ease of use of the machine and its various software programs will become a major factor in increasing its usage. The question of the type of topoi used in rhetorical appeals may change from compatibility and relative advantage to complexity. The machines that can perform the same functions as others with less need for input from the operator will be the ones that will control the market. Thus complexity will become a dominant topoi in the future appeals of the personal computer. A seventh conclusion drawn from the data in this 235. dissertation is the importance of ethos as a proof. While this has certainly been argued and demonstrated historically, this data clearly shows that ethos at a corporate level once again is a major proof. Only one company came into the marketplace with antecedent ethos, that company being IBM. Within one year this company became the largest supplier of personal computers in the world and continues to hold that position. The ethical proof may prove, in the long term, to be the most important one in the personal computer area. There is now a rhetorical "battle" being waged by Apple with IBM. The slogan, "The computer for the rest of us," is an indication of this. IBM may be too powerful for Apple, of for any of the other computer companies to overcome, and the question to be asked of the Apple slogan is clearly, "Who are the rest of us and will we respond to this particular type of ethical appeal?" The answer will come in the next decade but it is suggested that IBM will be so firmly entrenched in the number one position in personal computers by the end of that decade that being number two will not be significant. Rhetorical scholarship must respond to changes in societal patterns in order to be useful in observation of modern rhetorical practices. This dissertation is 236. an indication of possible areas of study and means of study. By using both the classical principles and modern theory to construct an eclectic model of analysis both roots of rhetorical theory and modern communication theories can be brought to the examination of current communication practices. The fact that the data are from the advertising area also indicates uses of rhetorical analysis which may help to expand the areas in which rhetorical theory can be used to explain modern communication phenomena. 237. Suggested Further Study There are many areas that lend themselves to further study based on the initial examination of the data in this dissertation. Each of them would be, in and of themselves, a major undertaking. However, each in turn would give new insights into rhetorical communication and communication technologies. The first type of study would continue the tracking of the companies involved in this dissertation. There are significant new additions to lines of personal computers and these will alter the rhetorical appeals offered by each of the companies. Examples in this area include the Macintosh of Apple, the PC-XT of IBM, and the TRS Models IV and V. In particular the Macintosh is interesting for it marks a major change in the technological internal structure of the Apple Machines. It may be that certain trends will start to emerge as the market settles out. This continued collection of data would help point these out and give a reference point from the beginning of the personal computer appeals to a later date than the ending time frame of the data found in this dissertation. A second direction that inquiries in the general area of rhetoric and computers could take would be the Summary. . 108 End Notes- 110 IV. Data Decisions and Methods of Collection...... 112 Question One...... 112 Que at i on Two ...... 115 Question Th r e ...... 128 Me t hoc =■ of Col 1 e c t i nq Da t. 131 End Notes...... 141 Operationali ration of Terms and Data Analysis 142 Teenn os 142 Patnos. 147 Loqos . . 150 E t h o s . . 151 Comp a t ibi ' ity...... 152 Re 1 a. t i '■> e Adu an t age...... 154 Comp 1 ex i ty , ...... 1 w'U Cose r ability and Trial ab i 157 Re search Questions...... 159 Question I ...... 159 Question II ...... 166 Qu e s t i on III...... 168 Quest i on I ...... 169 Cu e s t i on V . 170 Que at : on '.'I...... 172 175 1 79 T a b ' 1 * C , 188 """o.b ; S ’ D i 191 Tsoie E 19? T&b'e F, 200 T a o ' , e G. 21 4 u 1 S L Ililla, / Con c1us ions, and Suggested S t u dy... 219 S umrr an >■...... 21 9 Cc~ c;usion s...... ••••i Suooested Further Stud> 229 APPEND 234 LIS- OF ADVERTISING 263 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 275 v 238. examination of rhetorical appeals for software. The software companies are, more and more, becoming involved in competition for the software market. As these companies attempt to attract customers the collection and analysis of their appeals might yield useful data. A third area for consideration could be that of the rhetoric of philsophers on technology. Bell and Ellul were cited in this dissertation but there are many others who argue about society and technology. An examination of the rhetoric of their arguments could give interesting and informative data on argumentation in a modern philosophical arena. Another area of investigation that could prove a fruitful one would be the use of