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A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA of HINDUISM Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page ii

OTHER BOOKS IN THE SAME SERIES A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá’í Faith, Peter Smith, ISBN 1–85168–184–1 A Concise Encyclopedia of Buddhism, John Powers, ISBN 1–85168–233–3 A Concise Encyclopedia of Christianity, Geoffrey Parrinder, ISBN 1–85168–174–4 A Concise Encyclopedia of Judaism, Dan Cohn-Sherbok, ISBN 1–85168–176–0 A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, Gordon D. Newby, ISBN 1–85168–295–3

OTHER BOOKS ON HINDUISM PUBLISHED BY ONEWORLD Hinduism: A Short History, Klaus K. Klostermaier, ISBN 1–85168–213–9 Hinduism: A Short Introduction, Klaus K. Klostermaier, ISBN 1–85168–220–1 Hindu Writings: A Short Introduction to the Major Sources, Klaus K. Klostermaier, ISBN 1–85168–230–9 Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page iii

A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA of HINDUISM

KLAUS K. KLOSTERMAIER Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page iv

A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HINDUISM

Oneworld Publications (Sales and Editorial) 185 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7AR England www.oneworld-publications.com

ISBN 1–85168–175–2

Cover design by Design Deluxe Typesetting by Transet, Coventry Printed in England by Clays Ltd, St Ives plc NL08 Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page v

Contents

Acknowledgementsvi

Preface vii

Introduction 1

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 15

Chronology 216

Appendices222

Thematic Bibliography 225

Thematic Index 236 Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page vi

Acknowledgements

he author and publishers wish to thank the following for permis- T sion to reproduce material in this volume:

Circa Photo Library (p. 60); The High Commission of India (p. 8); International Society for Krishna Consciousness (p. 86); Laura Marrison and Ben Steiner (p. 87); Moojan Momen (p. 153 and cover); Peerless (pp. 25, 36, 54, 71, 100, 115, 121, 125, 136, 148, 167, 197).

Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge ownership of copyright. If any credits have been omitted or any rights overlooked, it is completely unintentional. Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page vii

Preface

o write a concise encyclopedia of Hinduism is a daunting task con- T sidering the enormous diversity of what is called ‘Hinduism’ and its history of over five thousand years. There is not a single statement that would be accepted by all Hindus as expressive of their religion, not a single symbol that all would agree upon as typifying what they worship. The many different religions and philosophies embraced by the over 800 million Hindus in India and the 45 million Hindus all over the world today supply the background to what is offered in this Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism. The followers of particular paths within Hinduism will probably find the information offered on their specific traditions insufficient – there simply is no way to do justice to any of them within the context of this enterprise. Nor is it possible to do justice to all the great persons, women and men, who over the millennia have contributed through their lives and thoughts to one or more aspects of the Hindu traditions. The purpose of this encyclopedia is to provide basic information on many expressions of Hinduism and to explain important terms that one might encounter reading more technical literature in the field. Many of the entries interlock and the reader is requested to consult terms and expressions that are capitalized in the text itself. Unless otherwise noted, the technical terms used are Sanskrit. English translations have been supplied in one place only. Given the uncertainties of Indian chronology in many cases dates attached to authors or works are ten- tative; other sources may have different dates. Care was taken to establish a balance between people and places, scriptures and philosophical systems, art and architecture, mythology and history. However, given the vastness of the country, the huge population, the long history, the rich mythology, choices had to be made. One of the choices made was not to include entries on living scholars of Hinduism. The names of some of them will be found as authors in the bibliography. Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page viii

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism viii

A great many entries are concerned with mythology. While mythology has its own truth, it goes without saying that no historical truth claims are associated with the stories told, often in a variety of versions, that cannot be harmonized. Even the stories connected with historical personalities before the modern period are often inextricably inter- woven with mythical elements, and are hagiographic rather than critical- ly biographical. Hindus have always placed greater emphasis on meaning than on factual correctness. It would be pointless to qualify every entry by adding disclaimers like ‘Hindus believe’ or ‘Hindu tradition reports’ etc. Likewise, given the enormous diversity of traditions within Hinduism, it goes without saying that no Hindu believes or accepts everything that is here presented as ‘Hinduism’. It would again be rather tedious to underscore that fact by specifying in each and every instance where Hindus are mentioned, that ‘some Hindus’ or ‘many Hindus’ believe or think this and that. Using inclusive terms like ‘Hindu’ and ‘Hinduism’ implies always and by necessity a certain blur- ring of real and important distinctions and generalizations that have to be taken with a grain of salt. Given the constraints of space and the very nature of such a work the Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism is no substitute for comprehensive monographs on either Hinduism as a whole or any of the topics mentioned. The bibliography is meant to direct the user of this work to more detailed descriptions of issues that by necessity could only find brief mention herein. Since is was decided that Sanskrit words would be transliterated with diacritics, as they are used in scholarly works, a few hints as regards pronunciation will be in place. Most Sanskrit vowels (a, e, i, u) are pronounced like Italian vowels – a macron (ä, ï, ü) indicates dou- bling the length of the vowel. Diphthongs (ai, au) are pronounced like double vowels. There are three semi-vowels: ø (pronounced ri), y (pronounced like y in yes), v (pronounced like w in Swami). The pronunciation of most of the consonants is similar to that of their English equiv- alents. A major difference are the aspirates: kh, gh, th, dh; the h sound is clearly perceived like the h in hot-house. Sanskrit has many different t and d and n sounds, expressed in transliteration through dots under the letter (ﬂ, õ, ﬂh, õh). While the difference (and the marking) is important to recognize the meaning of the word, English does not have equivalent sounds. Ÿ and • are pronounced like sh. Sanskrit is fond of compounding words, which makes it difficult for most non-Sanskritists to pronounce them. To facilitate reading, the Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page ix

ix Preface

Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism separates the various elements of compounds through short dividing dashes. Sanskrit words do not have accents. The basic rule is to stress the first syllable, unless there are long vowels in later syllables. All long vowels in a word receive a stress, even if there are more than one. Proper names of individuals and organizations have usually been reproduced as used by these, without attempting to transliterate them according to the system mentioned above. Indian words that have become part of the English vocabulary have also been left without diacritics. Plural formations have been made by adding an -s to the singular, disregarding the Sanskrit inflections. Likewise no distinction has been made between masculine and neutral noun formations; the final -m indicating (in many cases) that the neutral form has been dropped. Information has been drawn from many sources. Instead of attach- ing references to individual entries, a bibliography has been added at the end, which should allow the reader to pursue the issues raised here in greater depth. Cross-references within the entries are intended to provide fuller information by directing the reader to similar or related matters. They are indicated by text in small capitals, e.g. AVATÄRA. For readers wishing to explore Hinduism from a thematic viewpoint, the Thematic Index on pp. 236–43 will refer them to the appropriate entries. The Chronology on pp. 216–21 gives a full picture of the major events through the life of the faith. Many people associated with Oneworld Publications have been involved in the production of this encyclopedia. I would like to single out Mary Starkey, the copy editor, for thanks and praise. Through patient and intelligent questioning and by skilfully rephrasing awkward expressions she has made this a much better book than it would otherwise have been. I am truly grateful to her.

Klaus K. Klostermaier Winnipeg, 31 July 1998 Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page x Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 1

Introduction 1

induism has no known founder, no known historic beginnings, no H central authority, no common creed. It has many founders of diverse schools and sects, many spiritual leaders, many scriptures, many expressions. Hinduism is an overwhelming reality in today’s India: it is visible in thousands of temple cities, audible in exuberant festivals, alive in hundreds of millions of people. The word ‘Hindü’ was not created by the Hindus themselves. It probably was a designation coined by the ancient Persians for the people who lived beyond the Indus river, the eastern border of the outermost province of Persia. The term ‘Hinduism’ is an invention of eighteenth- century European scholars who were fond of ‘-isms’ and had no expo- sure to the reality of Indian religions. By now, however, the designation ‘Hindü’ has been taken over by the Hindus themselves, and while it may be impossible to define Hinduism as one ‘religion’, it makes sense to use the term to describe a family of religions that developed over the past several thousand years in South Asia which have much in common and share many historic roots. Hindus are fond of saying that Hinduism is more than a religion: it is a way of life. As such it suffuses all aspects of public and private life, it is part of India’s social fabric as well as of its entire culture. On the one hand, that makes Hinduism so fascinating and so ‘real’, while on the other it makes it difficult to describe to outsiders. Instead of merely interpreting a scripture or unfolding a set of doctrines we have to look at the geography and the history of India that brought forth such a unique phenomenon as Hinduism.

The Geography of Hinduism

India, the homeland of the Hindus, is a vast subcontinent with a great variety of geographic regions inhabited by a multitude of different Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 2

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 2

populations. Side by side with the Hindus there always lived adherents of other traditions, autochthonous tribes and immigrants from other parts of the world. Hinduism, however, developed a quite unique bond with the land of India, whose very physical features are filled with religious meaning for Hindus. The earliest self-designation of Hinduism was vaidika dharma, the way of life laid out in the Veda. The codes that determined that way of life clearly specified the Äryävarta, ‘the ‘country of the noblemen’, as the geographic area within which the followers of the vaidik dharma were to live. The original Äryävarta was identical with the Saptasindhava, the area around the seven great rivers of north-western India, that later became the Panjäb, the Five-River-Country, after the Saraswatï had dried out and the Yamunä had changed its course. With the expansion of the Vedic way of life, the rest of much of South Asia became Holy Land to Hindus. If in the beginning it was predominantly the (now dried-out) mighty Saraswatï river that inspired the seers and represented divine power and blessing to them, in the course of time all the great rivers first of Northern, and then of Southern India – the Gaögä, the Yamunä, the Indus, the Brahmaputra, the Närbadä, the Kø•æä, the Kauverï and many others – were worshipped as divinities and the thousands of tïrthas on their banks became the destination for millions of pilgrims. Similarly the mountain ranges of India became associated with Hindu gods: the entire Himälaya, and specific peaks within its ranges, the Vindhyäs and the Western ghäﬂs, the Nilgiris and the Eastern ghats. Sanctuaries were built high up in the mountains, hermits sought out caves and built their huts on the hills, thus transforming them from mere natural phenomena into religiously meaningful realities. Millions of temples dot India’s landscapes: from small cubicles which contain a rudimentary figure to large temple cities with huge edi- fices that emulate the mountains, housing artistically exquisite huge mürtis. By virtue of its ceremony of installation these images become for Hindus the Presence of God and the temples the places where humans can come and see God, have darÿana and receive prasäda. Existing Hindu law recognizes the temple as house of God: all property attached to it is registered in God’s name. For the Hindu India is defined by its holy places and all of India is holy land. When Indians fought for liberation from colonial rule they did it in the spirit of liberating the Goddess Mother India from the fetters by which she was tied down by foreigners. The attachment of Hindus to holy mounts, holy rivers and sacred places is much more than aesthetic or sentimental: it is deeply religious. That is evident in the Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 3

3 Introduction

India – Past and Physical ANGA Ancient kingdom Ellora Ancient site Temple site

K a ra kora m

H Kedarna¯th Badri˙¯na¯th Hr˙s˙ike´sa i s u Hari-dva¯r m d Mohenjo Daro Khanakala

I a¯ Govardhana Hastina¯-pura Ga Vrnda¯vana ndak l Mt Everest Puska¯r Mathura¯ Y ˙ a y a s a a tr ˙ m Ghagara u una ap hm s ra ll Ayodhya¯ B i a s v a t¯i Mithila¯ Va¯ra¯nasi¯ VIDEHA Ka¯ma¯khya¯ H S ar ˙ Pataliputra (Pi¯ttha)ha) Guva¯hati KhajuraKhajur¯hoa¯ho G a¯ a Morvi Ahmedabad a n g MAGADHA ˙˙ g

g e Na Dva¯raka Ujjaini¯ R a n Son Gaya¯ V h ya s ANGA Porbandhar i n d arbada Somana¯tha N Some´svara Nadia t a h Nasik (Navadvip) b Ajanta¯ s am ge Kh M M Gan f Aurangabad Ellora a ouths of the lf o h Gu an Bhuvane´svara Deccan adi W Pune God Kona¯rka˙ ava ri Puri¯ e Pandharpur t s s h a Arabian t G Sea e Krish na n r r

n e Ka¯ladi t

G ˙ s Srn˙geri¯ h a Bay of Bengal Udipi¯ ˙ Halebid a Kalahasti Tirupati E t Belur Ka¯ñci¯-pura s Maha¯balipura K Ootacamund a Tiruvannamalai u v e Cidambaram r¯i Tanjore Madurai

r na C. Comorin n a M of Gulf INDIAN OCEAN 0 km 400 Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 4

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 4

millions of people who visit these places, not as tourists but as pilgrims. Many Hindu expatriates attempt to get back to India to die and to have the holy rites performed there. If that is not possible they have their ashes brought back and dispersed into the sea or a river in India. An age-old conviction animates Hindus to consider India as unique among all countries as the only one where religious rites bring fruit and where liberation from saƒsära can be gained.

The History of Hinduism2 India is the birthplace of many religions besides Hinduism, and has become in the course of its long history the home of many others from abroad. Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, to mention only the best known, arose in India. Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, Muslims and many others have found homes in India during the last two thousand years as well. Assuming, with recent Indian researchers, that Vedic civilization was not imported into India through nomadic invaders from outside from places such as Ukraina or Central Asia, but developed within north-western India in the country identified in the Øgveda as Saptasindhava around 4000 BCE, the so-called Indus civilization, whose best-known sites are Mohenjo Daro and Harappa (extending over an area of more than a million square kilometres) must be seen as part of late Vedic civilization flourishing between 2700 and 1750 BCE. If these assumptions are correct, Vedic civilization was one of the earliest High Civilizations of the world, with large urban centres, advanced technical skills and extensive trade connections with the rest of the ancient world. When in the course of a drought lasting more than two hundred years a large belt of land stretching from Asia Minor to northern India became largely uninhabitable, the big cities in the Indus valley were abandoned and the majority of the population moved eastwards, into the dense forests of the Yamunä–Gaögä doab. The river Sarasvatï, worshipped in the Øgveda as the mightiest stream, had dried out by 1900 BCE and the focus of both civilization and worship moved to the Gaögä, with Väräæasï becoming the most important centre. For a long time the Veda, believed to have been composed around 1500 BCE, was the only evidence used in the reconstruction of Vedic civilization and religion. Now, increasingly, archaeological and other scientific evidence is being utilized to complement the picture derived from literary sources alone. Not only has the date of the composition of the Vedic hymns been pushed back to about 3000 or 4000 BCE, the Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 5

5 Introduction

understanding of these hymns and their position in the Indian tradition has undergone a dramatic change as well. Whereas in India the mantras of the Øgveda were preserved as an integral part of the ritual routine, nineteen-century Western scholarship read them as lyrics, somewhat clumsy expressions of nature worship. It did not seem to matter that many passages either could not be translated or did not make sense; scholars such as Max Müller confidently passed judge- ment on them and developed systematics of Vedic religion from them. Indian traditional scholars always considered Itihäsa-Puräæa the source for ancient Indian ‘history’, literature that had not seemed worthy of study by serious scholars in the West, because of its often sectarian and occasionally wildly imaginative character. Based on the latter, Indian scholars reconstructed a chronology that differed widely from the one established in Western textbooks. For traditional Indian historians the great watershed in ancient Indian history is the Mahäbhärata War which most date at 3002 BCE, based on astronomical cues. They also identify with this date the beginning of the Kali Yuga, the ‘Age of Strife’. For most of its known history India was divided into a large number of kingdoms that feuded with each other. Some of these succeeded in establishing themselves as major powers and becoming centres for religion and culture. Thus the Mauryas, who established an empire in north-western and central India from 323 BCE to 183 BCE became supporters of Buddhism. The most famous Maurya descendant, Emperor Aÿoka (269–32 BCE), sent Buddhist missionaries to many countries in the East and the West and proclaimed the Buddha’s message in dozens of inscriptions throughout his empire. The Kuÿäæas, invaders from the north-west, who founded a large empire in the early first century CE, continued this tradition and supported Buddhist establishments in their realm. Under the imperial Guptas (320–540 CE) Hinduism experienced a major renaissance. With their protection, brahmins launched a major campaign to re-hinduize the country. The Guptas built temples, encouraged the growth of the Puräæas and the cultivation of Sanskrit literature that elaborated themes from the epics. The time of the rule of the imperial Guptas is often called the ‘Golden Age’ of Hindu culture. In South India the Cälukyas, based in the Godävarï area, and the Pallavas, ruling over the country along the Käverï, established themselves as major powers and patrons of Hindu religion and art. Under Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 6

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 6

the Pallavas, Indian religion reached out to Java (Indonesia), Champä (Thailand) and Cambodia. They were eventually overthrown by the Colas, who became famous not only through the major irrigation works in the Käverï delta region but also through the exquisite sculptures of Hindu gods and goddesses that were created under their patronage. Smaller but locally important kingdoms, patronizing various branches of Hinduism, were emerging in the middle ages in the Deccan (Rä•ﬂraküﬂas, Hoyÿa¶as, Yädavas, Käkatïyas and others); eventually all of them were conquered by the invading Muslims and amalgamated into the Muslim empire that grew from the eighth century CE onwards until it was abolished by the British in 1808. Even during Muslim rule a powerful new Hindu empire succeeded in establishing itself on the Deccan: the Vijayanagara empire, lasting from 1336 to 1565 CE, when it was reduced to a part of the Mogul empire. Its rulers were strong supporters of Hindu religion and culture. In the eighteenth century the Mahrattas carved out a kingdom in central and north-western India, which was pronouncedly Hindu. The Muslim rulers, who dominated India for half a millennium, did not all follow the policy of the first conquerors, who wanted to stamp out ‘idolatry’. Under the enlightened rule of Akbar ‘the Great’ (1556–1605) Hindus enjoyed great freedom and respect, while Aurangzeb (1658–1680) repressed Hindus and razed many temples that his predecessors had allowed to be built. Important new developments like the Caitanya movement and the great Bhakti revival in North India invigorated Hindu life and culture during Muslim rule, not least under the challenge of Islamic monotheism. With the takeover of India by the British – first the East India Company, then the Crown – and their declared policy of non-interfer- ence with indigenous religion, a slow but steady recovery of Hinduism took place. The government paid the salaries of priests in major temples, the edition and translation of important Hindu texts by Indian as well as Western scholars was encouraged and Hindus themselves began diverse reform movements, such as the Brahmo Samäj, to adapt their religion to the new times and circumstances. Other new religious movements, such as the Ärya Samäj, attempted to purge traditional Hinduism of its medieval accretions and revive Vedic religion and culture. Since the establishment of the Republic of India (Bhärat) in 1947 Hinduism experienced a major renaissance. While the first prime minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (1947–64), Western educated and a Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 7

7 Introduction

India Today Capital cities To w n s International boundaries State boundaries

N A T AZADKASHMIR S I N A H Srinagar G Islamabad F KASHMIR A N CHINA Amritsar HIMACHAL A PRADESH T PUNJAB Chandigarh S UTTAR I Hardwar HARYANA N K New Delhi G angRampur E P e A SIKKIM A s L Lucknow ARUNACHAL P Jaipur Agra BHUTAN PRADESH Ayodhya¯ B Kanpur A RAJASTHAN M N B Gauhati A PRADESH Patna S G A S NAGALAND Udaipur L N MEGHALAYA A Allahabad Ganges A G

D L MANIPUR M A AD BIHAR E Ahmadabad HY Jabalpur Dhaka M A S Bhopal D I P Z R H O T A WEST E A D R R S E A A Indore S BENGAL J H M Jamnagar U H G Calcutta Nagpur Raipur INDIA TRIPURA A R ORISSA Aurangabad T Cuttack H S Mumbai Pune A (Bombay) R A H A Hyderabad M Gulbarga Vishakhapatnam ANDHRA Kakinada Arabian PRADESH Machilipatnam K Bay of Sea GOA A R N Nellore Bengal A T A K Bangalore A Mangalore Cennai (Madras) Mysore Calicut Pondicherry K TAMIL E Cuddalore R Coimbatore Cochin A L Madurai A NADU Trivandrum SRI LANKA Colombo

INDIAN OCEAN 0 km 400 Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 8

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 8

believer in socialism, insisted on India becoming a ‘secular democracy’, under his successor, Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964–6), organized Hinduism gained considerably in strength. Thus in 1964 the Vishva Hindü Pari•ad was founded as a worldwide alliance of Hindus with the aim of consolidating Hindu influence in all spheres of life. Increasing disillusionment with Congress governments added strength to those political parties that appealed to Hindu nationalist sentiments. When Indira Gandhi was ordered to end the ‘National Emergency’, with its largescale repression of civil liberties, a coalition of parties with a strong core of Hindu nationalists took over the central government in 1977. It did not last long but gave prominence to some Hindu leaders. By the early eighties the Sikhs began seriously agitating for an independent state. When operation ‘Blue Star’ ended with shoot-outs at the Golden Temple in Amritsar, Sikhs turned their hostility not only towards the Indian government but also towards Hindus in general. The assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards was followed by largescale Hindu–Sikh massacres, especially in Delhi. The early nineties were characterized by increasingly more vocifer- ous demonstrations of Hindu political aspirations. In several large Indian states Hindu parties won elections and formed governments. The country-wide Hindu agitation to ‘liberate’ Räma’s birthplace in Ayodhyä from Muslim domination culminated in the destruction of the Babri Masjid (the mosque built in the 16th century at the place where a Räma temple had stood) by bands of Hindu activists. The event was televized throughout the world. There followed all over India the worst Hindu–Muslim rioting the country had seen since partition, resulting in the death of thousands and the destruction of whole neighbourhoods. In early 1998 the Bhäratïya Jänata Party, the main advocate for Hindütva, won an electoral victory against the splintered Congress Party and together with some other parties was entrusted with forming the central government. The Hindu thrust is quite clearly visible; the atomic bomb that was detonated in Spring 1998 by India was labelled both by Hindus and their antagonists the ‘Hindu bomb’. While for most of its history Hinduism was confined to the geographical area of India – the Hindus who crossed the ‘black seas’ lost caste and had to undergo purification rites if they returned to India – there is by now a sizeable Hindu diaspora outside India. Hindus are found not only in neighbouring countries such as Nepal (the only country in which Hinduism has been declared the state religion), Bangladesh Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 9

9 Introduction

(the former East Bengal) and Ÿrï Laökä, but also in Europe, in North America, in Africa, Australia and Oceania. Hindu temples have been built in all these places and Hindu ceremonies are performed there by Hindu priests. The Hindü Viÿva Pari•ad is very active among the Hindus in the diaspora, promoting both a sense of Indian national pride and a non-sectarian kind of Hinduism. In India itself a great number of Hindu temples has been built in recent times, large masses of people participate in Hindu religious festivals, and Hindu religious authorities exercise much influence, as anyone can observe who visits India. A visitor will also be struck by the juxta- position of archaic and ultra-modern, the continuity of ancient ways of life and worship, and the emergence of new expressions of Hinduism.

The Sacred Books of Hinduism Hinduism comprises the entire life of Hindus: their religion, culture, society, laws and literature. While it would be incorrect to say that all of Indian culture is ‘Hindu’ or that all of Indian art is ‘religious’, it is indeed often difficult to separate the ‘religious’ from the ‘secular’ in India. Thus the ‘sacred books of the Hindus’ contain much that is ‘non- religious’ from a Western perspective, that takes its definition of ‘religion’ from the model of biblical religions. Ancient, ‘classical’ sacred Hindu literature has come down through the ages mainly in two major streams: Vedas and Itihäsa Puräæa. The first is the literature of the religious professionals. These books contain the information required for the performance of Vedic rituals, deemed indispensable by all. It was the prerogative of the brahmins alone to perform these. The second genre is the literature of the common people: it contains creation narratives, the histories of kings and patriarchs, the myths of gods and goddesses, edifying stories, wisdom of life, eschatological lore. Both kinds of literature contain, besides religious, essentially ‘secular’ elements, which, however, are integral to their ‘religious’ purpose. The Vedas, for example, also deal with astronomy and grammar, Itihäsa Puräæa contains instructions in statecraft cosmography, genealogies and many other matters. In addition to these more or less universally accepted sacred books there is a huge mass of literature that could be termed ‘sectarian’, as long as one understands that ‘sect’ in Hinduism does not mean a break- away from a ‘mainstream’ tradition, but a denomination or a school of thought that developed within Hindu mainstream tradition and is an expression of it. Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 10

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 10

Since Hinduism as such has no central authority, no common creed, no magisterium, but consists essentially of a large number of parallel developments, the term ‘sect’, which is the usual translation of the Sanskrit word saƒpradäya, does not have the pejorative meaning that it has in the context of biblical religions with their insistence on conformity. Thus the large communities of worshippers of Vi•æu (Vai•æavas), Ÿiva (Ÿaivas) and Devï (Ÿäktas) have their own extensive ‘special’ revelations laid down in a great many books, sacred only to the members of specific saƒpradäyas: the numerous Saƒhitäs, Ägamas and Tantras. The interpretation of the Veda, undertaken since the early Indian middle ages from various standpoints, led to the further development of schools of thought that established traditions of their own. Thus Ÿaökara became the founder of the school of Advaita Vedänta, which since the eighth century has had its own institutions and its literary traditions, adhered to by a galaxy of brilliant exponents of a monistic understanding of the Upani•ads. In the course of time ten different such schools of Vedanta developed, each with its own large and growing literature in defence of a particular reading of the same texts. The creation of new branches of Hinduism, and with it the creation of sacred books, continues right now. Followers of major contemporary religious leaders often note down their words and get them published as inspired literature – continuing the revelations of old and creating new sacred books of Hinduism.

The Languages of Hinduism

The language of the most ancient literary documents of Hinduism, the Vedas, ‘Vedic’, is an archaic form of Sanskrit, the ‘refined language’ which became standardized around 600 BCE by the famous grammarian Päæinï. Sanskrit was considered to be the ‘language of the gods’, a sacred language, to be used only by persons of higher rank. It became the language of Hindu scholarship as well as Hindu religious literature: the epics, the Puräæas, the Ägamas, the Tantras are all composed in Sanskrit, albeit not always in conformity with Päæinï’s grammar. Not by coincidence did the ‘heretical’ Buddhists and Jains use Präkrits, ‘natural’ languages, whose vocabularies have strong affinities to Sanskrit, but which were not considered ‘sacred’ by the brahmins. (In classical Indian drama, only the most eminent persons, brahmins and kings speak Sanskrit, while all other characters have to use Präkrits.) When the popular bhakti movements became the predominant form of Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 11

11 Introduction

Hinduism, the vernaculars became the preferred linguistic medium. Most of the bhakti poets came from backgrounds that precluded the knowledge of Sanskrit, and the addressees of their songs and hymns were the ordinary folk of their own neighbourhoods. Thus languages like Tamil, Mahratti, Telugu, Avadhi, Brajbhä•a, Bengali and others acquired a large religious literature that was also used in certain forms of worship. Ÿrïvai•æavas in particular felt so strongly about the Tamil compositions of the Ä¶värs that they considered them equal to the Sanskrit texts and used them side by side with Sanskrit in temple worship. While Sanskrit continued to be the preferred medium of Hindu scholarship (even now there are conferences where Hindu pandits read to each other papers in Sanskrit and where debates are conducted in Sanskrit), Tamil (in South India) as well as Hindï (in North India) and Bengali (in Eastern India) were used to write scholarly and theological treatises as well. With the development of virtually all the major vernaculars into literary languages Hinduism adopted all of them as vehi- cles for religious instruction: Sanskrit religious texts have been translated into all the major Indian languages and original compositions in these are becoming the main source for ordinary people to appropriate Hinduism.

The Beliefs of the Hindus

Considering the breadth of the spectrum of sacred books of the Hindus it will not astonish anyone to learn that it is not possible to find a creed to which all Hindus subscribe or even a single doctrine which all Hindus understand and accept the same way. Recent compilations, often by Western converts to a particular Hindu saƒpradäya, claiming to offer a ‘Hindu catechism’, i.e. a concise and systematic presentation of the articles of faith of Hinduism, are artificial and idiosyncratic attempts to give universal validity to the teachings of a particular sect. The closest to a common foundation of Hindu beliefs is the nominal acceptance of the Veda as revealed ‘scripture’, and a general agreement on the factual reality of karma and rebirth. Looking at the many different ways in which the Veda is understood by various Hindu schools and the controversies among Hindus about strategies to cope with karma and rebirth, even those minimal foundations seem somewhat shaky. Rather than attempting to list beliefs shared by all Hindus and establish a kind of common creed of Hinduism, it is more meaningful to study the literatures of specific saƒpradäyas and learn what their followers believe and think. Thus the authoritative books of particular Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 12

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 12

schools within Vai•æavism, Ÿaivism or Ÿäktism would narrate in great detail the specific teachings on God and creation, human life and salvation, heavens and hells, commandments and prohibitions. Each saƒpradäya exercises fairly strict control over doctrines taught and practices permitted and reprimands of ‘heretics’ or even excommu- nications of non-conformers are not unheard of. Since popular Hinduism is concerned with the worship of images in temples, much of the teaching of most Hindu schools is focused on the proper (sectarian) way of ritual.

Philosophies of Hinduism

India has never known the division between philosophy and theology that has characterized much of modern Western intellectual history. This has had two consequences that distinguish Hinduism from current biblical religions. First, it makes it appear natural for Hindus of an enquiring bent to analyse and investigate philosophically the teachings of their traditions. Second, it allows professional philosophers to deal with ultimate issues in a meaningful way. Among the philosophies of Hinduism several take the Veda as a basis, considering their task not the creation of new truths but the interpretation of revealed texts. Thus (Pürva) Mïmäƒsä investigates the injunctions of the Veda relating to ritual; it does not question them but attempts to get at their precise structure and meaning. Vedänta (also called Uttara Mïmäƒsä) is essentially a reflection on the Upani•ads, presupposing that what the Upani•ads say is true and that they contain a truth that could not be obtained through unaided human reason. The task the Vedäntins set themselves is not to question or dissect the truth of Upani•adic utterances but to make sure that they are properly understood. When Hindu scholars debate matters of religion the point is not to argue for or against the content of a scriptural statement but to ascer- tain whether an assertion is scriptural. Once that is done, there is no further discussion possible. Hindu philosophical systems, although called darÿanas (‘theories’), are not mere abstract verbal constructs concerning God, world and humankind but intellectual and ethical endeavours to realize the meaning of life. Among the qualifications required for beginning philosophical study is the earnest desire to find liberation from the sufferings of saƒsära, Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 13

13 Introduction

caused by ignorance (avidyä) concerning the true nature of reality. Hindu philosophies are immensely sophisticated, often anticipating questions that only now are being raised in Western philosophy. The hundreds of works that have been written by Hindu philosophers over the past thousand and more years deserve the attention of the best minds.

Political Hinduism and Hindu jagaran

The ancient and medieval realms of Hindu kings were Hindu kingdoms, i.e. Hinduism was also their political system. When India became a Muslim country and then a British colony, Hinduism largely turned inwards and retreated into piety and spirituality. However, there always remained some individuals like Ÿivajï and some groups of militant Nägas who attempted and partially succeeded in reaffirming political power for Hinduism. The first modern Hindu political party was founded in 1909 by Pandit Mohan Malaviya, a prominent member of the Ärya Samäj: the Hindü Mahäsabhä, as it was called, in reminiscence of classical Hindu assemblies, demanded for Hindus the right to govern themselves by Hindu laws. The call for a Hindu rä•ﬂra, a Hindu state, was also reiterated by the later Hindu parties, the Jana Sangh (established in 1950), the Janata Party (established in 1977) and the Bhäratïya Janatä Party (established in 1980), which eventually became the ruling party at the centre in New Delhi and in several Indian states. Hindu jagaran, a great awakening of Hindu consciousness, was proclaimed by non-political, ‘cultural’ organizations such as the Rä•tøïya Svayamsevak Sangh (RSS; founded in 1926) and the Viÿva Hindü Pari•ad (VHP; founded in 1964). There are many indications that the Hindu awakening has been successful and it remains to be seen how far the notion of India as a Hindu nation will be carried. The exercise of political power by Hindus in a contemporary demo- cratic setting may not only transform India but also Hinduism. For the first time in several hundred years Hindus might be able to convene a dharmapari•ad, a council empowered to bring about changes in religious law and practice. It will be a chance to modernize Hinduism and to find out how valid the claims voiced by Hindus over the past hundred years are that Hindu solutions to India’s problems are better than Western ones. Encyclo - Hindu PRELIMS 10/2/03 9:33 am Page 14

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 14

Conclusion

It is hard to describe a phenomenon like Hinduism, with its thousands of years of history and its myriad forms of expressions. Hinduism is not only a historic phenomenon but also a living reality. There is no way to understand contemporary Hinduism without knowing its past. And there is equally no way of deriving modern interpretations of Hinduism from a study of the ancient documents alone. While it is absolutely necessary for a student of Hinduism to read the ancient Sanskrit sources, the Vedas, the epics, the Puräæas, the Ägamas, it is equally important to listen to contemporary expositions of Hinduism in the modern vernaculars of India. Hinduism is the living religion of the many millions of Hindus, not the result of the analysis of literary sources by detached scholars of religion. The apparently bizarre and idiosyncratic is as much part of ‘real’ Hinduism as the reasonable and conventional, which relies on ancient tradition and common sense. In the end it is Hindus alone who determine what Hinduism is and what it is not. The Hindu community is large and diverse and has room for many different individuals and schools of thought.

Notes

1. This short introduction to the Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism is not intended to replace somewhat more extensive works like the author’s A Short Introduction to Hinduism, Oneworld Publications 1998, or full- length studies like the author’s A Survey of Hinduism, State University of New York Press, 1994 (2nd edn), which, in addition to a fuller treatment of the points dealt with here, offers ample documentation from sources and scholarly literature. See also the titles in the opening section of the bibliography. 2. Early Indian history has emerged as one of the most contentious and emotionally charged issues in contemporary Indian scholarship. While the majority of Western Indologists followed Max Müller who assumed that nomadic groups of ‘Vedic’ Äryans invaded north-western India around the middle of the second millennium BCE and proceeded to conquer the rest of India, traditional Indian scholars always assumed an indigenous development of the Veda and Vedic civilization. Max Müller’s chronology was not only countered by traditional Indian claims for a much higher age of the Øgveda but also by some prominent Western scholars such as Moriz Winternitz and Frederick Eden Pargiter. Recent archeological and palaeo-geographical findings, supported by satellite photography of the former Sarasvatï riverbed, suggest a revision of early Indian history along the lines mentioned here. I do not wish to link my presentation to political and ideological stances that some proponents of the ‘new chronology’ may maintain. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 15

abhäva (‘non-being’) äcamanïya Absence of reality, a category in NYÄYA. The offering of water to a deity during worship for rinsing the mouth. Abhinav Bhärat Society ‘Young India Society’, founded by äcära (‘behaviour’) Vinayak Damodar SAVARKAR and his Rules of life for specific castes, orders or brother Ganesh Savarkar in the 1930s ‘to religions, laid down in texts such as take up the sword and destroy the Äcära-dïpa. Government because it is foreign and oppressive’. äcärya (‘master’) Honorific title of recognized teachers. Abhinavagupta (12th century CE) Representative of KASHMIR ŸAIVISM and one of the most prolific thinkers and äcäryä writers of Hinduism. Author of the A female teacher. multi-volume Tanträlokä. acyuta (‘the unfallen’)

abhiniveÿa Name of VIÆŒU (and KØÆŒA), either indi- (‘attachment’ [to bodily life]) cating that he did not fall down from A form of AVIDYÄ (ignorance) and a heaven (as other minor deities did) or cause for suffering and rebirth accord- that he is imperishable. ing to PATAÑJALA YOGA. adbhuta (‘wonderment’) Äbhïras One of the eight RASAS (sentiments, Ancient and populous clan of semi- emotional experiences) of Indian aes- nomadic cattlebreeders in northern thetics. India often mentioned in ancient Indian literature in connection with KØÆŒA. adharma (‘unrighteousness’) The opposite of DHARMA and the cause abhi•ekha (‘aspersion’) of the breakdown of law and order. Anointment, consecration of either a Kø•æa says in the Bhagavadgïtä that king or an image. whenever adharma threatens to eclipse Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 16

adhidaivata 16

dharma he will appear as an AVAﬁÄRA to distinguish him from his successors, save the righteous and destroy the wicked. who also carry the title Ÿaökaräcärya.

adhidaivata Aditi (‘relating to the gods [devas]’) Vedic goddess, mother of the ÄDITYAS. A mode of interpretation of Vedic HYMNS (alternatives: adhiyajña, ADHYÄTMA). Ädityas A group of Vedic deities, sons of Aditi. adhikära (‘qualification’) Initially there were eight of them, but Requirements for commencing study or Aditi abandoned Märttäæõa, the sun. for becoming a member of a particular Thus the Vedas speak of the ‘seven school or sect. Ädityas’, among whom VARUŒA was the foremost, and he is often called ‘the Äditya’. In post-Vedic times there were adhvaryu 12 Ädityas, personifying the 12 months. Class of Vedic priests whose task it was They are the eternal sustainers of light to construct the ALTARS and recite the and life. HYMNS at SACRIFICES. ädiväsis adhyäsa (‘superimposition’) (‘First or Original Inhabitants’) A central concept in ŸA¢KARA’s ADVAITA Epithet given to members of indigenous VEDÄNTA explaining the congenital and (Indian) tribes. universal illusion that makes one con- fuse REALITY with UNREALITY. adø•ﬂa (‘unseen’)

An important category in MÏMÄßSÄ and adhyätma VAIŸEÆIKA: the invisible (but real) fruit of (‘relating to the self [ätman]’, ‘spiritual’) a religious act that adheres to a person A recognized mode of interpreting and which becomes actualized after sacred texts. death.

