I N S C R I B E D L A N D S C A P E S Contextualising prehistoric rock art in Ireland Volume 1 of 2 Blaze Valeska O’Connor Thesis submitted to University College Dublin for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the College of Arts and Celtic Studies February 2006 UCD School of Archaeology Research supported by the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences, the UCD Open Postgraduate Scholarship, and the Humanities Institute of Ireland Supervisors: Dr Muiris O’Sullivan (Head of School) and Dr Joanna Brück For Jack Clarke and Mabel Colhoun, whom I wish I had met. C o n t e n t s V o l u m e 1 Abstract i Acknowledgements ii List of tables iv List of figures v Chapter one Rock art landscapes 1 Chapter two Petroglyphs in Ireland & Britain 38 Reassessing the dating dilemma Chapter three Nested landscapes 71 Chapter four Intimate landscapes: the significance of place 130 Chapter five Excavating an enigma 161 Chapter six Enduring forms & hidden depths 205 Chapter seven Anchorstones, cornerstones, touchstones 244 Appendix A Inventory of rock art panels 260 Appendix B GIS metadata & tables 289 Bibliography 320 A b s t r a c t This study addresses the landscape context of Atlantic rock art, comparing three study areas in Ireland; the Inishowen Peninsula, Donegal, the Louth / Monaghan area, and the Dingle Peninsula, Kerry. Recent dating evidence is reassessed, suggesting a Late Neolithic terminus ante quem for the practice and a potentially earlier origin, with related traditions continuing into the Bronze Age. A combination of field observations and GIS analyses reveals that a complex range of landscape features, as well as taphonomic and survey biases, have influenced the known rock art distribution. At the regional level geological formations, topography, wetlands and soil types played a role in structuring general distribution. Within these areas, rock art appears to cluster on particular topographical features, outcrop formations, distinctive soil zones, and specific viewpoints or ‘hidden’ parts of the landscape. This echoes recent landscape theory that such distinctive places were actively used to enhance certain experiences and activities. A pilot study into motif analysis is conducted using an innovative recording method combining photogrammetry and epigraphic survey, and three new approaches to classification. By linking these classifications to the GIS, subtle variations across the landscape are also investigated. The collation of survey and excavation evidence indicates that in these areas rock art was located in relative proximity to prehistoric settlement, yet frequently removed from contemporary monument complexes. This suggests that many panels may have formed foci for ‘everyday’ ritual activity by broad and unrestricted social groups, contrasting with the proposed specialist nature of megalithic art. Within each study area a distinction between dispersed panels and regional clusters is identified, the latter situated in removed locales, demonstrating that different panels played different roles. One of the regional clusters formed the focus for further field investigations. By employing a high-resolution data collection method, a geophysical survey identified a wide range of low visibility archaeological features across the site. Following this, excavation (the first at an in situ rock art site in Ireland) demonstrated that the features dated to the Early and Middle Neolithic, as well as later periods. The various contextual studies presented here suggest that rock art research can be approached as a way of accessing the complexities of different social relationships and identities in the past, and that the practice of carving may have played a key role in the maintenance of social memory. K e y w o r d s Landscape, rock art, petroglyph, prehistoric monuments, memory, identity, Neolithic, Early Bronze Age, Ireland, Britain, excavation, geophysical survey, geographical information system (GIS). i A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s A project of this kind would never have become a reality without the support and advice of a huge number of people. Though far from an exhaustive list, there are numerous people I wish to thank. When I arrived in London with little more than a backpack and the idea of pursuing rock art research, the first book I purchased was Richard Bradley’s Rock Art and the Prehistory of Atlantic Europe. Richard’s work provided serious fuel to the fire and was responsible for sparking my interest in the Atlantic material. It has been a delight and a privilege to discuss my work with him in person since then. The ideas that initially inspired the research design were discussed at length with Iain Hewitt, whose ongoing encouragement I value greatly. Thegn Ladefoged, Geoff Irwin, Tim Darvill, Clive Waddington, John Coles, Elizabeth Shee Twohig, Margarita Diaz-Andreu, Lasse Bengtsson, Andy Jones, Dave Sankey and Portia Askew have all offered their support and interest, for