the model in this dissertation in examining other communication technologies. The modern communication technologies could all be examined using the model, and patterns of rhetorical communication might be found which would give insights into modern rhetorical strategies. In addition, appeals for radio and television sets from their inception could be examined using the same model. Differences between appeals for simple and complex technologies could be distinguished with each potentially having a different rhetorical stance. An offshoot of this type of investigation could 239. deal with articles on previous communication technologies which came prior to major advertising efforts. In particular the telegraph comes to mind. Speeches and public writing done on the telegraph could be used as the data base. This would give a slightly different view than the one seen in mass media advertising but it would offer interesting insights into prior communication technologies. Along the line of this type of data, examination of the change in rhetorical positions concerning the computer could be done though collection of articles in various publications over a twenty to thirty year period. In particular the publications whose readership can be described as general might offer insights into the ways in which the computer technology was presented to the public. In researching a paper on this general topic it became obvious that there was a tremendous amount of writing in this area in general magazines alone. An assessment of this writing could give valuable insights into the computer and its effect on western life as well as insights into rhetorical postures during various time periods of recent history. An examination of the mainframe computer companies and their appeals is another option in the examination of rhetorical appeals and computers. This type of study 240. might well serve as a pre-cursor to the appeals of the personal computer companies and point out the differences in appeals between those that are directed to corporations and those that are directed to individuals. In the area of telecommunication there are a wide variety of topics related to the personal computer. Communication systems, consumer use of data bases, various communication systems that require the pc as an integral part of the network, and issues concerning regulation of personal computers as communication devices are among the topics which could be explored. From an interpersonal communication standpoint there are a wide variety of interesting areas to be explored. The effect of personal computers on the communication patterns in organizational life is one. The question of children and their communication patterns when exposed to personal computers is another. One other is the family communication patterns that arise in a family which has a computer in the home...in particular the patterns that arise if one or more members of the family aren't literate on the computer. Whether in rhetoric, telecommunications, or interpersonal communication, the study of the personal computer as a communication tool, a device to be vended, 241. and a factor in changes in communication patterns offers new areas of research and writing for communication scholars. The technology so pervades our lives that it is almost impossible to act during the day without some interface, albeit oblique in some cases, with computers of some type. As communication scholars we have the opportunity to examine and explore this new technology in its infancy and to help others understand its function in various areas of human communication. 242 I«=-l X- NOW THAT YOl FIRST G1 TAKE A LOO] It started with the simple notion that computer I B M f e m l power ought to be available for the individual, not X im 110 12 9—Modal IP C w in w r A#*B just the corporation. Admittedly, a revolutionary idea bock in 1976. MC 12* But one which proved quite popular So popular, M— w M —mj+hmliJtwttmi that last time we stopped to count we'd sola over a m H1K 2MC half billion dollars in personal computers. Fmmi+y) N o n f m m Before we knew it, a half doeen corporate biggies fir— doa m i a a l J r moved into the marketplace. u W Not to feat niK*mm We more than held our own. Even with all this 9UC 1MK ■tot I40K competition, the Apple’ll remains the largest selling personal computer in the world. Oood enough, right? Nor right There were still - IM" • !a&r a lot of people who needed mare power and mote P ftq Os^ba C«»Uq capacity than even the Apple D could deliver f t — THE BIGGEST APPLE 5 3 5 Our answer was the Apple’ ll!. iL! > Which in all due modesty is,dollar for dollar, the W W h tm w i 9*i>IP»ir.mr« mast powerful personal computer on the market VwCalc* 129 VmC** The Apple 111 has up to 256K RAM of usable honraOnffct* lbafwOw^M a internal memory. A |p lfld M M w That's more memory than any other personal CM4*Mnrv CWU* l*a«v C W \ * m F* *»•**•* IffV^sk computer So you can solve a limitless number of V v « . 