Adhyätma Rämäyana Advaita Vedänta (‘Spiritual Rämäyana’) A school of VEDÄNTA, founded by A 12th-century re-rendering of the ŸA¢KARA, which teaches ‘non-duality’, RÄMA story in which Räma from the i.e. ultimate identity of BRAHMAN and very beginning appears as divinity ÄTMAN. incarnate. ädya-prakøti (‘primeval matter’) Ädi Samäj (‘First Association’) A title of ŸAKTI, expressing her funda- Branch of the BRAHMO SAMÄJ led by mental importance for everything. Debendranath TAGORE after its breakup due to innovations introduced by Adyar Keshub Chandra SEN in the 1880s. Suburb of Cennai (Madras), world headquarters of the Theosophical Ädiÿaökarä(cärya) (788–820 CE) Society, with an excellent research ‘First, or Original, Ÿaökara’, title of the library containing a large collection of founder of ADVAITA VEDÄNTA to manuscripts, and a publishing house. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 17

17 Agnicayana

afterlife of voluminous works of a sectarian Belief in life after death is universal nature such as the (canonical) 28 among Hindus. However, the forms in ŸAIVITE ÄGAMAS. which it is envisaged have changed over times and differ from one SAßPRADÄYA to Agastya the next. The Veda explicitly affirms (c. 10,000 BCE) belief in afterlife: the ancestors are Legendary sage who is credited with enjoying a blissful existence on the having introduced Vedic religion to moon; the møtyu saƒskara (ceremonies South India and the authorship of the in connection with death and cremation) Ägastyam, the first grammar of the is meant to transform the gross dead Tamil language. body into a subtle existence that can continue. With the rise of belief in rebirth (emerging as a universally ages of the world accepted fact in the Upani•ads) life after see TIME, DIVISIONS OF. death comes to mean either being reborn in a body (plant, animal, human or god) Aghori or finding liberation (mukti, mok•a) Member of a ŸAIVA sect that worships from the cycle of birth and death. The the goddess of death and darkness. latter is understood either as a complete Aghoris eat and drink whatever is given merging of the individual soul (ÄTMAN) to them and are said to indulge in can- with the world soul (BRAHMAN) or the nibalism. They besmear themselves with transformation of the individual into an excrement which they also eat. immortal being living in the company of an eternal personal god in a specific heaven (Vi•æu’s VAIKUŒﬁHA; Ÿiva’s Agni (‘fire’) KAILÄSA; DEVÏ’s MAŒIDVÏPA). Prominent deity in VEDIC RELIGION, The souls of persons who have com- where he is called ‘the first priest’, mitted sins and die without having because of his ability to transform mate- atoned for them are punished for appro- rial goods in the sacrifice into a sub- priate periods in hells (NÄRAKAS) after stance through which the gods (DEVAS) death. People for whom the appropriate are nourished. The first HYMN in the rituals have not been performed are Øgveda is dedicated to Agni. condemned to roam the earth as ghosts Part of the marriage ceremonies con- (PRETAS) after death and are released sists of lighting the hearth of the new from this existence only through the family; this fire was never to be allowed performance of special rituals. to die out, and was constantly attended Individual saƒpradayäs have very throughout a couple’s married life. concrete notions of afterlife and some of the sectarian works offer vivid descrip- Agnicayana (‘fire offering’) tions of the passage of souls from earth One of the most solemn of the Vedic to heaven, detailing the shape of things sacrifices recreating the cycle of birth– to come to the faithful, and prescribing life–death of the universe, the regenera- rites (SÄDHANA) to avoid bad afterlife tion of the seasons and the rejuvenation experiences. of the sacrificer. Its preparation was lengthy: a suitable ground had to be Ägama (‘scripture’) found and prepared, a large number of Used both as a generic name for bricks had to be burnt, a great many revealed books and a specific designation specialists had to be involved. The Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 18

Agnihotra 18

number of bricks (10,800) symbolized women whom every Hindu woman is the number of hours in the year, the five supposed to invoke every morning. layers in which they were piled symbolized the five seasons, the totality of the Ahalyä Bäï (1735–95) ALTAR (in the shape of a falcon) repre- After her husband was killed in battle, sented PRAJÄPATI, the creator: his hair, she became ruler of Indore (1765). She skin, flesh, bone and marrow. was so highly respected for her piety, her charity and her righteousness that Agnihotra people held her to be an AVATÄRA. Fire sacrifice, the most common form of Vedic sacrifice. ahaƒ-kära (‘egoity’) Principle of individuation according to Agnihotri, Satyänanda the SÄßKHYA system and generally (1850–1929) considered the main hindrance to Also known as ‘Dev Ätma’. A social and liberation. religious Hindu reformer, he spoke out against child marriage and denounced ahi, also ahirbudhnya caste, ritualism, transmigration and (‘serpent’, ‘serpent from the depth’) belief in AVATÄRAS. In protest against One of the names of VØTRA, INDRA’s Keshub Chandra SEN’s marrying off his chief enemy in the Øgveda. underage daughter he left the BRAHMO SAMÄJ and founded the ‘Dev Samäj’ (1887). He considered himself unique ahiƒsä (‘non-killing’) among humans and demanded from his The first of the virtues (YAMAS) to be followers strict compliance with rigor- practised by a Hindu, forbidding the ous ethical rules. He taught that the taking of life (except in the context of a only reality was nature and introduced Vedic SACRIFICE, where it is prescribed the practice of thanksgiving to humans, and sanctioned); interpreted by GANDHI animals, plants and inanimate nature. as ‘non-violence’ in a universal sense His teachings are contained in Dev and elevated to the foremost human Anusthän Vidhi (1892) and Dev Shästra quality. (1910). Ahirbudhnya Saƒhitä Agni Puräna One of the most important treatises of One of the MAHÄ-PURÄŒAS said to have the PÄÑCARÄTRA school containing been revealed by AGNI, in which ŸIVA philosophical and liturgical materials. figures prominently. Aihole Ahalyä Site in Karæätaka with important rock- Wife of the Vedic ØÆI GAUTAMA (2). cut architecture and ancient temples There are many conflicting stories (sixth to eighth centuries CE). about her. According to one she was the first woman created by Brahmä, and was given in marriage to Gautama. She Aik•väka dynasty was seduced by Indra, rejected by The solar dynasty, founded by ÏKÆVÄKU Gautama, and turned into a stone. The (1), son of Ila and grandson of MANU touch of Räma restored her to her own (2), residing at AYODHYÄ; its most form. She is also one of the five pure important member-to-be was RÄMA. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 19

19 Akhil Bhäratïya Sant Samitï

äkäÿa (‘sky, ether’) one of the five elements of which everything is made and into which everything dissolves; according to the VAIŸEÆIKA school it is the only eternal element.

Akbar (‘The Great’, 1556–1605) The most important Mogul ruler. He was sympathetic to Hinduism and tried to establish a new universal religion Airävata, Indra’s vahana (vehicle), with large borrowings from Hinduism. a four-tusked white elephant. akhäõä (‘division’) Airävata Unit of armed Hindu SÄDHUS, whose A four-tusked white elephant produced function was to protect SAMNYÄSIS from from the CHURNING OF THE OCEAN and attack. Since samnyäsis had to appropriated by INDRA as his VAHANA. renounce violence and were not Guardian of the east. (See also DIG-GAJA; allowed to carry weapons, they could LOKA-PÄLA.) not defend themselves against either rival sects or ordinary robbers. They aiÿvarya (‘lordship’) therefore organized bands of auxil- One of the six transcendental attributes iaries, who underwent military training of VIÆŒU according to RÄMÄNUJA. and carried weapons (usually the traditional triÿula [trident]) and lived together in designated centres. Aitareya Brähmaæa One of the most important compendia of Vedic lore and ritual ascribed to the Akhaæõ Bhärat (‘Undivided India’) Vedic seer Mahidasa Aitareya (See also India before the 1947 partition; the aim BRÄHMAŒA (1).) of reunification of India sought by Hindu nationalists. Aitareya Upani•ad One of the principal UPANIÆADS; part of Akhil Bhäratïya Sädhu the Aitareya Äraæyaka. Ascribed to the Samäj Vedic sage MAHÏDÄSA. (‘All India Association of Monastics’) An organization created by then interior Ajantä minister Gulzarilal Nanda in 1962 to One of the most celebrated sites of India, educate and organize the millions of situated in Mahärä•ﬂra, famous for its independent and often ignorant numerous painted rock-carved temples renouncers. (See also SAMNÄYSI.) (mostly Buddhist). Akhil Bhäratïya Sant Samitï ajñä (‘order, authority’) (‘All India Saints’ Association’) During the investitute ceremony An organization created by Swami (ABHIÆEKHA) a priest from the local shrine VÄMA-DEVA (4) in 1986 to work for the of the Goddess would confer ajñä restoration of Hindu political power in (identified with ŸAKTI) on the new ruler. India. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 20

Akhil Bhäratïya Vidyärthi Pari•ad 20

Akhil Bhäratïya Vidyärthi alphabet, deemed to be the indestruct- Pari•ad ible, ultimate unit (‘atom’) of language. (‘All India Students’ Council’) An organization for students created by Alberuni the Rä•ﬂrïya Svayamsevak Sangh to See BÏRU¯ NÏ, AL-. mobilize students on behalf of Hindu political parties. Allahäbad Site of the ancient city Präyäga, a Akka Mahädevï (12th century) famous place of pilgrimage at the con- An unusually modern medieval women fluence of the YAMUNÄ and GA¢GA saint. Born to pious Ÿaivite parents in (and the invisible SARASVATÏ), renamed Uõutadi (western Karnäﬂaka) she began by Muslims the ‘City of Allah’. One of as a young child to worship Ÿiva as the four sites for the KUMBHAMELA held ‘lovely Lord, white as Jasmine’ and was every twelve years (the others being initiated by an unknown guru. The Jain HARDWAR, UJJAINÏ and Nasik). king Kauÿika fell in love with her and wanted to marry her. In order to protect altar her parents from possible reprisals she agreed under condition that she could Public Vedic sacrifices were offered on continue worshipping Ÿiva, whom she an altar, called VEDI. The fully devel- considered her true husband, without oped ŸRAUTA (2) sacrifice, performed by any hindrance. When Kauÿika broke his professional priests, required three promise, Akka divested herself of all the altars: a circular gärhapatya altar in the robes that he had given her and left the west (symbolizing the earth and fire), a palace naked. She arrived at Kalyäæa, a quadratic ahavanïya altar in the east Liögäyat centre. After being tested by (symbolizing the sky and its four direc- the religious authorities she began to tions) and a semicircular dak•ina altar teach as Jaganmathe (Mother of the in the south (symbolizing the atmos- World). She became a leading spiritual phere between earth and heaven). AGNI personality at Kalyäæa. After about five thus was present in his terrestrial, celes- years she left for Ÿrïÿaila, in the tial and atmospheric form. Himälayas, in order to become one with In more elaborate rituals, such as the Ÿiva. She died probably at the age of 25. AGNICAYANA, a special altar was built Contemporary Liögäyats celebrate her with a specified number of bricks, laid as a symbol for the EQUALITY OF WOMEN out according to a prescribed plan, and in religion and consider her an early demolished after the performance. exponent of women’s emancipation. In Puräæic PÜJÄ no altar properly speaking is used; the object of worship is akøti (‘uncreated’) the IMAGE (mürti) of the deity, usually on a pedestal, and close by the implements In Mïmäƒsä, the uncreated idea that of worship and the food to be offered stands behind every audible word and are arranged on an altar-like table. gives it (permanent) meaning.

almsgiving ak•ara (1) (‘imperishable’) See DÄNA. A designation of the mantra AUM.

ak•ara (2) Ä¶värs (‘those who dive into God’) In grammar, the individual letter of the A group of twelve poet-saints of South Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 21

21 Änand(a) Märg(a)

India (sixth to ninth centuries CE), devo- amøta (‘nectar’) tees of Mäl (the Tamil form of KØÆŒA A liquid that the gods churned out from and of VIÆŒU Näräyana) whose hymns the milk ocean at the beginning of the are collected in the Nalayira Divyä world and which gives immortality. (See Prabandhaƒ, the book of 4,000 verses. also CHURNING OF THE OCEAN.) It is divided into 23 separate works, arranged in four sections, among which anähafla (‘not beaten’) the Tiruvaymoli by NAMMÄ®VÄR is the most extensive. The Prabandhaƒ is A mystical sound that poet-saints widely used in temple worship in South describe as arising spontaneously from India even today and the ideas within the body, signalling enlighten- expressed by the Älvärs were the foun- ment. dation on which later ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM developed. The greatest of the Ä¶värs anahafla-cakra are NAMMÄLVÄR, also called Ÿathakopan . The fourth CAKRA (3) of the body (seventh century), and ANfiÄL, also called in tantrik theory. (See also TANTRA Goõä (eighth century), the only female (2).) Ä¶vär. Her one desire was to be married to Vi•æu and, according to tradition, she vanished into the Vi•æu image at Änanadamayï Mä (1896–1983) ŸRÏRA¢GAM. The Ä¶värs have lately been the object of extensive scholarly study. A famous female guru from Bengal with a large following and numerous Ambä, also Ambikä (‘Mother’) ashrams in many places in India, credited with many miracles. Epithet of DURGÄ, formed out of the combined energies of all gods to destroy the buffalo demon. änanda (‘bliss’) A key concept in the UPANIÆADS, the ces- Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji sation of suffering. VEDÄNTA (2) (1891–1956) assumes that human beings are essentially blissful but prevented from recog- A member of the Mähär (untouchable) nizing their inherent änanda nature by CASTE, who succeeded in obtaining a mental blindness and involvement in scholarship to study law and who was mundane matters. one of the main architects of independent India’s constitution. He had a seri- Änand(a) Märg(a) ous disagreement with GANDHI about the future status of the untouchables. (‘Path of Bliss’) While Ambedkar favoured the abolition A modern Hindu sect, founded in 1955 of caste, Gandhi wanted the ‘HARIJANs’ by Änand Mürti (Prabhat Rajan to be admitted to the caste system, by Sarkar), who claimed to be an incarna- joining the ÿüdras, the lowest social unit tion of God, with the aim to ‘establish (varæa) within the system. Unhappy God’s dicatorship’ over India; linked to also with the continuing casteism with- acts of violence and terrorism in India in the ruling Congress Party, he left and abroad. The Änand Märg achieved Nehru’s cabinet and publicly renounced a certain notoriety when eight members Hinduism. Several million of his fellow took their lives by self-immolation and Mähärs became Buddhists with him in Änand Mürti was accused by his wife 1953. (See also ASPØŸYA; CASTE; OUT- of murdering some members of the CASTE; SOCIAL ORDER.) sect. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 22

Änanda Tïrtha 22

Änanda Tïrtha humankind, known as lawgiver and as a See MADHVA. writer on astronomy. He is identified with BØHASPATI, the presiding deity of the planet Jupiter. He is called ‘lord of ananta (‘infinite’) the sacrifice’. His wives were Smøti An attribute of the supreme. (‘memory’), Ÿradhhä (‘faith’), Svadhä (‘oblation’) and Satï (‘truth’). His daughters were the Vedic hymns, his Ananta sons the Havismats (possessors of sacrificial oblations). Name of the world-snake (ŸEÆA) upon which VIÆŒU rests, symbolizing infinite time. Äögirasa Descendants of A¢GIRAS or of AGNI, who is called the first of the Äögirasas. aæava (‘atomicity’, ‘smallness’) They became personifications of light Used as a technical term in ŸAIVA and of luminous bodies, as well as of fire SIDDHÄNTA to designate the beginning- on special occasions, and as the phases less bondage of the unredeemed soul, of the moon. preventing it from being its true self. aæimä (‘smallness’) ancestors In Yoga, the capability of reducing oneself to minute dimensions. Important in Hinduism from ancient times. The Hindu funerary ritual is designed to transform a deceased person animals from a PRETA (ghost) into a PITØ (father, Hinduism assumes a difference only in ancestor). It lasts for a year and its cor- degree, not in nature, between human rect execution is a matter of great and animal (and plant) life: humans can importance for the family. Many holy be reborn as animals, animals as places promise rewards not only for the humans or gods. Certain animals, such person performing an act of piety but as the COW, enjoy an exceedingly high also for the ancestors. status. Among the divine AVATÄRAS there are several animals such as the tortoise, the fish, the boar, and the half- Andhaka (‘blind man’) man half-lion NÄRASIMHA, who are rep- A demon, son of KAŸYAPA and DITI, resented in IMAGES and are worshipped. endowed with a thousand arms and The most famous animal deity is heads, two thousand eyes and feet, who HANUMAN, the leader of the troops of walked like a blind man, although he monkeys who helped Räma regain the could see very well. He was killed by abducted Sïtä. In some parts of the INDRA when he attempted to steal the country rats, snakes, PEACOCKS, ELE- PÄRIJÄTA tree from heaven. PHANTS and other animals enjoy special religious attention. Each of the major gods of Hinduism has an animal as a Aögiras VAHANA (vehicle): thus the bird GARU¥A One of the seven great vedic ØÆIS to is associated with Vi•æu, the bull NANDI whom many hymns of the ØGVEDA are with Ÿiva, the peacock with Sarasvatï attributed. He is also one of the ten (1) and with Kärttikeya, and the lion PRAJÄPATIS, the progenitors of with Durgä. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 23

23 Äpasmära

animal sacrifice panies it through the experiences of See SACRIFICE. heaven and hell.

anna antye•ﬂi See FOOD. See ŸRÄDDHA.

annihilation (saƒhära, pralaya) aæu (‘atom’) One of the three divine cosmic func- According to VAIŸESIKA the smallest unit tions. According to a fairly common of matter, the fourth part of a mäträ Hindu belief, the universe is annihilated (the diameter of a speck of dust visible after each KALPA, and remains in a state in a ray of sunshine). of potentiality for the duration of a kalpa. Within the trimürti (Brahmä– anugraha (‘favour’) Vi•æu–Ÿiva) Ÿiva is called the ‘destroyer’. God’s saving grace. (See also CREATION; SUSTENANCE.) anumäna (‘inference’) anøta (‘violation of the law’) One of the PRAMÄŒAS (valid means to The opposite of ØTA, the moral law. find truth) accepted by most Hindu schools of thought. Äæﬂä¶, also Goõä (725–55 CE) The only female among the Ä®VÄRS. anuräga (‘passionate love’) Her original name was Kotai and she One of the (higher) forms of BHAKTI. grew up in the shadow of the temple of Ÿrïvilliputtur, now boasting the tallest apara jñäna (‘lower knowledge’) GOPURA in India, built in her honour. Without the knowledge of her father (a A kind of cognition that is still associat- temple priest) she draped the garland ed with objects and therefore not capa- intended for worship of the IMAGE ble of liberating its practitioner. around her, posing as God’s bride. She spent her days in worship, composing aparädha (‘fault’) hymns and refused to accept anyone but Sin, breach of an injunction which Vi•æu as her husband. A festive ceremo- requires penance. ny was arranged to marry her to Vi•æu at ŸRÏRA¢GAM. When she approached the image, she mysteriously disappeared aparigraha (‘not grasping’) into it. A temple was built in her honour Freedom from greed, one of the 10 at Ÿrïvilliputtur where her songs are virtues recommended by the YOGA- sung daily. SÜTRA as preparation for meditation; a key word for Mahatma GANDHI, who antar-ätman (‘the self within’) interpreted it as meaning total depen- Spirit, innner feelings, heart. dence on God’s providence.

antaryämi (‘the inner ruler’) Äpasmära According to VAIÆŒAVA theology, the Demon-dwarf, symbol of ignorance and form of the deity that dwells in the forgetfulness, crushed under Ÿiva’s right human heart and guides it, and accom- foot in his cosmic dance. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 24

Äpastamba 24

Äpastamba Äraæyakända (‘Forest part’) Ancient writer on ritual and law and The third book of the RAMÄYAŒA, deal- author of the Äpastamba Dharmasütra. ing with the forest exile of RÄMA and his He is often quoted by later writers. entourage.

apauru•eya (‘impersonal’) Äraæyakas (‘forest treatises’) Not originated either by a human or a The third section of the VEDA, some- superhuman person. According to the times joined with the (succeeding) MÏMÄßSAKAS the VEDA is apauru•eya, UPANIÆADS, dealing with mystical inter- i.e. it has no author but always existed pretations of rituals and Vedic sayings. by and of itself. Äraæyaparvan (‘Forest chapter’) Appar (eighth century CE) The third book of the MAHÄBHÄRATA, One of the 63 NÄYAŒMÄRS, poet-saints describing the adventures of the exiled of ŸAIVISM. Appar was a convert from PÄŒ¥AVAS in the forests in which they Jainism and had to suffer persecution had to live for twelve years. for his change of faith, but became instrumental in converting the King of äratï MADURAI and his court. Worship of an IMAGE or an honoured person by moving lighted camphor or aprakøta ÿarïra oil lamps in a circular way on a plate in (‘immaterial body’) front of the image. VAIÆŒAVAS believe that God possesses an immaterial, indestructible body and that arcana his devotees would also receive one in Worship of the IMAGE of a deity. One of VAIKUŒﬁHA, Vi•æu’s heaven. the duties of a devotee of Vi•æu.

Apri(s) arcävatära (‘worship descent’) Propitiatory invocations during the fore- The form of the deity (Vi•æu) that offerings of vedic animal SACRIFICES. makes itself available to humans for worship in the form of an IMAGE. apsaras (‘nymphs’) Semi-divine female beings, whose beau- architecture ty is praised in early Vedic literature and Assuming that the Indus civilization was who are often sent by the gods, afraid of a late Vedic development, Hinduism the power accumulated through self- possesses one of the oldest architectural mortification, to seduce ascetics. Epics traditions on earth. The Vedic Ÿulva and PURÄŒAS contain many stories of SÜTRAS offer a practical geometry for the apsaras marrying humans and the com- construction of complex ALTARS and plications arising therefrom. large structures. Some of the ruins of Mohenjo Daro have been interpreted as apürva (‘not before’) remnants of a temple compound and of A term coined by the MÏMÄMSAKAS to a temple tank. Most of Vedic architec- denote the not yet realized, but fully accom- ture was probably embodied in wooden plished, fruit of a SACRIFICE, which becomes structures that have not survived. available to the sacrificer after death. Buddhist architecture, largely consisting Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 25

25 ardhanärï

The Northern or nägara style is characterized by a fairly tall and steep ÿikhara (steeple) on top of the garbha- gøha (the cella where the image of the deity is housed). The porch in front of it serves as a kind of audience hall for the worshippers. They come individually and circumambulate the image in a clockwise direction. The Eastern or ve- ssara style features a more rounded tower and often a more elaborate set of buildings, including a hall for performing musicians and dancers. The Southern or dräviõa style is characterized by multi- storeyed gopuras, towering structures over the entrance gates to the temple complex: the sanctuary itself is usually a fairly low and unobtrusive structure, housing only the image of the deity. The temple complex usually contains a number of additional buildings, a tank and other facilities. In South India especially temples developed into veritable holy The Lak•mï Näräyaæa Temple, cities, often built in concentric rectangles, New Delhi: Built in the each with its own specific function in 20th century by the wealthy Birla family the whole. (it is also known as ‘Birla-Temple’), it uses the canons of architecture The architect enjoyed high prestige determined in the ancient and was expected to be an all-round Hindu Ÿilpa-ÿästras. expert: not only had he to draw up the plans for the buildings according to traditional specifications, he had to oversee the procurement of suitable materi- of stüpas, caityas and caves (often rich- als, to supervise the day-to-day activi- ly ornamented and provided with archi- ties and to sculpt the main sculpture of tectural embellishments) in all probabil- the new temple. Principles of traditional ity made use of older Hindu models. Hindu architecture are found in several Hindu TEMPLE architecture came Puräæas and Ägamas; the principal texts into its own during the GUPTA renais- are the Ÿilpaÿästras, or Västuÿästras, of sance. Around 400 CE the first brick or which one is attributed to VIŸVA-KARMA stone temples appeared, built according (2), the architect of the gods, and one to to a Roman–Syrian model: a cubicle MAYA, the architect of the demons. housing the IMAGE of the deity, a porti- The main function of the Hindu co for the worshippers in front of it, sur- Temple is to provide an abode for the rounded by a gallery supported by pil- image of the deity believed to dwell lars, with a flat roof, and surrounded by within it. a terrace. Later on, typical Indian (Hindu) models of temple architecture developed, which for convenience may ardhanärï (‘half-woman’) be classified into Northern, Eastern and IMAGE of ŸIVA with the left half showing Southern. female attributes, the right one male. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 26

arghya 26

One story explains its origins thus: an The endeavour to perfect each of ardent devotee of Ÿiva, who refused to these arts has led to the production of a worship PÄRVATÏ, his consort, tried to great many ÿästras (‘sciences’) in many avoid CIRCUMAMBULATING the pair by areas that have become acknowledged slipping between their feet. Ÿiva, resent- as authoritative. Thus Näﬂyaÿästra texts ing this, became one with Pärvatï, so teach music and dance, Ÿilpaÿästra is that the devotee could not but also cir- concerned with architecture and sculp- cumambulate the goddess. ture (including a study of the materials required). The skill of Indian craftsmen arghya was proverbial even in antiquity. The fact that most arts were practised by Water to rinse hands and mouth before members of special castes provided worship and meals. India with a large pool of skilled hereditary artists and craftsmen. The fine arts Arjuna (‘white’) in the modern Western sense, such as The third of the PÄŒ¥AVAS, a brave war- painting, sculpture, composing, playing rior. KØÆŒA’s partner in the Bhagavad- instruments, singing, dancing and per- gïta, in which he receives the new teach- forming on the stage were cultivated at ing of salvation through devotion to all levels. In both the residence towns of Kø•æa and the revelation of Kø•æa’s Indian rulers and in small towns and vil- VIŸVA-RÜPA (universal form of God). He lages one can often find exquisite tem- was asked to perform the funeral rites ples, beautiful sculptures and highly for Kø•æa in his capital city Dväraka, skilled craftsmen. Many Hindu house- and then retired into the Himälayas. wives in the south decorate the entrance to their homes every morning with är•a (‘relating to, or made by, ø•is beautiful coloured patterns made with [sages]’) riceflower (raögolï), and the daily rituals of worship performed by ordinary Sayings of (Vedic) sages, or images con- men before the IMAGE of the god in their secrated by them. homes are a sophisticated form of art. A great deal of art was created in art the service of religion: construction of The traditional 64 arts (kalä) comprise temples, carving of sculptures, produc- a wide variety of skills, crafts and vari- ing of brass images and singing and ous artistic activities, such as playing an dancing in honour of the deity were part instrument, flower arranging, dancing, of the service owed to the deity. painting, sculpture, architecture, pro- ducing perfumes, creating colourful artha (1) (‘wealth’) patterns, applying cosmetics, weaving, One of the four PURUÆÄRTHAS (legitimate stitching, basket making, ceramics, human goals). singing, woodworking, playing tops, planting gardens, caring for trees, stringing beads, refining diamonds, artha (2) reading, writing, cooking etc. Their In grammar, meaning (of words or sen- great variety and the inclusion of practi- tences); object. cal skills and useful crafts is indicative of the Hindu approach to art as part of everyday life rather than the occupation artha (3) of some individuals for the sake of the In statecraft, acquisition and preserva- aesthetic pleasure of a refined minority. tion of wealth. (See also ÄRTHA-ŸÄSTRA.) Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 27

27 asceticism

Artha-ÿästra Prakäÿa (Splendour of the True (‘the science of acquiring wealth Meaning (of the Veda), or ‘Light of [and power]’) Truth’), the rituals are laid down in his A class of writings dealing with eco- Pañca-mahä-yajña-vidhi and the domes- nomics and politics. One such work, the tic rites are described in the Sa™skära- Kauflilïya Ärtha-ÿästra, ascribed to the vidhi. The VEDA alone is accepted as time of the MAURYAS, has been pre- unconditionally true. He wished to served and widely studied. make the Veda available to everyone, including women and people from low CASTES. Engagement on behalf of society Arunäcala (‘Red mountain’) at large and improvement of living con- A large hill in South India sacred to ditions was also central to early Ärya Ÿiva, next to Tiruvannamalai, an Samäj practice. ancient place of pilgrimage. It became The Ärya Samäj established schools AMANA AHARÆI well known through R M following the traditional GURUKULA sys- who went there as a young boy and tem with SANSKRIT as medium of established an ashram that attracted instruction and traditional subjects as many devotees from India and abroad. content. The Ärya Samäj split into two branches, one of which aimed at offer- Äryans (from ärya, ‘noble’) ing modern English medium instruction. The self-designation of the Vedic people There are numerous DAV (Dayananda as distinct from the anärya, the unfree Anglo Vedic) colleges in India. Some and the tribals. Their rules were called members of the Ärya Samäj also became ärya dharma; acting contrary to these instrumental in the establishment of was anärya, ‘ignoble’. Hindu nationalist organizations that are working for a transformation of India into a Hindu state, such as the RSS Äryabhaflfla (fifth century CE) (RÄÆTØÏYA SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH), the The earliest known Indian mathemati- JANA SANGH party (later merged into the cian and astronomer, author of the JÄNATÄ PARTY and into the BJP famous Äryabhaflflïya and the Äryasid- (BHÄRATÏYA JÄNATÄ PARTY), the VIŸVA dhänta. He is also reputed to have intro- HINDÜ PARIÆAD and others. duced the decimal-place value system. Today the Ärya Samäj has centres in all cities and towns of India and in Ärya Samäj (‘Äryan Society’) many cities abroad and claims a membership of over a million. A reform movement founded in Bombay in 1875 by Swami DÄYÄNANDA SARASVATÏ (1824–83) from Morvi asat (‘non-being’) (Gujarat). Däyänanda considered popu- A condition of non-differentiation, lar puräæic Hinduism a corruption of assumed to exist before creation. the Vedic tradition and wanted Hindus to return to the original Vedic DHARMA. He abolished all PÜJÄs and all devo- asceticism tional paraphernalia, reintroduced the Hindus were famous from antiquity for Vedic fire sacrifice (AGNIHOTRA) and their asceticism. Ascetic practices aimed at re-converting Indian Muslims (TAPAS) were assumed to create powers and Christians to (reformed) Hinduism. that are irresistible. Self-control and The basic teachings of Däyänanda observation of a strict regimen were Sarasvatï are contained in his Satyärtha part of general ethics. A Hindu was Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 28

ashes 28

expected to become more and more aspøÿya (‘untouchable’) detached from self-indulgence as he A class of people ranking below the progressed through life. A brahmin’s ŸÜDRAS. Physical contact of any kind life was to end in SAMNYÄSA, total was supposed to pollute members of the renunciation. Those who had renounc- three upper castes ritually. They were ed enjoyed high social status. Apart not allowed to use common facilities in from reducing one’s wants to a mini- villages such as wells and had to live in mum and practising sexual continence a separate area outside the villages. (BRAHMACARYA), samnyäsis developed a They often earned their living by per- great variety of forms of tapas, ranging forming dirty and degrading work such from different forms of abstention from as removing carcasses, preparing food and drink and other sense gratifi- corpses for cremation, removing night cations, to lying on a bed of nails, stand- soil from latrines. Mahatma GANDHI ing for prolonged periods in water, fought for their rehabilitation; he called looking into the sun, lifting an arm up them Harijan, ‘God’s people’, and tried till it withered. One of the more wide- to educate and integrate them. The spread forms of self- mortification was Indian constitution of 1950 abolished the ‘Five-fires-practice’ (pañcägni untouchability and made it punishable tapas): the ascetic sat in the centre of a to disadvantage people on this ground. square which was formed by four blaz- Measures to grant them more access to ing fires, with the sun overhead as the positions in public service and to fifth fire. Renunciation was held to be schools have met with much resistance, the precondition for higher spiritual often violent, in recent years. development, and the practice of asceticism in one form or other is expected of äÿrama (1) (‘work place’), also every Hindu. ashram Monastery, abode of as ascetics. Äÿramas ashes (bhasma) have played an important role in Indian Sacred ashes play a great role in history. Epics and Puräæas report the vis- Hinduism. ŸAIVITES besmear their bod- its of their main protagonists to the äÿra- ies with ashes. The famous SATHYA SAI mas of famous sages. The Mahäbhärata BABA creates and distributes ashes offers a veritable guidebook of such which are said to be efficacious in places, and it became fashionable for reli- healing all kinds of diseases of body and gious teachers to visit the most famous of mind. these. The äÿrama tradition is still alive in India. Mahatma GANDHI founded an ashram See ÄŸRAMA (1). äÿrama to train his co-workers, and it is quite common today for Hindus to spend äÿirväda (‘blessing’, ‘benediction’) some time in an äÿrama, performing religious exercises. A ritual performed in temples on visitors by the officiating priests. äÿrama (2) Stage in life, of which according to the asmitä (‘I-ness’, egoism) VARŒÄŸRAMA DHARMA there are four: One of the forms of AVIDYÄ, which has BRAHMACARYA (early youth), GARHASTHYA to be eradicated before one can (life of householder), VÄNAPRASTHA (life make spiritual progress. (See also in forest), and SAMNYÄSA (life of renun- AHAMKÄRA.) ciation, homelessness). Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 29

29 a•ﬂamürti

(a) (b)

The four stages of life: a. Brahmacarya (early youth), b. Garhasthya (life of householder); c. Vänaprastha (life in forest); d. Samnyäsa (life of renunciation).

A•flädhyäyï (‘eight chapters’) a•fla-maögala Title of the celebrated SANSKRIT gram- (‘eight auspicious objects’) mar by PÄŒINÏ (6th century BCE?) which These are required for important offi- has been hailed as one of the greatest cial occasions. Their composition intellectual achievements of all times. In varies; one list mentions lion, bull, ele- it Päæinï attempts to reduce the entire phant, water-jar, fan, flag, trumpet, Sanskrit language to about 800 roots lamp; another has brahmin, crow, fire, and their derivations, governed by gold, ghi, sun, water, king. about 4,000 rules. Päæinï’s grammar became the standard for classical Sanskrit. a•flamürti (‘eightfold image’) The presence of ŸIVA in the five ele- a•fläk•ara (‘eight syllables’) ments, the sun, the moon and in sentient The famous mantra: Om Namah beings, associated with the eight names Näräyanäya, repeated thrice daily by of Ÿiva under which he is worshipped many VAIÆŒAVAS to obtain liberation. (RUDRA, ŸARVA, PAŸUPATI, Ugra, A•ani, (See also MANTRA (3).) BHAVA, MAHÄDEVA, ÏŸÄNA) Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 30

a•ﬂävaraæa 30

a•ﬂävaraæa (‘eightfold armour’) schooling, marriage, major business The eight commandments that VÏRA transactions etc. There is a jyoti•ï depart- ŸAIVAS have to observe, namely: obedi- ment at Benares Hindu University which ence towards the GURU, wearing a Ÿiva annually produces the official astrological linga (see LI¢GA (3)), worshipping calendar (PAÑCÄ¢GA) which serves to Ÿaivite ascetics as incarnations of Ÿiva, determine the exact dates for sacred days sipping water in which the feet of the and to find out auspicious times for guru have been bathed, offering food to public functions, such as the opening of a guru, smearing ashes on one’s body, parliament. (See also NAKÆATRA.) wearing a string of RUDRÄKÆA beads, reciting the mantra Ÿiväya namäh (see asura (‘demon’) also MANTRA (3)). Class of superhuman beings hostile to the DEVAS (gods). While usually engaged asteya (‘not-stealing’) in battles with the devas, the asuras are One of the basic commandments of not without noble qualities: they are Hindu ethics. Steya (stealing) was con- often described as brave, chivalrous, sidered a grave sin (MAHÄ-PÄTAKA) only generous and loyal. Among the most when it involved a large amount of famous asuras are RÄVAŒA, King of goods (especially gold) stolen from a Laökä, who abducted Räma’s wife Sïtä, brahmin. The penalty for this was BALI, who invited Vi•æu in the form of death. Taking food and other necessities the dwarf to his banquet and surren- of life was not considered theft. dered his realm to Vi•æu, and Mahi•a, the buffalo-demon, whose defeat by the Goddess is celebrated in the yearly ästika Durgäpüjä festival. The linguistic affini- Literally, someone who affirms ‘it is’, ty of asura with the Zoroastrian high i.e. one who accepts the VEDA as nor- god Ahura (Mazda) has led to the sug- mative, an adherent of one of the so- gestion that asura might initially have called ‘orthodox six systems’, namely: been the Indian designation for the NYÄYA, VAIŸEÆIKA, SÄßKHYA, YOGA, deity, the term sura (gods) being an arti- PÜRVA MÏMÄßSÄ and VEDÄNTA (2)). (See ficial creation after the split between the also NÄSTIKA.) Indian and Persian populations. (See also DAITYAS.) astrology (jyoti•a, literally ‘light-science’) aÿva-medha (‘horse sacrifice’) Astrology, which also includes astrom- See SACRIFICE. nomy, considered a science, has played a great role in Hinduism since ancient Aÿvins (‘possessed of horses’) times. References to eclipses found in The two physicians of the gods, repre- the Øgveda have been used to date the sented as twin sons of the Sun by a texts to the fourth millennium BCE. One nymph in the form of a mare, harbin- of the VEDÄNGAS (auxiliary sciences of gers of the dawn, frequently invoked in the Veda) is devoted to determining the the Øgveda. As a constellation they are right time for Vedic SACRIFICES. At birth Gemini (Castor and Pollux). a horoscope is established for every child by a professional astrologer, which provides the basis for determin- Atharvan ing auspicious and inauspicious dates Name of a famous Vedic sage, eldest for major events like the beginning of son of BRAHMÄ, who learned from Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 31

31 attachment

Brahmä and communicated BRAHMA- ätmakuﬂa (‘self-intention’) VIDYÄ; he is believed to have been the A notion developed by the MÏMÄßSAKAS, first to bring fire down from heaven, who assumed that scriptural injunctions offer SOMA and recite MANTRAS (3). produce an impulse in a person to do voluntarily what has been prescribed, Atharvaveda together with an insight into the appro-

The fourth of the vedic SA§HITÄS (collec- priateness of the command. tions of hymns) and the last to be recognized as such. Besides hymns to Vedic atonement DEVATÄS it contains oracular sayings, incantations and imprecations. The consciousness of failure in the observance of moral and ritual laws led early on in Vedic India to the develop- Atiÿüdra ment of a theory and practice of atone- ‘below the ŸÜDRA’, i.e. OUTCASTE, ment (PRÄYAŸCITTAS) through which rit- untouchable. ual and moral purity could be re-established. The appropriate sections in the atithi (‘guest’) lawbooks (DHARMA-ŸÄSTRAS) provide detailed information on the kind of Hospitality was a duty in Vedic India atonement required for specific breach- and a guest had to be honoured. es, relating not only to the gravity of Neglecting a guest brought misfortune. offence but also to the status of offend- er and offended. Some of the most fre- ätma(n) (‘self’) quently practised atonements are ablu- One of the central notions of VEDÄNTA. tions, repetition of MANTRAS (3), fasting Assuming that ordinarily persons do (see UPAVÄSA), PILGRIMAGES, almsgiving not have a correct and adequate notion and donations to temples (see DÄNA). of the true self, but mistake external The most severe offences (MAHÄ- attributes such as bodily appearance, PÄTAKAS) can only be atoned for by sensual experiences, relationships, activ- death. ities etc. for the self, the UPANIÆADS teach ways for self-finding, culminating in the Atri (‘devourer’) realization of the self as pure (object- less) experience of consciousness. This Name of a famous Vedic sage, author of self- experience is then identified with many Vedic hymns as well as of a law- the experience of the ground of all book, the Atri-smøti. His wife was things (BRAHMAN) and considered the Anasüyä. He is one of the SAPTARÆIS and very purpose of existence, identical with represented in one of the stars in Ursa eternal bliss. Vedänta systems variously major. He produced the MOON (Atrija) interpret the nature of the self as either from his eye during meditation. ontically identical with the supreme being (ADVAITA), or as being in close attachment (räga) affinity with it, but ontically separate This is viewed as morally objectionable (VIŸIÆﬁÄDVAITA, DVAITA). (See also SELF.) and spiritually harmful. It is one of the manifestations of AVIDYÄ (ignorance) Ätmabodha (‘self-knowledge’) and one ought to give up attachment to Title of a short Vedäntic treatise oneself, to one’s family and one’s pos- ascribed to ŸA¢KARA (2), teaching how sessions in order to gain freedom and to reach identity of self with BRAHMAN. release. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 32

