Bourassa’s War: Henri Bourassa and the First World War by Geoff Keelan A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2015 © Geoff Keelan 2015 Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract This dissertation examines the perspective of French Canadian nationalist Henri Bourassa during the First World War from 1914-1918. Bourassa was one of the best-known voices rejecting the war’s purpose and value in Canada. He consistently offered detailed and in-depth analytical critiques of the war. He first accepted Canadian participation from August 1914 to January 1916, but his position gradually shifted from cautious support to outright rejection. This dissertation argues that Henri Bourassa has traditionally been understood as a domestic commentator in Canada, but during the war years he wrote in the pages of his newspaper Le Devoir to address a wide variety of international issues. He was one of a few Canadians who looked out to the world and interpreted global events for his readers. Historians have already recounted in detail his thoughts about the Ontario bilingual schools crisis, conscription, the December 1917 election, and the Easter Riots of 1918. This work examines Bourassa’s thoughts on diplomacy between the belligerent nations and that of Pope Benedict XV, international events like the Easter Rising in Ireland and the American entry into the war. It re-examines his domestic commentary concerning the Canadian home front in light of his position on international issues, especially his growing anxiety over militarism and the deterioration of Canadian democracy. He believed that the war, which was ostensibly fought for democracy and liberty, was drastically changing the Allied nations and transforming them into the sort of autocratic states against which they fought. This thesis concludes that Bourassa adopted an intellectual approach to the war that deconstructed its impact at home and abroad, and stands as one of Canada’s foremost thinkers during the war years. iii Acknowledgements Acknowledgements are strange things and I have read quite a few in my time as a doctoral student at the University of Waterloo. Some are funny for the stories they tell, others are interesting for the names they mention, while most are generically bland. A special few are touching, one or two are tragic. Early on in this process I thought I could write a historiography of acknowledgements that I have read, but after finally getting through it all, I realised that thanking the people who have helped me is the most important part of this work and every name deserves mention. There have been so many people that have touched my life during the last four and a half years that I am certain I will not name them all – so know that the work before you is a testament to countless acts of support big and small. This work would have not have been possible without the financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the University of Waterloo, and the Laurier Centre for Military, Strategic, and Disarmament Studies. As well, I thank the University of Toronto, Microsoft and the Internet Archives for providing access to many digitized documents that improved this work. Numerous friends have helped me throughout this process – stretching back to my undergraduate studies, though I do not have the space to name them all! Nicole Amin-Scott helped me during my Master’s with the Papineau letters that were just as valuable during the writing of this dissertation. Estelle Hjertaas generously provided me with a place to stay and many hours of conversation during research trips to Ottawa. Oliver Haller has provided me with many enjoyable and far-ranging conversations. I have spent many hours with Matt Wiseman and Marjorie Hopkins in the last two years, and both have been invaluable sources of relaxing and academic conversations. Kirk Goodlet has been an amazing colleague and friend to me. Through our discussions of academia, history, and many other topics, I have become a better historian. Nick Lachance, who somehow lived with me for three years of this process, generously devoted countless hours of his own time playing video games with me when I needed it. He has truly been a great friend. Numerous professors have guided me on my path towards finishing this dissertation. A second-year course with Robert Hanks was the first time I became seriously interested the craft of history. During a fourth-year seminar Jasmin Habib exposed me to vigorous and enjoyable academic discussion. In another undergraduate seminar, and later a Master’s seminar, Susan Neylan showed me that studying historical works could be engaging and exciting. Alan Gordon and Ken Coates both offered careful direction in my doctoral fields as I learned the difference between a student of history and a historian. Cynthia Comacchio, who besides being on my dissertation committee, was also an invaluable teacher during my Master’s. Her comments in class, on my written work, and throughout the dissertation process, have helped me evolve as a student and a historian considerably. I have also had the great pleasure to work with one of the most insightful scholars I have met in my graduate life, Geoff Hayes, and I remember many times walking out of his office in awe of his perceptive remarks. I must thank the two external members of my defence committee, Carol Acton and Michael Neiberg, who both provided perceptive questions and comments on this work. At the University of Waterloo, I do not think any graduate student could have survived without the constant support and help of our administrative assistant, Donna Hayes. She is there at the worst of times and the best times, and is always willing to help or cheer us on. I am glad to call her my friend. I am thankful for the consideration of Dan Gorman as Graduate Chair and Andrew Hunt as Tri-University Director, which has helped me during my time as a iv student. Jane Forgay at the Dana Porter Library responded to several vaguely urgent emails over the years about library services, but I must also thank the anonymous staff supervising RACER and all the PDFs they have sent me. Numerous other members of the History Department have made my time at Waterloo enjoyable and memorable. I am happy to have spent my graduate career in their company. The most formative and fruitful connections I have made as a student of history have been made at the Laurier Centre for Military, Strategic, and Disarmament Studies. I wish I could devote a line to each of you, but I cannot. Jane Whalen inspired me as a young student there and continues to do so today. Kellen Kurschinksi reminds me of the scholar I strive to be, and I respect him greatly as a colleague, a historian, and a friend. Mike Bechthold, Vanessa McMackin, Kate Rose, Marc and Joan Kilgour, Matt Symes, Caitlin McWilliams, Caleb Burney, Trevor Ford, and all the others: Thank you! Many hours have been spent enjoying your company. Terry Copp, the Centre’s director for my time there, has been an invaluable mentor and friend. He has guided, inspired, and shaped the scholar and person I am today. Since my first undergraduate class with him, I have been greatly honoured to be his student, his research assistant, and his colleague. This work is proof to his generosity and influence as an educator and a historian. Without Terry pushing me to test my potential, I would likely be working at a Starbuck’s in downtown Waterloo (or hopefully managing it by now). My supervisor, Whitney Lackenbauer, has been just as generous with his time and help. I could not have asked for a better scholar to guide me through my years as a graduate student. He has invited me into his classroom and his home and I never fail to leave a conversation with him inspired to work harder and confident that, yes, one day I will finish. It is difficult to express how valuable such inspiration has been, but it is the reason why this work is before you. Whitney has helped me become a better writer, a better student, and a better historian; and I am thankful to have his support throughout the beginning of my academic career and my future endeavours. My family has also been incredibly supportive. Alan, Richard, and Paul have all provided me with moments of relaxation and enjoyment. Meghan and Bill White have often provided a weekend away, as have Bill and Liesel White. My grandmother, Jean, inspired me with her energy. My parents, Bryan and Val, have offered constant support, encouragement, and food and drink. Years of their love have helped me endure this process, and their generosity in offering a place to edit my work peacefully was greatly appreciated. More than anyone though, this works owes its existence to Jocelyn Hunt. I met her while writing this work, and the long arduous hours spent at a computer have been worth it only because she was there when I was done. Writing this work and falling in love with Jocelyn will be forever etched in my mind as one, long, incredible journey. As one part of that journey ends and another begins, I am unbelievably thankful to have her at my side.