19*21 business problems easier and faster than you ever *4 111 «a»« Ntfll Nki thought possible. b. < r U s 243. A-Jc/ 4L- IVE SEEN THEIR ERAIION AT OUR THIRD. There's another Apple HI exclusive, AcoeasIU communication* sofinvare. Which give* you juat what the name implies, accea* to mainframe computer*. You can remove information from your firm'* big machine, even woric with it, and put it back. Or plug rfght Into DowJone* or the New Yorit Tlmo. And If your fancy run* to Goodapell, job Coating, Personal finance Manager or virtually any of the ocher Apple □program*, you’re in luck. The Apple IQ can run thousands of Apple II program*. And loon you'll be able to run thousands of existing CP/M* program*. Taken together; mis gives Apple 01 more available software than any other personal computet APPLE DTS NEW PROFILE* , Another Apple U exduaive i» ProFlle, a new FIRST RUN PROGRAMS. hard disk option that greatly expanda the capabilities Bar opener*. we have developed new aoftware of your Apple HL E packages exclusively for the Apple QL With thiia addition, your Apple IQ can atorv over | Firat, there* VMCal^ IH—aTwperVWCald' 1,200 page* of text (5 million byte* of information). i that lea you create and reviae (he moat complex Which enable* you to handle problem* once fotecaic*, budgets, atrategie* and projectioni with reaerved for big oomputer*. ; unimagined n eed . About the only thing we didn't build into the Then there* Apple Buaine**Graphic*,which rate graph*, Jnlike many of our competitor* flnt generation i resolution i machine*, the Apple ID it built to grow aa your eW ritertn* buaineaa need* grow. Even when you've equipped , _ i ■ i — arord ^ the Apple III with a printer; a plotter; a phone than the price of meat word proceaaom. modem and extra diak drive*, you've still got room You can create, edit and print me*no*,ktmaor for more. larae document* in record time. RnaUv Apple III ia backed by a network of over nor thoae long cumbenome m al Kats, theteb 1,000 full service dealer* in the U.S. and Canada, Mail Uat Manager Thl* let* you Mon neatly 1/300 offering complete technical support , name* on one disk. And retrieve them in any way Vlait one of them. Compare our Apple III with you wi*h. Alphabetically,occupationally whatever our compedtor*' machine*. In addition, all of there prograrm am totally We're aure you'll find that between our third interactive with each other generation and their fine, there* quite a gap. For exam pie: you can take the infcrtnation from ViriCalc HI, convert it to a graph, and print the The penonal computer. graph to a personalized form letter to be tent to a f f c a P P h * •elect liar of customer*. Qd - z to vt^ in CM a Now youcm hawa die tap I priaofaH: IBM quality at • nrw I poo* chart bettar than am. The - apcamioduda$64KBofiiac( aaaopay, an* 160KB ditkam driw I iJm B«iAii>l»w»ilitw«hniB» T Hoaf«fyvu'plaa wuatyaur IBM Iboonal Cmnpia r. youH win Wf-fcacauaa k cut help auk your ■ ufadi'iB die flffcti bona off acfaool. - #•<: -' GlowthhpcioaelGataiiily. Add 'V, <^-*tebrM nimifyau‘dlik(.Or«Mittai;Oraoicinnnai)r.Aadyau J.. >' 1 ^ /,jcaa Everytm u iy with brains is buying, Radio Shades *599 personal computer: the smart ne w wa y to save mo n e y an d time! li«lw Sh«k««■- Scientific uir* Irttmnal luil-tue M-ker pamJrhle TtS-Ml TRS-HO i i 1 hr fclea) lab kcvhuarJ ijrMrm it alre*l| ike ataman*- Program 11 Nrw vlllAJ DHIiNIMIpU' to (Mains ipnm rat, iff hi ilir norM Foe ik in ' clatulf Jrup, perform M u n i t i v w t iNrnpk- mi ikr im m vtiai ttatiM* at brain* rmNpk iopra«p m ami ilata manipulation utrfvlnrtt h ifJf hml u (hv «I» u l rtinical lab* allurtfaNi- Aiutfkcr u m iw r d«< Ami kiw H ii \ j»«iUhl« uJrtt 'iM | ilir TKS'HO Inm Mi«k in our iiinii hr inMmiliia mJuimal ll«1)141 iMDptr1 equipment i« ikr plant* brrvnr* W vr j m 11 Amukrr Iim pnariM Btil Solioare* Available. end income rat anJ plutced m vv to tiwnr Prnpkrr- Om |hm i nrrnai fur alt* (>rurr uur pnntrri, la«i war »«!» «•» diak dm *. akl«J mem rrrm w i iiMtpuirr ory Mappf luatomert* uprrKMr Mr the thouiatuli Be H om e mW* Ir a lA r kill III U K * tt»' taute the benefit! — atnle *me u f i k family. K « J « ImImi Skatk t }W >|mr from nor breakthrough Offer mw' Buti- M whi TtS W ran Han privramminji maaual l u v p r M r * m ilu Jc **• M iiA fi n r quick (11 m*nut. ruavrrf met- haa ana ptaudirft frum panJahiliir. hcM-pmven rvalue tbe u w TM wi wrtmtM t, balance Nab L_J' • \ ^ Radio /hack Tin- htggcM name in litilc computer* c Iktmtsct 401 It 250. fid 7 "Dad, can I use the IBM computer D tonigfr?" \ lit not an unusual colorful graphics, your son or daughter will diaawer phenomenon. Ii what nukes a computer tick—and what it can do. They Kara when your can take the same word processing program you use •on aslcs to to create business reports to write and edit book reports borrow (and Icam how to type in the process).Vbur Icida might • tie. Or even get to 'computer smart* they'll start writing when your their own programs in BASIC or Pucal. daughter Ultimately, an IBM Pmonal Computer can be one wantt to of the best investments you make in your familyk future. uae ytxir metal racquet. Sometimesyou let them. Often And one of the least expensive. Starting at leas than you don't. But when they atart asking to uae your IBM $l.600'there's a system that, with the addition of one Fetaonal Computer, ita better to aay yea. simple device, hooks up to your home TV and uaea your Becauae learning