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Aughara Alipore Bomb case, he spent a year in A branch of the Näﬂhapanthis, the fol- jail where he heard Kr•æa exhorting him lowers of GORAKHNÄﬁHA, a section of to devote his life for the spiritual uplift- yogis, followers of ŸIVA. ment of India and the world. Fleeing to the French colony of Pondicherry after his release he devoted his life to YOGA AUM and to writing spiritual literature. His Also written OM, called the präæava, ashram under the leadership of ‘The the mystical syllable containing the uni- Mother’ (Mirra Alfasa, who had joined verse. It is explained as consisting of the the ashram in the early 1920s), soon first (a) and last (u) vowel and the last attracted people from India and abroad. consonant (m) of the Sanskrit alphabet Aurobindo’s attempt to work out an and therefore encompassing all words ‘Integral Yoga’ which combines tradi- (which consist of vowels and conso- tional Hindu spirituality with engage- nants). The MÄŒ¥UKYA UPANIÆAD identi- ment in the world and modern ideas fies it with the four stages of conscious- excited great interest among intellectu- ness (a = waking consciousness; als and artists. Aurobindo never left u = dream consciousness; m = deep Pondicherry and hardly ever left his sleep; aum = fourth state). AUM/OM is room, spending an increasing amount used to introduce and conclude a reli- of time in meditation. His work was gious work, an act of worship, an continued by ‘The Mother’ and his important task. It is supposed to be aus- numerous associates who planned to picious and its prolonged intonation is develop Auroville into a model city for associated with the creative sound the modern world, combining intellec- through which the universe came into tual and literary work with crafts and existence. practical engagement. Aurobindo was convinced that the whole universe was the manifestation of consciousness in a process of evolution from matter through mind to super- mind and that it was the task of humans to facilitate this evolution by dedicating themselves to the highest ideals.

auspicious (ÿubha) A very important concept for Hindus, who tend to distinguish almost every- Aurobindo Ghose thing along the lines auspicious/inauspic- (1872–1950) ious. Symbols such as AUM and ŸRÏ are After receiving a completely Western, auspicious; they appear on first pages of classical education in England (1879–92) books and ledgers, on buildings and and preparing for a career in the Indian cars. There are auspicious and inauspi- Civil Service, Aurobindo Ghose returned cious times during each day, week, to India with strong sympathies for the month and year which one has to know. Indian nationalist movement. While There are auspicious and inauspicious serving in various official capacities, he sights and sounds. Various methods wrote and spoke for Indian indepen- exist to protect oneself and one’s loved dence. Arrested in connection with the ones from inauspicious events. Encyclo - Letter A 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 33

33 äyurveda

austerities dence on Vi•æu. Avidyä manifests itself See ASCETICISM; ATONEMENT; TAPAS. in egotism, attachment, aversion and clinging to physical life and enjoyment. ävähana avyakta (‘unmanifest’) Invitation to the deity to appear for worship. The condition of reality before individuation by means of näma-rüpa (‘name avatära (‘descent’) and form’) and after the reabsorption of Mostly used in connection with the bod- all individuality in PRALAYA (universal ily appearances of VIÆŒU. The most dissolution). famous of Vi•æu’s avatäras are RÄMA and KØÆŒA, around whom major branch- Ayodhyä (‘Free from strife’) es of Hindu religion have developed. Among the daÿävatäras (ten descents), City in eastern Uttar Pradesh (popula- the number most frequently employed, tion c. 50,000), one of the seven ancient are the tortoise, the boar, the fish and the holy cities of India, the others being man-lion, as well as the BUDDHA. The Väräæasï, Mathurä, Hardwar, Dväraka, future and last avatära is to be KALKI, Käñcïpura and Ujjainï. It has been asso- who will bring to an end the present KALI ciated since antiquity with Räma’s capi- YUGA. In the BHAGAVAD-GÏTÄ Kø•æa tal. A place of pilgrimage and of monas- explains the reasons for God’s descent: tic Hindu establishments, it gained ‘Whenever DHARMA has become weak notoriety through the demolition of the and ADHARMA has waxed strong I am Babri Masjid by Hindu activists in descending to destroy the wicked and to December 1992, which provoked the relieve the good.’ Avatäras have ‘appar- worst Hindu–Muslim rioting since inde- ent bodies’, not real bodies; they are not pendence all over India as well as in really born and do not really die. Many Pakistan and Bangladesh. schools of Hinduism rule out the possibility of avatäras. It is, however, not infre- äyurveda (‘life knowledge’) quent even today, for Hindus to regard a The system of indigenous Indian medi- living GURU as an avatära of the godhead. cine. The main texts are Suÿruta Saƒhitä and Caraka Saƒhitä, offering systemat- avidyä (‘ignorance’) ic diagnosis and treatment for a great The native lack of knowledge of one’s many diseases. Since its medications are real nature, the root cause of involve- largely herbal, ayurveda has increasingly ment in the cycle of birth and rebirth. found adherents in the West. In India it All Indian religions consider avidyä the is officially promoted as a parallel to ultimate reason for suffering and strive modern Western medicine. to teach VIDYÄ (wisdom). The Upani•ads The underlying assumption of consider Vedic rituals avidyä because of ayurveda is that all sickness is due to an their ineffectiveness to liberate from imbalance of the three bodily humours rebirth; ŸA¢KARA (2) identifies PRAKØTI (trido•a): vaﬂa (wind), pitta (bile), (nature) with avidyä, since it it is the kapha (phlegm) and that by changing a very opposite to spirit. RÄMÄNUJA sees patient’s diet, habits and thoughts the avidyä in the ‘forgetfulness’ of depen- proper balance can be re-established. Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 34

Bädämi religious lyrics, which were highly Ancient temple site in the Deccan, home appreciated. to the famous Malegitti Ÿivälaya temple (seventh century) and others. Baladeva, also Balaräma In North Indian traditions he is the elder brother of Kø•æa; in Tamil Bädaräyaæa mythology he is the elder brother of RAHMA Legendary author of the B - Vi•æu, also called VALIYON. Sometimes SÜTRAS (also called Vedäntasütras) listed as the eighth AVATÄRA of Vi•æu, which systematize the content of the sometimes as an avatära of Ÿe•a, the Upani•ads in 550 SÜTRAS. Dates suggested subject of many stories in the Hari- for the compilation of the Brahma- vamÿa and in Vai•æava Puräæas, espe- sutras vary from 300 BCE to 300 CE. cially the Bhägavatam. (See also KAßŸA.) Badrïnäth Famous place of pilgrimage in the Bäla-käæda (‘Book of Childhood’) Himälayas, close to the source of the The first section of the RÄMÄYAŒA Ganges. describing the childhood and youth of Räma. Bahiæabäï (1628–1700) A Mahärä•flrian poet-saint, whose abhaögas (hymns) are very popular to Bali this day. Born into a poor brahmin fam- A pious DAITYA king, grandson of ily in Deogaon (Mahärä•flra) she was PRAHLÄDA. His good deeds earned him married at age five to a 30-year-old rulership over the three worlds. The widower. In her autobiography, gods implored Vi•æu to restore their Ätmanivedan, she describes him as a realms. Vi•æu, in the form of the dwarf man of a very angry disposition, who Vämana, asked Bali for a boon: as much severely beat her, out of jealousy. After land as he could cover with three the family moved to Dehu, where strides. Bali agreed, and then Vi•æu Tukäräm had started the Värkarï move- stepped with two strides over heaven ment, Bahiæäbäï enjoyed more freedom and earth. Bali offered his head as a rest to participate in religious activities in for Vi•æu’s third stride. Out of consid- honour of Viflhobä. She continued both eration for his kindness and Prahläda’s her family life (she had a son and a devotion Vi•æu left the netherworlds to daughter) and her composition of Bali. His capital was MAHÄBALIPURA. Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 35

35 Bhagavad-gïtä

bali (1977) by Nalanda University in India, See PIŒ¥A. visiting professor in India, Sri Lanka, USA, Mexico, Canada. Banaras (Benares) Belur Anglicized form of VÄRÄŒASÏ. A famous temple site in South India. Bande mätäräm (‘I worship you, Mother’) Belur-math First words of a poem by Bankim A temple near Calcutta where Chandra Chatterjee, in which he hymns RAMAKRISHNA ‘PARAMAHAMSA’ officiated India as Goddess. It later became the as priest and which has become a popu- anthem of the Indian National Congress lar place of pilgrimage under the man- and the Freedom Movement. In the agement of the Ramakrishna Mission. original setting the text appears in the novel Änanadamaﬂha as a hymn sung Besant, Annie, née Wood by the patriotic SÄDHUS of Bengal, who (1847–1933) rose against the Muslims and the Social reformer, theosophist and Indian British, to regain their freedom. independence leader. Born in England, she married Rev. Frank Besant, but bara sthäna (‘big place’) growing doubts about the tenets of Designation of the headquarters of Christianity made her leave her hus- RÄMÄNANDI nägas. band and the church, becoming a member of the Fabian Society. After meeting with Helena Petrovna BLAVATSKY she Basava (12th century) joined the Theosophical movement and Minister of a Jain king and founder- made India her home (in 1893). She was reformer of the LI¢GÄYATS, a Ÿaivite elected president of the Theosophical sect which has many followers in Society in 1907. She also supported the Karæatäka. Basava affirmed the equali- Indian Independence Movement and in ty of women, wished to abolish caste 1917 was elected president of the Indian and exhorted his followers to be always National Congress. The Hindu college engaged in useful activities. she founded in Väräæasï (Benares) became the nucleus of the Benares Basham, Arthur Llewellyn Hindu University. She was a prolific (1914–1986) writer and also wrote an autobiography. As author of The Wonder that was India (1985), which went through many Bhadrakälï (‘propitious Kälï’) editions and translations, he became Name of the goddess DURGÄ. probably the best-known Indianist of his generation. Basham was for many years Professor of history of South Asia Bhagavad-gïtä at SOAS (University of London) before (‘Song of the Lord’) accepting an invitation to become head A famous philosophical and spiritual of the Department of Asian Studies at poem, often considered the epitome of the Australian National University in Hinduism. A dialogue between KØÆŒA Canberra. Contributor to many presti- and ARJUNA, just before the beginning gious publications, recipient of many of the great Bhärata war, it forms chap- academic honours, e.g. ‘Vidyavaridhi’ ters 23 to 40 of the Bhï•ma Parvan of Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 36

Bhägavata Puräæa 36

the Mahäbhärata. Much commented upon by hundreds of Indian authors since ŸA¢KARA (2) (eighth century) and translated into all major languages of the world, it is the best-known Hindu scripture worldwide.

Bhägavata Puräæa Although of comparatively recent origin (12th century?) it is one of the most popular and most important scriptures of Hinduism. Its central theme is KØÆŒA and his exploits. It is frequently recited publicly and has been commented upon by classical and modern authors.

Bhägavata saƒpradäya, also Bhägavatism See VAIÆŒAVISM.

Bhägïrathï A section of the Ganges. According to Bhakti (devotion) to Kø•æa. an old legend, King Bhägïratha of the solar dynasty subjected himself to aus- tere penances for a long time to bring the celestial river GA¢GÄ down from the bhakti (‘devotion’) heavens to purify the ashes of his A central feature of Hinduism, especial- 60,000 ancestors. To honour his memo- ly in the BHAKTI-MÄRGA, the ‘path of ry one of the three main branches of the devotion’. It is set off over against Gaögä was called Bhägïrathï. KARMA/karma-märga, the ‘path of ritual (action)’ and JÑÄNA/jñäna-märga, the Bhairava (‘the frightening one’) ‘path of knowledge’. It consists in outer One of the eight forms of Ÿiva (AÆTA- and inner acts of worship of a personal MÜRTI), worshipped especially by sects deity, often embodied in an IMAGE. It such as the Kälamukhas. Bhairava is characterizes popular Hinduism but has often depicted riding on a dog and is also been elaborated into a sophisticat- therefore called Ÿväÿva, ‘(one) whose ed theological and liturgical system by horse is a dog’. There are eight manifes- authorities such as RÄMÄNUJA, tations of Bhairava: Asitäöga (black MADHVA, RÜPA GOSVAMI, Jïva Gosvami limbed); Sanhära (destruction); Ruru and many others. Bhakti was promoted (dog); Käla (black); Krodha (anger); in South India by the ÄLVÄRS between Tamracüõä (red-crested); Candracüõä the sixth and the ninth centuries CE; in (moon-crested); Mahä (great). North India by a large number of SANTS from the 12th to the 16th centuries. bhajan (‘song’) Especially religious songs that are sung bhakti-märga (‘path of devotion’) by groups of devotees, a very popular One of the three traditional methods of and widespread custom among Hindus. finding spiritual fulfilment. The various Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 37

37 Bhäratïya Jänatä Party

teachers advocating it have different Bhäradväja (4000 BCE?) understandings of its precise content. A vedic ØÆI to whom many hymns are Some seem to favour a spiritual inter- attributed. Son of BØHASPATI and father pretation, i.e. an inner surrender to of DRONA, the teacher of the PÄŒ¥AVAS. God; others adopt a more ritualistic There are many stories connected with understanding, an insistence on a rou- his life in epics and Puräæas. tine of rituals performed daily in front of a consecrated image, pilgrimages to Bharata (1) holy places and such like. Within bhakti- märga the importance of the spiritual In the ØGVEDA, hero and king of the master (GURU) is generally stressed as warlike Bhäratas. mediator of God’s saving grace. With the growth of the theistic traditions in Bharata (2) India (VAIÆŒAVISM, ŸAIVISM, ŸÄKTISM An ancient king who, while living as a and others) the bhakti-märga became SAMNYÄSI, became attached to a fawn the predominant path in Hinduism. and was reborn as a deer. In a further rebirth as a brahmin he served as palan- Bhämatï quin bearer and amazed the king with Commentary on Ÿankara’s BRÄHMA- his wisdom. SÜTRABHÄÆYA by VÄCASPATI MIŸRA. Bharata (3) Bhandarkar, Ramkrishna Son of Daÿaratha by his wife Kaikeyï; Gopal (1837–1925) half-brother of Räma, he ruled the One of India’s foremost early ‘modern’ country during Räma’s absence on his Indologists, trained both in the Hindu behalf. pandit tradition and at Western universities. He had a brilliant academic and Bharata (4) public career as professor of Sanskrit at Elphinstone College in Bombay, the The son of Du•yanyta and Ÿakuntalä, Deccan College in Poona, a member of who became a universal monarch: India the syndicate and later vice-chancellor was called Bhärata-var•a after him. He of the University of Bombay, member of was a remote ancestor of both the Viceroy’s Legislative Council, PÄŒ¥AVAS and KAURAVAS. The knighted in 1911. At the occasion of his Päæõavas were also called Bhäratas: 80th birthday in 1917 the Bhandarkar hence the (Mahä-) Bhärata war and the Oriental Research Institute was official- eponymous epic. ly inaugurated. It became home to the critical edition of the Mahäbhärata, the Bharata (5), also Bharata Muni largest editorial enterprise ever under- (second century BCE) taken. His collected works comprise Author of the Näﬂyaÿästra, the earliest over 2,000 pages, containing text edi- treatise on music and dance. tions, translations, textbooks and monographs such as his celebrated Vai•æavism, Ÿaivism and Minor Bhäratï Religious Systems (1913). He was also One of the names of SARASVATÏ (1). an active member of the PRÄRTHANA SAMÄJ, a religious and social reformer, Bhäratïya Jänatä Party supporting the remarriage of widows (‘Indian People Party’) and arguing that many orthodox customs had no basis in Hindu tradition. Formed out of sections of the former Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 38

Bhärgavas 38

Jänatä Party in 1980, with the aim of bhasma transforming India into a Hindu state. See ASHES. Its leader Lal Krishna Advani became a popular hero through effectively staged bhaﬂﬂa events such as the Räm-ÿila-yäträ (collecting bricks for a Räma temple in Honorific title for a learned BRÄHMAŒA AYODHYÄ) in 1991, the Ektä-yäträ (2). (Unity Pilgrimage) in 1992, and finally the destruction of the Babri Masjid in Bhava Ayodhyä in December 1992, which A Vedic deity connected with Ÿarva, the attracted worldwide attention and led Destroyer; also one of the eight names to major Hindu–Muslim riots through- of Ÿiva. (See also RUDRA.) out India. bhäva Bhärgavas (‘feeling’, ‘condition’, ‘sentiment’) Descendants of the Vedic sage Bhøgu, An important concept in Hindu aesthet- one of the PRAJÄPATIS. The Bhärgavas ics. earned fame as a family of scholars/edi- tors. The final redaction of the Bhave, Vinoba (1895–1982) MAHÄBHÄRATA is ascribed to them. Close collaborator of Mahatma GANDHI, and his successor. In a historic pad- Bhartøhari (450–510 CE) yäträ (pilgrimage on foot) he traversed Celebrated grammarian and poet, India asking landowners to make a gift whose Väkyapadïa is the most impor- of land (bhü-dän) for the landless. His tant work in the area of Indian philoso- aim was to collect and distribute 50 mil- phy of language. He is also credited lion acres. He shared Gandhi’s convic- with the composition of 300 didactic tion that India’s salvation had to come verses contained in the Ÿøögära Ÿataka from the villages and worked for gräm- (dealing with erotic matters); Nïti Ÿata- svaräj (village self-rule). He also initiat- ka (dealing with polity and etiquette); ed the Sarvodaya (‘universal welfare’) and Vairägya Ÿataka (dealing with movement and created the Sarva Seva renunciation). Sangh (universal service association). Throughout he emphasized the religious dimension of his activities and his inten- Bhäsa (third century CE) tion to change hearts rather than bring Famous classical Indian dramatist, about an economic revolution. author of Svapna-vasava-datta and 12 other plays. Bhavi•ya Puräæa (‘Future Puräæa’) Bhäskara (1) (11th century) A PURÄŒA presented as written in the A celebrated mathematician and fifth century and purporting to deal with astronomer, author of the Bïjagaæita on future events of the Indian Middle ages, arithmetic, the Lïlävatï on algebra, and including the Muslim invasion. Estimates the Siddhänta Ÿiromaæi on astronomy. of the date of its composition range from the 12th to the 19th centuries. Bhäskara (2) bhaya (‘fear’) A Vedäntic teacher, professing a kind of ADVAITA VEDÄNTA. A basic emotion dealt with in Indian Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 39

39 bibhatsa

aesthetics, personified as grandson of bhojana (‘eating’, ‘meal’) Adharma (unrighteousness) and Hiƒsä Surrounded with rituals and also part of (violence), and father of Møtyu (death). the daily temple ritual: the feeding of the image of god is a main ingredient of bhedäbheda mürti-püjä. (‘difference and non-difference’) Designation of several schools of Bhøgu Vedänta that both affirm and deny dif- See BHÄRGAVAS. ference between ÄTMAN and BRAHMAN. bhü, also bhümi (‘the earth’) Bhïma (1) (‘The terrible’) name of one of Vi•æu’s consorts. One of the eight forms of RUDRA or Ugra (frightening) Ÿiva. bhukti (‘[sensual] enjoyment’) Normally seen as the opposite to mukti, Bhïma (2), also Bhïmasena (spiritual) LIBERATION. However, One of the five PÄŒ¥AVAS, son of VÄYU. Ÿäktism promises both bhukti and Described as of giant proportions, given mukti and denies an opposition to wrath, and a valiant warrior as well between them. as a great eater. He had the nickname Vøkodara, ‘wolf’s belly’. Many heroic bhür, also bhürloka deeds are ascribed to him in the MAHÄBHÄRATA. Because he violated the The earth. code of warriors by striking a foul blow he was called Jihma-yodi, ‘unfair fighter’. bhütas (‘spirits’, ‘ghosts’) Belief in bhütas is widespread in India Bhimbhetka and there are many ceremonies designed Place in Central India where prehistoric to free a person from their influence. (30,000 BCE) cave paintings were found. (See also PRETA).

Bhï•ma (‘the terrible’) Bhuvaæeÿvara (‘Lord of the earth’) The son of King Ÿäntanu and the river IVA goddess GA¢GÄ, also called Ÿäntanava, Title of Ÿ , name of famous temple Gäögeya, Nadija (river-born). He city in Orissa with some of the largest became one of the main protagonists in Hindu temples such as the 11th-century the MAHÄBHÄRATA as general of the Liögaräja temple. KAURAVAS and as author of a set of conventions for chivalrous warfare. bhuvar, also Bhuvarloka Mortally wounded by ARJUNA, he sur- The firmament, the middle region vived 58 days, during which time he between earth and sky. delivered many teachings. He is considered a model of loyalty and selfless bibhatsa (‘loathing’) service. One of the basic sentiments of Hindu aesthetics. It is used in a purely aesthetic Bhï•ma Parvan sense, and indicates a strong emotional The sixth part of the MAHÄBHÄRATA, experience. In GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆNAVISM, for which also contains the BHAGAVAD-GÏTÄ. example, it is said that to ‘loathe’ Kø•æa Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 40

bïja–mantra 40

may be preferable to indifference, because Bïrünï, al- (973–1051) it is at least a reaction to his presence. Persian Muslim scholar, scientist and diplomat who travelled through India bïja–mantra (‘seed-mantra’) from 1030 to 1042. He learned Sanskrit Single syllables believed to be the sonic and was the first foreigner to give exten- equivalent of certain divine powers. sive and correct descriptions of the major They are especially used by Tantrikas. branches of Hindu learning and sum- (See also TANTRA (2).) maries of important Hindu writings. His al-Hind became the single most important source of information about India bilva and Hinduism for centuries to come. Tree, sacred to Ÿiva. Its leaves are offered in worship. Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna (1831–1891) biƒba–pratibiƒba (‘image and reflection’) Born Helena Petrovna Hahn-Hahn in Ekaterinoslav (Russia), she developed MADHVA’s description of the relation- occult powers early on. Married at 17 ship between the supreme and the to a much older man, whom she soon human. While rejecting the Advaitins’ left, she travelled through Europe, assumption of the identity of ÄTMAN America, Egypt, India and Tibet, where and BRAHMAN, he nevertheless admits to she claimed to have met the ‘Master’ she a concept of the human being as ‘reflect- had seen long before in her dreams. ing’ certain features of brahman. Settling in New York in 1873 and joining the spiritual movement she became biæõu ‘drop’ (1) acquainted with Colonel Henry S. A coloured spot in the middle of the Olcott with whom she formed the forehead of a woman, indicating her Theosophical Society in 1875. She married status. became widely known through her occult writings, especially Isis Unveiled (1877) and The Secret Doctrine (1888). biæõu (2) She moved to India in 1878, transfer- Name for moon. ring the headquarters of the Theosophical Society to ADYAR biæõu (3) (Madras), and founding a journal, The Theosophist, dedicated to uniting In the title of a book, a very short sum- Eastern spirituality and Western sci- mary of a longer text. ence. The day of her death, 8 May 1891, is celebrated as ‘White Lotus birth Day’ by the members of the The birth of a child is surrounded by a Theosophical Society. great many rituals and festivities, such as establishing a HOROSCOPE, giving a NAME, feeding brahmins etc. Hindus speak of a bliss ‘second’ birth which is accomplished See ÄNANDA. through UPA-NAYANA by which a person becomes a full member of the Hindu community. Some also talk about a bodha (‘understanding’) ‘third birth’, i.e. the birth of one’s own Personified as son of Buddhi, one of the child, in which the father is ‘reborn’. daughters of DAKÆA. Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 41

41 Brahmä Kumäris

Bodhäyana by AVIDYÄ (ignorance, lack of wisdom). Author of a (lost) gloss on the Brahma- It consists of the triad of moha–lobha– sütras. krodha (delusion–greed–anger) which causes people to commit acts that bind them into the cycle of rebirths. More body specifically, each Hindu school of Hinduism has an ambivalent attitude thought defines the causes of bondage towards the body. On the one hand in correlation to the view of the nature there is a sharp dichotomy between of liberation. Thus SÄßKHYA considers body and spirit and most Hindu systems the spirit’s infatuation with nature as insist on viveka (discernment) through the cause of its bondage; Advaitins iden- which a person learns to identify with tify avidyä with the habitual perceiving the spirit and to consider the body as of plurality; RÄMÄNUJA teaches that ‘non-self’. On the other hand, the body ‘forgetfulness’ (of one’s true nature as a is valued as a vehicle of salvation: all child of God) is the root of human acts necessary to obtain liberation bondage. All systems also teach means require a well-functioning body. Many and practices to become free. (See also systems of YOGA aim at maintaining or LIBERATION; REBIRTH.) restoring bodily health. In TANTRA (2) the body acquires even greater impor- Brahmä tance as the seat of ÿakti and as an indispensable instrument for realizing In Hindu mythology the creator of the BHUKTI and mukti ([spiritual] LIBERA- universe; the first member of the tri- TION) together. mürti (consisting of Brahmä, Vi•æu and Ÿiva). He is represented as four-faced. According to Hindu psychology and Originally he had five heads; the loss of physiology the human being has three the fifth head is explained variously by components: the gross body (sthüla different myths. In iconography he is ÿarïra); the subtle body (sük•ma ÿarïra); represented with four arms, holding a and the spirit–soul (ätman). While the sceptre, a ladle, a string of beads and the gross body decays at death, the subtle book of the Veda. His consort is body (roughly equivalent to what is SARASVATÏ today called the ‘psyche’), in which the , the goddess of learning. His vehicle (VAHANA) is a swan. There are person’s KARMA is stored, lives on and is only a few Brahmä temples left in India, in due time reincarnated in a new the most famous in Puskär (Gujarat). (gross) body. This cycle of death and The BRAHMÄ URÄŒA reincarnation continues as long as the P contains a large subtle body exists, united with the amount of mythology concerning undecaying and unchanging ätman. Brahmä. Hindu strategies of liberation are aimed at annihilating the subtle body, neutral- Brahmä Kumäris (‘Daughters of izing the force of karma and freeing the Brahmä’) ätman from its bondage to the (gross A religious order of celibate women, and subtle) body. (See also NÄ¥I.) founded in 1937 by a Sindhi business- man, Dada Lekhraj (1876–1969). Their bondage (bandha) headquarters are on Mount Abu; they Hindus believe that due to the influence have centres in all major Indian cities of immemorial KARMA (2) every human and in some cities outside India. They being is born in (spiritual) bondage and claim a following of over 100,000 that every effort must be undertaken to worldwide and are active in YOGA edu- achieve LIBERATION. Bondage is caused cation. Dada Lekhraj had visions of Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 42

Brahma Puräæa 42

Vi•æu and received prophecies about consciousness, infinity, omnipotence, the end of the world, which was to be eternity, immanence in all things, bliss- followed by an earthly paradise. fulness and unfathomableness. It is unborn and uncreated, and the source Brahma Puräæa and ultimate destiny of everything. The first in the list of the 18 Mahä-purä- nas, also called Ädi-puräna, describing Brähmaæa (1) the origin of the universe. It has major The second part of the VEDA, a class of parts devoted to a description of the voluminous writings that was intended holy places of Orissa. to guide the BRÄHMAŒAS (2) in their rituals. They also contain short versions of Brahmä saƒpradäya myths which are found expanded in the Puräæas. The oldest Sanskrit prose One of the four sections of VAIÆŒAVISM, texts, they are divided into four groups, also called Madhva saƒpradäya, follow- according to the division of the Veda. ing the teachings of DVAITA VEDÄNTA. Øgveda: Aitareya and Kauÿïtakï Bräh- Its centre is in U¥IPÏ (Karæätaka). maæas; Black Yajurveda: Katha and Taittirïya Brähmaæas; White Yajur- brahmacäri veda: Ÿatapatha Brähmaæa; Sämaveda: One who leads the brahman life, i.e. Pañcaviƒÿa, Æadviƒÿa and Jaiminïya lives in strict celibacy. Brähmaæas; Atharvaveda: Gopatha Brähmaæa. brahmacarya (‘way of life of brahman’) Brähmaæa(s) (2), also brahmin(s) The first stage in the life of a brahmin, The first and highest VARŒA, created ‘studenthood’, where strict sexual conti- to recite the Veda, to perform rituals nence and service to one’s GURU is oblig- and to teach the rest of the people by atory. Some opt for lifelong brahma- word and deed the true nature of carya and become SAMNYÄSIS without DHARMA. Due to their descent, their going through the gøhastya (householder) education and their influence they stage. enjoyed high status throughout Indian history. Brahma-loka Also Sarvaloka (‘all places’) and brahmända Satyaloka (‘sphere of truth’), the abode See WORLD EGG. of BRAHMÄ, the highest point in the traditional Hindu universe, from which there is no return. Brahmända Puräæa Puräæa containing a detailed account of the development of the brahmäæõa brahman (WORLD EGG) as well as prophecies The supreme being, universal conscious- about the future. ness, the highest reality. Derived from the Sanskrit root bøh (to grow, to become large), it denotes greatness per Brahmäæï se. It is a key concept in the Upani•ads The female form or the daughter of and in the Vedänta systems. Brahman is BRAHMÄ, also known as ŸATARÜPÄ SACCIDÄNANDA, i.e. it is characterized by (hundred forms). Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 43

43 Braja

brahma-randhra Brahma-vaivarta Puräæa (‘Brahma’s crevice’) A rather late Vai•æava Puräæa which Aperture at the crown of the head, iden- relates in great detail the story of KØÆŒA tified by the ŸIKHA, the small tuft of hair and RÄDHÄ. kept unshaven. According to popular Hindu tradition it is the opening brahmävarta through which the soul of a good per- (‘The country where brahmins dwell’) son leaves the body at the time of death. The Hindu heartland, considered the Bad souls are forced downwards ideal living space for Brahmins. through the excretionary channels. Brahmins living in brahmävarta were held up as exemplars to the others. Brahma-rekha (‘Brahmä’s line’) According to popular Hindu belief brahma-vidyä BRAHMÄ inscribes a child’s destiny on its (‘brahman knowledge’) forehead on the sixth day after its birth. The highest kind of knowledge, knowledge that liberates: ‘Those who know brahman become brahman.’ To attain it brahmästra (‘Brahma’s weapon’) a person has to practise SÄDHANAS An unfailing device, mentioned in the and fulfil a variety of conditions epics. (ADHIKÄRAS).

Brahma-sütra brahmin Also called Vedäntasütra, a collection See BRÄHMAŒA (2). of 550 aphorisms. It is arranged in four pädas (parts), subdivided into four Brahmo Samäj adhyäyas (chapters), each containing a (‘Brahman Association’) number of sütras (aphorisms) purport- A reformist Hindu movement founded ing to summarize the content of the by Ram Mohan ROY in 1828 as UPANIÆADS. The present Brahmasütras ‘Brahmo Sabhä’ and in 1843 restruc- are ascribed to BÄDARÄYANA, although tured and renamed ‘Brahmo Samäj’ by the names of former authors of such Debendranath TAGORE. It aimed at works (all of them lost) are mentioned. purifying Hinduism and developing a The Brahmasütras have become the strong ethical consciousness among most important text of the Vedänta sys- Hindus. tems: its brevity necessitates lengthy commentaries (bhä•yas) which have become the main sources of the various Braja, also Brajbhümi, Vraja systems. Each of these has a proper The district around Mathurä, Uttar name: Ÿaökara’s commentary is called Pradesh, associated with Kø•æa. It com- Ÿarïrakabhä•ya, RÄMÄNUJA’s Ÿrïbhä•ya prises, besides Mathurä, the birthplace and MADHVA’s Aæubhä•ya. of Kø•æa, Gokula, the hometown of his foster-parents, where he grew up, Vøndävana, the place where he frol- brahma-vädinï icked with the GOPIS, Govardhana, A class of women mentioned in the where he sheltered the shepherds from HARITA-SMØTI, who remained celibate torrential rains, and many other forests and devoted themselves to study and and ponds associated with his exploits. ritual. Revived in the 16th century by the Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 44

breath control 44

followers of CAITANYA, Brajbhümi is the on astronomy/ASTROLOGY, the making destination of many millions Hindu pil- of IMAGES and TEMPLES, and other grims every year and a preferred place matters of importance in connection of retirement for many pious with worship. VAIÆŒAVAS. The local language, Brajbhä•a, a dialect of Hindi, is a major Buddha (sixth century BCE) literary language especially for devo- Gautama Buddha, founder of Bud- tional works. dhism, often described in Hindu writings as the worst enemy of Hinduism; breath control also listed as the ninth AVATÄRA of See PRÄŒAYAMA. VIÆŒU who descended to earth in order to lead astray people who were destined Bøhad-äraæyaka Upani•ad not to be saved by Vi•æu. One of the oldest major UPANIÆADS, the longest of all, extensively used by Vedäntins. It is the last part of the Ÿata- patha Brähmaæa and combines both ÄRAŒYAKA and Upani•ad. (See also BRÄHMAŒA (1).)

Bøhad-devatä An ancient vedic work (fifth century BCE) containing a systematics of the deities that are addressed in the Vedic HYMNS.

Bøhaspati This name is frequently encountered in Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, Hindu literature, with a variety of con- depicted as the ninth avatära notations. In the Vedas he is a deity, the of Vi•æu. priest of the gods. In later times he is a ØÆI. The ø•i Bøhaspati was the son of the buddhi ø•i ANGIRAS, and is also called Ängirasa. His wife, TÄRÄ, was carried off by Soma (Sense-related) mind, sensus communis. (the moon); this led to a war, after (See also MANAS.) which Tärä was restored to Bøhaspati. She subsequently bore a son, BUDHA, Buddhism who was claimed by both Bøhaspati and Soma. Soma was declared the father. At the time of Gautama Buddha (sixth Bøhaspati is also the presiding deity of century BCE) there were many different the planet Jupiter, and a day of the schools of thought and many teachers week, Bøhaspativära (Thursday), is of practices that claimed to lead to named after him. emancipation. When Prince Siddhärtha left his home in search of enlightenment he underwent the usual training of a Bøhat-saƒhitä SAMNYÄSI and practised severe forms of A famous work by Varäha Mihira self-mortification (TAPAS). After gaining (sixth century) containing information enlightenment and becoming a Buddha, Encyclo - Letter B 10/2/03 9:37 am Page 45

45 Burnouf, Eugéne

an enlightened one, he first approached Bühler, Georg (1837–98) his former companions in a grove near A gifted linguist (he studied Latin, Greek, Väräæasï to announce to them the good Arabic, Persian, Zend, Armenian and news of the finding of deathlessness and Sanskrit), he spent many years in India as freedom from suffering. It was only in professor of oriental languages at the course of time that Buddha’s teach- Elphinstone College, Bombay, and was ing, which de-emphasized caste and ritu- officially entrusted with the collection of al, and taught liberation through an eth- Sanskrit manuscripts in the Bombay ical life and meditation only, was consid- Presidency. He produced valuable cata- ered heterodox and his followers were logues of manuscripts, edited texts and deemed outside the Hindu community. produced translations of Sanskrit and In later centuries, when Buddhism Prakrit texts. He specialized in Indian became the predominant religion in law and contributed a translation of the India, Hindus considered it (together MANU-SMØTI with an extensive intro- with JAINISM) the paradigm of a nästika duction of his own to the Sacred Books (heterodox) system, a DARŸANA (2) that of the East series. He later occupied the did not recognize the Veda as supreme chair of Sanskrit at Vienna and became authority and precluded membership in co-founder of the Oriental Institute of SANÄTANA DHAØMA. From the eighth cen- Vienna and its journal. tury CE onwards, beginning with Kumärila Bhaﬂﬂa’s Ÿlokavärttika, a major Hindu polemic against Buddhism devel- Burnouf, Eugéne (1801–52) oped, which found expression in hun- He studied Sanskrit with his father, dreds of literary works as well as Jean-Louis Burnouf, and with L. de in the occasional persecution of Chézy, the first occupant of a chair in Buddhists. In modern India there is a ten- Sanskrit at a European university. dency to consider Buddhism as one of the While his main interest was in Buddhist forms of Indian religiosity that in course texts, he contributed to the study of of time was reabsorbed by Hinduism. Hinduism through his translation of the entire Bhägavatam into French (1840–8). budha (‘wise, intelligent’) He persuaded Max MÜLLER to under- The planet Mercury; son of Soma (moon), take the first critical edition of the by TÄRÄ (star), wife of BØHASPATI. ØGVEDA (1849–73). Encyclo - Letter C 10/2/03 9:38 am Page 46

caitanya eight verses is ascribed to him See CONSCIOUSNESS. (Ÿïk•ä•ﬂaka), his immediate followers, the six Gosvämis, who revived VØNDÄVANA as a centre of Kø•æa wor- Caitanya, also Kø•æa Caitanya ship in the 16th century, produced (‘Kø•æa Consciousness’) (1486–1533) under his inspiration and command Born Viÿvambhara Miÿra, the second voluminous literature in which the son of a VAI•¢AVA brahmin family, at teachings of Gaudïya Vai•æavism are Nadia (Navadvip, Bengal) he married laid out. The most important of these Lak•mïprïyä at the age of 19, and, after are RÜPA GOSVÄMI’s Bhakti-rasämøta- her death, Vi•æuprïyä. He began teach- sindhu and Ujjvala-nïlämaæï and Jïva ing secular literature. At the age of 22 Gosvämi’s Æat-sandarbha. he went to Gayä to perform ŸRADDHA Gauõïya Vai•æavism was revived in for his deceased father and his first wife. Bengal in the late 19th century by Suddenly overcome by a strong emo- Thäkura Bhaktisiddhänta (1838–1914). tional attraction to Kø•æa, he was initi- His son, Bhaktivinode Thäkur (1874– ated by Ïÿvara Pürï and became the 1937), organized the Gauõïya Math, spiritual leader of the Vai•æavas of consisting of a number of temples and Nadia. In 1510 he took SAMNYÄSA from ashrams dedicated to teaching and pub- Keÿava Bhärati and began travelling lishing. One of his disciples, throughout India proclaiming Kø•æa’s Abhaycaran De, a Calcutta business- name. In 1516 he settled in Purï, regu- man, better known under his monastic larly worshipping at the JAGANNÄTHA name Swami A. C. Bhaktivedanta, temple and instructing disciples. He founded the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY died in 1533, when walking in a trance FOR KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS (ISKCON; into the sea. His life has been described ‘Hare Krishna Movement’) in New by his followers Vøædävanadäsa York in 1966 and gave the Caitanya (Caitanya-bhägavata) and Kø•æadäsa movement a worldwide following. Käviräja (Caitanya-caritämøta). His school, which became known as cakra (1) (‘wheel’, ‘discus’, ‘circle’) Gauõïya Vai•æavism, is characterized One of the weapons of Vi•æu. by its strong emotional Kø•æa BHAKTI and its devotion to RÄDHÄ, Kø•æa’s beloved. By his followers he was regard- cakra (2) ed as an incarnation of both Kø•æa and Symbol for the whole earth: a Rädhä. While only a short poem of Cakravartin is a universal ruler. Encyclo - Letter C 10/2/03 9:38 am Page 47

47 Cäæakya

MARCH FEB IL RU PR PHA A ITRA LGU R A CA ŒA Y

V NA UMB

A MÏ HA M

Ÿ Ä J A

M G L A

K AQU H U

M ES A M

H SC RI A N N

A I U A

E P S S A

Ÿ C K O R U A

Y A A A L R P R A A

R R

I A M

E IC R S O O R M N Y N

O T J H

Y S N

D P S E T A T

V H H S

A G

VEDANGA SÜRYA

U D T

Ø I S

U A

BHANU H S

Æ T N

R ARUŒA E

A A U A U

J M

H R

S U RUDRA A I U A VIÆŒU E S

R M

E RAVI S

A B

H M

M G C

MITRA V

O E

E A A I S Ø A GABHASTI

M R R S R

H DIVÄKARA C

I G

A HARIDAŸVA

N I

YAMA or YAMA

U SUVARNA- O

A ¥ RETAS K

N I Ÿ

H A

I N A R

C L

A B V

N R

K A C E

J T

A E

U U

R R M

L Ÿ K Ä

Y R A A A T R

L O E

V A EO IRG T R

A V T I

Œ K

A S A

IM YÄ

ÅA KAN O

A T

B O

U HA

DR I B G A WIN E U AŸ R ST SEPTEMBER

The Hindu calendar: The solar and lunar months are shown with the signs of the Zodiac in relation to the months of the Western (Gregorian) calendar.

cakra (3) camphor In TANTRA (2), six (to nine) nerve cen- The burning of camphor is part of the tres in the subtle body through which daily ritual of IMAGE worship; it is the spiritual energy is channelled. (See believed to keep away ghosts and also BODY.) demons.