which I thank them. My move to Dublin was by way of a series of somewhat fortuitous connections. However it soon became clear that the UCD School of Archaeology was a particularly special place in which to have arrived. My research has been met with wholehearted support and enthusiasm from the very beginning, and I greatly appreciate the warmth and generous spirit of the School’s staff (who have all provided advice and support at one stage or another) and the postgraduate community of which I have been fortunate enough to be a part. Special thanks to Hanneke Ronnes, Katharina Becker, Bríd Ní Ghruagáin, Jessica Smyth, Ursula Mattenberger, Angela McAteer and Rob Sands for their help at various times, and a huge thank you to Mark Gordon who came to my rescue at the final hour. My thanks also go out to the students who have kept me inspired and on my toes, in particular the third year Prehistoric Art and Landscape MA classes of 2001/2 - 2005/6. Numerous specialists have offered me practical advice, direction and data along the way. Special thanks to Ian Elliott of IGAS; without his guidance, support and equipment the geophysical survey would never have been possible. A big thank you to Koen Verbruggen of the GSI and Steve Mendal of CRDS for their ongoing support. Mary Cahill, Margaret Lannin, Isabel Bennett, Greer Ramsey and Brian Walsh have all offered valuable help and advice. Fintan Walsh, Gareth Talbot, Kieron Goucher, Paul Cheetham, Conor McDermott, Barry Masterson, Geraldine Crowley, Tom Condit and John Downey have all offered help and advice of various kinds, as have numerous former colleagues at Margaret Gowen and Company, including Mags herself. Rob Sands and Sean Morrish made the use of GIS at UCD a reality. During my fieldwork I have been fortunate enough to have met and had conversations with some very special people who hold vast amounts of local knowledge and have been generous enough to share this with me. In particular I wish to thank Conal Byrne, Micheal ÓCoileáin, Noel Ross, Kieran Campbell, Gerard Miller and Lar Dunne. Thanks to the many landowners who welcomed me onto their farms, pointed the way, showed me panels, cleared away vegetation, fed and watered me, moved stock, and talked folklore with me. Thank you to the Durnin family for their warm welcome, and for putting up with my endless site visits. Olive Durnin kindly granted permission for the excavation to be conducted. Larry Durnin and Cecelia Cunningham offered their consistent support, and their local knowledge (not to mention Cecelia’s much appreciated tea, jam sandwiches and chats on the many rainy days prior to the excavation). Susan Johnston, Marian Nolan and Maartin Van Hoek generously offered me information on particularly difficult to find panels. Tim Clarke and Hedi O’Neill provided, amongst other things, a home away from home on the Dingle Peninsula, where it has been a joy to stay. Thank you to my geophysics and survey crew; Denis Shine, Fran Coady, Hanneke Ronnes, Katharina Becker, Jane Ruffino, Aimée Little and Keay Burridge who braved boredom and, on occasion, risked life and limb surveying the wilds of Monaghan. Thanks are due to the many people who together made the excavation at Drumirril possible. To Rose, Heinz, Ruth and Robert Lorenz of Gleneven House, for their warm hospitality. My sincere gratitude goes out to the excavation team; Keay Burridge, Abi Cryerhall, Mark Gordon, Thomas Kador, Celest Kenny, Aimée Little, Melanie McQuade, Erica Strengbom, Denis Shine, and David Swarbrick, who all worked so hard and with such enthusiasm, and managed to make the dig such good fun. Thank you to Ken O’Connor for lending his 4WD, and to Muiris O’Sullivan, Stephen Mendal, and Susannah Kelly for equipment and conservation supplies. Ingelise Stuijts, Jonny Geber, Helen Roche, Graeme Warren, Barry Raftery, Conor Brady, Emmet Byrnes, Steve Mendal, Ursula Mattenberger and Linda Fibiger provided specialist advice. Jan Lanting, Anna Brindley, Groningen Institute for Archaeology and the Centre for Isotope Research, University of Groningen generously supported the research by providing radiocarbon dates for the Drumirril excavation. Rob Shaw of the Discovery Programme generously gave up his time to conduct the GPS control survey. The research was funded by the Government of Ireland Scholarship from the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences, the UCD Open Postgraduate Scholarship, Dublin City Council Higher Education Grants, and the Humanities Institute of Ireland research space award. Special thanks to Siobhan Morrissey in Fees and Grants for all her tips and advice. Muiris O’Sullivan, Joanna Brück, and Gabriel Cooney, who became an unofficial third supervisor, have been incredible in providing not only academic advice and specialist knowledge but also friendship, boundless enthusiasm and the occasional shoulder to cry on. It has been a pleasure and a privilege to work with people whose own research has provided constant inspiration.