about computera la a subject your audio cassette recorder. leads can arudy and enjoy at home. 1b introduce your family to the IBM Personal It's alao a fact that the IBM Pmonal Computer can Computer, visit any ComputerLand* score oe Sean be aa useful in your home aa it is in your office. To help Butineaa Systems Center. O r see it all at oneofour lBM . plan the family budget, far imeaner. O r to compute Product Centers. (The IBM Data Processing Dhriaioa anything from intem t paid to calorics consumed. Ybu will serve business customers who want to piachtai in can men tap directly into the Dow Jones data bank with quantity.) /... your telephone and an inexpensive adapter.' ' And remember. When your kids ask m uae your sir,* But as aurtly aa an IBM Penonal Computer ^ L IBM Personal Computrr, let them. But just malmX can help you, it can alio help your children. •use you can get it back. After all, your took / ' Because just by playing gamea or drawing The IBM Bssonal Computer^ and me.■‘“•“"•“““•■IBM'jh ’*.V ^ nr . • * , ITM|»»ra|e*wa wMMIhaksil ■ «—ra 1 251. ^ t f g ^ a a f i g . ~\+ *»••*} IjiWr ■>>! yfyyr H \%w m m » *W ■*■ * i' 7«j^fS^WMfc*r,Af »•% * ;*^.'V' M^‘ *■>*-,' F t"\Rr s^r-i- -.✓l/- *^*V. - • ‘^•** ’ ’i} !* ;% ('-,'V rr^ J v •? K ■'. i',.'.» T,*'* ‘7 %'V jp* 252. ftcl &> V t . • r ' mgratulations, We published your program. The envelope, pleaje. programs. And graphics. And games. Theic't an acceptance letter inside. And a And more. check chat could have'you/name On It. (If we W II also consider software written tj select your program, thkrii.)* programmers>r programmers. For example,- But remember, v the BASIC Program Development System, Vk pick our winners carefully. Professional Editor and Diskette Librarian ' Because the software we' publish for UMPMsoNUcxuinrriasnancATioNS , the IBM Personal Computer has (o be food enough id complement Okr.isndisrar latHIM* IBM Personal Computrr hardware. ■dwswilBhai (See the boa at right.) Like our hardware, dus software should be simple ro,ust. ftiendly. , nu t. And written to help satisfy the pceds of the individual. Our Bessonal Editor it a perfect eaaxnple. A versatile tear file editor, . it nor only helps the user save time,’ but lets hBn easily adPtailor a task ' ■ arshigh-quality, fuTI-funaion tools that with definable function keys. And were submitted by authors like you and it sets a standard of excellence. . subaequenrly published by us. O f course, ewty petaonnriU use the Now you might have the chance to win... IBM Pmonal Computer differently. Who knows? Vxi could open the mailMS That's why we plan on publishing and find one Of the envelopes shown here. many different programs. For information on how to submit your Entertainment programs. program, if completed and running, Write; And educational programs. And IBM Personal Computer External Subrniaaiona, business programs. And Dept. 765 PC, Armonk, ■(. . personal productivity New Vbrk 10504. W - U m VL: The IBM Pei^on^ (Computer , v t Ivf A to6 l for mo d e r n time$ ’ ' • i , on* laowaaurvM,^ » , **»>« » i«e u« iau w»«»rCw^m. oS aotmr-iwa u Akdampf*. acasrTcwM - l Six Different People— Six Different Computers! Radio Shack TRS-80* One off Them is Perfect for You! Your computing naada arc unlqua. Thai'* why Inataad of )ust on* or two modala, Radio Shack offers you lha broadsd Una d affordable microcomputers in the wortd. And we back our TRS-60 line with the bed support. . . Including ieaaing, training and aarvtoa. Wa have a TRS40 lor you. Our powerful, top-oUh*4ne Model tdhae baan daalgnad to allow up to thraa people to adva complex task* umukanaomlyi Tha Modal 0 la a multipurpose workstation ihat'a just right tor your company or prolass'on. Our desktop Modal m is a manager's personal problemadver. The Cotor Computer Is educational and entertaining lor the whole femKy We even have oomputers that fit In your pockat tor inatant, orvthago anawarsl JknllaMe nationwide. Coma Into any dover6300 Radio 8hackstoraa ' and participating da slars, and over300Radio Shack Computer Camara and las us halp you chooaa your TRS-60. tend for your troo 1963 oornputor catalog R a d i o / h a e K d—crtbinQ our con^tM o TRS-60 lino today* m M p d w h — > i m d u r Mafl 10: ftM o K M *. D m . l U M t * o f m o m op tm ctt gcopumtbh 300 Or* T*iOyCMW. Pwl Wwft. T* »tO t c m /4c./ /4c./ \o Keeping up So » keep up with modem b a n . with mo d e m times. IBM Gvnpuarrdafcrtodqr Aik pnffara wr woihfelr aooi Get« demonan Sm yfaiihlaiiitrA t.il f n»l». < m » h n iKimh « nHool Or A TlttlBMPtrsooa Computer A tool fin* modem limes- to LTI 255. Ad // The Great American Solution Machine M m Commodore. The burl- u e , At a *4,000 taving*. and many more. Commodore one computer that's provldine □ A gaaolinc retailer needed to solve* the problems that stand in solutions for more then 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 Inventory, order and **t price*,- the way of increased profitability people ell over the world. Built determine Federal and *ute Commodore can provide the solu by one of the pioneer* In office income tax**; and comply with tion in your Great America* bus medUnc*. With e repuletion for Federal pricing and allocation iness, too. Find out