Cämuæõä calendar An aspect of the goddess DURGÄ, created Calendars were always important in to destroy the demons Caæõa and Hinduism for the exact determination Muæõa. of the time for SACRIFICES and feast days, as well as for providing basic information for establishing HOROSCOPES. The Cäæakya (fourth century BCE?) Hindu calendar is a solar–lunar calen- Also called Kauﬂilya, author of the dar, requiring regular adjustments. The famous Cänakya Sütra or Kauﬂilïya printed calendars (PAÑCÄ¢GA) contain Ärthaÿästra. According to tradition he the astronomical tables for each fort- was a brahmin responsible for the night as well as other information downfall of the NANDAS (2) and the ele- important for astrological calculations. vation of Candragupta, the founder of (See also FESTIVALS.) the MAURYA dynasty. His work is Encyclo - Letter C 10/2/03 9:38 am Page 48

caæõäla 48

famous for its realistic, almost Portuguese casta: ‘pure, clean’, desig- Machiavellian tone. It gives a very valu- nating purity of descent. Hindu society able detailed description of the adminis- has been characterized by caste divi- tration of the Maurya empire. sions from time immemorial. The four classes (catur varæa) mentioned in the caæõäla (‘wicked or cruel’) VEDA, namely Brahmanas (teachers), K•atriyas (soldiers), Vaiÿyas (traders) A generic designation of people of the and Ÿüdras (servants) are subdivided lowest CASTE, someone who has a Ÿüdra into a great multitude of jätïs, ‘birth- father and a brahmin mother, and is groups’, or castes proper. A large num- therefore an OUTCASTE. ber of people who for various reasons were excluded from these formed the caæõana so-called OUTCASTES, who, however, Sandalwood, used in many forms of also maintained caste-like ranking worship and also valued for its cooling among themselves. (See also SOCIAL properties when applied as a paste. ORDER.)

Caæõï, also Caæõikä, Caæõä cat school The goddess Durgä (Ambä) in the form See TEŒGALAI. she assumed to kill the demon Mahi•a. caturmäsya (1) (‘four months’) Caæõïdäsa The rainy season, when ASCETICS were (‘Caædï’s slave’) (15th century) obliged to stay in one place. Vi•æu was Medieval author of poetry celebrating believed to be resting during this time. the loves of KØÆŒA and the GOPÏS. caturmäsya (2) Candra A feast observed at the beginning of The moon, as both planet and deity. each four-month period into which the Vedic year was divided.

Caraka (first century CE) A writer on medicine who is reputed to catur–varæa–äÿrama–dharma have lived in Vedic times. Author of the Comprehensive designation of the Caraka Saƒhitä, one of the most impor- Hindu SOCIAL ORDER dividing society tant texts of Indian medicine through into four (catur) classes (VARŒA); whose the ages. (See also AYURVEDA.) life is to be regulated by four stages: brahmacarya (studenthood), gøhastya Cärväkas (householder stage), vänaprasthya (forest-dweller stage), and samnyäsa (stage The followers of an ancient materialistic of renunciation, homelessness). (See system of philosophy, which denies the also CASTE.) validity of Vedic rites and encourages a hedonistic lifestyle. Hindus have always condemned it as the most objectionable cauõa of all NÄSTIKA systems. Tonsure of the whole head before initiation (upanayana), leaving only a little tuft at the back (ÿikha). It is repeated caste every fortnight thereafter. (See also The word ‘caste’ is derived from the SA§SKÄRA.) Encyclo - Letter C 10/2/03 9:38 am Page 49

49 churning of the ocean

cetana Chinmoy (1931– ) See CONSCIOUSNESS. Kumar Ghosh, a disciple of AUROBINDO GHOSE. He called himself ‘Made of chandas Mind’, settled in the USA in 1964 and has formed meditation groups at the UN Verses, metres, one of the six VEDÄŒGAS. in New York. The main technique is interiorization of the GURU by the disciple. chandoga A priest or chanter of the Sämaveda Chinnama•ﬂä (‘the beheaded’) (VEDA of melodies). A form of DURGÄ, carrying her own decapitated head under her right arm; Chändogya Upani•ad one of ten tantrik DAŸA VIDYÄS. One of the oldest and largest UPANIÆADS, belonging to the Sämaveda. It is the Chitragupta most frequently referred to text in YAMA’s secretary in the netherworlds, Bädaräyaæa’s BRAHMA-SÜTRAS. recording the good and evil deeds of people. (See also AFTERLIFE, PÄTÄLA.) chäyä (1) (‘shade’, ‘shadow’) choti (‘small’) Mythical handmaid of the SUN. See ŸIKHA.

chäyä (2) chronology Term used to designate an aid in under- It has always been extremely difficult to standing a text. establish a chronology of Hinduism before the time of the Buddha (sixth child marriage century BCE). Widely accepted chronologies devised in the late 19th See MARRIAGE. century, assuming an invasion of the Vedic ÄRYANS around 1500 BCE and the children development of the Veda between 1200 To have children, especially sons, was and 600 BCE, have been challenged and are no longer tenable. The ‘new the purpose of Hindu MARRIAGE from early on. An often-used marriage ritu- chronology’, supported by astro-archae- al closes with the blessing of the bride: ology, satellite photography and ‘May you be the mother of a hundred archaeo-climatology, rejecting the sons.’ Children were important not ‘Äryan invasion theory’, sets the begin- only for the continuation of the fami- ning of the Vedic age at around 4000 ly lineage but also for the perfor- BCE and its end at around 2000 BCE. mance of the last rites for their parents (besides being expected to churning of the ocean contribute to the maintenance of their (samudra manthana) parents in old age). Limiting the An ancient story, often depicted in Indian number of children or practising birth art, concerning the attempt made by control (especially abortion) has been DEVAS and DAITYAS at the beginning of condemned by classical Hindu time to obtain AMØTA, the nectar of ŸÄSTRAS as well as by contemporary immortality. They used Mount MAŒDARA Hindu leaders. as a churning stick, put it upon the Encyclo - Letter C 10/2/03 9:38 am Page 50

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The Churning of the Ocean: Devas and asuras churn the ocean from which wonderful objects such as the elephant Airävata, the wish-fulfilling tree, the vessel of ambrosia, and many more are obtained.

TORTOISE, a form assumed by Vi•æu, circumambulation, also took the king of snakes, Vasuki, as a parikramä, pradak•iæä rope and successively obtained the fiery Ritually walking around a person, an poison HALÄHALÄ, the heavenly elephant IMAGE, a place, keeping the venerated AIRÄVATA, and DHANVANTARI with a pot object to one’s right; a widespread filled with the nectar of immortality. To Hindu custom showing respect. Besides prevent the daityas from gaining immor- the circumambulation of an image in a tality, Vi•æu appeared in the form of temple, or the temple complex itself, cir- Mohinï (seductress) and distracted their cumambulation of sacred cities such as attention while the devas shared amøta. Väräæasï or Vøndävana, or a district such as BRAJA, takes place. The circum- Cidambaram ambulation of the river NARBADÄ or of Famous temple city in Tamilnäõu, the whole of India is a custom still prac- South India, sacred to ŸIVA. Ÿiva is tised by many SÄDHUS today. believed to have first performed the TAŒ¥AVA dance at Cidambaram, which cit is repeated daily in his honour by pro- See CONSCIOUSNESS. fessional temple dancers.

Cinmayananda, Swami (1915–97) citra näõï Founder of Sandipani Hindu Mission One of the inner vessels of the subtle and instrumental in founding the VIŸVA body according to KUŒ¥ALINÏ YOGA. HINDÜ PARIÆAD in Bombay in 1964. (See also BODY.) Encyclo - Letter C 10/2/03 9:38 am Page 51

51 cosmology

Cokamela (1293–1338) of mind-generated objects, different HARIJAN saint from Mangalredha from the subject); su•upti (dreamless (Mahärä•flra), a devotee of Viflflhal (a deep sleep: no perception of difference Mahratti form of Vi•æu); he had to pray between object and subject); turïya (‘the outside the shrine because of his OUT- fourth state’, lucid trance, awareness CASTE status, and suffered many humili- without any subject–object split). ations, but was also recognized for his piety and his inspired songs. After his Coomaraswami, Ananda death he was interred at PANDHARPUR (1877–1947) beside NÄMADEVA. He is the author of many popular devotional songs Born in Ceylon (Ÿrï Laöka) to a (abhangs) in Marathi. Ceylonese father and a British mother, and trained in London as a geologist, Coomaraswami became best known as Colas a rediscoverer of Indian art, especially Prominent dynasty in South India (c. of ancient and classical Indian painting. 319–1297). The Colas were mostly He wrote Indian Drawings (1910); adherents of ŸAIVISM; they patronized Indian Drawings: Second Series (1912); the arts and religion. They also built, Rajput Painting (1916). He developed over the centuries, extensive irrigation broad interests in Indian culture in gen- systems that are still functional. Famous eral, evident in a great number of essays temples such as the Rajeÿvara temple in dealing with Indian mythology and his- TANJORE owe their existence to Cola tory (The Dance of Ÿiva, 1918, Why munificence. Cola bronze images, espe- Exhibit Works of Art?, 1943) and a cially of Ÿiva NÄfiARÄJA, are famous for monumental History of Indian and their craftsmanship and high artistic Indonesian Art (1927). quality.

confession cosmology Confessing breaches of the moral code Hinduism does not possess a uniform is one of the ways of atonement and commonly accepted cosmology. (PRAYAŸCITTA) for most lighter infringe- Cosmology, however, was always very ments. important. In the Vedas we find a tri- partition of the universe into an upper, middle and lower sphere: to each were consciousness, also caitanya, assigned eleven deities. The moon was cetana, cit believed to be the resting place for the One of the key concepts in Hindu deceased ancestors. In the Puräæas we thought. Advaitins identify the very find an elaborate division of the uni- essence of the person with conscious- verse into a series of concentric conti- ness, others consider it an essential nents surrounded by oceans – all of attribute. BRAHMAN is often defined as immense size. The Puräæas also specu- sat–cit–änanda (being–consciousness– late that besides the universe inhabited bliss). The Upani•ads teach four stages by us there are countless other universes. of consciousness, corresponding to dif- The world we inhabit is not seen as the ferent perceptions of reality: jägarita best of all worlds but as the only place sthäna (waking state: corresponding to where people can work out their salva- the perception of multiple entities dif- tion. Hindus also operated with ferent from the perceiving subject); immense time-frames in the context of a svapna sthäna (dream state: perception periodic creation and annihilation of Encyclo - Letter C 10/2/03 9:38 am Page 52

cow 52

the physical universe. (See also TIME, out of his body the four CASTES are cre- DIVISIONS OF.) ated. In the second the whole universe is fashioned by Väc (word). Some Puräæas cow (go, gomätä) mention several creations: the first was unsuccessful because of lack of will to ‘Mother Cow’, held sacred by Hindus procreate among the first creatures. as the seat of many gods. Killing a cow Since creation is a process, it will find an was considered one of the most heinous end and the universe will return to its crimes and was heavily punished. Many pre-creation state. Hindu theologians contemporary Hindu political move- emphasize that there was no need for ments agitate for a complete ban on God to create the universe, and that the cow slaughter, which is forbidden in divine creative activity is more like a many Indian states. Affluent Hindus game (LÏLÄ). (See also ANNIHILATION; establish in many places goÿäläs, homes SUSTENANCE; WORLD EGG.) for old cows, who are fed and cared for until they die a natural death. Many ancient rituals involve cows, and the cremation (smäsana) five products of the cow (milk, curds, The most frequently employed mode of butter, urine, dung) are highly priced disposal of dead bodies. It is believed for their purity which they pass on that the fire that consumes the body will when applied to the human body. transform it into a higher form. Kø•æa, who also is known as Gopäla Cremation follows a set of ancient rules (protector of cows), is often depicted in and is usually done in specially chosen the guise of a cowherd, and the cowherd places outside towns and villages. girls (GOPÏS) are considered the best Normally only members of the immedi- models of devotion to him. ate family are allowed to witness cremation. Ancient taboos regarding pollution creation (sø•ﬂhi) by being associated with a corpse are The first of the three divine cosmic func- still maintained. SAMNYÄSIS are not cre- tions, often associated with BRAHMÄ. mated but buried, because they perform Creation stories figure prominently in a symbolic self-cremation as part of the Puräæas. The Veda has two versions their rites of initiation. LI¢GÄYATS, a of a creation myth: in the first the myth- reformist Hindu sect, also bury their ical human, PURUÆA (1), is sacrificed and dead. Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 53

Dadhïca, also Dadhyanc Dak•a also Präcetas (‘skilful’)

Vedic ØÆI, son of ATHARVAN, frequently Proper name of a son of BRAHMÄ, a mentioned in Hindu literature. PRAJÄPATI. One of his many daughters was SATÏ (Umä), who married ŸIVA daily rituals against her father’s will. Dak•a The brahmin’s entire daily routine was excluded him from a great sacrifice he enveloped by rituals. Many of these was performing and insulted him in rituals cannot be observed in modern Satï’s presence. Satï then took her city life, but some are followed quite own life and Ÿiva wrecked Dak•a’s widely, such as the thrice daily recitation sacrifice. Ÿiva decapitated Dak•a and of the GÄYATRÏ mantra, the daily wor- burned his head, but later restored ship of IMAGES in the home, and RITUALS him to life and gave him a goat’s on special occasions. Members of partic- head. ular SAßPRADÄYAS often practise extended daily rituals at home and in the Dak•a-smøti temple, decorating their bodies with A code of law. Dak•a was one of the markings designating their affiliation. original eighteen lawgivers and is reput- daityas (‘demons’, ‘giants’, ‘titans’) ed to be author of the Dak•asmøti. Descendants of DITI and KAŸYAPA, hostile to the GODS and to SACRIFICE. dak•inä (‘south’) Fee for a brahmin’s services, personified daiva (1) (‘belonging to the gods’) as a goddess. Fate. dak•inäcära (‘right-hand way’) daiva (2) One of the branches of TANTRA (2). A type of (legally recognized) marriage, in which a young woman was given to an officiating priest in a sacrifice. Dak•iæä-mürti One of the saumya (auspicious) forms Däkinï of ŸIVA: Ÿiva as teacher of various arts, Female fiend in the company of KÄLÏ of YOGA and of mok•a (LIBERATION). (2), feeding on human flesh. Also called The images of Ÿiva NÄﬁARÄJA also Aÿrapa, ‘blood drinker’. belong to this category. Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 54

Dak•iæeÿvara 54

Dak•iæeÿvara a pillar with a rope (däma) around his Kälï–Durgä temple near Calcutta built belly (udära). in the 19th century, which became famous through RAMAKRISHNA,who däna (‘gift’, ‘charity’) was a temple priest there for many A major concern in traditional years. Now it is one of the major sacred Hinduism. Charity was enjoined on the sites of the Ramakrishna Mission. rich on behalf of the poor, and on sacri- ficers to brahmins. It was regulated by dalit (‘oppressed’) numerous laws. Major donations of Self-designation of former OUTCASTES, land or villages were often recorded on untouchables, scheduled CASTES. They copper plates and stored either in tem- have formed many organizations ples or in palaces. Reneging on pledges according to religious affiliation. Strictly made legally was considered a major sin speaking, most dalits were not members for which punishments in hell were of Hindu (caste) society, but were con- foreseen. sidered servants for impure and degrading work. Dalits today strive for Dänavas emancipation and equal opportunities. Descendants of Danu, one of the daughters of Dak•a, and Kaÿyapa. Like the damaru DAITYAS they were giants who fought Ÿiva NÄﬁARÄJA’s drum, shaped like an against DEVAS and SACRIFICE. hourglass. dance Dämodara Ritual dance seems to have been part of A name given to KØÆŒA on account of the Hindu traditions from the earliest his foster-mother’s attempt to tie him to times, as the dancing figurines from the

Bhils dancing in the forecourt of the palace, Udaipur Festival. Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 55

55 daÿa-nämis

Indus civilization indicate. Creation was enthusiastically received by the German often described in terms of a cosmic philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer dance (LÏLÄ). One of the most famous (1788–1860 CE). Därä Shukoh was exe- representations of ŸIVA is that of cuted by his brother Aurangzeb after NÄﬁARÄJA (king of the dance). KØÆŒA having participated in a failed rebellion performed a dance on the heads of against him. KÄLIYA and his favourite pastime was the rasa-lïlä, the round-dance with the GOPÏS darÿana (1) of Vraja. The goddess is often represent- (‘seeing’, ‘demonstration’) ed in dance. Temple dancing, both spon- The respectful or worshipful beholding taneously done by devotees and of a divine image or a venerable person, organized by professionals, is one of the a central religious activity of Hindus. routine forms of temple worship. The Naﬂya-ÿästra, attributed to BHÄRATA (5), is the most important text dealing not darÿana (2) only with dance, but with drama and the (‘theory’, philosophical system’) principles of aesthetics. Dance, especially Especially one of the •aõ-darÿana (‘six the re-enactment of scenes from the orthodox systems’: SÄßKHYA, YOGA, PURÄŒAS, is seen as a means to gain ¢YÄYA, VAIŸEÆIKA, Purva MÏMÄßSÄ and LIBERATION. In some major Hindu tem- Uttara Mïmäƒsä or VEDÄNTA). ples groups of professionals regularly perform ritual dances in honour of the däsa (‘slave’) deity, e.g. in the Ÿiva temple at Caste name of a ŸÜDRA; from the CIDAMBARAM (TAŒ¥AVA), or the Kø•æa temple of Guruvayur (Kø•æattam). Middle Ages on, many VAIÆŒAVAS used it also as an affix to express their devotion (e.g. Vi•æudäsa, Kø•æadäsa, etc.). daæõa (‘rod’, ‘punishment’)

Insignia of YAMA, the god of death and Daÿabodha of kings, whose duty it was to punish evildoers and protect society from them. Famous religious work (in Marathi) by Samärtha Guru Rämadäsa (written c. 1659). daæõa nïti (‘science of punishment’)

Administration, government. däsa-märga (‘the slave’s way’) The lowest stage in ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA, Dandin (seventh century) consisting of activities such as cleaning Classical (Sanskrit) writer, author of a temple, weaving garlands, lighting Daÿa-kumära-carita, the story of the ten temple lamps, offering one’s services to princes who went out to find fulfilment other Ÿiva devotees. of their desires. daÿa-nämis (‘ten names’) Därä Shukoh (1613–1659) Ten orders of samnyäsis (sects) reputedly Son of Mogul emperor Shah Jahan, who founded by ŸANKARA in the ninth century took a great interest in Hinduism. In and attached to one of the MAﬁHAS 1657 he produced the first translation established by him. They enjoy a high of some of the Upani•ads into Persian, a reputation for their asceticism and Latin translation of which (made by scholarship. One of these names is Anquetil Duperron in the early 19th attached to the title of every member of century) reached the West and was one of the orders: Äraæya, Väna, Giri, Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 56

Daÿa-padärtha Ÿästra 56

Pärvata, Sägara, Tïrtha, Äÿrama, and Ÿiva. Represented as a wandering Bhärati, Pürï, Sarasvatï. mendicant followed by four dogs (the four VEDAS). His places of worship are Daÿa-padärtha Ÿästra called Datta-maæõiras. Popular in (‘science of ten word meanings’) Mahärä•ﬂra as ‘Dattobä’. The Dattä- treya SAßPRADÄYA is quite strong in Title of a sixth-century text explaining Mahärä•ﬂra; it is engaged on behalf of the tenets of VAIŸEÆIKA, one of the six peace and mutual tolerance. orthodox systems of Hindu philosophy.

Dattätreya (2) Daÿa-ratha (‘ten chariots’) A brahmin saint, son of ATRI and A prince of the solar dynasty, king of ANASÜYÄ, considered an incarnation of AYODHYÄ, father of RÄMA, a major fig- Vi•æu and Ÿiva. ure in VÄLMÏKI’S RÄMÄYAŒA.

daÿävatäras Dattätreya (3) See AVATÄRA. A philosopher, the sixth AVATÄRA of Vi•æu. According to the Bhägavata Puräæa he achieved liberation by fol- daÿa vidyäs (‘ten wisdoms’) lowing the advice of twenty-four GURUS Ten forms of the Goddess worshipped in the form of forces of nature. by Tantrikas: Kälï, Tärä, Æoõaÿï, Bhuvaneÿvarï, Bhairavï, Chinnama•ﬂä, Dhümävatï, Bagalä, Maﬂaögï, Däyänanda Sarasvatï Kämalätmikä. (See also TANTRA.) (1824–83) Influential Hindu reformer, founder of ÄRYA SAMÄJ. Born Müla Ÿaökara in Dasgupta, Surendranath Morvi, Gujarat, into a pious Ÿaivite (1885–1952) family, Däyänanda rejected IMAGE wor- One of the foremost modern scholars of ship and went in search of a GURU. After Hinduism, author of the authoritative fifteen years of wandering through five-volume A History of Indian India, moving from teacher to teacher, Philosophy (1921–55), the unsurpassed he finally settled down in Mathurä with standard work of its kind. He had a dis- Viräjänanda Sarasvatï, a blind and tem- tinguished career as an academic peramental ultra-orthodox Vedic teacher in Chittagong College, Calcutta teacher. After three years of humilia- Presidency College, Government tions and grammar study Viräjänanda Sanskrit College, and the University of dismissed his student with instructions, Calcutta, and was the recipient of many to teach the true ŸÄSTRAS in India again honours and awards. and to dispel the darkness that the wrong faith had engendered. dasyus His teachings, contained in Satyärtha Described in the Vedas as the enemies of Prakäÿa (‘Light of Truth’), rely on the the ÄRYANS, dark-skinned and evil. infallibility of the Veda: all accretions to Their identity is disputed. Hinduism of later times (epics, Puräæas, Ägamas) were rejected as corruptions. Däyänanda believed he had a mission to Dattätreya (1) lead India back to its original, A deity, one of the forms of Vi•æu, par- pure Vedic religion. He reintroduced taking of the nature of Brahmä, Vi•æu Vedic HOMA (see GHÏ). Socially he was Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 57

57 Devï

progressive: he rejected casteism, pro- related to Latin deus, Greek theos, from moted the equality of women and men, which French dieu, Italian dio, Spanish and insisted on social service and altru- dios, English divine). Their number is ism as expressions of true DHARMA. given in the Vedas as thirty-three, in later Hinduism as virtually infinite. death (See also GOD AND GODS.) A major preoccupation of Hinduism, as of all religions. Hindus generally believe deva-däsï in life after death and most believe in (‘female servant of the deity’) rebirth (and re-death) of those who A woman who was dedicated to temple have not found emancipation. It is service, professional dancer, often kept surrounded by many rituals, and many as temple prostitute. scriptures describe the fate of persons after death. Since physical death is not Devakï considered final, the Bhagavadgïtä com- Wife of VASUDEVA, mother of Kø•æa. pares it with the changing of worn-out clothing and exhorts not to grieve for those who have died, because they are Devï (‘goddess’) bound to return in a new body. (See Used generically as well as more specif- also AFTERLIFE; MØTYU-SA§SKÄRA.) ically for the wife of Ÿiva, or the highest principle, imagined as female. She has demons many names, expressing her many functions. Goddess worship is almost uni- Hinduism knows many kinds of versal in Hinduism. demons, or antagonists of the gods. Not all of them are wicked; some are described as righteous rulers and good kings. (See also ASURA; BALI; DAITYAS; DÄNAVAS; RÄKÆASA.)

Deussen, Paul (1845–1919) ‘Devasena’, as his Indian friends called him, an expert in Sanskrit and in philosophy. He held university appointments in Berlin and Kiel. In his six-volume General History of Philosophy he devoted the first three volumes to India, including translations of hitherto unknown texts. He translated sixty Upani•ads from Sanskrit into German, Ÿaökara’s complete commentary on the Brahmasütras, as well as major portions from the Mahäbhärata (including the Bhagavadgïtä) and wrote a monograph on The Philosophy of the Upani•ads (1899).

deva, also devatä (‘shiny’) Devï Mahj•amärdiæï: The goddess who Generic name of higher beings, usually slays the buffalo demon; an object of translated as ‘god’ (etymologically devotion at the time of Dürgä Püjä. Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 58

Devï Bhägavata Puräæa 58

Devï Bhägavata Puräæa such as the Vai•æavadharma, which An Upa-Puräæa, by some considered prescribe the mode of worship, the kind one of the 18 Mahä-puräæas (replacing of dress and diet etc. a member of such the Vai•æava Bhägavatam) eulogizing a community has to follow. While for ŸAKTI. many centuries Hindu dharma was supposed to be unchanging, in our time voices are being heard that attempt to Devï Mähätmya modernize dharma and to use dharma (‘The Glorification of the Goddess’) as a political programme for the cre- A section of the MÄRKAŒ¥EYA PURÄNA, ation of a Hindu rule in India. narrating the victory of the Goddess As sources of dharma the Manusmøti over the buffalo-headed demon identifies the Veda in its entirety, estab- (Mahi•amärdinï). It is recited daily in lished traditions in the heartland of Ÿäkta temples and often publicly read Hinduism (Äryavärta), the behaviour of out during Dürgapüjä (see DURGA) cele- exemplary citizens, and one’s own con- brations. science (ätmatu•ﬂi).

Dhanvantari Dharma-räja (‘King of the Law’) The physician of the gods, teacher of Title of YAMA, the god of the dead, and medicine, author of a text on AYURVEDA. of YUDHISﬁH. IRA, his son.

dhäraæä (‘concentration’) Dharma-ÿästra One of the stages of PATAÑJALA YOGA. The Hindu code of law in general, or a specific work on law, such as Manusmøti, Yäjñavalkyasmøti and oth- dharma (‘law’) ers. These deal generally with three Cosmic and social order and the rules major areas: rules of conduct (ÄCÄRA); pertaining to it. It is the central concern civil and criminal law (VYAVAHÄRA); of Hinduism, which defines itself as punishment and penances (PRAYAŸCITTA). SANÄTANA DHARMA, eternal law. In the The number of works on dharmaÿästra Bhagavadgïtä Kø•æa says that he is is very large, and since it covers both assuming a human form for the sake of secular and religious law, it has always upholding dharma, whenever it is been very important for the practice of threatened. Dharma comprises general Hinduism. morality (SADHÄRANA DHARMA) as well as specific rules for members of castes Dhenuka (viÿe•a dharma). The former consists of A demon in the shape of an ass, killed five injunctions (yama) and five prohibi- by BALADEVA, who swung it round by its tions (niyama), namely firmness (dhøti), legs and smashed it against a tree. forgiveness (k•amä), charity (däna), purity (ÿauca), not stealing (a•teya), sense-control (indriya nigraha), pru- Dhøta-rä•ﬂra dence (dhï), wisdom (vidyä), truthful- (‘whose kingdom is well established’) ness (satya), freedom from anger A major figure in the MAHÄBHÄRATA (akrodha). The latter comprises the very story: the eldest son of Vicitravïrya, detailed and specific injunctions of brother of Päæõu, had a hundred sons, varæäÿramadharma. Over and above of whom Duryodhana was the oldest. these, there are regulations for members Dhøtarä•ﬂra was blind and renounced of religious communities (saƒpradäyas) the throne in favour of his brother Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 59

59 divine qualities

Päæõu. He too renounced the throne with those initiated by him. because of a leprous affliction and this led to a conflict between their sons, cul- dïpa (‘lamp’) minating in the Great War. Usually fed with ghï (clarified butter); a lamp is required in almost all forms of Dhruva (‘firm’) PÜJÄ. The pole star. A story in the Vi•æu Puräæa records that as a child Dhruva Dïpävalï, also Divälï was humiliated, became a hermit and (‘feast of lamps’) obtained the favour of Vi•æu who raised The most popular Hindu celebration, him to the sky as pole star for all to see. celebrated in the second half of Aÿvina, when Hindus put up countless little dhüma-ketu (‘smoke-bannered’) lamps on houses and temples and on An epithet of DEATH (represented as rivers, celebrating the homecoming of a god). Räma and Sïtä to AYODHYÄ after their exile had ended. People offer jewels and dhyäna (‘trance’) food to Lak•mï and wear new clothes. Dipävälï has in today’s India acquired One of the stages of PATAÑJALA YOGA. among Hindus the commercial status of Christmas in Western countries, with the dig-gaja, also dik-päla exchange of gifts and family celebrations. (‘supporters of the regions’) Eight elephants who support the points Diti of the compass: AIRÄVATA, Puæõarïka, Vedic deity, sometimes regarded as VÄMANA, Kumuda, Anjana, Pu•padan- counterpart, sometimes as complement ta, Sarvabhauma, Supratïka. of ADITI; frequently referred to in epics and Puräæas. She is described as daugh- dig-vijaya ter of DAKÆA and wife of KAŸYAPA, the (‘conquest of the regions’) mother of the DAITYAS and of The practice of major teachers of chal- HIRA¢YAKAŸIPU. lenging exponents of other religions and schools of thought and claiming victory Divine Life Mission over all. Described in works such as the See ŸIVÄNANDA, SWAMI. Ÿaökara Digvijäya by MÄDHAVA (2).

Divine Light Mission dïk•ä (‘initiation’) Founded in India in 1960 by Guru Especially into a monastic order or a Mahäräj Jï (Gurujï), a youthful heredi- specific SAßPRADÄYA. It is a very impor- tary teacher in the tradition of tant step for a Hindu and implies a life- Vallabha’s PUÆﬁIMÄRGA. It spread rapid- long commitment to the mode of life of ly in the West in the seventies, but faded the community. Usually it consists of a after Gurujï had been accused of some number of rituals, often the complete improprieties and returned to India. stripping of the candidate and a symbolic self-cremation, the taking of a new name and the transmission of a secret divine qualities MANTRA (3). The dïk•a guru has to come According to VAIÆ¢AVAS God is saguæa, from an acknowledged line of teachers i.e. exhibits six qualities that define his (guru paraƒparä) and remains in touch essence: jñäna (knowledge), bala Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 60

Divodäsa 60

Dïpävali (Divälï) celebrations in Manchester, England.

(strength), aiÿvarya (lordship), vïrya earliest times essential rituals could only (heroism), ÿakti (power), tejas be performed in a family setting. The (splendour). Veda prescribes a number of ceremonies that a brahmin has to perform daily in Divodäsa (1) his home. They are codified in a number of Gøhya Sütras. The SAßSKÄRAS, for A pious king in the Øgveda, for whom example initiation, marriage and funer- INDRA demolished a hundred stone al rites, are also performed in the home. fortresses. Every Hindu home has either a room or part of a room reserved for worship, Divodäsa (2) and members of the family often spend A brahmin, twin brother of AHALYÄ, a considerable amount of time doing called ‘Atithigva’ because of his gen- PÜJÄ at home. Many Hindu homes are erosity toward guests (atithi) adorned with pictures of deities and saints. In VAIŸŒAVA homes a TULASÏ Divodäsa (3) plant is usually kept in the courtyard and regularly tended and worshipped. A king of Käÿï (VÄRÄŒASÏ), celebrated as Vai•æavas also routinely offer their a physician, identified with DHANVAN- meals to the deity in their worship room TARI. before beginning to eat, considering their meal the prasäda (‘grace’, leftovers) of the domestic rites deity’s. The Hindus’ daily and yearly The Hindu home, usually the dwelling domestic religious routine is strongly place of an extended family, plays a cen- shaped by the rituals and festivities of the tral role in Hinduism. The family is the communities to which hey belong and by basic unit of Hindu society and from the specific family traditions. Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 61

61 Durgä

donkey Durgä (‘difficult of access’) An animal that was not considered fit for A name of the Goddess (DEVÏ), especial- Vedic sacrifice because it lacked MEDHA. ly in her fierce form. Seen either as one of the forms of PÄRVATÏ, the consort of Draupadï Ÿiva, or as the combined ŸAKTI of all the deities, she is one of the major figures in Daughter of King Drupada and wife of the Hindu pantheon. In her role as the five Päæõava brothers. A major fig- Mahi•amärdiæï (slayer of the buffalo ure in the MAHÄBHÄRÄTA. Her humilia- demon), Durgä is honoured every year tion by the KAURAVAS eventually during Durgäpüjä as the saviour of the brought about the great war. world from evil. Durgä celebrations are especially elaborate in Bengal, where Dräviõa (1) her images are set up in homes and pub- South India, where Dravidian (non- lic places and worshipped for a period Sanskritic) languages are spoken of nine days (Navarätrï). (Tamil, Tulu, Telugu, Malayalam) and Arjuna has a vision of Durgä the everything connected with it. night before the battle and invokes her at the beginning of the Great War. The Dräviõa (2) major text dealing with Durgä is the Devïmähätmya of the MÄRKAŒ¥EYA South Indian style of architecture. PURÄŒA.

Dräviõa Prabandham Collection of (Tamil) hymns composed by the Ä®VÄRS, especially by NAMMÄ®VÄR, undertaken by NÄﬁHA MUNÏ and considered on par with the VEDA in worship; the ‘Tamil Veda’.

Drona (‘bucket’) A brahmin who according to legend was generated by his father, BHÄRADVÄJA, in a bucket. He was the teacher of military arts to both the PÄŒ¥AVAS and the KAURAVAS. In the Great War he sided with the Kauravas and, in spite of being a brahmin, became commander-in-chief after Bhï•ma’s death. He was killed by Dø•ﬂadyumna, Drupada’s son, whom Drona had slain earlier in battle. (See also Mahäbhärata.)

Dø•advatï River referred to in the Øgveda, consti- tuting the eastern and southern border The goddess Durgä riding on her of BRAHMÄVARTA. vahana (vehicle), the lion. Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 62

Durväsas 62

Durväsas (‘ill-dressed’, ‘naked’) nature and God; between individual A sage, son of ATRI and Anusüyä, noted humans; between humans and inani- for his irascibility. He cursed ŸAKUN- mate objects; and between one inani- TALÄ for keeping him waiting at the mate object and another. door and thus caused her separation from King Du•yanta. His blessing dvandvas (‘pairs of opposites’) caused Kuntï to become the virgin For example, hot–cold, bright–dark, mother of KARŒA by the sun. He also which characterize the world of change cursed Kø•æa for a minor fault and fore- and impermanence, in contrast to the told for him the manner of his death. all-oneness of the ultimate.

Duryodhana (‘hard to conquer’) Dväpara Yuga Eldest son of Dhøtarä•ﬂra and leader of The third of the four world ages, pre- the KAURAVAS in the Great War of the ceded by Køta Yuga and Treta Yyuga, Mahäbhärata. and followed by Kali Yuga.

düta (‘messenger’, ‘envoy’) Dvärakä Messengers play a great role in classical Famous ancient city on the west coast of Sanskrit drama. See, for example, the India, one of the seven ancient holy famous poem by KÄLÏDÄSA, Megha- cities of India, Kø•æa’s capital. It was düta, (‘The Cloud-Messenger’). submerged in the ocean but has recently been partially excavated. duties The Hindu ethic is an ethic of duties dvi-jäti (‘twice-born’) rather than rights. According to Vedic Appellation of the three higher CASTES tradition a human is born with five (Brahmin, K•atriya, Vaiÿya), whose ini- ‘debts’ (øæa) or duties which he has to tiation (upanayana) is seen as ‘second redeem during his life: duties towards the birth’, which entitles them to participate gods, parents and teachers, guests, other in ritual activity. (See also SAßSKÄRA.) human beings and all living beings. Each VAØŒA has specific duties as well. Most dvïpa (‘island’, ‘continent’) Hindus believe that they have a lifelong duty to perform formal worship and to In Hindu cosmography the continents recite certain religious texts or formulae. (dvïpas) stretch out like the leaves of a Membership in particular SAßPRADÄYAS lotus from the centre occupied by also entails specific duties with regard to Mount MERU and are separated from worship, mode of life, relation to fellow each other by distinct circular oceans. members. (See also DHARMA.) There are seven such dvïpas separated by seven oceans consisting of different liquids: Jambu-dvïpa, surrounded by Dvaita Vedänta (‘Dualistic Vedänta’) lavana (salt water); Plaksa-dvïpa, sur- A school of Vedänta founded by rounded by ïk•u (sugarcane juice); Ÿäl- MADHVA, which emphasizes the non- mala-dvïpa, surrounded by suøä (wine); identity of humans and the ultimate. Kuÿa-dvïpa, surrounded by sarpis (clar- Developed in direct opposition to ified butter); Krauñca-dvïpa, surounded ADVAITA, Dvaita teaches ‘five differ- by dadhi (curds); Ÿäka-dvïpa, surround- ences’ (pañca bhedä): the difference ed by dudgha (milk); Pu•kara-dvïpa, between God and humans; between surrounded by jala (sweet water). Encyclo - Letter D 10/2/03 9:39 am Page 63

63 Dyaus

SALT OCEAN Uttara Kuru

Ÿøögavän Hiraæmaya Ÿveta Ramayaka

Nïla Malyavata SALT Ketu- Bhadra- SALT IlävMERU rata OCEAN mäla var•a OCEAN Nai•adhaNaisadha

Gandhamandana Harivar•a Hemaküﬂa Kimpuru•a Himälaya Bhäratavar•a SALT OCEAN

A Puranic model of Jambu-dvïpa. In its centre rises Mount Meru.

Jambu-dvïpa contains nine var•as Dyaus (‘sky’, ‘heaven’) (countries), the foremost of which is In the Vedas a male deity, called Dyaus- Bhärata (India). Bhärata, again, is pitø, ‘heavenly father’, the earth subdivided into nine dvïpas, or sec- (PØTHIVÏ) being regarded as mother. tions, of which Indra-dvïpa is the Father of UÆAS, the dawn. Dyava- foremost. pøthivï are the universal parents. Encyclo - Letter E 10/2/03 9:40 am Page 64

Edgerton, Franklin Eka-ÿøæga (1) (‘one-horned’) (1885–1963) One of the early AVATÄRAS of Vi•æu Orientalist, teacher of Sanskrit at Yale (often depicted as a fish with a protrud- University, translator of the Bhagavad- ing horn) who saved MANU (2) during gïtä. the Great Flood.