more by call quality thet con only come from regulation*. All don* dally, ing or w riting any of Commo verticil integration of the lotel weekly, m onthly and yearly. dore's District Sale* Office*. manufacturing proem*. Commo Solution: Commodore. II keep* COSTA MESA, CA1955 N. Air dore build*, not ***cmble*. hi* buaineu on track—and Unde way Avenue 9262*. <7M> 979-007. Compere Commodore'* word Sam off h it back. SANTA CLARA, CA 3330 Scott end dele procewing copobilitle* □ A paint and wallpaper (tore Boulevard 95051. <4001727-1130. with computer* coating twice or had to Inventory over (00 expen DECATUR, CA 53*0 SnapHnger even three time* ** much. You'll sive w allpaper line* for Wood* Drive 30035. (404) 9(7-3311. see why to many *mell bull- profitability, monitor distributor BENSENVILLE, IL 790 Maple ne**e* ere turning to Commodore sal**, **t and track salesmen's Larie *010*. (312)595-5990. for aolution* to problem* a* var goals, and help the customer NORRISTOWN, PA ied a* the**} •elect the right rite , pattern and 950 Rittenhouse Road 19401. □ A car leaking company'* eus- quantity. Solutions Two 12K (215) 666-7950. tomer* were terminating too early Commodore com DALLAS, TX 4350 Beltwood iur account profitability. Solu puters, floppy Parkway South 75234. tion: A UK Commodore. II d irk and (214) 347-000*. analyte* caah flow on over 1200 printer. Commodore Business Machines, account*, identifie* tho*e for Commodore Inc., Computer Sale* Division, early penaltim, and even write* does It all— Valley Forge Corporate Center. up (case contract*. Commodore and account 950 Ritten- paid for Itself within week*. ing, loo. house Road, □ A law firm needed a high In applica Norristown, quality, ea*y-lo-u*c, affordable tion* Ilk* PA 19401. word processing *ymm. these. Solution: Commodore plu* it* WordPro software pack- c* How to move a paragraph. For memos or manuscripts, sales reports or book reports, a person could use the IBM Personal Computer. Because, with the EasyWritet* software program, creating, revising and storing text is just that. Easy. r With ten function keys that help save time on repetitious tasks and ‘menus* that guide you along, the I IBM Personal Computer can insert k a clause. Delete a line. Move a I paragraph from one page to & another. Transfer text from file to ■ file. Even merge words from your Easy Writer program with numbers generated by your VisiCalct program. And when you're done, a copy of the finished product can be printed out at 80 characters a second. So if you do any kind of writing, try it on the IBM Personal Computer at your nearest authorized dealer. Vbu'll see that the performance, quality and price arc really something to write home about. IBM The IBM Personal Computer A tool for modern times How to practice what you teach. IT'S BA S I C Whether you’re teaching someone | cites kids, or concerned with educating ^' your ow n—it’s tim e to study the ” IBM Personal Computer. W hat you learn may surprise you. The size of the system. The price. The higlwesolurion color graphics The 10 function keys that help eliminate many repetitious casks. 1 The documentation written more like [ a friendly guide than a technical manual Plus the computer language called ' BASIC tilrtad) in permanent memory To discover every way the IBM Personal F Computer can be an education in itself, f (both in the schoolroom and the lamily room) f get a demonstration at an authorized dealer And start at the hwd of the class. IBM' The IBM Personal Computer A tool for mo d e m times 3 c / ' 4 How to change a forecast lb help weather the uorm of economic variables, a person could use the IBM Personal Computer. With software like VisiCalc' (really an ‘electronic worksheet') you can calculate up to 63 columns and 234 rows of numben—implementing formulas and changing labela as you go. Vbu can alao plan on the IBM Personal Computer to help create a sales forecast. Spoc a trend. Hat a budget. And aid you on the quest for the right answer to ‘what if?' Now, don't wait for a rainy day to visit an authorized IBM Personal Computer dealer. W I I learn that the quality, power and performance of this tool are what you'd expect from IBM. nve P^ is"''-ISM’ The IBM Personal Computer A tool for modern times • MvGW >4 * t* Presenting the IBMof Fferscml Computers. IBM is proud to announce a production may have > It's a computer that hat reached a truly personally persona] interest in. It's a tool that could loon be on your scale in sixe and in price: starting at leu than |I,60Q ' desk, in your home or in your child's schoolroom. It can a system that, with the addition of one simple dcvioaj. make a surprising difference in the way you work, learn hooks up to your home TV and uses your audio c or otherwise approach the complexities (and some of the recorder. simple pleasures) of living. For flexibility, performance and ease of use, no : Its the computer we're making for you. personal computer offers u many advanced features id In the past 30 years, the computer has become please novice and expert alike (see the box). faster, smaller, leu complicated and leu expensive. And Features like high resolution color graphics. Tbs, IBM has contributed heavily to that evolution. user-defined function keys. The kind of expandability Today, we've applied what we know to a new that lets you arid a printer for word proceuing.or user product we believe in: the IBM Personal Computer. memory up to 236KB. Or BASIC and Rucal lang-“ _ that let you write your own programs. And a growing ‘ IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER SPECIFICATIONS of superior programs like VisiCaic,'* selected by IBM to 'a d v a n c e d re a t v a a s roe paasotut coswunas match the quality and thoughtfulness of the systems ssiissr ■pwt 7n» •}*»>' total design. a* BT> hil I 'fSSVI ■ la >t ■ > < f v n o11 c n i 2tlM» Mtkmnari T h a new system will be sold through channels UpfarandlcMcf a w n a tc h to KM* which meet our professional criteria: the nationwide chain of 130 ComputerLand* stores, and Sean Bus Systems Centers. O f course, our own IBM Product Centers will tell and service the system. And the IBM Data Processing Division will serve those customers who want to purchase in quantity. BfcndfcmW)t* □ ctttncm ayk». ten p*uuM Experience the IBM Penotul Computet Vbu'll be XMw> numcn o»J lU rtwmrrVHrtr * l^wWOObi surprised how quickly you feel comfortable with it. And., MrM»t ■raniK impressed with what it can sio for you. The IBM Personal Computer and me. IlhagonivMwaautttli ^ *eeema*w»»»mta»m MUM 447-4700 la IHmm (KJOl W2-440) - - * _ .. . 260. "My own IBM computer. Imaginethat” One nice thing about having your own IBM Pmonal Getting atartcd ia caaicr than you might think,', Computer is dial ie'a jatrrr. Rsr your buainew, your because IBM hat tttuctured the learning process far ye project, your department, your clau, your family and, Our literature it in jaar language, not in *computceafc*f indeed, far yourself. Our software imnhm you, the tytrem ItMnatw with jaxM Of count, you might have thought owning a if it w u made to—and it wu. " ■ computer w u ten expensive. But now you can relax. That's why you can be tunning program! in juatC The IBM Personal Computer acatti at lew than day. Maybe even writing your turn program! in a aaaen^S ^1,600* far a ayatem that, with the addition of one ofweekt. ■ ‘ JjJ r. simple device, hooks up to your home TV and uiea your For cate of use, flexibility and performance, no ^ audso eastern recorder. ocher pcnonal computer ofitre aa many advanced * Vximight alto have thought running * computer capabilities. (See the box.) was too difficult. But you can relax again. But whar maket the IBM Pmonal Computer a . ' truly useful tool are software programs teicctsd by IBM n%B^J&SSM3llSSS^IS^ Personal Computer Software Publishing Dtpartmfne, ^ UHtHMwr. ntyhriw • \b u can have programt in butum t, ptofctaional,' woat^ jf 5 « 3S^ pcoeeating, computer language, personal and (*M)4Q(fevw* ' ao«hMo«»sniM W d * * w e< entertainment categories. £ h hmm amtam ototoaOM* tm* ffaw>iy»tar ft»Un , I Mas can see the system and the software in action rej IBMI Afliof anahMoh any ComputerLand* score or Sean Business Systems 'rssisst errs—,- aJ«S£L. Centre O r tty it out at one of our IBM Product Centers. i The IBM Dare Processing Division will serve those tjssr t e a customers who want to purchase in quantity. aiKjlart S*iw . Mar IBM Personal Computet Ooce you start («M working with it, you'll discover mote than the anawtta > E S & *rnVaWJa P »"< VlmmmS sa •SXSC iWwMeatai ^ and solutions you seek: you’ll discover that getting there is half the fan. Imagine that, The IBM ftnonal Gqmputcr and me. m-4400 JnAMgwMMt.iaOOIW'OOT•mywii.tMllBMMMMO 262. tlal > 7 w tymost measures, IBM is a rather large company. But this ruler proves that IBM is a small computer company too. v / u i • v * wiimi wiii|/uwif «w« v/%ui»a^ivf w j u a v iv n i u v « That’s one dimension that can bring a new dimension to vour business. I; IBM’s small computers are designed and priced for businesses of pH sizes. They can handle word processing ana data processing. The ims for our machines, easy to learn and easy to use, have been I and refined in actual use. ervice and reliability. However you choose to size up IBM, you’ll find that weVe very big i small computers. And all tne businesses that need them. = = .= . =* 264 . M IT W B B & § n . ^ . ‘v.rfi SPfXr* S M J; ! r 5 SSBSaa^iVpUc*,» onfneu ;r:by oneof youfuughbors.^lb” la On'mmSmmtiiovwM few ou ejacily whal you can u*»* penonalconpiit«r famUffaautfwiAtu WlutulMkfor' • .'“ *„■+■'.£,/* Wf/-'Hour local eouputtr.iux<»hu ceytinf V d « w yee, S^ihe uliiman c«« nbaUycai ntgU, U y ffy t Applet* the op«7« i op'pracng* iiwa>U^Uth*(tm)gi youc*n do.t Baaua tbMMnyMitw jwrtdtog^Sij tUtanjx»w'»Wil. [7£SJ^j» Grab 1 piece of lie futirc forypwalfr'lWt'yq^*' ' W' ftntoaaafcwftliHradJfi* >'*J.po /Ad i Radio Shack’s TRS-80' andApple* (4 VflalJtodVQa S m up to *101| | Z 1m m ' 1 £ 5 SSTTMH&' u * N nm M O il Cipicay V Bt UMPOIUI kU**m m I Horn/Hum HUSKT s s ~h5B ' Uetn itttw Ujjj- =p= lU M rtct 5 E Hang* h i ~ ifs¥ Of — O f— Sr f 9 F IS T«#C TRS-M Modal 4 la the Logloal /M UM a Nationwide. U p by your Choloe. Ror pertormanee and price, nearaal Radio Shaefc Computer our Modal 4 deakaop eompular M Mo Cordat participating atom or dealer prolaoalonal approach10 Improving lor a domonetrabon ol tie Modal 4 your producdvty Tha Model 