Eidlitz, Walter (1892–1976) Eka-ÿøæga (2) Austrian diplomat who, while posted in Name of a recluse who had grown up India, developed a deep interest in without having seen women, and let GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM. Author of Bhakta himself be seduced by courtesans in the – eine indische Odysee (1951), Die context of a ritual designed to end a indische Gottesliebe (1955), Der long-lasting drought. Glaube und die heiligen Schriften der Inder (1957), and Kø•æa–Caitanya: Sein ekoddi•ﬂa Leben und Seine Lehre (1968), an authoritative work with many transla- A special ŸRADDHA, performed at each tions from Sanskrit and Bengali sources. new moon, designed to secure the admission of the deceased into the company of the forefathers, transforming ekadaæõi (‘one-staffed’) him from a PRETA (ghost) into a PITØ Appellation of certain orders of (ancestor). SAMNYÄSIS, who carry a single staff (in contrast to the tri-daæõi, who carry three staffs bundled together. elephant Elephants, both mythical and real, play ekägratä (‘one-pointedness’) a great role in Indian religious lore, from AIRÄVATA, Indra’s mount and the The aim of PATAÑJALI YOGA. other DIG-GAJAS, to the king of the Elephants, saved by Vi•æu from the Eka-näﬂha (1533-1598 CE) clutches of a crocodile (Gajendra- Famous Mahratta poet-saint, author of mok•ana), a scene often described in lit- a commentary on Book XI of the erature and portrayed in art. Elephants Bhägavata Puräæa, Bhavärtha Ramäyaæa, were a royal prerogative, and every temple and numerous abhaögas (hymns), as had to keep at least one elephant for well as the editor of JÑÄNEŸVARA’s ceremonial purposes. Elephants were Jñäneÿvari. also extensively used in warfare. They Encyclo - Letter E 10/2/03 9:40 am Page 65

65 epistemology

are a favourite with Indian sculptors tradition waned and the country and painters. became increasingly exploited. Overuse of grazing areas, deforestation, saliniza- Eliade, Mircea (1907–86) tion of the soil due to poor irrigation methods and overexploitation of fertile Historian of religion and author of land led in many areas of India to seri- many well-known books. General edi- ous problems long before the industrial- tor of the 16-volume Encyclopedia of ization of the country. Modern India has Religions. His early studies of Hinduism very serious environmental problems culminated in his Yoga: Immortality caused by overcrowding, pollution, and Freedom (1930). irresponsible industrial development, neglect and overuse of land. Many agen- Ellora, also Elurä cies are trying to deal with the problem, Famous site in Mahärä•ﬂra, near rediscovering in the process some Aurangabad, with Buddhist, Jain and ancient ecological wisdom. Hindu caves. The best-known monu- ment, however, is the eighth/ninth cen- epics tury Kailäsanäﬂha Ÿiva temple, the See MAHÄBHÄRATA; RÄMÄYAŒA. world’s largest monolithic structure. It is carved out of the mountainside with numerous sculptures relating to Ÿiva epistemology mythology. The work started under the The age-old Indian equation of emanci- Rastrakuta king Krishna I and took pation with knowledge and understand- about a century to complete. ing led very early to questions of epistemology, especially an attempt to define Emerson, Ralph Waldo the criteria of proofs for truth (1803–82) (PRAMÄŒAS). Hindus, basing their tradi- Popular American writer and philoso- tion on the Veda, accepted ŸRUTI as pher, one of the first to show serious ‘true’, and Vedic propositions as proof- interest in Indian thought, especially texts. An early controversy arose Vedänta. between the MÏMÄßSAKAS, who accepted only injunctions (vidhi) as ‘revealed’, and the VEDÄNTINS, for whom the pur- emotions pose of the Veda was ultimate knowl- See BHÄVA, RASA. edge (VIDYÄ). In debates with non-Vedic systems, such as those of the various schools of Buddhism and Jainism, environment Hindus developed their own epistemol- Vedic Hinduism was very environmen- ogy. The NYÄYA (1) school especially tally conscious: pollution of land and investigated questions of logic and water was forbidden and care was taken epistemology. From the early Middle to preserve the natural fertility of the Ages it became customary for Hindu environment. Puräæic ideas such as the scholarly writers to preface their works concept of the material world as God’s with a statement detailing which body sharpened the awareness of the pramäæas they embraced: all accepted sacredness of nature. Many large tracts ÿabda (the word of scripture) and of land were kept in pristine condition pratyak•a (direct perception); some as places for the gods to inhabit. With used in addition upamäna (analogy), the Islamic conquest, and later with anumäna (inference), arthapatti (pre- European colonial administration, that sumption) and abhäva (absence). As a Encyclo - Letter E 10/2/03 9:40 am Page 66

equality of women 66

result of debates between different of independent India. Since the 1960s schools, major works on epistemology Indian womens’ movements have grown were written by several authors who in importance and influence. The HINDU attempted to refute other opinions and MARRIAGE ACT of 1956 established the to establish their own conclusions on equality of men and women in most rational grounds. matters on a legal basis. In spite of all these efforts old attitudes towards equality of women women continue. Although the giving and taking of dowries is outlawed, it is Women and men were considered equal still widely practised, and frequently during early Vedic times: women leads to criminal abuses. The so-called appear as composers of Vedic HYMNS ‘dowry deaths’ are the result of failed (ø•is), as vedic teachers (ÄCÄRYÄS) and as attempts to blackmail brides’ parents companions in rituals. With the into providing more dowry; the often increased specialization of brahmanic open-ended agreements concerning ritual and the rise of urban culture the dowries expose brides to threats and status of women has diminished. The abuse. (See also FEMALE INFANTICIDE.) influential MANU-SMØTI (sixth century BCE?), while giving lavish praise to the eternity mother in the home, advises that a woman should never be without male Concepts premised on eternity (nitya, supervision. In childhood she was to be ananta, amarta) are central to Hinduism. under the authority of her father, in It was always assumed that the ultimate marrriage under the rule of her hus- principle, the supreme reality, the high- band, in widowhood under the supervi- est God, was eternal, i.e. without begin- sion of her son. Ritually also women ning or end. Attempts to win immortal- were disadvantaged: they no longer ity are described in Hindu literature received UPANAYANA, they could not from the Vedas through the epics to the study the Veda, they were excluded Puräæas. With the Upani•ads the notion from most religious activities. BHAKTI arose that the soul (jïvätma) was eter- movements attempted to readmit women nal, uncreated and indestructible. As to religious practices, sometimes even long as it was not emancipated from its placing women higher than men, as did bodily desires, it had to transmigrate the GAU¥ÏYA Vai•æavas, who considered from one corporeal existence to the next. The ultimate destiny was immor- the GOPÏS superior to male devotees. In tality and eternity. ŸÄKTISM women were given an exalted position in rituals as embodiments of the Goddess. With the Muslim conquest ethics (ÿïla) of India, restrictions on the movement The definition of Hinduism as DHARMA of women increased: Hindus adopted clearly indicates the primacy of ethics: the Muslim custom of purdah and did while beliefs and doctrinal formulations not allow women to leave their assigned were largely left to individual choice, quarters without special permission. conformity with the rules of behaviour, Many Hindu reformers of the 19th and including ritual, was mandatory and the early 20th centuries fought for women’s single most important criterion of mem- rights and women’s education. bership in Hindu society. Mahatma GANDHI accepted women as equal partners in the struggle for inde- evil pendence, and expressed the wish to see The conflict between good and evil is a Harijan woman as the first president represented in Hindu tradition in a Encyclo - Letter E 10/2/03 9:40 am Page 67

67 experience

variety of images and notions: in the opposites in the finite sphere, ultimately Veda INDRA represents ‘good’, VØTRA to be overcome. Hinduism does not ‘evil’; the DEVAS are opposed by the acknowledge an eternal hell or eternal ASURAS; the Äryas fight the DAITYAS. In damnation as punishment for evil the Puräæas Vi•æu appears in a series of actions. Even the demons are eventually AVATÄRAS to combat evil: NÄRASIMH. A saved from their evil nature, after hav- kills HIRAŒYAKAŸIPU to save PRAHLÄDA; ing served a cosmic purpose. Kø•æa kills KAßŸA to save his people in Vraja; Räma kills RAVAŒA. Ÿiva drinks the poison HALÄHALÄ to save human- experience kind. Durgä kills the buffalo demon to Hindus have always endeavoured to save the three worlds from demon rule. experience the ultimate rather than con- On the level of ethics the opposition ceptualize it. Upani•adic techniques aim between good and evil is manifested in at an experience of the oneness of following/not following the duties ÄTMAN, and BRAHMAN and Vedäntic imposed by one’s VARŒA, and in the sets teachers amplify and refine these meth- of virtues/vices developed especially by ods. ŸA¢KARA (2) insists that anubhava the Nyayaikas (see NYÄYA). True to the (experience), rather than intellectual holistic bent of Hindu thought, howev- understanding, can bring about LIBERA- er, the opposition between good and TION. Theistic Hindu traditions aim at evil is not seen as a metaphysical split in SÄKÆÄTKÄRA (a direct visual experience reality: the categories good/evil are of God), which many Hindus claim to within the realm of dvandvas, pairs of have had. Encyclo - Letter F 10/2/03 9:40 am Page 68

faith (viÿväsa, ÿraddhä) fasting In a general sense ‘faith’ plays a central See UPAVÄSA. role in Hinduism: the acceptance of ŸRUTI as ‘revealed word’ requires faith. Faith is also demanded from the disciple female infanticide towards his teacher, an acceptance of The religious need for a male heir, and the teacher’s authority. Pilgrims travel- the great expense of marrying off a ling to temples to find relief from their daughter, led in former times to wide- suffering or help in their needs also spread female infanticide among exhibit a great amount of faith. The Hindus, especially in Bengal. Female crowds surrounding living manifesta- babies were either offered to Goddess tions of the deity, such as ÄNANDAMAYÏ GA¢GÄ or exposed in fulfilment of a MÄ or SATHYA SAI BABA, exhibit tremen- VRATA. While not as prevalent today, dous faith. In a more specific, theologi- there are still cases of female infanticide, cal sense, faith plays a much smaller very often following determination of role in Hinduism than in biblical reli- the female gender of the foetus through gions. It is seen important only as an amniocentesis. early stage in one’s spiritual development, not as an end in itself. Faith as such is not the cause of LIBERATION, but festivals only a preparatory phase, to be super- Hinduism is rich in festivals. Besides the seded by direct experience. local temple feasts, which often attract millions of visitors to famous places of Farquhar, J. N. (1861–1929) pilgrimage, such as the ratha-yäträ at Scottish missionary. He worked in India JAGANNÄTHA PURÏ, there are some feasts (mainly in Calcutta) from 1891 to that are celebrated all over India or in 1923, initiated serious study of large areas. Among these the following Hinduism among Protestant missionar- stand out: ies, and is the author of such standard Kø•æa-jayanti, Kø•æa’s birthday, cel- works as A Primer of Hinduism, ebrated on the eighth KØÆŒA-PAKÆA of Modern Religious Movements in India, the month Ÿravana (July–August) in An Outline of the Religious Literature commemoration of Kø•æa’s birth at of India, The Crown of Hinduism, midnight in the prison of Mathurä. It is Hinduism, its Content and Value. a national holiday in India. Encyclo - Letter F 10/2/03 9:40 am Page 69

69 food

Ÿiva-rätrï, Ÿiva’s night, celebrated on flood (the Great Flood) that exterminated the thirteenth kø•æa-pak•a in the month all of humankind, excepting MANU (2) Mägha (January–February), the princi- and his family. It was preceded by the pal feast of Ÿaivas, but also observed by appearance of Vi•æu in the form of a Vai•æavas, who consider Ÿiva the first fish (MATSYA) whom Manu caught and devotee of Vi•æu. The LI¢GA (3) is deco- reared and released into the ocean. rated and bathed in honey and milk. Before parting he instructed Manu Dassera, ‘ten days’, celebrated in the about the coming disaster. When the first half of the month Äÿvina (Septem- whole world was flooded, Vi•æu EKA- ber–October), is a string of festivals ŸØ¢GA (1) appeared and brought Manu during the beautiful time after the mon- to safety. Manu, being the only survivor, soon. The first nine days, Nava-rätrï,is became both the progenitor of the new also the time of the famous Durgäpüjä human race and the first lawgiver. (See in Bengal. also MANUSMØTI.) DÏPÄVALÏ or Divälï, ‘the feast of lights’, is celebrated in the second half food (anna) of Äÿvina, with the lighting of countless lamps on rivers and houses. Food plays a major role in Hinduism. All SACRIFICES involved food, and only Holi, celebrated in ŸUKLA-PAKÆA of the month Phalguæa (February–March), is a the best was deemed fit for the gods. celebration of spring resembling a Western The Upani•ads interiorize the role that carnival. It is also New Year’s day. food plays: everything is seen as arising from food and becoming food again. Ganeÿa-catürthi, celebrated on the Preparing and consuming food is regu- fourth ÿukla-pak•a of Bhadra (August– lated by a host of rules. Many CASTE September), is the major feast in regulations concern commensality. Mahärä•ﬂra: figures of GAŒEŸA are dis- While Vedic Indians seem to have had played in public places and homes, and few, if any, restrictions with regard to after a festive procession through town food (apparently the animals that were immersed in the sea. unfit for sacrifice, such as donkeys and Nägapañcamï, a celebration in hon- camels, were also unfit for eating), later our of cobras, is very popular in the Hinduism developed many such taboos, south. which were further hightened by sectarian regulations. With the ascendancy of Filliozat, Jean (1906–82) Buddhism and Jainism, most Hindus, French Indologist. Founder of the especially the brahmins, seem to have Institut Française d’Indologie at adopted VEGETARIANISM. VAIÆŒAVAS in Pondicherry (1955), initiator of studies particular developed a whole theology in Ÿaivite ÄGAMAS, author of Les of food: categorizing all foods accord- relations extérieures de l’Inde (1956), ing to the three GUŒAS, they advised the translator of Ajitagäma, Yogabhä•ya, taking of sättvik food (milk and milk Yogaÿataka. products, most grains, fruit and vegetables) and the avoidance of räjasik food (‘exciting’ foods such as garlic, eggs, fire red-coloured vegetables and fruit) and See AGNI. tämasik (‘foul’ foods such as meat and intoxicating substances). ŸAIVAS and flood ŸÄKTAS observe few restrictions with Hindu tradition has tales of a universal regard to food. (See also MEAT EATING.) Encyclo - Letter F 10/2/03 9:40 am Page 70

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Frauwallner, Erich proper condition of the soul. A major (1898–1974) difference concerns the understanding Professor of Indian and Iranian studies of the relationship between bondage at the University of Vienna. His contri- and freedom and the paths leading from butions to the study of Hinduism are bondage to freedom. ADVAITA VEDÄNTA mainly in the areas of SÄßKHYA and holds that freedom results from divest- MÏMÄßSÄ. He had planned to write a ing oneself of ÄVIDYÄ; Theistic VEDÄNTA five-volume history of Indian philosophy, (2) considers freedom a gift of God’s of which only two volumes appeared, grace and an enhancement of the natur- containing valuable information on al condition. Säƒkhya, YOGA and VAIŸEÆIKA. Political freedom fighters in the 19th and 20th centuries adopted some of the Vedäntic notions and transferred them freedom (mok•a, mukti, vimukti) to the socio-political arena. Thus A central notion in Hinduism. It pre- GANDHI considered colonial rule ‘sinful’ supposes the condition of BONDAGE, and liberation from it an act of (reli- whose most conspicuous manifestation gious) salvation. is the existence in SAßSÄRA and the KARMA(2)-induced necessity of bodily REBIRTH. All Hindu systems are paths to funeral rites freedom, which is understood as the See ŸRADDHA. Encyclo - Letter G 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 71

Gaja-Lak•mï (‘Elephant-Lak•mï’) A portrayal of LAKÆMÏ being doused by two elephants, one on each side, a favourite motif in Hindu sculpture.

Gandharva (1) In the VEDA, Gandharva is a deity who knows and reveals the secrets of heaven.

Gandharva (2) Heavenly musicians who were fond of women.

Gandharva (3) A form of (legitimate) marriage designating a love union.

Gandharva Veda Treatise on music and song, including drama and dancing. Its author is BHÄRATA MUNI and it is an appendix to the Sämaveda. A commemorative stamp showing the head of Gandhi.

Gandhi, Mohandas youth he befriended a Jain, who had a Karamchand (Mahatma) major influence on his character. After (1869–1948) studies in England he practised law in Indian nationalist leader, pioneer of South Africa where he played an impor- passive resistance and advocate of non- tant part in the contribution of the violence. Gandhi was born in Por- Indian community to the struggle bandhar, Gujarat. His father and his against apartheid, developing concepts grandfather had been premiers in small such as satyägraha (truth-grasping) and princely states in Kathiawar. His moth- techniques such as ahiƒsä (non-violent er was a devout VAIÆŒAVA and as a resistance). Encyclo - Letter G 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 72

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Returning to India in 1915 he joined the freedom movement and quickly rose to be one of its leaders. He organized mass civil disobedience events, marches and protest movements. He founded an ashram at Wardha near Ahmedabad to train his co-workers in ahiƒsä (non- violence) and satya (truthfulness), believing that non-violence and truth would prevail. To give emphasis to his demands, both for concessions from the British government and for peace between warring groups of Muslims and Hindus, he undertook lengthy fasts. He was a deeply religious man and convinced that in order to do God’s work he had to discipline himself and earn God’s grace. He was unable to prevent the partition of the country which led to widespread bloodshed. Accused by some of having done more for Muslims than for his fellow Hindus, he was shot on 30 January, 1948 by Nathuram Ganeÿa, the popular elephant-headed god, GODSE, an extremist Hindu, during a patron of scholars and scribes. prayer meeting at Birla house in New Delhi. body and an elephant’s head. He is Gandhi not only helped to bring worshipped as god of wisdom and about India’s independence from remover of obstacles (Vinäyaka), and Britain, he also did much for the uplift- invoked before the beginning of any ment of the former untouchables major undertaking. He is VYÄSA’s secre- (whom he named HARIJAN, ‘God’s tary and wrote, at his dictation, the people’) and for the equality of women. Mahäbhärata. His VÄHANA is a rat. He He developed an economic programme is very popular with students, clerks, for India, based on his principles of writers and business people, and there ahiƒsä and satya and emphasizing the are numerous temples in his honour. human element, the need to give mean- His festival, Gaæeÿa catürthi, is cele- ingful work to everyone and respect for brated very lavishly especially in nature. Mahärä•ﬂra, with displays of Gaæeÿa Gandhi considered himself first and images on public places and in homes foremost a religious and moral reformer, and processions through the streets. and hoped to further the Rämaräjya, There are many stories explaining how which he understood as the kingdom of he came to have an elephant’s head. God, through his social and political activities. Gaögä, also Ganges India’s most holy river. Mentioned only Gaæeÿa, also Gaæapati twice in the Øgveda, it became a promi- (‘Lord of the gaæas [the hosts of minor nent subject of praise in the Puräæas. Vedic deities]’) Originally a heavenly river, it was Son of Ÿiva and Pärvatï, with a human brought down to earth by the prayers of Encyclo - Letter G 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 73

73 gäyatri

Bhägïratha to purify the ashes of the recount his ventures. He is known by 60,000 sons of his ancestor King Sagara, many different names. Each Vi•æu who had been burnt to death by the temple in South India has a anger of the sage Kapila. Originating Garuõastambha, provided for Garuõa from Vi•æu’s toe, its turbulence, which to alight upon when bringing Vi•æu would have destroyed the earth, was down to earth. stopped by the matted hair of Ÿiva, who therefore has the title ‘Gaögä-dhära’. Gauõapäda (eighth century?) The river has different names in Ÿaækara’s parama guru (GURU’s guru); different sections: first it is called author of the famous Gauõapäda Bhägïrathï, then Gaögä, further down it Kärikäs, a commentary on the splits into many branches, each of MUŒ¥AKA UPANIÆAD, the first exposi- which has a different name, for example tion of Advaita Vedänta, upon which Jähnavï, Mandäkinï. As a goddess ŸA¢KARA (2) commented. Gaögä is the eldest daughter of Himavat (the personificiation of Himälaya) and Gauõïya Vai•æavism Menä; her sister is Umä. She married (‘Bengal Vai•æavism’) King Ÿäntanu: her son BHÏÆMA is also known as Gäögeya. She is called by The term comes from Gauõa, an ancient many names in numerous hymns name for Bengal. It is frequently used as addressed to her. Her water is believed synonymous with CAITANYA’s 16th-cen- to be always pure and purifying, and pil- tury revival of Vai•æavism in Bengal. grims take flasks of Ganges water with them for use especially in the last rites. Gaurï (‘yellow’, ‘brilliant’) One of the names of Pärvatï, the consort Gaögeÿa (12th century) of Ÿiva. Celebrated author of the Tattvacintä- maæi, the main work of Nava Nyäya. Gautama (1) Vedic sage, author of a work on garbha-gøha (‘womb-house’) DHARMA-ŸÄSTRA. The innermost cell and most sacred part of a temple, where the IMAGE is housed. Gautama (2), also Gotama (c. 300 BCE) Author of the NYÄYA SÜTRAS. Gärgï Upani•adic sage, wife of YAJÑAVÄLKYA, with whom she conducted debates. gäyatrï The most sacred verse from the garhasthya (‘householder’) Øgveda, addressed to Savitø, the sun, A brahmin in the second stage of his light, wisdom. Every brahmin must life-cycle. (See also CATURVARŒÄŸRAMA recite it during morning and evening DHARMA; VARŒÄŸRAMA DHARMA.) prayers. Its translation is unclear but scriptures recommend repeating it as often as possible because through it the Garuõa forefathers had achieved long life, Vi•æu’s VAHANA, half vulture, half honour, understanding and glory. It is man, the king of birds and the enemy supposed to be a summary of the of serpents. Many Puräæic stories entire Veda. Encyclo - Letter G 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 74

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ghï Glasenapp, Helmut von Clarified butter, an ingredient of many (1891–1963) SACRIFICES and PÜJÄS, such as the Vedic German Indologist and scholar of sacrifice homa, in which ghï is thrown religion, who taught mainly at into fire. Königsberg and Tübingen, and promoted the knowledge of Indian religions, espe- Gho•ä cially Hinduism, through many scholar- Daughter of the ø•i (sage) Kak•ïvat. She ly and popular works: Der Hinduismus was afflicted with leprosy, but the (1930); Die Religionen Indiens (1943); AŸVINS cured her late in life, and Die Philosophie der Inder (1949); Das bestowed beauty and youth on her so Indienbild deutscher Denker (1960). that she could marry. go ghosts See COW. See BHÜTA; PRETA. goat (aja) gifts The most frequently used animal for See DÄNA. Vedic SACRIFICES. Goats are still offered to KÄLÏ (2) on a regular basis. Aja also Giridhara means ‘unborn’, and many interesting (‘the upholder of the mountain’) speculations make use of the double Epithet of Kø•æa, who held Mount meaning of the word. Govardhan up high in order to protect the shepherds of Vraja from torrential rains sent by Indra. God and gods Many outsiders are fascinated to learn Girijä (‘mountain-born’) that Hindus worship 330 million (thirty- A name of DEVÏ. three crores) gods. There is no record of the names of all of these, of course, and gïtä (‘song’) the figure serves to indicate that the number of higher powers is unimagin- A religio-philosophical text in the form ably high. There are lists of gods that go of an epic poem. The best known is the into the hundreds and there are litanies Bhagavadgïtä, which is found as an of names of major gods, such as Ÿiva or insert in the sixth book of the Vi•æu, that enumerate a thousand Mahäbhärata. Other well-known gïtäs names. are the Upagïtä, also found in the Mahäbhärata, and the Bhrämaragïtä. The English word God/gods stands for a great many Hindu (Sanskrit) terms Gïta-govinda that have clearly differentiated meanings. The most commonly used word is Famous poem by JÄYADEVA, celebrating DEVA or devatä, generically applicable the love of Kø•æa and the GOPÏS, influen- to all higher powers and also liberally tial for the development of GAU¥ÏYA used by Hindus when addressing an VAIÆŒAVISM. important human being, who is honoured by the title ‘Deva’. Deva is every- Gïtä-rahasya (‘secret of the Gïtä’) thing that reveals something unusual or A work by B. G. TILAK interpreting the uncommon, that exercises power and Bhagavadgïtä as a ‘Gospel of action.’ influence, or that is helpful or harmful. Encyclo - Letter G 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 75

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The Vedas speak of 33 gods: 11 assigned god’ or personal deity, who becomes the to the earth, 11 to the heavens and 11 to focus of their piety and worship. The the region in between. They address fact that different people choose differ- Agni (fire), Sürya (sun) and U•as (dawn) ent i•flas makes for a unique kind of as devas; they also contains hymns to polytheism: while remaining loyal to the Indra, described as powerful protector deity of their choice, most are convinced of the ÄRYAN people, who is exalted that it is one of many manifestations of above other gods as the one who creates the ultimate power (BRAHMAN) and that and delivers. There is also the statement ultimately there is only one Supreme that ‘although Indra is one, he is called God, whose true nature is beyond by many names’. human powers to comprehend. Most In the Upani•ads the role of the Hindus are worshippers of one God, devas recedes into the background: they whom they consider creator, sustainer are not seen as important for reaching and redeemer and to whom they the transcendental consciousness in address their petitions and prayers. which ultimate fulfilment was seen. They usually respect other gods, often Buddhists and Jains too devalued the considering them a manifestation of position of gods to merely innerworldly their own God. They will repeat agents, useless in the pursuit of nirväæa MANTRAS to a great many devatäs, or kaivalya. whom they believe to be the guiding and presiding powers of natural and cultural During the GUPTA renaissance, and phenomena. with the rise of Puräæic Hinduism, some gods emerged as major figures: Brahmä, Vi•æu and Ÿiva (the TRIMÜRTI), Godävarï representing the cosmic forces of cre- Major river in South India, whose ation, sustenance and destruction. Not banks contain many sacred places. only were these ïÿvaras (‘lords’) seen as of the utmost importance for the exis- Godse, Nathuram (1912–49) tence of the universe and the protection of their worshippers, they also were Former member of the RÄÆTØÏYA seen as muktidätä, i.e. givers of SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH, who assassinated LIBERATION/salvation. Worship of gods Mahatma GANDHI out of a conviction (PÜJÄ) became an integral part of Hindu that Gandhi had been too friendly religion. With the construction of towards Muslims and was responsible genealogies of gods and the developing for the great suffering of millions of belief in multiple bodily descents Hindus after the partition of India in (AVAfiÄRAS) the number of gods and 1947. He was apprehended on the spot, goddesses increased dramatically. tried, condemned to death and hanged. Along with the officially sanctioned worship of a great variety of manifesta- Gokhale, Gopal Krishna tions of Vi•æu, Ÿiva and Devï, at the vil- (1866–1915) lage level the worship of autochthonous Important early Hindu reformer and deities continued and was augmented promoter of religious nationalism. At by the worship of local gods and god- the age of 19 he joined the Deccan desses, often the spirits of departed Education Society in Poona, taking a members of the village community who vow of poverty for 20 years in order to had revealed some extraordinary powers. devote himself to educating his fellow Most Hindus choose one of the countrymen, at the Fergusson College, deities as their i•fla devatä, their ‘wish- established by the society. In 1905 he Encyclo - Letter G 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 76

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founded the Servants of India Society, own and of other communities. For devoted to social and economical sup- Advaitins the dichotomy of good and port of the lower classes. At the age of evil applies only to the lower sphere of 30 he became a member of the Imperial practical life, it is one of the dvandvas Legislative Council, working for admin- (pairs of opposites) that have no validi- istratrive and financial reforms. He ty in the ultimate sphere, where those took great interest in the work of M. K. distinctions are meaningless. Never- GANDHI in South Africa, encouraging theless all Hindus would agree that the and advising him. PURUÆÄRTHAS encapsulate what is considered ‘good’ and that mok•a (emanci- Gokula pation) is the supreme good to be aimed at. There is also fairly large agreement Rural area on the Yamunä, where that good actions generate good karma, Kø•æa spent his boyhood with the shep- and bad actions result in bad karma; the herds of Braja. future rebirth of a person will be determined by the kind of karma she has Goloka (‘the world of cows’) acquired in her previous lives. (See also Kø•æa’s heaven. DHARMA; ETHICS; EVIL.)

Golwalkar, Madhav Sadashiv Gopäla (‘protector of cows’) (1906–73) An epithet of Kø•æa. From 1940 to 1973 Sarasanghachalak (Supreme Chief) of the RÄÆTØÏYA Gopäla Bhaﬂﬂa (16th century) SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH, author of Bunch One of the original six Gosvämis of of Thoughts and Sri Guruji Samagra VØNDÄVANA, sent there by CAITANYA to Darshana, a seven-volume collection of revive the tradition of Kø•æa worship, his speeches in Hindi. author of Haribhaktiviläsa, a famous work of GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, which Gonda, Jan (1905–96) describes the proper form of worship. Prolific Dutch Indologist, for many years professor and department head at gopïs the University of Utrecht, who wrote on Daughters and wives of cowherds in all aspects of Hinduism from Vedic to Braja, whose love for Kø•æa is consid- contemporary. Some of his major works are Aspects of Early Vaisnavism (1954), Die Religionen Indiens (2 vols; 1960–3), The Ritual Sutras (1977), Vedic Ritual: The Non-Solemn Rites (1980), The Indra Hymns of the Rgveda (1989).

good and evil What the Veda prescribes (VIDHI) is ‘good’ and what it forbids (ni•edha) is ‘evil’. Hindu SAßPRADÄYAS, relying on specific works that they consider revelations, usually extend the range of good and evil to include sectarian observances with regard to worship, mode of The gopïs of Vøædävana, models of life, contacts with members of one’s highest bhakti to Kø•æa. Encyclo - Letter G 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 77

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ered exemplary: they forsook their hus- Gospel of Ramakrishna bands and neglected their families in English translation of a transcript of order to be with Kø•æa. They are the discourses and conversations by subject of numerous stories and songs. Paraƒahamsa RAMAKRISHNA recorded by one of his disciples, known go-püjä (‘cow-worship’) as M. Part of the ceremonies performed during mattupoögal in Tamilnãdü. (See gosvämi (‘Lord of cows’) also PO¢GAL.) An honorific title given to the first six disciples of CAITANYA designating their gopura (‘cow fortress’) authority as teachers. They were RÜPA Entrance towers to South Indian temples. and his brother Sanätana, their nephew Jïva, GOPÄLA BHAfifiA, Raghunätha Bhaflfla and Raghunätha Däsa, who all Gorakhnätha wrote authoritative works. Their (between 900 and 1225 CE) descendants claim ownership of impor- A great yogi and miracle worker about tant temples in Vøndävana. whom many legends circulate in India; founder of the Näflhapanthis, a sect of Ÿaivas who practise extreme forms of gotra (‘clan’) asceticism. One branch, the Käæphatas, Important (smallest) CASTE unit, within derive their name from the initiation which marriages are severely restricted practice of piercing the ear-lobes with a or forbidden. (See also JÄTÏ.) double-edged knife and inserting an iron ring. They have centres in many Govardhana towns in North India. Gorakhnätha’s teachings are contained in works attrib- A mountain in Braja. Kø•æa persuaded uted to him: Siddha-siddhänta-pad- the cowherds of Braja to worship dhatï, Gorak•aÿataka, and Gorakh- Govardhana instead of Indra. Indra, bodha. All teach Haflha-yoga. The aim enraged, sent a deluge, which threat- of the practice is to become the equal ened to drown all people. Kø•æa sup- of Ÿiva. ported the mountain on his little finger for seven days and thus sheltered and saved the people of Braja. Kø•æa is Gorakhpur therefore called Govardhana- Town in Uttar Pradesh, named after dhära, the ‘upholder of Govardhana Gorakhnäflha, the headquarters of the mountain’. Näflhapanthis. It also is the home of the Gïtä Press, established in 1923 by Hanuman PrasadPODDAR, the largest Govinda (‘finder of the cows’) publisher of Hindu religious literature An epithet of KØÆŒA. in Hindï and Sanskrit, publishing a Hindï-language religious monthly, Govinda Bhä•ya Kalyäæ, with a circulation of over 200,000. See VIDYÄBHÜÆANA BALADEVA.

goÿälä grace See COWS. See KØPÄ; ANUGRAHA. Encyclo - Letter G 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 78

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grammar Wahid Yahya) his universal interests in See VYÄKÄRAŒA. religious traditions also included Hinduism, and his Introduction générale à l’étude des doctrines hindoues (1921) gøha praveÿa (‘entering the house’) is considered a seminal work, which still A ceremony performed by brahmins influences the understanding of when a family first enters a new Hinduism in the West. home. guæa (‘quality’) Gøhya Sütra Used in a very general sense, also Text dealing with the regulations of ‘virtue’; more specifically used by the domestic rites and SAßSKÄRAS. Several SÄßKHYA system to designate the three collections of Gøhya Sütras are in principles of all material beings: sattva existence, for example Äÿvaläyana (light), rajas (excitement) and tamas Gøhyasütras. (darkness).

Griffith, Ralph Thomas Gupta Hotchkins A dynasty of rulers of MAGADHA (319–415 (1826–1906) CE) under whose reign Hinduism Orientalist and teacher. He was profes- experienced a cultural renaissance and sor of English and principal at Benares royal support. It was a golden time for the College, director of public instruction in arts and the traditional sciences. the North-West Provinces and Oudh, founder-editor of Pandit, a journal ded- guru (‘elder’) icated to classical Sanskrit studies, Teacher, especially of sacred lore and med- translator of the Rämäyana (1870–5), itation, spiritual master, who initiates and Øgveda (1889–92), Sämaveda (1893), guides disciples in a particular tradition. Atharvaveda (1895–6), and the White Yajurveda (1899). guru-dïk•ä Gudimally Tantrik ceremony of initiation for a religious preceptor (both women and Temple town in South India with what men can receive it). is reputed to be the oldest Ÿiva LI¢GA (3) worshipped, dating from the second gurukula century BCE. The gurukula system is built on a close relationship between teacher and stu- Guenon, René (1886–1951) dent. In Vedic times the student spent Widely appreciated writer on spirituality twelve years in the home of his teacher, and religious traditions. Although serving him and learning from him. Guenon became a Muslim in early adult- During this time the student maintained hood and spent much of his life in Egypt strict celibacy (BRAHMACARYA), and was (under the name of Shaikh Abd’al to show lifelong respect for his teacher. Encyclo - Letter H 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 79

Hacker, Paul (1913–79) of vows. Keÿin, ‘the hairy one’, is an epi- Eminent Indologist. He taught at Bonn thet of Kø•æa. and Münster. His main contribution was the study of early ADVAITA, where hala (‘ploughshare’) he attempted to develop criteria to Symbol of BALADEVA, also called Hala- establish the authentic writings of bhøt, ‘bearing a plough’ and ‘Haläyudha’, ŸA¢KARA (2). In a number of papers he ‘having a ploughshare for a weapon’. examined larger concepts such as Ÿrad- dha (1963), Dharma (1965) and Vrata halähalä (1973), and brought out a monograph on Prahläda (1959). The fiery poison that emerged as the first product from the CHURNING OF THE OCEAN by gods and demons at the Haihaya (1) beginning of the world. It threatened to Prince of the lunar dynasty, great- engulf the world, whereupon Ÿiva swal- grandson of Yadu. (See also YÄDAVA.) lowed it. Its power darkened Ÿiva’s throat, and he is since known as NÏLA- Haihaya (2) KAŒﬁHA, ‘the one with the blue throat’. Descendants of Haihaya (1), according to the VIÆŒU PURÄŒA. Halebid Famous temple city in Karæätaka, built by the HOYŸALAS. hair Many Hindu rituals concern the cutting Haƒsa avatära of hair. Part of the UPANAYANA (initiation) ceremony is the shaving of the Vi•æu’s descent in the form of a swan. head, with the exception of the ŸIKHA, and it remains a religious obligation for Hanuman(t) brahmins to shave their heads every Celebrated chief of monkeys, son of fortnight. When a man becomes a Pavana (wind) and Anjanä, a major fig- SAMNYÄSI, the DÏKÆÄ includes the shav- ure in the RÄMÄYAŒA. He aided RÄMA ing of all hair of the body, including the in the conquest of Ÿrï Laöka, RÄVANA’s ÿikha. Similarly, a dead man’s hair is to capital. His worship is very popular and be shaved before cremation. In the many temples were built for him. He is famous temple of TIRUPATI pilgrims also known as a great scholar and offer their hair to the deity in fulfilment author of a grammar. Encyclo - Letter H 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 80

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one of the four places where the KUMBHAMELA is held every twelve years. It is also the starting-point for pilgrimages to Kedarnäﬂh and Badrïnäth.

Hari (‘the yellowish-green one’) A name of VIÆŒU.

Hari-Hara A combination of Vi•æu and Ÿiva in one image.

Harijan (‘God’s people’) Designation for OUTCASTES introduced by Mahatma GANDHI to emphasize their dignity and human rights.