4 haa (Cat. No. sg-iotg). naturae bubMn lhal ooat ours In Radio/hack KwaMMonddoarortMl.ThaTmo Modal 4 laalurae a big bOchm cler VUMDVOOMNrai by aw m o d a p lay a t * a M.OOO«har- actar mamory (o p a n d a b te to 12MQ. 1M 4 T O M CATALOOI O nlanU loM ata Hard Worblaay, W t oM igrwd f li t M odtf 4 lo bp oom* patibla vriih our piloting Una ol apraartahaalanalyala.wotdptooaaa ing, electronic Ming—In tool, at T W dO M odel m a ch w aie. And wbh da optional CPAI* opening oye- lam, you'l ba able lo choooa bom thouaandeolCPAOboaad program. rS??ftS£5?355^S5 ssssfscfc ys1us? .essaesat Ifjbu can find thetefgshcan,)uucan ruraooniputer. V n A r'ItM in ln M n>ihi »-«M* man paurril personal oenj* ter til del lew *• nffnxNr is utiu.V M jniiM irr «trj*i jw ml .'i thr Imesw&n w tell •■«. a h e- a .ialls»t hihsofatt.faimtni'i' All vui lealh h x r •> . '■ •* llu!It* tfiruah-M*p*Ti.kjnimiBrm underiairiiuk* HecnJ it's list trm .y*. LBarj\jrcscm7p|r\oin(e*f R c ( 2. | 268. / 4 c l 7 . 2 - v. •>#»; * •••• ^ y* *•# *♦* Ivw m fe*A. •••'•!•• - * m ^ T2*jg* wr*t m w a • t%j vow^erw; t a p up ana ' r CwyWt’lOW (■>WrjMUn«a>w U4\U* ** .,»*»%91*9 *«<«. * ' ••»* ?»»«« *-I : m m : * - . ~ « -«w *»• .** v . a** 9T»W ’ •£« tar*«»; ? WP W» . <&* * . y:** *j>ML—teiw ^ y * *•***.*#•< »«t m M B a g g e r &g 269. t - \ c \ Z 3 We’re looking for the most original use of an Apple since Adam. W hat in the nam e of A dam do paople do w ith graph IraM m alr, entertainm ent, hom e, btieinaea, J ypUCompatenT education, ad aatifk , profcaaional, aad Induatrlal. ten tall ae. A nd cadi w inner w ill chooae from a long llat of • h a t h o n a i n d w o r d a o r l e a n . hm ged-after A pple paripheiala— from A pple * yoor ateay la original and intriguing aaoagh, D iek ll’c to C raphlca TabW ta to ptintere. acoold w in a one-w eek all-ekptaae paid trip for O r you can taker *230 credit towarde the ' ,1 ato H aw aii. W hich la tha doaaal w a coold purchaac of any Apple product • tetoparadlae. j The ranted endeM archM ,M *0. A llw iaaara * f ' ■* w i l l b e n o t i f i e d b y M a y U . ...W tafabolMUprixeste E ntry form e a** evailable at your participating * Whtwriiui^ ' A pple deaiet QUITO 8 W QW i,«004dM M »f, ; 1 ""'I'im.um,, (Mr..11, I * P|«« I t.nM , 1 » I l.»r .1, I, r . 1 •' M. I. <-«||, lo l*>n* i,,u, K ,u *•» ' mu.., , 271 Becausewe putwhat you want into it, you get what you want out of it unwrapped our new package for you, bit by bit. Ir'r alt hen*. Ami you're looking at ir. From I he 8(M8 microprocetror that givea yuu the iptvd and cajwcity to thcRS2)2C atrial ’ . cqmmunkatiuna intttface (hat givea you the world. All told, mi other peroral computer often many advantedcipabilitiea. Read all about (hem In Hie THhnkal Reference Manual availahlr ar ybiir IBM Penunal O m puier dealer. Software.'' Enhanced BASIC in ROM. IBM Ftraonal Computer DOS. Flue a documented ter of uufdcvicc driver rourinca. For high level languagei, exactly what you warn. Bur our tuft ware atory (twill being written Maybe by you.' If yuu're inttreatcd, wart by writing tu: '' . IBM fVreonai Computer Software, D cpt.76V ' IBMCorporation, Arnamk, NewVbrlt ““IBM' Tbe IBM Ifertonal Computer 272, “A Few Years Ag< the Idea of; Computer Y<£u Couk Put in Your Pockel Was Just Science Fiction — Isaac Asimov Hcnowncd Science j - , Si lencc-Hcllon AutK. i i m s i ^ a s K s ...Today, Just *169.95 Buys a Radio Shack TRS-81 Pocket Computer—And That*s a Fact) Back whan computer* flUad anllra Program* and data i rooma, laaae Aalmov waa writing even whan the Pockat about computer* you could hold In tumad off. And R can alao hncbonjudj your hand. ’Radio Shack1* TRS40 Ilka a calculator—aomathlpga^ Pocket Compular tumad my dream* ■ (taaktnp,computer cant do. Into raalky. Kowlcan taka the power of *>nth aTRMO Pockat GorapuMv ycuS a inw computer wkh me wherever I can hold tha future In the palm of ya trl] go,* say* Aalmov. hand.’ Add our 179.99 MMaattaM? The TRS40 Pockat Computer I* programmable In caaaatu recorder and a r*aaaWa Interface lor *29l9A;'l BASIC, laaar, however, would rather write novale than or a Caaaatte Intarfaca wkh built-in priotarfor^ program*. V you’re like me, youD want to gal a low *127.99. Tha/r* all a* doaa aa your nearby Radio - co«t Interface that lata you uaa Radio Shack'a roady-io- S htck stordr dM kr o f CotnpuMf Gamar* run program*,’ H a n are program* for engineering finance*, Wallatka—even raalaatata and oviatlon. cavtawaaaiaaMnlitia Radio /haoK The blggeat noma la Uttla computers* ► * •' i ■>!««* m s y v M p d M M d o o l M t w a n d d e e l m . 