Hariÿcandra Hanuman, the monkey ally of Räma, An ancient king famous for his piety conquering Laökä and liberating Sïtä and righteousness, a paradigm of liber- from Rävaæa’s captivity. ality, the subject of many stories in Puräæas and dramatic performances. happiness (sukha) This is the declared aim of all Hindu Harita-smøti systems, spurred by the experience of A lawbook ascribed to the sage Harita. unhappiness (duåkha). Hari-vamÿa (Puräæa) Hara (‘the one who takes away’) A lengthy appendix to the Mahä- A name of ŸIVA. bhärata. Literally the ‘genealogy of Hari’, the work conists of three parts: (1) creation, patriarchal and regal Harappa dynasties; (2) the life and exploits of An ancient city in the Indus valley, exca- Kø•æa; (3) future of the world and the vated in the early 20th century. While end of the KALI YUGA. most scholars still consider it as part of a pre-Äryan civilization, some recent findings suggest that it might have been Hastinä-pura a late Vedic urban settlement. The capital city of the KAURAVAS at the Bhägïrathï (Gaægä), about 100 km north-east of modern Delhi, founded Hardwar, also Hari-dvär(a), by Hastin, a descendant of BHARATA Hara-dvär(a) (‘gate of Hari/Hara’) (4), installed on the throne by Famous place of pilgrimage in North ØÆABHA. India where the already mighty GA¢GÄ breaks through the last range of the Himälayas and enters the plains. It is häsya (‘laughing’) filled with ashrams and temples, and is One of the RASAS of Indian aesthetics. Encyclo - Letter H 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 81

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Haflha-yoga (‘forced yoga’) tion. The Puräæas, with their sectarian A system of physical exercises designed bias, present a different heaven for each to increase bodily strength and health. of the major gods: Vi•æu’s heaven, for The Haflhayoga pradïpikä by Svatma- example, is Vaikunflha; Ÿiva’s Kailäsa; räma Yogïndra is a standard manual. Devï’s Maæidvïpa. (See also AFTERLIFE; SVARGA.) Haya-ÿiras (1), also Haya-ÿirsa, Haya-grïva (‘horse-head’, Hedgewar, K.V. ‘horse neck’) See RÄÆTØÏYA SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH. The eighteenth AVATÄRA of Vi•æu, revealer of sacred lore. hell

See NÄRAKA. Haya-ÿiras (2) A demon who stole the Veda and was Himälaya, also Himäcala, slain by Vi•æu in the form of the Himädri (‘abode of snow’) MATSYA AVATÄRA. Immense mountain range in the north of India with great religious signifi- Hazra, Rajendra Chandra cance. Ÿiva is supposed to reside on (1905–82) Mount Kailäsa; Devï is called Pärvatï, Professor at Sanskrit College Calcutta, the ‘daughter of the mountains’. author of many authoritative works on Countless ascetics have withdrawn to Puräæas: Studies in the Puranic Records the Himälayas since time immemorial on Hindu Rites and Customs (1940); and there are famous places of pilgrim- Studies in the Upapuräæas (2 vols, 1958 age visited by many thousands of pil- and 1963). grims every year, such as Hardwar, Hø•ikeÿa, Badrïnäth, Kedarnäth. The mountain range is personified as heart (hødaya) Himavat (husband of Menä, father of The seat of feeling and emotions, of Umä and Gaægä). thought and intellectual operations. Metaphorically it designates the best or hiƒsä the essence of a thing. Hindu writings speak of the presence of ‘an eternal See VIOLENCE. monitor in the heart’, i.e the conscience; of ‘heart fetters’ or ‘heart knots’, the Hindu jägaran hindrance to attaining freedom; of a (‘Hindu awakening’) ‘cave of the heart’ (hødaya guha), the Collective designation of efforts that place where one encounters the ulti- began at the end of the 19th century to mate. The activity most eminently con- ‘raise Hindu consciousness’. Persons nected with the heart is love. (See also active in this process were DÄYÄNANDA BHAKTI.) SARASVATÏ, AUROBINDO GHOSE, Bal Gangadhar TILAK and others. heaven Movements contributing to it were the The ultimate human aim, according to Ärya Samäj, the Rä•ﬂrïya Svayamsevak the Veda, to be obtained through Sangh, the Viÿva Hindü Pari•ad, and appropriate sacrifices. This concept was political parties such as the Hindu superseded by the Vedäntic notion of Mahäsabhä, the Jana Sangh and the mok•a, a completely spiritual emancipa- Bhäratïya Jänatä Party. Encyclo - Letter H 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 82

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Hindu Mahäsabhä (‘Great Hiraæyakaÿipu (‘golden dress’) Hindu Assembly’) A powerful demon king, father of Political party founded by Pandit PRAHLÄDA, whom he persecuted for his Mohan MALAVIYA in 1909 to counter- devotion to Vi•æu. He was killed by act a perceived pro-Muslim bias in the Vi•æu in the form of NÄRASIMHA. Indian National Congress. It advocated a Hindu rä•ﬂra (rule according to tradi- hita–ahita tional Hindu law) and demanded, after (‘wholesome–unwholesome’) independence, a reunification of divided Matters relating to LIBERATION and India. It had in Vir SAVARKAR its most BONDAGE. Hita comprises all acts con- articulate ideologue, whose notion of sidered a requirement to attain libera- HINDUTVA has become the mainline pol- tion, the way to salvation as outlined by icy of the right wing Hindu parties. individual masters. Ahita designates all Savarkar wanted to ‘Hinduize politics contrary acts. (See also BHAKTI; JÑÄNA; and militarize Hinduism’. KARMA; PRAPATTI.)

Hindu Marriage Act hlädinï-ÿakti The government of India in 1955 passed (‘power of enjoyment’) the Hindu Marriage Act, which, with several amendments, became official One of the three ÿaktis (powers) law for Hindus, replacing earlier regula- ascribed to Kø•æa in GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAV- ISM tions based on DHARMA-ŸÄSTRAS and , the other two being sandhini-ÿakti regional custom. It unified Hindu mar- (power of existence) and samvit-ÿakti riage law and brought it closer to (power of consciousness). They collec- Western law by recognizing civil mar- tively correspond to the definition of riage and allowing divorce at the BRAHMAN as SACCIDÄNANDA. request of the wife. Its enactment created a great deal of controversy in India. Holikä A demoness, who every year demanded Hindutva a child to devour from a certain town. (‘Hindudom’, ‘Hindu-ness’) When the lot fell on a poor widow’s A concept created by Vir SAVARKAR, only son, the woman consulted a holy spokesman for the Hindu Mahäsabhä, man. He advised that all the children in the 1930s, to distinguish Hindu cul- should gather, shouting abuse and ture from Hindu dharma, ‘Hindu reli- throwing filth at the demoness, when gion’. Hindu Political parties demand she came to town. Holikä died of shame that Hindutva become the criterion for and embarrassment, and the children citizenship in a Hindu nation. It were saved. This incident is remem- includes an emotional attachment to bered at Holï, a very popular kind of India as ‘holy land’ and participation in Hindu carnival celebrated in spring, Hindu culture. It has become a very with everybody squirting coloured controversial issue in today’s India. water on everybody else, and telling rib- ald jokes. Hiranyagarbha (‘golden womb’ or ‘golden egg’) horoscope (janmapatrikä) Principle and lord of all creation, identi- It is an old Hindu tradition to have a fied with BRAHMÄ; a major motif in horoscope established by a professional Vedas, Upani•ads and Puräæas. astrologer (jyoti•a) shortly after the Encyclo - Letter H 10/2/03 9:42 am Page 83

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birth of a child, entering the precise Hø•ikeÿa (2), also Rishikesh astronomical coordinates. All important Mountain and place of pilgrimage 30 km events in the life of a person are decided north of HARDWAR. upon after consultation of the horoscope. (See also ASTROLOGY.) human sacrifice See SACRIFICE. hospitality Offering a meal or shelter for the night humility (dainya) to a stranger who asked for it was one One of the virtues to be cultivated by a of the traditional duties of a Hindu. If a VAIÆŒAVA who, according to an old person was refused hospitality he could verse, is supposed to be ‘more humble ‘unload’ his sins on the unwilling host. than a blade of grass’. It is further spec- Hospitality was especially important ified as the effort to put oneself down in towards brahmins and SAMNYÄSIS. On comparison to others, not to mention the other hand, hospitality was not to one’s own merits, to serve one’s spiritual be abused, and strict limits were set. master and all other devotees. Hindu literature is full of stories about hospitality refused and punishments fol- hymns lowing, as well as about poor people sacrificing their last possessions for a The Øgveda is a collection of hymns guest, who turns out to be God in the (süktas) that are essential components guise of a poor man (daridra Näräyaæa) (MANTRA (1)) of Vedic rituals; they are who amply rewards his hosts. (See also still used and recited by brahmin priests. ATITHI.) Besides these, another genre of hymns, called stotras (praise), has become very important in connection with the wor- hotø ship of deities such as Vi•æu, Ÿiva and A Vedic priest whose task it was to Devï as well as Gaæeÿa, Hanuman and recite the hymns of the Øgveda. other lesser devas, and humans deemed to be manifestations of a deity. Epics and Puräæas contain many such hymns, Hoyÿalas and great äcäryas (masters) such as Dynasty of rulers in Karæätaka ŸAŒKARA (2), RÄMÄNUJA and MADHVA (1006–1346), great warriors and (2) composed hymns that are used in administrators as well as defenders of worship. Most of the works of the poet- the Hindu faith and builders of temples saints of the Indian Middle Ages are distinguished by a unique style, a kind hymns in vernaculars (Tamil Prabhanda, of Indian roccoco (Belur, Halebid, Hindï bhajans, Mahratti abhaögas). Somnathpur). Much of popular Hindu religious practice consists of singing such hymns. There are many popular collections, such as the Stotramälä and Stotrarat- Hø•ikeÿa (1) (‘lord of the senses’) nävalï, which contain hymns to many An epithet of Vi•æu or Kø•æa. different deities. Encyclo - Letter I 10/2/03 9:43 am Page 84

icchä (‘desire’, ‘wish’) image This usually has a negative connotation (mürti, lit. ‘embodiment [of God]’) as longing for some finite object and Usually a three-dimensional representa- therefore a hindrance to the ultimate tion of a specific deity according to an end, which requires desirelessness. established canon. Worship requires an image of some kind, conceived as the Ïõä, also Ïlä presence of the deity. Image making is governed by a set of rules that deter- Subject of a number of different stories mines the material, the way the deity is concerning sex-change either from male to be represented, the paraphernalia to female, or female to male. given to it. A human-made image becomes a vessel for the presence of ignorance God through the act of consecration (prati•ﬂhäpana, abhi•eka); either perma- See AVIDYÄ. nently or for the duration of the time of worship. Non-human-made images are Ïk•väku (1) those that have been found, usually Son of MANU (2) Vaivasvata, descended revealed in a dream which do not need from the sun, founder of the solar race, a special act of consecration. If an image who reigned in Ayodhyä in the TRETA suffers major damage, it can no longer YUGA. He had a hundred sons. serve as an object of worship. Hindu temples are primarily homes for the images of gods, whose worship consists Ïk•väku (2) in caring for the needs of the deity by Founder of the dynasty of the Purus. bathing, feeding, clothing and fanning it. Most Hindu homes keep images of gods and regular worship is performed Ïk•väku (3) before them. Dynasty that ruled in both North India (Koÿala), and South India (Madupüra) immortality as well as in Ÿrï Laöka. The search for immortality is a major theme in Hindu mythology. When the Illakumi gods and the demons churned the ocean Tamil name of goddess LAKÆMÏ, also at the beginning of time, one of the most known as Tiru (ŸRÏ). prized items that emerged was a pot Encyclo - Letter I 10/2/03 9:43 am Page 85

85 International Society for Krishna Consciousness

with AMØTA, nectar providing immor- seded by worship of Vi•æu–Kø•æa and tality. By a ruse the gods appropriated it Ÿiva–Devï. In the Puräæas Indra is often and gained immortality thereby. The depicted as rival of Kø•æa. Feasts in Upani•ads also teach a way to immor- honour of Indra are still celebrated in tality, based on the insight into the Nepal. immortal nature of consciousness (ätman). They hold indefinite existence Indrajit (‘conqueror of Indra’) in a body to be an impossibility: every- Epithet of Meghanäda, a son of thing that is born must die. Puräæic RÄVAŒA, who captured Indra and Hinduism promises bodily immortality brought him to Laökä. He refused to to the devotees of Vi•æu, who after surrender to the assembled gods until reaching VAIKUŒﬁHA are endowed with they had made him immortal. incorruptible bodies. Some systems of YOGA also aim at making the practitioner physically immortal. (See also Indraloka AFTERLIFE.) Indra’s heaven. Also known as Svarloka or Svarga, it is situated north of Mount impurity MERU, and is the epitome of sensual delight, inhabited by apsaras (nymphs) Ritual impurity is usually caused by and gandharvas (heavenly musicians). It contact with what are considered is the home of KÄMADHENU, the ‘cow of impure substances: generally contact plenty’, and of the PÄRIJÄTA tree, which with corpses, with blood (especially grants all wishes. The capital city is menstrual blood) or other bodily fluids, Amarävatï, which contains Indra’s or with ‘untouchables’ (persons belong- palace, Vaijayanta. Indra’s heaven is ing to the Atiÿüdras, often dealing with associated with the highest pleasure and carcasses, faeces etc.). This impurity is enjoyment of all kinds. removed through religious practices such as bathing, repeating mantras and fasting according to a well-established Indräæï canon. INDRA’s wife, also called Ÿacï and Aindrï, mother of Jayanta and Jayantï incarnation See AVATÄRA. Indraprastha The capital city of the PÄŒ¥AVAS, locat- Indra ed in what is today Delhi. The first among the Vedic gods, to whom most of the hymns of the Øgveda initiation are devoted. He is described as warrior, See DÏKÆÄ, UPANAYANA. as fond of SOMA (2), as destroyer of forts and as enemy of the DASYUS. His most important aspect is vøtraha, slayer International Society for of VØTRA. Several hymns are devoted to Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) this event, through which the waters A branch of the GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVA were released, the sky cleared and tradition, with an international mem- Indra’s supremacy established. Indra bership, founded by A. C. Bhakti- has many features of the Supreme Being vedanta Swami (Abhay Charan De) in and his activity is both creative and 1966 in New York. It is also known as salvific. Worship of Indra was super- the ‘Hare Krishna Movement’ from its Encyclo - Letter I 10/2/03 9:43 am Page 86

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Mahesh Yogi Maharishi also set out to teach SIDDHIS (miraculous higher powers). He established the Maharishi International University in Fairfield, Iowa which aims at integrating modern Western science with ancient Hindu traditions. Mahesh Yogi Maharishi developed various plans to give worldwide coverage to his ideas.

Ïÿa, also Ïÿäna (‘lord’) Title of ŸIVA, ‘maheÿa’ (‘Mahä’ + ‘ïsä’: Maheÿa – Great Lord).

Ïÿa(vasya) Upani•ad The shortest of the principal Upani•ads, said to contain the essence of all. It is read out to a dying person to ensure a good Swami A. C. Bhaktivedänta, called passage. It has been commented upon by ‘Prabhupäda’, founder of ISKCON. ŸA¢KARA (2) and other Vedäntins.

public chanting of the Hare-Kø•æa i•ﬂa devatä (‘deity of choice’) MAHÄ-MANTRA. It is by now established The form of the divine most appealing in all Western countries and has a size- to a person and therefore singled out for able presence in India. Among the inno- worship, without denying the existence vations that ‘Prabhupäda’ Bhakti- of others. vedanta Swami introduced is the award- ing of brahmin status to all initiates, the ïÿvara (‘Lord’) accepting of non-Hindus into SAM- A generic title given to the creator of the NYÄSA, and the establishment of a great world. number of temples under the care of non-Indian devotees. ISKCON is very active in publishing, in relief work and Ïÿvara Kø•æa (third century CE) in maintaining authentic traditional Author of the Säƒkhyakärikäs. image worship. Ïÿvara Muni (tenth century CE) International Transcendental Meditation Society (TM) A great PÄÑCARÄTRA teacher, father of NÄﬁHA MUNI, the first of the ÄCÄRYAS Founded by Mahesh Yogi Maharishi in of Ÿrïraögam. the late 1950s, it initially attracted a very large number of people in all Western countries by its teaching of itihäsa (‘so it has been said’) Transcendental Meditation, a simplified A generic term for traditional history, form of Yoga. Followers of TM claim specifically applied to the RÄMÄYAŒA that it relieves tension and worries. and the MAHÄBHÄRATA. Encyclo - Letter J 10/2/03 9:44 am Page 87

jaõa-patha (‘braided text’) visited by millions of Hindus every year. A form of recitation of the Veda involv- A pilgrimage to Purï is believed to liber- ing a reverse reading. ate a person from the round of rebirths. The focus of attention is the huge Jagan- nätha (‘Lord of the World’) temple jagad-guru (‘world teacher’) dedicated to Vi•æu, built during the Title assumed by the Ÿaökaräcäryas, the reign of Anantavarman Choda Ganga ruling heads of the Ÿaökara maﬂhas. (1076–1148), in which 6,000 priests (See also ŸA¢KARA (2).) and attendants serve. The most popular feast is the ratha-yäträ in June. A huge jaga-mohan canopied car (15 m high, 12 m square) Place of assembly of worshippers at a on which Kø•æa is enthroned, is pulled Hindu temple. through the streets on thick ropes by hundreds of pilgrims. (The English word ‘juggernaut’ is a corrupt form of Jagan-nätha Purï Jagan-nätha.) The feast commemorates One of the four holiest places of India, Kø•æa’s journey from GOKULA to on the east coast in the state of Orissa, MATHURÄ. The main chariot is followed

The famous ratha (car) festival in Jagan-nätha Puri: The images of the deities are carried in huge, temple-shaped chariots through the town. Encyclo - Letter J 10/2/03 9:44 am Page 88

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by two smaller ones, carrying Kø•æa’s cism). Jains produced many works of sister Subhädrä and his brother art, were active as scholars in the fields Baladeva. After seven days Kø•æa of grammar and lexicography, and returns from his summer house in an established schools and charitable insi- equally spectacular procession. tutions. By the 13th century the last Jain kingdoms had disappeared and jägarita sthäna (‘waking state’) Jains are today a small minority in India, counting only about 2 million The first (and lowest) stage of CON- followers. Since they are successful in SCIOUSNESS according to Vedänta. banking and business, they exert considerable influence. Jaimini (c. 600 BCE) A celebrated sage, said to be VYÄSA’s Jamadagni disciple. According to tradition he One of the SAPTARÆIS,author of a Vedic received the Sämaveda from Vyäsa, hymn and the subject of stories in epics which he then taught. He is the author and Puräæas. of the Jaimini sütras, also called Mïmäƒsä Sütras, the basic text of the Jambu-dvïpa school of MÏMÄßSÄ. (‘rose-apple continent’) One of the seven DVÏPAS. It consists of Jainism nine parts: Bhärata, Kiƒpuru•a, Hari- While claiming prehistoric origins for var•a, Ïlävøta (containing Mount Meru), their first teacher Ø•abha (c. 30,000 Ramyakä, Hiraæmaya, Uttara-Kuru, BCE) the Jains acknowledge the last of Bhadräsva, Ketumäla. the 24 Tirthäökäras, Mahävïra (sixth century BCE) to be the historical founder Jana Sangh of the form of religion they are following. Jainism does not accept a creator or Also Bhäratïya Jana Sangh, founded in a saviour god. It holds the universe to be Bengal in 1950 as ‘People’s Party of eternal and the task of humans to India’, in the wake of alleged maltreat- redeem themselves from entanglement ment of Hindus in East Pakistan (now in the material world by strict ascetical Bangladesh), when millions of Hindus practices. fled to India. The founding members Originally an order of naked ascetics were former high-ranking Congress who had no fixed abodes and who lived ministers such as Shyamprasad Mook- by what was given to them freely. erjea, John Matai and K. C. Neogy. It Jainism developed into a mass religion had a clear anti-Muslim and pro-Hindu with lay followers, and became one of orientation. It later merged with other the dominant religions of India from Hindu parties to form the JÄNATÄ Party in 1977. the third century BCE onwards. There were famous Jain kingdoms in South India and the Jain leaders enjoyed high Janäbäï (14th century) prestige. In the first century CE the Jain An orphan girl, adopted by a tailor fam- order split into two groups: Digambara ily, she became one of Mahärä•ﬂra’s (‘heaven-clad’, i.e. naked, following the most popular composers of abhaögas, older, stricter tradition) and Ÿvetäm- which are recited in kïrtans to this day. bara (‘white-clad’, whose followers One of the sons of the family she grew wore white dresses, and also made up with was NÄMDEV, who later other concessions with regard to asceti- became one of Mahärä•ﬂra’s famous Encyclo - Letter J 10/2/03 9:44 am Page 89

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poet-saints. Asked by him to help him Janärdana Sw– ami (1504–75) compose a large number of abhaögas Militant sage from Mahärä•flra, the she excelled in this task. According to teacher of EKANÄfiHA. legend she was blessed by the company of Viflhobä, who often came and took janëu his meals with her. The holy thread which members of the Janaka three upper CASTES receive at the time of Major figure in the RÄMÄYAŒA, King of upanayana (initiation) and which they Videha. He was the father of Sïtä, have to wear throughout their lives as a famous for knowledge and good works. mark of distinction. It is made out of three times three strands of cotton fibre and is worn at all times directly on the body. Jänakï

Patronymic of SÏTÄ, the heroine of the japa RÄMÄYAŒA. Repetition of a sacred name or MANTRA (3), one of the most popular religious Jana-loka practices of Hindus. It is often done with The abode of BRAHMÄ. the help of a MÄLÄ, a rosary consisting of beads made from the wood of the TULASÏ plant. It can be performed audibly, Janamejaya inaudibly or mentally. It is supposed to The king to whom the Mahäbhärata bring about a union of the devotee’s was recited by Kø•æa VAIŸAMPÄYANA. mind with God, revealed in the name. He was the great-grandson of ARJUNA, and was also known as Sarpasattrin jaﬂa (serpent-sacrificer). After his father PARIKÆIT died from a snake-bite, Jana- Matted hair, a sign of mourning and of mejaya was determined to exterminate renunciation. all snakes in a great sacrifice, but was persuaded by the sage Astika to desist Jaﬂa-dhära (‘the one with a crown when all snakes but one (Tak•aka) had of matted hair’) been burnt. An epithet of ŸIVA.

Jänatä Party jäta-karma Formed in 1977 from a variety of Ritual performed by a father immedi- Hindu parties to succeed Indira ately after the birth of a child, before the Gandhi’s Congress government which severing of the umbilical cord, to guar- was defeated in elections after the so- antee long life and health. called ‘emergency’. It fell apart, largely over the question of connections between some of its leaders and the Jaﬂäyu Rä•tøïya Svayamsevak Sangh, and the King of the vultures, son of GARU¥A, former JANA SANGH formed the Vi•æu’s VAHANA. As an ally of RÄMA he BHÄRATÏYA JÄNATÄ PARTY. attacked RÄVAŒA, when he carried away Sïtä. Although mortally wounded, he was able to tell Räma about the incident. Räma Janar-dana (‘giver of rewards’) and LAKÆMANA performed his funeral rites Epithet of VIÆŒU. and he rose to heaven in a chariot of fire. Encyclo - Letter J 10/2/03 9:44 am Page 90

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jätï (‘birth-group’) jïvan-mukta Lineage, sub-caste. Each jätï consists of (‘liberated while alive’) a number of gotras (clans). A person who has achieved ultimate emancipation while still in a body. jauhar Group self-immolation in a fire, prac- jïvan-mukti tised by Räjput women to escape cap- The state of being liberated while still in ture by enemies. Several historical a body. Some Hindu schools, such as instances have been recorded at Chitor ADVAITA VEDÄNTA, admit such a possi- from the 14th to the 16th centuries. bility, others deny it.

Jayadeva (12th century) jñäna (‘knowledge’) Pen name of the author of the Gïta- This is especially in the specific sense of govinda, celebrating the love between spiritual wisdom, insight, realization of Kø•æa and RÄDHÄ, which is sung at the one’s own true nature. (See also VIDYÄ.) JAGANNÄﬁHA temple in Purï as part of the daily ritual. (Jñäna) Sambandhar (c. 750–825 CE) Jayantï One of the most prominent NÄYANMÄRS, One of the names of the Goddess (DEVÏ). Ÿaivite teachers of South India. Author of the Tevaram, which ridicules and Jaya-Vijaya (‘victory and defeat’) attacks Jainas. Names of the two gatekeepers in Vi•æu’s heaven. Jñäneÿvara, also Jñänadeva (c. 1275–1350) Jha, Ganganatha Poet-saint from Mahärä•ﬂra, author of (1871–1941) the Jñäneÿvari, a lengthy commentary Eminent Indian Sanskritist, educated on the Bhagavadgïtä. both in the old Pandit tradition and along modern lines, a specialist in Pürva joint family MÏMÄßSA. He taught at Muir Central College in Allahäbad, served as principal The traditional Hindu family consisted of Benares Sanskrit College and was vice- of groups of related families belonging chancellor of Allahäbad University. He to several generations. It provided secu- translated many major Sanskrit works rity and shelter to all its members and into English: Ÿabarabhä•ya, Ÿlokavärtti- created a strong bond between them. It ka, Tantravärttika, and his books include allowed for little privacy and did not Prabhäkara School of Pürva Mïmäƒsa leave much room for individual deci- (1909), Pürva Mïmäƒsa in its Sources sions concerning vital issues. While it is (1942). He was honoured with the title still to be found in rural India, in the ‘Mahämahopädhyäya’ (great teacher). Westernized large cities of India the norm today is the nuclear family. Ji•æu (‘victorious’) Epithet of INDRA, ARJUNA and VIÆŒU. Jones, Sir William (1746–94) Orientalist and jurist. He studied jïva, jïvätma Oriental languages at Oxford. Appointed Individual (finite) living being. judge at the Supreme Court in Calcutta Encyclo - Letter J 10/2/03 9:44 am Page 91

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in 1783, he founded Bengal Asiatick jyotir-liöga (‘liöga made of light’) Society in 1784 (and remained its presi- Twelve LI¢GAS (3) in famous places of dent till 1794). He studied Sanskrit, and pilgrimage (e.g. Kedarnäflh in the produced the first translations into Himälayas), said to have come into English of Kälidäsa’s Ÿakuntalä, existence without human agency, man- Manusmøti, Hitopadeÿa, Gïtagovinda. ifesting special potency. (See also SVAYAMBHÜ.) justice See DHARMA. jyoti•a See ASTROLOGY. Jye•flhä South Indian goddess, identified with jyoti•floma Sïtalä, the goddess of smallpox. A special Vedic SACRIFICE for the deceased. Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 92

Kabïr (1440–1518) kaivalya (‘aloneness’) Famous poet-saint, composer of many The ultimate aim of PATAÑJALA YOGA. hymns used by Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims, author of the Bijak and founder Käla (‘time’) of the non-sectarian Kabïr-Panth. A name of YAMA, the king of the dead. (See also TIME.) Kädambarï (1) Daughter of Chitraratha, king of the Kalahasti GANDHARVAS (1) and one of the sixteen Famous Ÿiva temple in Andhra Pradesh, sons of KAŸYAPA and Madirä (also connected with the story of how an ele- called Väruöï, the goddess of wine). phant, a spider and a snake gained salvation by worshipping a Ÿiva LI¢GA (3). Kädambarï (2) Title of a Sanskrit prose work by Bäna Kälarätrï (‘black night’) (seventh century CE). One of the names and forms of the Goddess (DEVÏ). Kaikeyï A princess of the Kaikeya nation, a Kälï (1) (‘the black one’) major figure in the RÄMÄYA¢A, one of In the Vedas the name was associated the three wives of Daÿaratha, and moth- with AGNI, who was represented as hav- er of BHARATA (3). When she nursed ing seven tongues to devour butter: kälï Daÿaratha back to life after he was was his black or terrible tongue. severely wounded in a battle, he promised to grant her any two wishes. Prompted by her maid-servant Kälï (2) (‘black [Goddess]’) Mantharä, and fearing that Daÿaratha’s The fierce aspect of DEVÏ, associated eldest son, Räma, would kill his rivals, with disease, death and terror. She is she used this promise to prevent Räma usually represented by a black image, from ascending the throne, and to send with a red tongue protruding from the him into a 14-year forest exile. mouth and a garland of skulls around the neck. In former times she was pla- Kailäsa cated with human SACRIFICES; today she Mountain in the Himälayas, Ÿiva’s is honoured by the sacrifice of goats, heaven. which are decapitated. Kälï and DURGÄ Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 93

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Kälikä Pïﬂha A special place of worship of the Goddess, associated with a limb of the Goddess after she took her life and was dismembered by Ÿiva. There are 51 such Kälikä or Ÿakti Pïﬂhas in India, the most famous at KÄMÄKHYÄ in Assam.

Kälikä Puräæa One of the Upapuräæas, dealing with the Goddess (DEVÏ), differentiating her worship according to the various parts of her body.

Käliya, also Käliya näga A serpent king possessing five heads, (although he is also described as ‘the thousand-headed’) who lived in the The ancient image of Kälï being Yamunä near VØNDÄVANA together worshipped in the famous with his retinue. He emitted smoke and Kälï temple in Calcutta. poisonous fumes, endangering the entire region of Braja. Kø•æa jumped into the water, danced on Käliya’s heads and threatened to kill him. Käliya begged for are treated as synonymous. The main mercy, and was allowed to live, on con- festivity focusing on Kälï–Durgä is dition that he move further downstream. Kälï/Durgäpüjä. The major feat The place where this event occurred is associated with her is the killing of the marked in Vøndävana by a little temple buffalo demon Mahi•äsura. with a sculpture depicting the scene.

Kalki (‘the white horse’) Kali Yuga (‘age of strife’) The future and last AVATÄRA of Vi•æu, The last and worst of the four ages of which will come finally to conquer evil the world, the one in which we find our- and to save the good at the end of the selves at present. It began in 3102 BCE KALI YUGA. (with the Mahäbhärata war) and is to last a total of 432,000 years. Kalki Puräæa One of the Upapuräöas, describing the Kälidäsa (fifth century CE) (future) KALKI AVATÄRA and events asso- (‘servant of Kälï’) ciated with his appearance. The greatest of India’s classical Sanskrit poets and dramatists, one of the ‘nine gems’ at the court of King Vikramäditya kalpa at Ujjaini. His most famous drama is A day and night of BRAHMAN, compris- Ÿakuntalä, one of the first Sanskrit plays ing 4,320,000,000 years. Each kalpa translated into English (by H. H. consists of four yugas. (See also TIME, WILSON). DIVISIONS OF.) Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 94

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Kalpa-sütra Kämeÿvarï (‘Mistress of Käma’) One of the VEDÄ¢GAS, dealing with ritual. A title of the goddess KÄMÄKHYÄ, whose temple is in Kämäkhyä. Käma, also Kämadeva The god of love. The Øgveda states that Kaƒÿa, also Kaöÿa desire was the first emotion that stirred Tyrant of MATHURÄ, and a cousin of in the One. According to one tradition, Devakï, Kø•æa’s mother. It was prophe- Käma is the son of Dharma and Ÿrad- sied to him that a son born to Devakï dhä. He is also sometimes called Aja would kill him; so he confined Devakï (unborn). In the Puräöas he plays a to a prison, taking away all the children major role: angering Ÿiva during his she bore and killing them. Her husband, meditation, he was burned to ashes by Vasudeva, was not imprisoned and his gaze. When Ÿiva realized that the apparently was free to visit her in whole world was withering away, he prison. Baladeva, her seventh, was resurrected him. His wife is Ratï (lust). smuggled out from prison and taken to He is usually represented as a young Gokula. When Kø•æa was born his par- man with bow and arrows made of ents fled with him and he grew up with flowers, riding on a parrot, attended by his foster mother, Yaÿodä. Kaƒÿa gave APSARAS. He has many names. orders to kill all young male infants. Later Kø•æa conquered Mathurä and killed Kaƒÿa. Kämadhenu also Kämaduh (‘wish-fulfilling cow’) Kaöäõa (sixth century BCE?) A cow belonging to the sage VAŸIÆfiHA. She emerged from the CHURNING OF THE The founder of the VAIŸEÆIKA darÿana. OCEAN, and granted every wish presented to her. She is also known as Ÿavalä, Surabhï or Nandinï. Käñcï-pura (‘the golden city’) City in Tami¶nädü, 50 km north-west of Kämäkhyä Madras. It is one of the seven ancient holy cities of India. It was the capital The most famous of the Ÿakti PÏfiHAS, city of the PALLAVAS and later of the near Guhävatï in Assam, where accord- COLAS, who lavished their wealth on it. ing to tradition SÄTÏ YONI ’s fell; it is It is sacred to both Vi•æu (Vi•æukäñcï) worshipped there in the form of a cleft and Ÿiva (Ÿivakäñcï) and boasts over a rock. In former times many human hundred large temples, some of them SACRIFICES were offered to her. Self- going back to the ninth century. An immolation by self-decapitation was abundance of sculptures and paintings also practised by some devotees. illustrate myths associated with Vi•æu and Ÿiva. It is also the seat of one of the Kämakothi Pïflha Ÿaökaräcäryas (KÄMAKOTHI PÏfiHA) and According to a local tradition the place a centre of traditional Hindu learning. of burial of ŸA¢KARA (2) and the seat of the Ÿaökaräcärya in KAÑCÏ-PURA, whose foundation as one of the original Kane, Pandurang Vaman Ÿaökara MAfiHAS is however disputed. (1880–1971) One of the most knowledgeable scholars Käma-rüpä in the area of Hindu law. He was an North-eastern Bengal and western Assam. advocate at the Bombay High Court, Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 95

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National Research professor of the root kø- to act, and the incompati- Sanskrit, editor of many Sanskrit works bility of karma and LIBERATION (mukti, and author of the multi-volume History mok•a). The notion first occurs in the of Dharmaÿästra (1930–75). Upani•ads where karma is seen as responsible for enmeshing a living being Kangri in the cycle of birth and rebirth. Attainment of VIDYÄ, or jñäna (knowl- Place of pilgrimage near Hø•ikeÿa in the edge) is considered the only means to Himälayas; site of an ÄRYA SAMÄJ gain liberation from saƒsära. In addi- GURUKULA, now Kangri Forest tion to the karma one accumulates from University, a residential traditional one’s own actions in the present life, Hindu school with Sanskrit as medium there is prärabdha karma with which a of instruction. person is born and which has to run its course. The Bhagavadgïtä teaches that Käæphata (‘hole in the ear’) actions performed without selfish desire A sect of Ÿaiva ascetics whose ears are do not yield karma. In the Puräæas the pierced with a two-edged knife as part intervention of God absolves devotees of the initiation ceremonies. from having to suffer from their karma and God’s grace nullifies karma. On a Kanyäkumärï (‘virgin lady’) popular level many Hindus are inclined to attribute everything that happens to Epithet of the Goddess (DEVÏ) and name them, fortune as well as misfortune, to of the southernmost point of India, a their karma. place of pilgrimage with a large Goddess temple. karma-märga (‘path of works’)

Kapälika (‘skull-carrier’) One of the three traditional ways to find spiritual fulfilment. Karma in that con- A sect of Ÿaivites who wear garlands of text means (prescribed) Vedic ritual skulls, from which they also eat and actions, such as sacrificing an animal or drink. some other object in fire, undergoing the saƒskäras (rites of passage), main- Kapila (sixth century BCE) taining the routine of prescribed daily, A famous sage, founder of the SÄßKHYA monthly and yearly rituals and perform- system. ing the ceremonies required in connection with certain events in one’s life. In later times a more metaphorical inter- karma (‘action’) (1) pretation was adopted. Ritual usually In the Veda and Pürva MÏMÄßSÄ, a rit- meant ceremonies performed to honour ual act, SACRIFICE. the presence of God in an IMAGE and the ‘path of works’ was understood to karma (2) mean selfless and dedicated perfor- In the Upani•ads and in Vedänta, non- mance to one’s (CASTE) duties. material residue of any action performed by a person, the cause of embodiment and of SAßSÄRA. Virtually Karæa all Hindu schools have developed their Son of KUNTÏ by the Sun, before her own karma theories. Some elements are marriage to PÄŒ¥U. Born equipped with fairly commonly agreed upon, such as arms and armour, he was exposed by the derivation of the word karma from his mother on the banks of the Yamunä Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 96

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and found by Nandana, the charioteer Kärttikeya of DHØTARÄÆﬁRA, who brought him up God of war, the planet Mars, also as his own child. Later Karæa became known as MURUGAN and Skanda. Son king of Anga (Bengal). In the Great War of Ÿiva, in some traditions born without he fought at the side of the KAURAVAS a mother. He is represented as having and was killed by ARJUNA, who only six heads, riding on a peacock, holding then found out that Karæa was the half- a bow in one hand and an arrow in the brother of the PÄŒ¥AVAS. (See also other. His wife is Kaumarï or Senä. He MAHÄBHÄRATA.) is also called Senäpati (lord of the army, or husband of Senä), Siddhasena, Karpatriji Maharaj (1898–1973) Kumära. In South India he is known as VAIÆŒAVA ascetic, founder of the Subrahmaæia. Rämaräjya Pari•ad, a Hindu political party with a nationalist agenda. Karve, Dhonde Keshav (1858–1962) Kär•æa, also Kär•æajinï Professor of Sanskrit in Poona, social A sage, reputed author of a lost reformer, founder of the Widow BRAHMA-SÜTRA. Marriage Association, and of the Women’s University in Poona. Kärtavïrya

Son of Køtavïrya, patronymic of ARJUNA. kärya (‘condition of bondage’) A knowledge of this is essential to gain LIBERATION, according to the PÄŸUPATAS.

Kashmir Ÿaivism An important school of philosophical Ÿaivism, which flourished from the 8th to the 12th centuries in Kashmir. Also known as Ÿiva Advaita, Tøka, Spaæõa- ÿästra, Pratyäbhijñä. Its most important representative was Abhinavagupta (c. 1100), whose main work is known as Tanträlokä. Its designation as ‘Ÿiva Advaita’ reflects its doctrine that all reality is undivided Ÿiva; it is called Spaæõaÿästra (vibration) because it teaches that every atom in the universe is constantly oscillating; it is known as Pratyäbhijñä (recognition) because it holds that Ÿiva is mirrored in the soul and that recognizing his image brings about LIBERATION. There are few teachers of this tradition left. Its best-known Kärttikeya, the god of war, son of contemporary representative was Pandit Ÿiva and Pärvatï. Lak•man Joo. Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 97

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Käÿï was saved from the anger of Ÿiva, whom See VÄRÄŒASÏ. he had offended, by Vi•æu’s intervention and was then known as Vi•æugup- ta, ‘protected by Vi•æu’. Käÿïkhaæõa Part of the Skanda Puräæa, giving a kaupina detailed description of Ÿiva temples in and around VÄRÄŒASÏ. A piece of cloth covering the private parts, tied around the initiate by his GURU as part of DÏKÆÄ. Kaÿyapa (‘tortoise’) One of the seven Vedic ØÆIS who mar- Kauravas ried Aditi and twelve other daughters of DAKÆA. He is the father of Indra as well Descendants of Kuru. Kuru was the son as of Vivasvat, whose son was MANU of Saƒvara and Taptï. The Kauravas (2). He is also believed to be the forefa- were the sons of DHØTARÄÆfiRA and ther of nägas (serpents), demons, birds, opponents of the PÄŒ¥AVAS in the Great reptiles, and all kinds of living things. War. (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.) He is often called PRAJÄPATI, progenitor. Kauÿalya Kaflha Upani•ad (‘belonging to the Koÿala clan’) One of the principal UPANIÆADS, famous A patronymic of several famous women for its teaching that liberating knowledge such as the mothers of JANAMEJAYA, cannot be earned or acquired, but is RÄMA, DHØTARÄÆfiRA and PÄŒ¥U. freely given by the Supreme to the ‘elect’. Kauÿïtakï (1) Kathä-sarit-sägara A branch of the ØGVEDA. (‘ocean of rivers of stories’) A very large collection of tales by Kauÿïtakï (2) Somadeva Bhaflfla of Kashmir (early A BRÄHMAŒA, an ÄRAŒYAKA and an 12th century). UPANIÆAD.

Kätyäyana (fourth century BCE?) Kaustubha Famous grammarian, author of Värttika, A famous jewel obtained by the gods which provides supplementary rules to from the CHURNING OF THE OCEAN and PÄŒINÏ’s A•ﬂädhyayï. He is also the worn on the chest by Vi•æu or Kø•æa. author of the Kätyäyana Ÿrauta Sütras. Kauﬂilya Kaula See CÄ¢AKYA. The highest rank in TANTRA (2), a practitioner of the Kula-äcära, one who has Kautsa overcome all inhibitions based on conventional distinctions. Author of Nirukta, an early etymological lexicon of obscure words in the Veda, one of the VEDÄŒGAS. He consid- Kaundiæya ered the Vedas as meaningless and the An ancient sage and grammarian. He Brähmaæas wrong. Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 98

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Kauverï traditional occupations through the Major river in South India on whose importation of foreign, machine- banks are many famous holy places. produced textiles. Wearing khadi The temple city of ŸRÏRA¢GAM is locat- became obligatory for members of the ed on an island in the Kauverï. Indian Congress Party to show their sol- idarity with the people. Gandhi himself took to spinning yarn and promoted it kavi (1) among his fellow party members. ‘poet’, ‘sage’

Khajuräho kavi (2) Former capital city of the Chandella The colour of the garment worn by SAM- kings (c. 650–1150 CE), in Bundelkhand, NYÄSIS (ochre orange, saffron). today’s Madhya Pradesh, famous for a group of 85 temples, built between 950 Kedär(a)-näﬂha (1) and 1100 CE, which are amongst the finest examples of North Indian temple A name of ŸIVA. architecture, such as the Kaæõarïya Mahädeo (Ÿiva) temple. Some of these, Kedär(a)-näﬂha (2) such as the Devï Jagadambi (mother of A place of pilgrimage in the Himälayas, the universe) temple, are profusely dec- location of one of the twelve JYOTIR- orated with erotic sculptures, probably LIŒGAS. connected with tantric practices. Most of the temples are dedicated to the Kena Upani•ad major gods of Hinduism, but there are also Jain temples and temples in honour One of the major Upani•ads, beginning of lesser deities. with the word kena (by whom?).