273. f-kl 2. C itlu.r StlL-*c A REAL COMPUTER FOR THE PRICE OF ATOY. THE COMMODORE VIC 20 J ___ 275. OHfrMo «dd.jM t w und. Graphic dMign. The hjn of CompuServe? Tlac you Icaa . • f < l •^•SSKBE** tjM ■OOMMfVtfBrI NHnvRminani < m p h k .v x v f E CtotApwoKh. .ftoonrnyour omgtnm . . r dMMnTconflguMloni. M pndMkttUadofsmbodyaiMt. ^ufiNgM lif) ' * k.These days, you can actually go out and spend a couple of hundred dollars for a Mdfc ant or a present for yourself and have nothing more than a machine that plays games. If you're looking around for one of those game machines or a second game machine, yourself 8 favoc Check out the Commodore VIC 20. All of its games come in a different more worth* package: a full-fledged computet ( ^ o o m m o d o r a 276 2 -& IF PERSONAL COMPUTERS ARE FOR EVERYBODY, HOW COME THEY'RE PRICED FOR NOBODY? •a * - . * TKt COMMODORE 64. O^DER 1600. -wr* y i ‘ ,■ ■ 277. List of Advertising Keys BW=Business Week CE=Computers and Electronics Fort=Fortune IA=Interface Age News=Newsweek PE=Popular Electronics PC=Personal Computing BP=Back Page IC=Inside Cover SAS=Special Advertising Section Magazine Date Page Company Byte May, 1977 14-15 Apple Byte Aug, 1977 7 ComputerLand PE Sept, 1977 33 RadioShack Byte Nov, 1977 16-17 Apple Byte May, 1978 55 Radio Shack IA May, 1978 16-17 Apple Byte July, 1978 33 ComputerLand PE Aug, 1978 5 Commodore Byte Sept, 1978 5 ComputerLand 278. Byte Oct, 1978 5 Computerland IA Oct, 1978 11 Radio Shack Byte Nov, 1978 105 Commodore Time Nov 27, 1978 10 Radio Shack 279. Magazine Date Page Company Byte Jan, 1979 67 Radio Shack PE Jan, 1979 27 Apple Byte March, 1979 191 Radio Shack Byte June , 1979 19 Apple Time Aug 20, 1979 3 Apple Byte Sept , 1979 141 ComputerLand Byte Sept , 1979 137 Radio Shack Byte Sept , 1979 68 Commodore Byte Oct, 1979 147 Radio Shack Byte Oct, 1979 117 ComputerLand Byte Oct, 1979 64-65 Apple Byte Nov, 1979 131 Radio Shack Byte Nov, 1979 15 Apple Magazine Date Page Company IA Jan, 1980 37 Radio Shack IA April, 1980 29 Radio Shack Byte April, 1980 13 Apple Time April 14, 1980 83 Apple IA May, 1980 27 Radio Shack Time June 9, 1980 89 Commodore Byte July, 1980 12- 13 Apple Time July 7, 1980 24- 25 Apple Byte Oct, 1980 12- 13 Apple Byte Nov, 1980 47 Radio Shack Byte Dec, 1980 13 Apple Byte Dec, 1980 121 Radio Shack Time Dec 15, 1980 25 Radio Shack 281. Magazine Date Page Company Byte Jan, 1981 69 Radio Shack PE Jan, 1981 6 Apple PC March, 1981 1 Apple Time April 13, 1981 65 Apple Fort April 20, 1981 96 Radio Shack PE May, 1981 14 Radio Shack IA May, 1981 65 Radio Shack Byte June, 1981 15 Radio Shack PE July, 1981 3 Radio Shack News July 6, 1981 6-7 Apple PE Aug, 1981 28 Radio Shack News Aug 24, 1981 4-5 Apple BW Aug 24, 1981 12 Radio Shack PC Sept, 1981 1 Commodore Time Oct 26, 1981 46 IBM PC Nov, 1981 57 Radio Shack Byte Nov, 1981 12-13 Apple Byte Nov, 1981 53 Rad io Shack Byte Nov, 1981 237 Commodore Time Nov 16, 1981 46 IBM News Nov 23, 1981 34 IBM News Nov 30, 1981 7-8 Apple IA Dec, 1981 71 Radio Shack 282. PC Dec, 1981 1 Commodore Byte Dec, 1981 20-21 IBM 283. Byte Jan, 1982 75 Commodore PE Jan, 1981 7 Commodore Time Jan 18, 1982 15 IBM Fort Jan 25, 1982 27 IBM Byte Feb, 1982 1 Radio Shack IA Feb, 1982 23 Radio Shack News Feb 8, 1982 17-18 Apple Fort Feb 22, 1982 111 IBM Time Feb 22, 1982 60-61 Apple Byte Mar, 1982 1 Radio Shack PE Mar, 1982 7 Radio Shack News Mar 8, 1982 50-51 Apple PE April, 1982 1-2 Apple Time April 12, 1982 18 ComputerLand Byte May, 1982 BC Radio Shack IA May, 1982 65 Commodore Time May 17, 1982 47 IBM IA June, 1982 23 Commodore PE July, 1982 IC-1 IBM IA July, 1982 14-15 IBM Byte ^ July, 1982 135 Commodore Time July 5, 1982 56-57 IBM News July 26, 1982 48-49 Apple Byte Aug, 1982 136-37 Apple 284. Byte Aug, 1982 BC Radio Shack Time Aug 2, 1982 36-37 IBM Time Aug 30, 1982 7 IBM PE Sept, 1982 35 Radio Shack Byte Sept, 1982 117 IBM Time Sept 13, 1982 32-33 Commodore Time Sept 13, 1982 62 IBM Time Sept 13, 1982 98 Radio Shack News Sept 20, 1982 14-15 IBM Byte Oct, 1982 115 Apple Byte Oct, 1982 6 Radio Shack IA Oct, 1982 78-79 Commodore BW Oct 4, 1982 73 Radio Shack News Oct 25, 1982 45 IBM IA Nov, 1982 93 Commodore Byte Nov, 1982 BC Radio Shack Time Nov 8, 1982 3 Radio Shack Time Nov 22, 1982 SAS ComputerLand Time Nov 22, 1982 35 IBM Time Nov 29, 1982 50-55 Apple Byte Dec, 1982 BC Radio Shack Byte Dec, 1982 140-41 Apple IA Dec, 1982 24-25 Apple Fort Dec 13, 1982 74 Commodore 285. Magazine Date Page Company Byte Jan, 1983 184-85 Apple Byte Jan, 1983 BC Radio Shack Time Jan 4, 1983 6 Radio Shack BW Jan 17, 1983 18 IBM Fort Jan 24, 1983 90-91 Apple Fort Jan 24, 1983 92-93 Apple Fort Jan 24, 1983 94-95 Apple Fort Jan 24, 1983 96-97 Apple Fort Jan 24, 1983 98-99 Apple Byte Feb, 1983 BC Radio Shack Byte Feb, 1983 240-41 Apple News Feb 14, 1983 16 Radio Shack IA March, 1983 28-29 IBM CE March, 1983 BC Commodore IA March, 1983 7 Radio Shack Byte March 1983 BC Radio Shack Byte March, 1983 73 Apple CE April, 1983 32-33 IBM CE April, 1983 5 Commodore Byte April, 1983 BC Radio Shack BW April 11, 1983 103 Radio Shack Byte May, 1983 BC Radio Shack Fort May 2, 1983 34-35 Apple 286. Fort May 2, 1983 36-37 Apple Fort May 2, 1983 38-39 Apple Fort May 2, 1983 40 Apple Time May 16, 1983 43 IBM Time May 23, 1983 80 IBM Byte June, 1983 SAS ComputerLand Byte June, 1983 SAS Radio Shack Byte June, 1983 240-41 IBM Byte July, 1983 261 IBM CE July, 1983 8-9 IBM CE July, 1983 BC Commodore News July 11, 1983 7 ComputerLand BW July 18, 1983 103 IBM Time July 18, 1983 47 IBM CE Aug, 1983 43 Radio Shack Byte Aug, 1983 BC Radio Shack Byte Aug, 1983 1-2 Apple Byte Aug, 1983 80-81 IBM Time Aug 15, 1983 35 IBM Time Sept 5, 1983 62 Radio Shack Fort Sept 19, 1983 72-73 Apple Time Sept 26, 1983 9 Radio Shack IA Oct, 1983 109 Radio Shack IA Oct, 1983 20-21 IBM IA Oct, 1983 36-37 Apple 287. 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