Keÿava Miÿra (14th century) kingship Author of the Tarkabhä•a, a popular For most of its history India consisted of introductory text to NYÄYA. a number of kingdoms (räjya) ruled by hereditary monarchs. Thus the notion of kingship is very important and a Keÿï (1) major issue in Hindu literature. Hindu In the Mahäbhärata, a demon slain by tradition has it that in the beginning Indra. people were virtuous and followed the DHARMA spontaneously. When they Keÿï (2) began cheating and exploiting each other, it became necessary to introduce In the Puräöas: a DAITYA who appeared in the form of a horse, and attempted to punishment, the main function of the kill Kø•æa. Kø•æa pulled his jaws asun- king. The Mahäbhärata has a long sec- der and killed him. tion called räjadharma which lays out the duties and rights of a king in classical times. The king’s duties comprised khadi protection of the country, the safety of Homespun and homewoven cotton its citizens, support for the socially cloth, whose production was encour- weak and for scholars. The Kauﬂilïya aged by Mahatma GANDHI to provide Ärthaÿästra describes in great detail the work for villagers who had lost their actual administration of an ancient Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 99

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Indian kingdom. There also was a gra- early Indian history, editor of dation among kings: a ‘great king’ BHARTØHARI’s Ÿatakatraya. (mahäräja or räjädiräja) usually had several lesser kings (räjas) as vassals. Kotai (See also CÄŒAKYA.) See ANﬁÄL.

kinnaras, also kimpurusas (‘what men?’) krama-päﬂha Mythical beings with human bodies and A special way of reading the Veda, in horses’ heads, celestial musicians and which every word is read twice, first dancers, who live in KUBERA’s paradise. combined with the preceding word, and then with the following.

kïrtaæa Kramrisch, Stella (1898–1996) Praising, singing, usually in the context Austrian-born scholar specializing in of religious worship, mainly of Indian art and architecture, author of Vi•æu–Kø•æa. The Hindu Temple (1949), and of many groundbreaking essays: The Presence of kleÿa (‘affliction’) Ÿiva (1981), for many years curator of Used generally and also specifically in the Museum for Indian art in the YOGA SÜTRAS to identify the motive Philadelphia. She influenced a whole for seeking LIBERATION. generation of Indian art historians.

knowledge Krishna Prem (1898–1965) See JÑÄNA; VIDYÄ. Born Ronald Nixon in Britain, he was initiated as a Vai•æava VAIRÄGI and lived Koil Olugu (‘temple history’) and taught at a small ashram in Almora. He wrote several popular books on Tamil chronicle of ŸRÏRA¢GAM, describ- Vai•æavism and became well known in ing the vicissitudes of that famous tem- India. ple since the Middle Ages. It is an important source for the history of ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM. Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1895–1990) Konärka Educated at ADYAR by Annie BESANT, who expected him to be the AVATÄRA of Also known as the ‘Black Pagoda’, a the 20th century, he dissociated himself 13th-century Sun temple on the shores from the Theosophical Society and of the Bay of Bengal, in Orissa, famous became a popular speaker and writer on for its architecture (it is conceived as the spirituality in his own right, claiming gigantic chariot of the sun, drawn by not to follow any system. Among his seven horses) and its erotic sculpture, works are Immortal Friend, Life, the probably connected with tantric cults. Goal and The Awakening of Intelligence.

Kosambi, Damodar Dharmanand (1907–66) kriyä (‘[ritual] action’) Mathematician, author of works on Personified as a child of Dharma. Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 100

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krodha (‘anger’) race, an old pastoral tribe living on the One of the three ‘gates to hell’, i.e. Yamunä around VØNDÄVANA on the propensities that have to be overcome if western bank, and around Gokula on one is to lead a religious life, personified the eastern. When he was born, KAMŸA as child of Adharma. (See also LOBHA, had usurped rulership of Mathurä; MOHA.) Kø•æa later killed him. The many exploits of Kø•æa, as narrated in VAIÆŒAVA scriptures, are celebrated in køpä (‘grace’, ‘pity’, ‘compassion’) many feasts, especially in VØNDÄVANA, A key term in VAIÆŒAVISM where God’s and have inspired numerous poets, grace is the only saving agent. musicians, choreographers, painters and sculptors.

Kø•æä Personal name of DRAUPADÏ.

Kø•æa Dvaipäyana See VYÄSA.

kø•æa-paksa (‘the dark part [of the lunar month]’) The period from the day after full moon to new moon. Indian dating, especially of feasts, always includes such markers. (See also ŸUKLA PAKÆA.)

Køta Yuga The first age of the world, also called Satya Yuga, the golden age, when people were virtuous and lived long lives. It lasted for 1,728,000 years.

Women worshipping Kø•æa. Køttikäs The Pleiades; personified as the six nurses of KÄRTTIKEYA.

Kø•æa (‘black’) k•amä (‘forgiveness’) The most popular (eighth) AVATÄRA of One of the main virtues of Hindu ETHICS. VIÆŒU, the subject of major Hindu classics such as the Bhagavadgïtä and the K•atriya Bhägavatapuräæa. He is also called Member of the second VARŒA, a warrior Ÿyäma. For many of his worshippers he or administrator. is the (only) full manifestation of Vi•æu. Traditional history places him at k•etra (‘field’) around 3000 BCE and considers him the ruler of Dväraka on the Arabian Sea. Metaphorically used (in the Bhagavad- He was a descendant of the YÄDAVA gïtä) to designate the body. Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 101

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K•irasägara (‘ocean of sweet milk’) around the base of the spine, whose One of the oceans separating the DVIPÄS. awakening and movement through the CAKRAS brings about bliss and LIBERA- TION. Kubera, also Kuvera God of wealth and presiding deity of the Kuntï north, king of YAKÆAS and KINNARAS. Represented as a deformed dwarf, with She is also called Pøthä and Pärsnï. One three legs, eight teeth and one eye. of the wives of Päæõu, mother of YUDHIÆfiHIRA, BHÏMA and ARJUNA. Kumära (‘boy’, ‘prince’) Kuppuswami, Sethurama Sastri A name of KÄRTTIKEYA. (1880–1943) ‘Mahämahopadhyäya’ (great teacher), Kumära Sambhava (‘Birth of outstanding Hindu scholar. He was the war-god’) professor of Sanskrit at Madras Celebrated poem by KÄLIDÄSA. Sanskrit College, editor of many important texts and collections, founder of Kumäras the Oriental Research Institute at the University of Madras, originator of The four mind-born sons of Brahmä: New Catalogus Catalogorum, founder Sanatkumära, Sananda, Sanaka, of Journal of Oriental Research, and a Sanätana. Sometimes Øbhu is added as recipient of many academic and civic a fifth. They refused to procreate. honours. In 1944 a Sanskrit research institute was founded in Madras Kumärï (‘virgin’) (Cennai) and named after him. A name of the Goddess (DEVÏ). Kureÿa (11th century) Kumärila Bhaflfla (c. 650–725 CE) Faithful disciple of RÄMÄNUJA. He stood Famous exponent of Pürva MÏMÄßSÄ, in for Rämänuja and underwent inter- author of the Ÿlokavärttika and the rogation by a hostile Ÿaivite king, who Tuptïka, a gloss on the Mïmäƒsäsütra; had his eyes plucked out for not a staunch opponent of Buddhism. acknowledging Ÿiva as the greatest god. Rämänuja’s tears miraculously brought back his eyesight. Kumbha-mela Major religious gathering (mela) when the sun stands in Aquarius (kumbha). It kürma (‘tortoise’) takes place every three years and rotates One of the forms in which Vi•æu between the holy cities of Hardwar, appeared as an AVATÄRA. The tortoise Präyäga, Ujjainï and Nasik. It is an also served as foundation for Mount occasion for many members of all Maæõara which was used as a churning Hindu SAßPRADÄYAS to gather and stick when the gods and demons decide on controversial matters or to churned the milk ocean. (See also introduce changes in their routine. CHURNING OF THE OCEAN.)

kuæõalinï Kürma Puräæa In TANTRA (2), the energy (ÿakti) of a One of the Mahäpuräæas, dealing mainly person conceived of as a snake wrapped with ŸIVA. Encyclo - Letter K 10/2/03 9:46 am Page 102

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Kuruk•etra (‘the field of the Kurus’) able in many religious ceremonies. A plain near Delhi where the MAHÄBHÄRATA war took place. Kuÿänas A dynasty of rulers of Scythian descent Kuÿa (‘happy’) whose capital was MATHURÄ (first to The elder of the twin sons of Räma and second centuries CE). The sculpture pro- Sïtä, brought up by VÄLMÏKI, who taught duced under their patronage has a cer- him to recite the RÄMÄYAŒA. He was made tain heaviness. king of Kuÿävatï, and later of Ayodhyä. Kutsa kuÿa A Vedic ØÆI and author of several A variety of grass considered indispens- hymns. Encyclo - Letter L 10/2/03 9:47 am Page 103

lak•aæa (‘mark’, ‘characteristic’) for all schools of thought and religion In logic, implication. and rejected ritualism and IMAGE worship. She taught that the way to salvation was the disinterested performance Lak•maæa of one’s duties. Son of King DAŸARATHA by his wife Sumiträ, twin brother of ŸATRUGHNA language and half-brother of RÄMA. He married Ürmilä, sister of Sïtä. He was very Language was always very important to attached to Räma and Sïtä and accom- Hindus, and their greatest cultural panied them on their 14-year forest achievement is in the area of language. exile. He is seen as ideal of brotherly The Veda exhibits great respect for lan- love and loyalty. (See also RÄMÄYAŒA.) guage and treats it as a divine being from which everything originated. The extraordinary care with which the Veda Lak•mï, also Ÿrï, Tiru was preserved and transmitted over (‘good fortune’) thousands of years again shows how Personified as the goddess of fortune, greatly language was valued. According wife of Vi•æu and mother of KÄMA. She to Hindu tradition Sanskrit, their sacred sprang fully developed from the sea at language, the ‘language of the gods’, is the time of the CHURNING OF THE OCEAN eternal. In the course of time Hindus with a lotus in her hand. She is repre- developed a variety of theories concern- sented as having four arms. ing the nature of language. One of the early controversies concerned the ques- Lakulin, also Lakuli•a tion whether words (päda) or sentences (second century CE) (väkya) were the basic elements of language. The early interest in grammar Legendary founder of the PÄŸUPATA system, a school of Ÿaivism. and etymology, as shown by the VEDÄ¢GAS and later scholarly works, again exhibits a religious concern with Lalla, or Lal Ded (14th century) language. A proper study of language A Ÿaivite woman poet and spiritual was considered the preliminary to all teacher from Käshmïr, whose verses other disciplines. Cultivation of lan- have been published under the title guage skills was always considered the Lalla-väkyäæi. She advocated openness highest aim of education. Encyclo - Letter L 10/2/03 9:47 am Page 104

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Lava care of life in all its forms and consider The younger of the twin sons of Räma it sacred. The Hindu life sciences and Sïtä, later King of Ÿrävastï. (See also (AYURVEDA) were highly developed and RÄMÄYAŒA.) had as their aim the preservation and prolongation of life. liberation (mok•a, mukti) light With the acceptance of the notions of SAßSÄRA and rebirth, the major pre- the many terms used for light (jyotis, occupation of Hindus became liberation prabhä, prakäÿa, pratibhä, dïpti, känti, from the cycle of birth and death. The ÿobhä etc.) and the appellation of the Upani•ads call the Vedas ‘unsafe boats’ highest experience as ‘enlightenment’ because they are unable to carry one to indicate the great importance that light ‘the other shore’. The Vedänta and and everything connected with it have most other systems are primarily con- in Hindu thought. One of the oldest and cerned with teaching paths to liberation best-known Vedic prayers asks to be led from rebirth. They agree on the necessi- ‘from darkness to light’ and the obliga- ty to neutralize KARMA (2) and to detach tory GÄYATRÏ mantra asks the SUN to oneself from desire. They differ in the illumine the mind. Not only was Sürya roles ascribed respectively to ritual widely worshipped (sun temples used to (karma), devotion (BHAKTI) and insight be quite frequent in the Middle Ages), (JÑÄNA). They also disagree on the pos- but Vi•æu also has a solar background. sibility of reaching liberation while still All the major gods have names that in a body (jïvanmukta) and on the con- express light, splendour, brightness dition of the liberated (mukta): while (Prakäÿätman, ‘self-luminous’; Bhäskära, ŸA¢KARA (2) teaches complete loss of ‘sunlike’, jyotis, ‘light’) and the ultimate individuality in the merging of the liber- condition is described in terms of a ated with BRAHMAN, RÄMÄNUJA and light-experience. other theistic Vedäntins speak about an eternal individual existence in the com- lïlä (‘play’, ‘sport’) pany of the highest God. The creation of the world by God is described as lïlä because it does not life (ayus) serve a purpose for God. Kø•æa’s deal- Hindus have always considered life as ing with the GOPÏS, especially RÄDHÄ, is one, making distinctions in degrees only called lïlä, divine playfulness. between the various forms of life. Rebirth could take place in any form of liöga (1) life: plant, animal, human or divine. (‘sign’, ‘characteristic’, ‘token’) Human life was always considered spe- In logic, the predicate of a proposition. cial as the only form of life in which LIBERATION from rebirth could be gained. As regards the Hindu attitude liöga (2) towards life, there were two contrary The male organ. opinons: the one, represented by Kø•æa in the Bhagavadgïtä, devalues physical life as just a garment of the spiritual liöga (3) soul, which can be changed at will. The The aniconic symbol under which Ÿiva other, considering ahiƒsä (not killing) is most often worshipped. The twelve as the highest duty, would take great JYOTIR-LI¢GAS are supposed to have Encyclo - Letter L 10/2/03 9:47 am Page 105

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come into existence without human own sectarian cosmologies: for Vai•æavas, intervention. Vaikuæﬂha is the supreme heaven of Vi•æu; for Ÿaivas, Kailäsa is Ÿiva’s Liöga Puräæa abode; Ÿäktas believe that Devï resides in MAŒIDVÏPA. One of the Ÿaiva Puräæas, containing many stories about Ÿiva LI¢GAS (3). Lokäloka (‘world and no world’) Liægäyat(s) The outermost ring of mountains, separating the visible world from the sphere A sect of Ÿaivas reformed by Basava of darkness. (12th century), also called Vïra-ÿaivas (heroic Ÿaivas), that insists on each of its members always wearing a small LI¢GA loka-päla (3) on their body to remind them of Guardians of the world; the eight deities their innate Ÿiva nature. Liögäyats that preside over the eight points of the emphasize the equality of men and compass: Indra (east); Agni (south-east); women, do not recognize CASTE differ- Yama (south); Sürya (south-west), ences and give great importance to pro- Varuæa (west); Väyu (north-west); ductive work and social responsibility. Kubera (north); Soma (north-east). They bury their dead, instead of cremat- Each of the LOKAPÄLAS has an elephant ing them, as most Hindus do. They are who assists in the defence of the respec- found mainly in today’s Karæätaka. tive quarter. Indra’s elephant is Airävata. (See also DIG-GAJA.) lobha (‘greed’) One of the three ‘root sins’ or ‘gates to loka-saögraha hell’, which must be overcome to (‘well-being of the world’) achieve LIBERATION. (See also KRODHA; Expression used by Kø•æa in the MOHA.) Bhagavadgïtä to explain the motivation of his activity in this world. loka (‘world’, ‘universe’) The Vedic TRILOKA (‘three worlds’) con- Lomahar•aæa, also sists of earth, heaven and hell. The Romahar•aæa Puräæic universe is subdivided into a A pupil of VYÄSA who recited several great many different lokas: the upper major Puräæas to ŸAUNAKA. regions consist of Satyaloka (the realm of Brahmä), Tapoloka, Janaloka and Maharloka; the middle regions, also Lopä, also Lopämudrä, called ‘regions of the consequences of Kauÿïtakï, Varapradä work’, are Svarloka (planets), Bhuvar- A girl fashioned by AGASTYA from the loka (sky) and Bhuloka (earth). The most beautiful parts of different ani- region of the netherworlds is subdivided mals, so as to have the most desirable into eight lokas, below which there are wife. She grew up as the daughter of the 28 NÄRAKAS (hells) in which sinners king of Vidarbha. Before consenting to receive punishment according to their marry Agastya she demanded great deeds. Over and above these lokas the wealth which Agastya finally obtained various saƒpradäyas (sects) have their from the demon Ilvala. Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 106

Macdonell, Arthur Anthony components of the human body and the (1854–1930) sacred geography of India: the Gaögä Orientalist and Sanskrit scholar. He (Ganges) was equated with the Ïõä, and was born at Muzaffarpur, he was a the Yamunä with the Piögalä of the sub- Taylorian teacher of German at Oxford tle body. Popular Hindu writings University (1880–99), and later Boden expand these parallelisms vastly and Professor of Sanskrit. His works as edi- base the process of LIBERATION on it. tor and translator include Sarvänu- kramaæika of the Øgveda (1886); a mada (‘intoxication’) Sanskrit–English Dictionary (1892), Personified as a monster created by the Vedic Mythology (1897), History of Vedic sage Cyavana, with fearful teeth Sanskrit Literature (1900), and Sanskrit and long jaws. Intoxication is forbidden Grammar (1901). by Hindu ethics, but forms one of the ‘five ms’ of tantric practices. (See also macrocosm–microcosm TANTRA (2).) The Øgveda assumes a close correspon- dence between the universe and the Mädhava (1) (‘made of honey’) individual person: the Puru•asükta Name of KØÆŒA or VIÆŒU. depicts the creation of everything on earth as the result of the sacrifice of PURUÆA, a human-shaped primeval Mädhava (2), also Vidyäraöya cosmic being. The Upani•ads not only (14th century) equate the human ÄTMAN with the cos- An important teacher in the ADVAITA mic BRAHMAN, but also categorize VEDÄNTA tradition. Brother of Säyaöa, a human properties and cosmic phenome- commentator on the Veda. He was na in corresponding pentads. SÄßKHYA prime minister at the court of YOGA is based on the assumption of a VIJÄYANÄGARA before taking SAMNYÄSA thoroughgoing structural parallelism and becoming ÄCÄRYA of the Ÿringerï between human and cosmic realities. mätha. He is the author of Sarva- The VAIÆŒAVA notion of the universe as darÿanasaƒgraha, a critical compendi- the body of God, and Vi•æu as the soul um of all philosophical and religious and immanent ruler of the world, gives systems, the Pañcädaÿï, a manual for concrete expression to the micro- the study and practice of Advaita cosm–macrocosm parallelism. Parallels Vedänta, and the Ÿaökara Digvijäya, a were also drawn between the various summary of ŸA¢KARA’s (2) victorious Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 107

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disputes with proponents of other Vi•æu through active love which centres doctrines. on ritual worship of God’s image.

Madhu Madhya-deÿa (‘middle country’) A demon slain by Kø•æa. Described in the Manusmøti as the land between the Himälayas and the madhurasa (‘sweet love’) Vindhya mountains, east of Vinäÿana and west of Präyäga. It is also called The highest stage of emotional devotion Äryävarta, the ‘land of the Äryas’, and (bhävana bhakti) in the teaching of its customs were considered models for GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM. proper behaviour.

Madhusüdana (1) Mädhyandina (‘midday’) (‘slayer of Madhu’) An important Vedic school, a branch of One of the VYÜHAS of Vi•æu. the Vajasaneyi ÿäkhä, connected with the Ÿatapatha Brähmana. It developed Madhusüdana (2) its own approach to astronomy and An epithet of KØÆŒA. derives its name from its making noon the starting-point for calculating plane- Madhusüdana (3) (14th century) tary movements. A celebrated teacher of ADVAITA Mädrï VEDÄNTA, author of the Khaöõanakhaæõa Khädya. Sister of the King of the Madras and second wife of PÄNDU; her twin sons madhu-vidyä (‘honey knowledge’) were Nakula and Sahadeva. She chose to become a SATÏ on the funeral pile of A section in the Bøhadäranyaka Päæõu. Upani•ad ascribed to Dadhïca, which teaches a particular VIDYÄ. Madurai

Madhva, also Änanda Tïrtha Ancient temple city in South India (1238–1317) (Tamilnädü), dominated by the famous MÏNÄKÆÏ temple, dedicated to the ‘fish- Born in Udipï, Karæätaka, founder of the eyed’ Goddess and her consort school of DVAITA VEDANTA, hostile to Sundareÿvara. Many classical texts sing Jains, Buddhists and Advaitins, author the glory of Madurai and millions of of numerous works (commentaries on pilgrims visit the Mïnäk•ï temple every the Brahmasütras, the Bhagavadgïtä, year. The major structures of the pre- portions of the Øgveda, and indepen- sent temple were built in the 16th cen- dent treatises) in which he tries to prove tury under the patronage of the that ŸRUTI, which for him also includes Nayyakas, successors to the Päæõyas. such works as the Vi•æupuräæa and Ägamas, reveals the dual reality of BRAHMAN and ÄTMAN. Madhva was a Maga staunch VAIÆŒAVA. His teaching is also An ancient people, sun-worshippers, known as biƒba-pratibiƒba, ‘image associated with the erection of mega- and reflection’, suggesting that the lithic monuments in India, in the Veda ätman is a mirror image of God. The connected with the ŸAKADVÏPA and often way to liberation is self-surrender to alluded to in the epics and the Puräæas. Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 108

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BCE). Until about the fifth century CE Magadha remained the cultural heartland of Buddhism. Only with the rise of the imperial GUPTAS did Hinduism reassert itself.

Mägha Melä A yearly gathering of SÄDHUS at the Triveni in Präyäga during the month of MÄGHA (January/February).

Mahabalipura (‘the city of Mahä-Bali’) A place near Cennai (Madras), famous for its architectural monuments (rathas from the seventh century, the large relief of the descent of the Gaögä and the shore temple).

Mahä-bhärata The temple at Madurai. (‘the great [war of the] Bhäratas’) The longest epic ever written, it constitutes a veritable encyclopedia of MAYA, the master architect of the Hinduism. Its authorship is ascribed to ASURAS, who built mighty palaces and Kø•æa Dvaipayana or VYÄSA, the also excelled in magic, is supposed to ‘arranger’ of the Vedas. The narrative of have belonged to the Magas. They are the Great War, which provided its title, believed to be the founders of makes up less than a fifth of the entire MAGADHA. work. The rest consists of lengthy stories about the main characters of the Magadha work, the Päæõavas and the Kauravas, One of the most ancient kingdoms of ethical discourses and descriptions of northern India, occupying part of mod- large parts of northern India. It contains ern Bengal, Bihär and Orissa. In the a number of fairly independent philo- Øgveda it is associated with the (hereti- sophical/theological treatises, such as cal) VRÄTYAS. Later Vedic literature the Bhagavadgïtä, the Aæugïtä and oth- refers to it as a land where only degrad- ers. It is divided into 18 parvas whose ed brahmins live. It became the main names are somewhat indicative of their staging area for Buddhism and Jainism contents: Ädiparva (introductory book); in the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. Sabhäparva (assembly book); Vana- or King Bimbisära and his son Ajätaÿatru Äraæyaparva (forest book); Viräﬂaparva were supporters of Gautama BUDDHA. (Viräta’s book); Udyogaparva (effort The capital, Pataliputra (Patna), was the book); Bhï•maparva (Bhï•ma’s book); place where the first Buddhist Council Droæaparva (Droæa’s book); Ÿalya- was held. Magadha was successively parva (Ÿalya’s book); Sauptika-parva ruled by the Nandas (364–22 BCE), the (night book); Strïparva (women’s MAURYAS (322–183 BCE), the Ÿuögas book); Ÿäntiparva (peace book); (183–72 BCE) and the Käövas (72–28 Anuÿäsanaparva (rule book); Aÿva- Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 109

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medhaparva (horse-sacrifice book), Taittirïya-Äraæyaka, containing many Äÿramaparva (hermitage book); Mau- details of the daily observances of salaparva (maces book); Mahäprasthä- Hindus. (See also TAITTIRÏYA.) nikaparva (great journey book); Svargä- rohaæaparva (ascent to heaven book). Mahä-nirväæa Tantra An 18th-century text, which attempts to Mahä-bhä•ya (‘great commentary’) reform certain aspects of TANTRA (2). A lengthy commentary on PÄŒINÏ’s grammar, ascribed to PATAÑJALI, in mahant response to KÄTYÄYANA’s critique. Supervisor of a temple or monastery.

Mahä-deva (‘great god’) mahä-pätakas (‘great sins’) An epithet of ŸIVA. Offences against the moral and social law that are (in theory) unforgivable, or Mahadevan, T. M. P. can be atoned for only by death. The (1911–92?) five standard mahäpätakas are: brah- Prominent Indian philosopher. He was maæahatya (killing a brahmin; killing the founder and director of the an unborn child or a pregnant woman); Radhakrishnan Institute for Advanced sürapäna (taking intoxicating sub- Study in Philosophy at the University of stances); steya (major theft of gold); Madras, and the author of numerous guruvaöganagana (‘violating the GURU’s books and articles, especially on bed’, also interpreted as incest); ADVAITA VEDÄNTA: Gauõapada – a mahäpätakasaƒsarga (association with study in Early Advaita (1952), Ten great sinners). Some sources add specific Saints of India (1961). mahäpätakas for KÆATRIYAS (fleeing from a battlefield or meting out unjust Mahä-devï (‘great goddess’) punishment), for VAIŸYAS (using false scales and false weights), and for An epithet of PÄRVATÏ. SÜDRAS (selling meat, injuring a brahmin, having intercourse with a brahmin Mahä-käla (‘great time’) woman, drinking milk from a reddish An epithet of ŸIVA, as the destroyer. cow). (See also UPA-PÄTAKAS.)

mahä-mantra (‘the great formula’) Mahä-pralaya (‘great dissolution’) Also called the ‘mantra of sixteen The total annihilation of the material names’, an invocation of Vi•æu (Hari), universe at the end of a KALPA. Also whose repetition (JAPA) is considered called saƒhära, k•iti. most effective to win God’s grace: Mahä-puräæa (‘great Purana’) Hare Räma Hare Räma Räma Räma Hare Hare There are eighteen Mahäpuräæas, sub- Hare Kø•æa Hare Kø•æa divided into sättvika or Vai•æava Kø•æa Kø•æa Hare Hare (Vi•æu, Bhägavata, Näradïya, Garuõa, Padma, Varäha), räjasika or Brahmä (Brahmä, Brahmäæõa, Brahmavasivärta, Mahä-näräyaæa Upani•ad Märkaæõeya, Bhavi•ya, Vämana) and A late Upani•ad belonging to the Black tämasika or Ÿaiva (Ÿiva, Liöga, Skanda, YAJURVEDA, the end portion of the Agni, Matsya, Kürma). Their content is Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 110

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supposed to be circumscribed by ‘five man’), Bøhadäranyaka II, 5, 19); topics’ (pañcälak•ana): sarga (creation), prajñänam brahma (‘Wisdom is brah- pratisarga (dissolution), manvantara man’), Aitareya III, 1, 13). A great deal (world periods), vamÿa (genealogies), has been written about these vamÿänucarita (stories about the deeds mahäväkyas in the context of the expo- of the descendants of the dynasties men- sition of various schools of VEDÄNTA. tioned). In fact they contain a great amount of additional material on the Mahä-vïra (‘great hero’) four aims of life (puru•ärthas), especial- Honorific title applied to many person- ly DHARMA and mok•a (LIBERATION), alities in Hinduism, Buddhism and vows (vratas), RITUALS, places of Jainism; epithet of the 24th PILGRIMAGE (tïrthas) and other matters. Tïrthänkara, the founder/reformer of Jainism. Mähär Member of a (formerly) OUTCASTE com- Mahä-yogi (‘the great ascetic’) munity occupied with cleaning. An epithet of ŸIVA.

Maharsi (‘Great Ø•i’) Mahesh Yogi Maharishi Honorific title applied to the mythical See INTERNATIONAL TRANSCENDENTAL PRAJÄPATIS and to historical personalities MEDITATION SOCIETY. (e.g. RAMANA MAHARÆI).

Maheÿvara (‘the great Lord’) mahat (‘the great one’) An epithet of ŸIVA. According to SÄßKHYA the first entity produced from the interaction of PURUÆA (2) and PRAKØTI (spirit and mat- Mahï-däsa (‘slave of the earth’) ter), the origin of everything else in the A celebrated Vedic ø•i (sage), son of the universe. Also identified with buddhi, sage Viÿäla and Itarä, a Südra girl. intellect. Neglected by his brahmin father, he was taught by earth (Mahï). He became mahätma (‘great soul’) known as Aitareya (Itarä’s son) and is the author of the Aitareya Brähmaæa, Honorific for highly meritorious people, Äraæyaka and Upani•ad. such as Mahatma GANDHI.

Mahïpati (1715–90) mähätmya Biographer of the saints of Mahärä•ﬂra A class of writings eulogizing a god, a from Dhyandeva onwards in the person, a place or a text. Bhaktavijaya and Bhaktalïlämøta.

mahä-väkyas (‘great sayings’) Mahi•äsura (‘buffalo demon’) Four brief statements considered by A mighty demon defeated by the god- some Vedäntins to embody the gist of dess. (See also DEVÏ; DURGÄ; KALÏ.) the Upani•ads and to convey LIBERATION: tat tvam asi (‘That you are’), Chändogya VI, 8, 7; aham brahmäsmi Mahmud of Ghazni (971–1030) (‘I am brahman’), Bøhadäraæyaka I, 4; The first Muslim invader, who under- ayam ätma brahma (‘This self is brah- took major raids into India, defeated Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 111

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Hindu princes and annexed large areas mälä in north-western India. He is responsi- A garland, used to honour and decorate ble for the destruction of the famous the image of a god, or a person; a string SOMANÄTHA temple in Gujarat and of beads, used to recite mantras or many other Hindu sancturies, which he names of deities, such a tulsïmälä, made plundered. His name is a symbol of of beads from the wood of the TULASÏ fanaticism and hostility to Hindus. plant, employed by many VAIÆŒAVAS to recite the MAHÄMANTRA. Mäläs usually Maitreya (‘friendly’) have a specific number of beads (often A ø•i (sage), the son of Kuÿarava, a dis- 108 or a fraction thereof). ciple of PARÄŸARA, one of the main interlocutors in the Vi•æu and Malaviya, Pandit Mohan Bhägavata Puräæas. (1861–1946) Founder and first vice-chancellor of Maitreyï Benares Hindu University (1915). He One of the wives of YAJÑAVÄLKYA, was the co-founder of Hindu Mahä- famous for conducting philosophical sabhä (1909), a right-wing political conversations with her husband. (See party with the aim of establishing a also GÄRGÏ.) Hindu rä•ﬂra (rule) in India. He was also editor of Hindustan Times. Maitri manana (‘reflecting’) Ancient mystical philosopher, after whom the Maitri Upani•ad was named. The second step in the process of meditation (the first being ÿravana [listening] and the third nididhyäsana [contempla- Makara tion, trance]). A large aquatic animal (alligator, crocodile, dolphin?), the VAHANA (vehicle) of VARUŒA, often represented on Hindu manas (‘mind’) temples. Understanding, intelligence. In Indian philosophy manas is different from Makära (‘the five ms’) citta, caitanya (CONCIOUSNESS) and ätman (SELF) or puru•a (spirit). Manas Requisites for tantric worship (taboos for is the instrument through which sense Hindus generally): madya (wine); mäƒsa impressions affect the ätman. It is com- (meat); matsya (fish); mudrä (a particular parable to the scholastic sensus com- variety of parched grain); maithuna munis, the faculty that mediates (extramarital sexual intercourse). (See also between the senses and the mind TANTRA (2).) proper.

Mäl (‘great’) Manasä, also Manasä devï Tamil name for VIÆŒU and KØÆŒA. (‘snake-goddess’) The sister of ŸEÆA, the serpent king, she mala (‘impurity’) is endowed with special powers to Moral or physical pollution, especially counteract the poison of serpents; also bodily secretions, which makes one called Vi•aharä, ‘destroyer of venom’. unfit for worship. She is very popular in South India. Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 112

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Mänasa, also Mänasa- Maæõana Miÿra (eighth century CE) sarovara Celebrated exponent of Purva A lake in the Himälayas on Mount MÏMÄßSÄ, whom ŸA¢KARA (2) defeated Kailäsa, believed to be native place of in a long debate. swans who return there every year to breed. Mandara The mountain that the gods and ASURAS Mänasära used as stick during their CHURNING OF An ancient treatise on architecture, pro- THE OCEAN. It has been identified with a viding much detail with regard to the mountain of that name in Bhägalpur. building of houses and temples, the making of sculptures and the laying out of towns. Mändhätø An ancient king after whom the Mändhätø period (traditionally set at Mänava Dharmä-ÿästra 2750–2550 BCE) has been named. Some See MANU-SMØTI. peculiar myths surround him. His father, Yuvanäÿva, having been child- Mandäkinï less for a long time, conceived him after The GA¢GÄ, especially the part that drinking some consecrated water and flows through KEDARNÄTH (2). gave birth to him from his right side. When Mändhätø grew up he had three sons as well as fifty daughters, all of maæõala (1) (‘circle’, ‘orb’) whom were married to an old sage One of the ten sections of the Øgveda. called Saubhari, who had assumed a youthful form. maæõala (2) Complex geometric design, used in maæõira (tantric) rituals, to involve the entire See TEMPLE. cosmos. It is used in the ground plan of the Hindu temple, which is seen as a miniature cosmos. Mäæõukya Upani•ad One of the principal Upani•ads, which maæõala (3) teaches the four stages of CONSCIOUS- Consecrated enclosed space, or any cir- NESS and being. Gauõapada’s Kärikäs cular arrangements of religiously mean- (glosses) on it were the seminal text for ingful objects, e.g. Braja-maöõala, the the development of Ÿaökara’s ADVAITA area covered by places reminiscent of VEDÄNTA. Kø•æa around Mathurä–Vøndävana; rasa-maæõala, the circular platform on which the rasa dance is performed. Maögala The planet Mars, identified with KÄRTTIKEYA, the god of war. Son of Ÿiva maöõala-nøtya (‘round dance’) and the earth, he is also called The dance of the GOPÏS around Kø•æa Bhümiputra (son of the earth) and and Rädhä, as desribed in the Lohita (red). Maögalavära (Tuesday) is Bhägavatam. named after him. Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 113

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Maögalä (‘the auspicious one’) the Tirukovaiar, describing the love An aspect of the Goddess (DEVÏ). between Ÿiva and Pärvatï. His IMAGE is worshipped in many South Indian Ÿiva temples. maögala (‘auspicious’, ‘benedictory’) Maögala-stotra, an introductory verse Maæimat to major literary works, invoking the blessings of gods and gurus, and often A demon, slain by BHÏMA (2). Followers summarizing in a few words the inten- of MADHVA spread the story that tions of the author. ŸA¢KARA was in fact Maæimat, the ille- gitimate son of a widow, dedicated to misleading those destined to remain in Maæidvïpa (‘island of gems’) SAßSÄRA. The paradise of the Goddess (DEVÏ). Situated above Brahmäloka, also called manomaya (‘made of mind’) Sarvaloka (‘all places’), it is described in glowing terms in the Devï Bhägavata One of the sheaths of the self. Puräæa as of immense dimensions, con- According to Upani•adic teaching the sisting of eighteen concentric enclo- self is ‘layered’, with a variable number sures, each made of precious metals or of ‘sheaths’ surrounding the spiritual gems, filled with precious objects and core, or ätman proper. The outermost happy people. The innermost enclosure, layer consists of food (annamaya koÿa), made of navaratna (nine jewels), con- then comes the ‘breath sheath’ (präna- tains the seat of the Goddess: she is maya koÿa), the ‘mind sheath’ seated on a throne whose legs are Vi•æu, (manomaya koÿa), enveloping ‘under- Brahmä, Rudra and Maheÿvara. She standing’ (vijñänamaya koÿa), which dispenses enlightenment and enjoyment surrounds the spirit–soul (ätman). All and frees her devotees from the bondage the ‘sheaths’ are perishable and subject of the world. Maæidvïpa is described as to change; only the ätman (pure CON- being of immense dimensions, filled SCIOUSNESS) is eternal and unchanging. It with lakes of nectar, gem-bearing trees, is the aim of the process of LIBERATION beautiful birds and surrounded by rivers to divest the ätman of these enveloping of milk, honey and juices of all sorts. sheaths, through which it is connected The mountains of the island are made of with SAßSARA. a variety of gems. All inhabitants enjoy the highest bliss for ever. To come to mantra (1) this place, a person only has to remem- Vedic hymn, sacred text (if it is metrical ber Devï seated in Maæidvïpa at the and to be recited loudly it is called øk; if time of death. in prose and muttered in a low tone, it is called yajus; if intended for chanting Mäæikkaväcakar (c. 650–715 CE) it is called säman). (‘the ruby-worded’) Born of brahmin parents near Madurai, mantra (2) he was for a time chief minister of the The Vedic SAßHITÄS. kingdom of Madurai. He became a SAMNYÄSI and one of the greatest of the 63 NÄYAŒMÄRS. He was author of the mantra (3) famous Tiruväcakam (‘Sacred words’), Spell, charm, incantation, powerful for- a collection of Tamil hymns in praise of mula or word. Part of the initiation cer- Ÿiva, widely used in Tamilnädü, and of emony into a saƒpradäya consists of Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 114

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transmission of a mantra from GURU to märga (‘road’, ‘path’) disciple, meant to be a personal inner This can be both an ordinary road and guide, and not to be divulged to anyone a spiritual path. Traditionally Hinduism else. is divided into the so-called trimärga (threefold path): karmamärga (‘path of Manu (1) works’, ritual activity); jñänamärga (‘path of knowledge’, meditation); and A celebrated personality representing bhaktimärga (‘path of devotion’, wor- humankind, and ancestor of the human ship of images). race (a human being is a manu•ya, a ‘child of Manu’). Märkaæõeya Puräna (eighth century CE Manu (2) ?) Name of each of the 14 progenitors and One of the Mahäpuräæas, ascribed to rulers of humankind presiding over Märkaæõeya, son of Møkaæõa, who one manvantara, a world age lasting was remarkable for his austerities and 4,320,000 years. The first (who lived his long life (he is also called Dïrghäyus, over 30 million years ago) was called ‘long-lived’). Most of the stories are told Manu Sväyambhuva, ‘the self-existent’. by birds knowledgeable in the Vedas. The Devï-mähätmya is part of it. He is the father of the ten PRAJÄPATIS, progenitors of different races. He also is the reputed author of the Manusmøti as marriage (vivaha) well as a work on ritual. The present According to tradition, marriage did Manu is the seventh, called Vaivasvata, not exist in the early times. It was intro- ‘sun-born’, also called Satyavrata. He duced by the sage ŸVETAKETU, after an was saved from the great flood by the incident involving his mother. Since intervention of Vi•æu’s fish AVATÄRA. then it has been of utmost importance (See also FLOOD.) to Hindus. Only a married couple was seen as a complete ‘unit’ for worship Manu-smøti, also Mänava and participation in socially relevant Dharma-ÿästra (‘Manu’s Law’) acts. Vivaha was the most important The most influential of all Hindu codes, SAßSKÄRA (rite of passage), the only one ascribed to the first MANU (2) for women. Hindu law recognized eight Sväyambhuva. It gives an elevated posi- forms of marriage (including abduction tion to brahmins. Its twelve books deal and purchase of the bride), though the with creation (I), the sources of DHAR- preferred mode was always the mar- MA and the duties of a BRAHMACÄRI (II), riage arranged by the parents of bride the duties of a householder (III and IV), and bridegroom. While traditional the duties of women and dietary regula- Hindu law allowed Hindu men to tions (V), rules concerning vänaprastya marry up to four wives, most Hindu (see VÄNAPRAÆﬁHA) and SAMNYÄSA (VI), marriages today are monogamous. The the duties of kings (VII), civil and crim- HINDU MARRIAGE ACT (1955 with many inal law (VIII), domestic laws (IX), the later amendments) provides a certain origin, development and rules of castes uniformity of procedures and regula- (X), general laws of morality, sins and tions concerning marriage, divorce, chil- expiation of sins (XI), consequences of dren, property etc. Hindu marriage good and bad actions, nature of the soul ceremonies are usually conducted by and transmigration, the way to release brahmin priests and involve a rich and (XII). ancient ritual. According to the Øgveda Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 115

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one should not have an unmarried girl who has reached puberty in the house. Nineteenth-century reformers tried to abolish child marriage. Indian civil law prohibits it, and has set the legal age for marriage at 18 for girls and 21 for boys. (See also EQUALITY OF WOMEN.)

Maruts The storm gods, sons of RUDRA, quite prominent in the Øgveda, friends and allies of Indra. Many legends surround their origin and their name (derived from Indra’s injunction ma rodih, ‘cry not’).

mätä, also mätäjï (‘mother’) Honorific for religious women, especially the leaders of religious movements.

A Hindu wedding taking place in the maﬂha United Kingdom. The bride is placing A hermit’s hut, a cell, a religious centre, a garland around the groom’s neck. ‘monastery’, often combined with a school. the goal of marriage is to enable a man to offer to the gods and to beget a son Mathurä who will ensure the continuity of the One of the seven ancient holy cities of sacrifice. Woman was called ‘half of India, on the right bank of the Yamunä, man’, and the domestic sacrifices could about 150 km south of Delhi. It is the only be performed by husband and wife birthplace of Kø•æa and an important jointly. A son, putra, is so called centre of Kø•æa worship for over 2,000 because he pulls (tra) his parents out of years, with many temples and maﬂhas. hell (pu). He is important not only for Mathurä was famous for its school of the continuation of the family, but also sculptors (some of the most celebrated for the spiritual welfare of his parents figures of Buddha came from it) that and ancestors in the world beyond. The lasted from about 50 to 1200 CE and is last rites can normally only be performed also the site of an important archaeo- by a male offspring (when no male rela- logical museum. tive was available, a girl had to be ‘made a son’ to qualify for this ritual). In the Middle Ages the marriage of matriarchy young children became a common cus- There are several accounts in Sanskrit tom (consummation being delayed, usu- literature of realms ruled by women and ally until puberty). Since child mortality matriarchal constitutions of tribes. At was very high, many children were mar- present the Nairs of South India provide ried and widowed several times before the best example. Nair is a generic name puberty. The custom is believed to have covering the castes of Menons, had its roots in a Hindu tradition that Panikkars, Nambiars and others, mainly Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 116

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in today’s Kerala. The women own the be the author of the Maya-mata, an exten- property, and inheritance is from mother sive handbook on architecture. to daughter. Relationship and descent are traced from women. Husbands mäyä often do not live with their wives but (‘deceit’, ‘fraud’, ‘illusion’, ‘deception’) come only to visit. (See also EQUALITY OF Personified as the bewitching power of WOMEN; WOMEN.) VIÆŒU in the form of a beautiful woman at the time of the CHURNING OF THE Mätøkas, also Mätøs (‘mothers’) OCEAN, which deprived the demons of The divine mothers; the spouses of AMØTA. In Vedänta, especially in Vi•æu, Ÿiva, Brahmä and other deities. ADVAITA, mäyä comes to mean the uni- While often a large or an indefinite versal illusion that veils the minds of number of ‘mothers’ is mentioned, the humans. ‘seven mothers’ (saptamätøkäs) Brahmï, Maheÿvarï, Kaumärï, Vai•æavï, Mäyon, also Mäyavan Mahendrï, Varähï and Cämuöõä are (‘the one who possesses mäyä’) often found represented together as a unit in temples. Tamil names for VIÆŒU.

Matsya (‘fish’) meat eating The first of Vi•æu’s AVATÄRAS, associat- The Øgveda and later Vedic writings ed with the salvation of MANU (2) from indicate that meat eating (even beef) the Great FLOOD. was common in ancient India, especially in connection with animal SACRIFICES. Matsya Puräæa When Jainism and Buddhism protested against the killing of animals both for One of the older Puräæas, so called ritual and commercial purposes, because it is said to have been revealed to VEGETARIANISM also became popular in MANU (2) by the MATSYA AVATÄRA of Hinduism, particularly among Vi•æu, although it is mostly a ŸAIVA work. VAIÆŒAVAS, who ceased to perform animal sacrifices. Beef eating must have Maurya ceased long before MANU (2), because A royal dynasty founded by the MANU-SMØTI provides for punish- Candragupta (in 323 BCE) at Pataliputra ments for killing a COW almost as severe (modern Patna) in MAGADHA. Tra- as those for killing a brahmin. Ÿaivas ditionally there were ten Maurya kings and Ÿäktas continue to eat meat, espe- whose rule lasted for 137 years. In the cially goat and chicken, but also buffalo Vi•æu Puräæa the list reads: Candra- and deer. (See also FOOD.) gupta, Bindusära, Aÿokavardhana, Suyaÿas, Daÿaratha, Sangata, Ÿäliÿüka, Soma- Medätithi (c. 825-900) ÿarman, Ÿaÿadharman and Bøhadratha. Author of a celebrated commentary on the MANU-SMØTI. Maya A DAITYA, considered the chief architect of the ASURAS, the counterpart of VIŸVA- medha (‘sacrifice’) KARMAN (2) (architect of the DEVAS). The This can be an element in words such as Mahäbhärata mentions that he built a aÿvamedha (horse SACRIFICE), as well as palace for the PÄŒ¥AVAS. He is reputed to the quality that makes an animal fit for Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 117

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sacrifice (asses and camels, for instance, Megasthenes (fourth century BCE) are unfit for sacrifice, because they lack Greek ambassador to the Maurya medha). emperor Candragupta at Pataliputra (Patna), whose book Indika remained medicine for many centuries the main source of Traditional Indian medicine was information in the West about ancient holistic, i.e. it aimed at restoring a India. The work is known today only balance between the various compo- from quotes and references in other nents of a person, believed to be dis- ancient writers. turbed in sickness. Thus the medical treatises by Caraka (Caraka Saƒhitä) melä (‘gathering’) and Suÿruta (Suÿruta Saƒhitä) con- Generic designation of all popular festi- tain, besides physiological diagnoses vals, usually with a religious back- and remedies, instructions concerning ground, such as the KUMBHA-MELÄ. the right lifestyle and the attainment of the ultimate goal. Ancient Indian medicine was quite advanced in its Melkote surgical procedures, its knowledge of Town in Karæätaka, to which the pharmaceutical properties of RÄMÄNUJA fled to avoid the persecu- plants and its understanding of psy- tions of the Ÿaivite COLA king, and chosomatic diseases. (See also which under the HOYŸALA king, whom AYURVEDA.) Rämänuja converted from JAINISM, became an important centre of meditation ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM. A generic translation of a variety of Indian notions referring to interioriza- Menä ton (manana, reflecting on a text; An APSARA sent by Indra to seduce the pratyahära, withdrawing the senses; sage Viÿvämitra to tempt him to desist dhyäna, a trance-like condition; from his austerities; she became the upäsana, worshipful meditation on a mother of ŸAKUNTALÄ. deity, samädhï, contemplation); often Yoga is identified with meditation as such, although it consists of a variety merit (puæya) of practices, whose ultimate aim, An important notion in Hinduism: however, is in-depth meditation the result of good karma and the con- (kaivalya, understood as a return of dition for a good afterlife. Often the the self to its own nature). Hinduism aÿva-medha, the most prestigious of has been associated for ages with Vedic yajñas (SACRIFICES), was used as meditation, and contemporary GURUS a measure of merit to be gained from usually establish themselves in the a particular religious act, such as a West as teachers of new meditation dip in a sacred river at a particular techniques. time, or the giving of a gift to a brahmin. megaliths These are found in many places in India, Meru and are associated with the MAGAS, The mountain in the centre of the who were famous for being able to world, on whose top lies SVARGA, move huge objects. Indra’s heaven. Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 118

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Meykaæõa(deva) (13th century) be performed but only describe already Religious name of Ÿvetabana, a Ÿaiva existing entities. philosopher, author of the Ÿivajñana- In addition to explaining the mean- bodha, an important source for ing of certain Vedic injunctions, the ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA, often commented Mïmäƒsakas analysed the nature and upon by Tamil authors in later centuries. structure of LANGUAGE. They developed principles of interpretation which found application in the practice of Hindu law milk up to our own times. (See also ŸABDA.) Hindus consider COW’s milk the perfect FOOD and drink, the most sattvik (pure) of all. Milk from a kapila (brownish) cow Mïnäk•ï (‘the fish-eyed one’) was reserved for brahmins and for Title of the Goddess (DEVÏ) as wor- worship. Bathing an IMAGE in milk is a shipped in the main shrine of MADURAI particularly solemn form of PÜJÄ. Advanced in Tamilnäõü. There is an ancient belief YOGIS subsist often on milk alone. that fish feed their young by just looking at them; the Goddess is expected to give support to her devotees through Mïmäƒsä (‘disquisition’) her mere glance. This usually refers to the short form of Pürva Mïmäƒsä (‘earlier disquisition’) mind over against Uttara Mïmäƒsä (‘later disquisition’, or Vedänta). It is one of The English word ‘mind’ is the transla- the six orthodox (systems) (darÿanas), tion of two Sanskrit terms with very dif- devoted to the exegesis of the karma- ferent meanings and connotation in kända (the part dealing with ritual) of Hindu thought: (1) manas (which ety- the Veda, focusing on the injunctions mologically is close to Latin mens and contained in them. English ‘mind’) is classified as the highest among the sense organs, the The earliest text is the Mïmäƒsä Sütra, medieval sensus communis; (2) ‘higher ascribed to JAIMINI. It is a collection of mind’, i.e. spirit, consciousness, is ren- aphorisms analysing the elements of Vedic dered by terms such as cit, caitanya, commands in connection with rituals. The buddhi etc. Mïmäƒsä Sütras were extensively commented on by ŸABARA in the so-called Ÿäbarabhä•ya, which received many sub- Mïräbäï (1547–1614) commentaries by later writers such as Räjasthani princess, an early and ardent KUMÄRILA BHAﬁﬁA and Pärthasärathi devotee of Kø•æa, she was married into Miÿra (14th century). a ŸAKTI-worshipping Räjput household The Mïmäƒsakas held the Veda to at Chitor. She refused to worship the be apauru•eya, i.e. not composed by a Goddess (DEVÏ), saying she was wedded person, either divine or human, but self- to Kø•æa. She was forced to leave existent and eternal. That gave it Chitor, and fled to VØNDÄVANA. supreme authority, and its WORD is the Reconciled with her husband, she ultimate proof of the truth of a state- moved back to Chitor, but after his ment. They also insisted that only those death she was mistreated by her in-laws portions of the Veda are ÿruti (revealed and left again for Vøndävana. and therefore authoritative scripture) According to a local tradition she was that contain an injunction; the rest absorbed into a Kø•æa image while wor- (such as Upani•ads) are mere eulogy, shipping there. Her beautiful poems and because they do not prescribe actions to songs are still recited by Kø•æa BHAKTAS Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 119

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(devotees), and she is one of the Mitra (‘friend’) favourite saints of northern India. (See A name of the SUN. In the Vedas Mitra also ANﬁÄL.) is usually associated with VARUŒA as guardian of morality: Mitra rules the miracle day, and Varuæa the night. An essential ingredient especially of popular Hinduism. Apart from the mleccha (‘barbarian’) siddhis (miraculous powers, e.g. making People who do not speak Sanskrit and oneself small like an atom or big like a do not observe the rules of life of the mountain) ascribed to famous YOGIS Äryans; a foreigner, an outcast. (and obtainable through methodic Siddha Yoga) every temple, big and moha (‘delusion’) small, boasts of miracles that happened to worshippers, from cures from incur- One of the ‘three gates to hell’, to be able diseases to manifestations of life by avoided by a religious person. (See also the mürtis (IMAGES), which are reported LOBHA, KRODHA.) to have drunk the milk offered to them or to exude healing substances, or to mok•a show signs of menses etc. The epics and See LIBERATION. the Puräæas, especially the Sthäla Puräæas are full of stories of miracles and many Hindus also today claim to Monier-Williams, Monier have witnessed miraculous events, (1819–99) which they report in religious maga- Eminent lexicographer. Born in zines such as Kalyän. A contemporary Bombay, he was the Boden Professor of GURU such as SATHYA SAI BABA is credited Sanskrit at Oxford, founder of the with miraculous powers: he has brought Indian Institute at the University of healing to many and is miraculously pro- Oxford (1883), compiler of a major ducing all kinds of objects, as reported in Sanskrit dictionary, and the author of many books. several scholarly works and translations. Mitäk•arä A commentary by Vijñäneÿvara (fl. month second half of 11th century CE) on the Hindus use a lunar–solar CALENDAR, Yäjñavalkyasmøti which enjoyed great and their months do not coincide with authority all over India. those used in the Gregorian calendar. The year begins in spring with the Mithilä month Caitra (March–April), followed Capital city of Videha, in today’s north- by Vai•äkha (April–May), Jyai•ﬂha (May– ern Bihär, the country over which King June), Ä•äõha (June–July), Ÿrävana JANAKA ruled. (July–August), Bhädra (August–Septem- ber), Äÿvina (September– October), Kär- mithyä (‘false’, ‘unreal’) ttika (October–November), Märgaÿïr•a (November–December), Pau•a (December– Description of the visible world from January), Mägha (January–February), the standpoint of ADVAITA VEDÄNTA: Phälguna (February–March). All the brahma satyam, jagad mithyä (‘brahman Hindu FESTIVALS are calculated accord- is real, the world is false’). ing to this CALENDAR. Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 120

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moon near Bombay. On a world tour in 1974 The hundreds of synonyms and epithets he also found many Western disciples. for the moon in Hindu literature (e.g. After his death Malti and Subhash candra(mä), soma, ÿaÿï, ÿaÿäöka, rajanï- Chetty (Swami Cidvilasananda and kara, niÿäketu, niÿäpati, tärädhipati Swami Nityananda) continued the etc.) indicate its great importance. In ashram activities. Vedic times the moon was believed to be the abode of the blessed forefathers. mukti It was also believed to be the source of See LIBERATION. nectar, which was distilled from its rays. New moon (ämavasya) and full moon (pürnimä) were the occasions of the Müller, Friedrich Max archetype of all Vedic ritual sacrifices (1823–1900) (darÿapürnamäsa), and the moon-days Son of the German poet Wilhelm (tithis) are the basic time units for reli- Müller, ‘Max Müller’, as he is usually gious observances such as fasting. The called, spent most of his working life in moon is worshipped in the form of the Oxford. While active in many fields – god Soma in the Vedas, Candra in later he is called the founder of the discipline times, and has many other names. (See of comparative religion, did ground- also CALENDAR; SACRIFICE.) breaking work in linguistics and in the study of fables, edited and translated mothers Buddhist works – his contributions to the study of Hinduism were so impres- See MÄTØKÄS. sive that Hindu pandits gave him the title Mok•a Mülä (‘Root of møtyu-sa™skära Liberation’). He published the first crit- See ŸRADDHA. ical text edition of the Øgveda with Säyaæa’s commentary in six volumes Mudalvan (1849–73), initiated the 50- volume series Sacred Books of the East, to A Tamil god, later identified with ŸIVA. which he contributed several volumes of translations (Vedas, Upani•ads, mudrä (‘seal’) Gøhya Sütras), published a book on This can also be a seal-ring, a mark, an Ramakrishna (1898) after meeting impression, a gesture, a medal or Swami Vivekananda, and a course of stamped coin; mystery (in Tantricism); lectures on The Six Systems of Indian certain positions of fingers, e.g. abhaya- Philosophy (1899). While some of his mudrä, gesture of reassurance. work has been superseded by more recent scholarship and some of his the- muhürta ories, such as the Äryan invasion of India and the chronology based on it, In general, a short period of time, an have become controversial, his name is instant; specifically, one-thirtieth of a day held in high esteem in India as one of (48 minutes). (See also TIME, DIVISIONS OF.) the pioneers of Indology in the West.

Muktananda, Swami Muæõaka Upani•ad (1908–83) One of the principal Upani•ads, famous Founder of Siddha Dham, a KUŒ¥ALIŒÏ for its distinction between para (higher) Yoga meditation centre in Ganeshpuri, and apara (lower) knowledge. Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 121

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muni mürti (‘embodiment’) Someone who keeps silence, a sage, a An IMAGE used in worship, the presence saint; also a title of honour for religious of the deity. persons. Murti, Tiruppatur muñja Rameseshayyar Venkatachala A kind of grass or rush from which the (1902–85) girdle of a brahmin at initiation is made. Born into a South Indian brahmin family, educated both in the traditional and Munshi, Kanaiyalal Maneklal modern academic ways, for many years (1887–1971) a professor of Philosophy at the Benares Hindu University, with guest professor- Prominent freedom fighter and Con- ships in many prestigious Western uni- gress politician, instrumental in re- versities, although best known for his building and rededicating the ancient work The Central Philosophy of Ÿiva temple at Somnäth, founder of the Buddhism (1955), one of the foremost Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, an important Hindu philosophers and exponents of cultural institution that promotes the ADVAITA VEDÄNTA in our time. He pub- study of Sanskrit and traditional Indian lished dozens of important papers on all learning, and publishes a scholarly jour- aspects of Indian philosophy; some of nal (Bhäratïya Vidyä) and a monograph these are found in H. C. Coward (ed.) series, Bhavan’s Book University, with Studies in Indian Thought: Collected hundreds of volumes on Hindu shrines Papers of Prof. T. R. V. Murti (1983). and saints, Hindu literature and art, translations and summaries of Hindu classics. It also has branches outside Murugan India, promoting the teaching of Tamil god of youth, beauty, divine free- Sanskrit and Hindï. dom, the Lord of the World, war god; also known as Sey, Vel and Neduvel. Muräri The elephant and peacock are associat- (‘the enemy of the demon Mura’) ed with him. Part of his cult is a frenzied A favourite epithet of KØÆŒA. kind of dance, the Veriyadal. He is

Music making from the Ho Tribe, Bihar. Encyclo - Letter M 10/2/03 9:50 am Page 122

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worshipped with flowers, paddy, millet, was done not only for the entertainment and honey. Goats are sacrificed in his of gods and humans but was also con- honour. He became äryanized as sidered a religious exercise (sädhana). Subrahmaæia. (See also KÄRTTIKEYA.) The professional study of music under a master followed a prescribed routine. It consisted mostly of mastering the RÄGAS music and learning to develop these. There The earliest form of Hindu music is the was no musical notation and all training chanting of the Vedic HYMNS: Vedic was aural. Classical Indian music recitation would have been fruitless if recitals have the atmosphere of wor- not done according to the tunes ship, often made explicit by prayers at (sämans) provided. The pitch is noted in the beginning of the performance and modern editions of the Øgveda and has the character of the music played. to be follwed by every reciter. Musical instruments are in evidence on ancient sculptures and were associated with Muyälahan (‘the man of sin’) particular deities: the vïna with A dwarfish figure crushed by Ÿiva in his Sarasvatï, the drum with Ÿiva, the flute dance, symbolizing everything wicked with Kø•æa, and so on. Music making and evil. Encyclo - Letter N 10/2/03 9:52 am Page 123

Naciketas näda (‘sound’) A son of the Vedic ø•i (sage) Uddälaka This is especially a mystical sound (also called Äruni) and a major figure in breaking forth at the time of ecstatic the Taittirïya Brähmaæa and the Kaﬂhta enlightenment. Upani•ad. The Naciketas SACRIFICE is named after him. The story goes that näõi (‘channel’) one day he saw his father offering cows According to tantric physiology the of an inferior quality in a sacrifice (subtle) human body contains 35 mil- intended to attain paradise, and he lion näõis, fine tubular vessels through admonished his father and offered him- which the psychic energy (ÿakti) moves. self as a substitute victim. He asked his Fourteen of these are of primary impor- father to whom he should be sacrificed tance, of which three, Ïõä, Piögalä and and his father, now very angry, replied, Su•umnä constitute the central com- ‘Death’. Naciketas subsequently went plex. Su•umna runs through the hollow down to the underworld but Yama, the of the spinal cord, encircled by Ïõä and god of the dead, was absent and unable Piögalä. to receive him. Yama later apologized and offered Naciketas three boons. Naciketas asked for his father to recover naõukal (‘hero stones’) from his anger, to be brought back to Large stones, often with carvings and life, and for immortality. Yama at first inscriptions, erected by the ancient tried to dissuade him from his last wish, Tamils in memory of those fallen in suggesting that he ask for riches and sen- battle. sual pleasures instead. Naciketas, point- ing out the transience and futility of all Näga terrestrial enjoyment, remained firm, and eventually Yama taught him the secret of Mountain people, inhabitants of Näga- land, in the northeast of India. the immortality of the ÄTMAN. Naciketas then returned to earth, and was reconciled with his father. Interpretations of näga (1) the descent of Naciketas differ: some Snake, more specifically the cobra. assume that Uddälaka actually killed his Nägas are considered the guardians of son in his anger, while others say it was subterranean treasures and receive a symbolic act. extensive worship. Encyclo - Letter N 10/2/03 9:52 am Page 124

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näga (2) näma–rüpa (‘name and form’) Naked ascetics, quite often militant. It is said that in the beginning ‘reality’ was one and undifferentiated: there Naimi•a were no specific things and no manifestation of anything. By obtaining ‘name’ A forest near the Gomatï river, in and ‘form’, individual entities emerged which, according to tradition, the and became manifest. Subsequently the Mahäbhärata was first recited to the expression näma–rüpa was used by assembled sages by the Süta (a tradi- Indian philosophers as a shorthand for tional narrator). finiteness, individuality and particular- ity. Näma–rüpa constitutes an entity as Nai•kärmya-siddhi object, as opposed to consciousness as Treatise by SUREŸVARA, a disciple of subject. ŸA¢KARA (2), which expounds the final truth (siddhi) of ADVAITA VEDÄNTA. Nambüd(i)ris The highest caste of BRÄHMAŒAS (2) naivedya (brahmins) in Kerala, often referred to The offering of cooked food during the as exemplars of CASTE consciousness; in daily mürti-püjä (IMAGE worship). former times a NAYAR had to precede a Nambüdri when he left his house, and nak•atra announce his coming, to make sure that Constellation or lunar mansion, the no OUTCASTE was in sight, because a position of the moon within one of the mere glimpse would pollute him. 27 or 28 parts into which astronomers divided the zodiac belt. The moon is name seen in a different mansion each day. Names are considered the expression of For ASTROLOGERS the position of the the people bearing them. Names and moon in a specific nak•atra is the basis name giving are consequently very for all prognostications. They are per- important in Hindu traditions. Hindu sonified as daughters of Dak•a married parents are advised, when naming a to the moon. child, to chose a name that is pleasant to hear, auspicious in meaning, and appro- Nakula priate for their station. The revealed The fourth of the Päæõava brothers, son names of God are believed to be identi- of MÄDRÏ, famous for his skill with cal to the divine essence: ‘taking the horses. (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.) name’ is the equivalent of entering religious life, and repeating the name (näma-japa) is one of the most common Näm(a)dev(a) (1270–1350) religious exercises. There are litanies of Mahärä•flrian poet-saint, born in a thousand names (Sahasra näma) of Pandharpur, a centre of Vi•æu worship, the major deities that are recited by the into a low-caste family of tailors. Con- devotees. verted from a dissolute life by JÑÄNEŸVARA to the worship of VIfifiHOBÄ, together with twelve members of his Nammä¶vär (ninth century?) family, he composed a very large num- (‘our saint’) ber of abhaögs (HYMNS), which are still Also known as Ÿathakopa, he is consid- used in worship at Pandharpur. ered the greatest among the Ä®VÄRS. He Encyclo - Letter N 10/2/03 9:52 am Page 125

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Statue of Nandi, Chamondi Hill, near Mysore.

is the author of Tiruviruttam, Tiru- Närada (1) vasariyam, Tiruvaymoli and Periya One of the seven ØÆIS to whom some Tiruvandadi. His icon is placed in many Øgvedic süktas (HYMNS) are ascribed. temples and his poems are part of the worship in ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVA temples. Närada (2) One of the PRAJÄPATIS, inventor of the Nanda (1) vïna and chief of the GANDHARVAS (2). A cowherd, who acted as Kø•æa’s foster He also descended to the netherworlds father. and praised their beauty.

Nanda (2) Närada (3) A dynasty of kings of MAGADHA, prede- Author of a Bhaktisütra. cessors of the Mauryas.

Näradïya Puräæa Nandi One of the Vai•æava MAHÄPURÄŒAS A bull, Ÿiva’s VAHANA, son of KAŸYAPA (ascribed to NÄRADA). and Surabhï (KÄMADHENU), the COW of plenty. His IMAGE can be seen in front of all Ÿiva temples, often in a separate naraka (‘hell’) chapel. A place of torture for sinners. The PURÄŒAS enumerate 28 närakas, each designed to punish a specific sin. Nara (‘man’) Although extremely painful, the sojourn Cosmic man; identified with ARJUNA. of sinners in these hells is limited to the Encyclo - Letter N 10/2/03 9:52 am Page 126

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time it takes to atone for their crimes; supreme authority of the Veda; follower they are not eternal. (See also AFTER- of a non-orthodox system, such as LIFE.) Cärväka, Buddhism or Jainism.

Nära-Närada Naﬂa-räja (‘king of dance’) A pair of sages who according to the An epithet of ŸIVA, often represented in Mahäbhärata visited the Ÿvetadvïpa art. (‘White Island’) where they encountered a race of perfect people and their wor- nätha (‘lord’) ship of Vi•æu. Used in titles, e.g. Viÿvanätha, ‘Lord of the World’, a title of ŸIVA. Nara-Näräyaæa ARJUNA and KØÆŒA. Nätha Muni (ninth century) Son of Ïÿvara Muni, first of the äcäryas Närasimha, also Nøsinha (masters) of ŸRÏRA¢GAM who gave to (‘man–lion’) the Tamil PRABANDHAM of the Ä¶värs An AVATÄRA of Vi•æu whose lower part the status of ÿruti in Ÿrïraögam and is human, the upper part a lion. He established himself as supreme teaching appeared to save his devotee PRAHLÄDA authority in ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM. from his father, the demon king HIRAŒYAKAŸIPU. He is widely wor- Näthapanthis shipped in India. See GORAKHNÄﬁHA.

Näräyana (‘the refuge of men’) nationalism One of the most exalted titles of VIÆŒU Hindu nationalism had its first propo- or KØÆŒA. nent in the Bengali novelist Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, who depicted the Näräyaæïyam 1770 Samnyasi Rebellion as a Hindu A short rendition of the Bhägavatam, uprising against foreign domination. He composed in the 16th century by had his protagonists sing a hymn to Meppattur Näräyaæa Bhattatiripad, Mother India, the BANDE MÄTÄRÄM, regularly recited at the Kø•æa temple in which subsequently became the nation- Guruvayur, Kerala. al anthem of the Indian freedom movement. In it he identified the physical Narbadä, also Narmadä landscape of India and its people with the Great Goddess (DEVÏ), for whose A holy river in central India, flowing to liberation everything had to be done in the Arabian Sea, on whose banks are the spirit of a struggle to attain salva- such famous places of pilgrimage as tion. This theme was continued by pow- Nasik. One particularly meritorious erful personalities such as AUROBINDO form of pilgrimage consists of going up GHOSE, Bal Gangadhar TILAK and oth- the whole length of the river on one side ers. Mahatma GANDHI too saw his and down on the other. efforts to free India from colonial rule as a religious mission, though not as a nästika charge to establish a Hindu rä•ﬂra. A heretic, i.e. someone who denies the More radical Hindu nationalists, most Encyclo - Letter N 10/2/03 9:52 am Page 127

127 Nïmavat(s)

of them affiliated with the RÄÆﬁRÏYA the reality of brahman as compared to SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH, and Hindu any object. political parties have been pressing for a long time for the establishment of a nidhi (‘treasure’) Hindu rä•ﬂra, claiming that HINDUTVA, Hindu-ness, is the very essence of India’s Abode, receptacle, the ocean; an epithet identity. (See also HINDU JAGARAN.) of VIÆŒU.

navarätrï (‘nine nights’) nidi-dhyäsana (‘contemplation’) The main feast in honour of ŸIVA, when Third stage of process of meditation, a nightlong vigil is kept before the after ÿravaæa and manana. LI¢GA (3).

nidrä (‘sleep’) Näyaæ(m)är(s) (‘teachers’) Personified as the female form of A group of 63 ŸAIVITE poet-saints, who BRAHMÄ; as Mahänidrä, ‘great sleep’, it flourished between 700 and 1000 CE in marks the period between two cre- South India, whose Tamil works, ations, when everything is resting and known as Tirumurai, are recited in Ÿiva hidden inside VIÆŒU. temples. The Näyaæmärs disregarded distinctions of sex, caste or creed and among them were brahmins, oil sellers, nigama toddy collectors, kings and princesses. The VEDA or a Vedic text; any authori- (See also APPAR, MANIKKAVACAKAR, tative scripture. TIRUMULAR.)

Nighaæﬂu Näyar, also Näir, Näyyar Part of the NIRUKTA, one of the Vedäögas; A group of jätïs in Kerala (for example a glossary of obsolete and obscure Vedic Panikkar and Menon), who are consid- words, attributed to Yäska. ered ŸÜDRAS. They do not receive upanayana (initiation) and must stay seven feet away from a NAMBÜDRI brah- Nïla (‘blue’) min. They held various service positions A range of mountains north of Mount with Nambüdris. MERU.

Nayäyikas Nïla-kaæﬂha, also Nïla-grïva Followers of the NYÄYA school of phil- (‘blue-necked’ or ‘blue-throated’) osophy. An epithet of ŸIVA, whose throat darkened after drinking the poison netherworlds HALÄHALÄ; symbol of Ÿiva’s compas- See PÄTÄLA. sion for the world.

neti-neti Nïmavat(s) A contracted form of na iti, na iti, ‘not Followers of NIMBÄRKA, members of the so, not so’, an Upani•adic expression Haƒsa saƒpradäya, with major centres used to indicate the total otherness of in Braja, Bengal and Rajasthan. Encyclo - Letter N 10/2/03 9:52 am Page 128

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Nimbärka, also Nimäditya, ni•-käma (‘without desire’) Niyamänanda (1125–62) Ni•käma karma: a desireless action Telugu brahmin, founder of the does not result in karma, according to (VAIÆŒAVA) Sanakädi (or Haƒsa) the Bhagavadgïta. saƒpradäya, in which the role of the GURU becomes all important. His teach- nïti ing is known as Dvaitädvaitaväda, a combination of ADVAITA and DVAITA. Polity, ‘ethics’, the art of living. His commentary on the BRAHMASÜTRA is known as Vedäntaparijätasaurabha. Nïti ÿästra For Nimbärka brahman is identical Didactic works on the wisdom of life, with Kø•æa, who is omniscient, omnipo- usually in the form of animal fables and tent and all-pervading. parables, interspersed with verses to remember, such as the famous PAÑCA- nime•a (‘twinkling of an eye’) TANTRA and the Hitopadeÿa. A moment. nitya (‘eternal’, ‘permanent’) nir-guæa (‘without qualities’) Nitya karma: rituals that have to be per- This expression is used with reference to formed daily until the end of one’s life. the ‘higher brahman’ by ŸA¢KARA (2), rejected by RÄMÄNUJA. ni-vøtti (‘contraction’) The opposite of and counterpart to niøøti (‘death’, ‘decay’, ‘devolution’) pravøtti (‘creation’, ‘expansion’). In a Sometimes personified as a goddess cosmological context it designates the (DEVÏ). phase in which the universe contracts and disappears. In a personal sense it signifies renunciation, abstinence and Nirukta self-mortification. One of the VEDÄŒGAS; an etymological glossary to the Vedas, ascribed to Yäska. niyama (‘restraint’) It consists of three parts: (1) Naighaæﬂuka (a list of synonyms); (2) Naigama (list of A self-imposed or minor observance. In words used only in the Vedas); (3) the YOGA SÜTRAS these are given as the Daivata (words relating to deities and complement to YAMA as a precondition rituals) with Yäska’s commentary. for meditation, and are enumerated as purity (ÿauca), contentment (saƒto•a), self-mortification (tapas), scripture Ni•äda (1) study (svädhyäya), self-surrender to the A forest tribe living in the Vindhya Lord (ïÿvara praæidhäna). mountains, the Bhïls.

Ni•äda (2) non-violence Outcastes, the children of a Brähmana See AHIßSÄ. father and a Ÿüdra mother. nyäsa (‘placing’, ‘putting down’) ni•-kala (‘without parts’) Assigning different parts of the body to spe- Undivided, whole; a characteristic of cific deities in worship by touching them BRAHMAN. and uttering appropriate MANTRAS (3). Encyclo - Letter N 10/2/03 9:52 am Page 129

129 Nyäya Sütras

Nyäya example (udahäraæa), corroborative One of the six orthodox systems of instance (upanaya) and inference (niga- Hindu philosophy. While best known mana). for its detailed treatment of logic and Some later Nyäya works offer proofs epistemology (tarkaÿästra) Nyäya also for the existence of God, against the deals with metaphysical matters such as assertions of Buddhists and Cärväkas. the nature of the self and means of final The Lord is qualified by the absence emancipation (adhyätmavidyä). The (abhäva) of lawlessness (adharma), fal- beginnings of Nyäya may be traced to sity (mithyäjñäna), and error (pramäda), the disputations of Vedic scholars and and by the positive presence of right- the debates of Upani•adic sages. The eousness, knowledge and goodwill. oldest text is the Nyäya Sütras, ascribed to GAUTAMA (2), which were commented upon by later specialists. In the 12th nyäya century Nava Nyäya, the ‘new school of Well-known maxims such as andha- logic’, developed, focusing on the means paraƒpara-nyäya, the maxim of the of valid cognition (PRAMÄŒAS). The blind following the blind. most important text is Gaögeÿa’s Tattva- cintämaæi. The Nyäya Sütras assert that a Nyäya Sütras (c. 300 BCE) knowledge of the true character of the The basic text of the Nyäya darÿana 16 categories it deals with leads the stu- (system), ascribed to GAUTAMA (2), dent to the attainment of the highest dealing with means of right cognition, good. Nyäya uses a syllogism of five objects of right cognition, doubt, dis- members: statement of the point to be putation etc. commented upon by proved (pratijñä), reason (hetu), illustrative VÄTSYÄYAŒA (1). Encyclo - Letter O 10/2/03 9:54 am Page 130

Oldenberg, Hermann Mysticism East and West), and a broad- (1854–1920) based comparison of Vai•æavism and One of the pioneers of Indology whose Christianity (Die Gnadenreligion works proved to have wide appeal and Indiens und das Christentum). He also lasting value. He initially focused on founded a museum for the history of Buddhism, translating many texts for religions at Marburg University and the Pali Text Society and the Sacred helped to draw the attention of Books of the East, and was the author European students to the theistic tradi- of the classic Buddha: Sein Leben, seine tions of Hinduism. Lehre, seine Gemeinde (1881). His contributions to the study of Hinduism are outcaste equally substantial. His work on Vedic Pañcama, or ‘fifth (varæa)’, is a designa- religion, originally published in 1894, tion of a large number of inhabitants of was translated more than a century later India who do not belong to one of the into English: The Religion of the Veda four VARŒAS. While many so-called out- (1988). His translations of Vedic hymns castes never belonged to Hindu CASTE and of some Gøhya Sütras are part of society, a large number were former the Sacred Books of the East series. His caste members who as punishment for studies of the Mahäbhärata were published posthumously (1922).

Om See AUM.

Otto, Rudolf (1869–1937) While best known for his Das Heilige (The Holy), an attempt to articulate a general theory of religion, he also has done considerable work on Hinduism, especially on VAIÆŒAVISM. He published an anthology of Vai•æava texts (Vischnu Narayana: Texte zur indischen Gottes- mystik), a comparative study of Ÿaö- kara and Meister Eckhart (in English: Rudolf Otto (1869–1937). Encyclo - Letter O 10/2/03 9:54 am Page 131

131 outcaste

some serious infringement of caste reg- GANDHI called them Harijan, ‘God’s ulations were excommunicated. Many people’, and wanted to make them part outcastes originated from unlawful of the Ÿüdra varæa. The Indian consti- mixed marriages, others from neglect of tution of 1950 outlaws untouchability rituals (former Buddhists or Jains). and legally gives equal status to all Certain professions, such as leather Indians. In practice the former workers (cämärs) and sweepers untouchables are still widely disadvan- (bhaögis) and attendants at funerary taged and attempts to improve their sites (dom), were deemed hereditarily chances, such as those made by the unclean, and could only be held by out- Mandal Commission (1989) are met castes. Outcastes were not allowed to with violent resistance from the higher live in villages, to use the common wells castes. Many former outcastes have or to share food with caste people, and organized themselves as DALITS they were often subjected to cruel pun- (‘oppressed’) and are fighting for eco- ishment for minor offences. Mahatma nomic and social equality. Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 132

padapaﬂha Narasimhavarma II (695–722), under The text of the Veda in which each whom the famous Kailäsanäﬂha temple word (päda) stands distinct, not joined in Käñcïpura was built. Around 900 CE to preceding or following words. the Pallava kingdom was annexed by the COLAS. padma pañca-lak•ana A lotus or lotus-like ornament; also a name of RÄMA. Padma-äsana: a lotus See MÄHÄPURÄŒA. seat. Pañcäöga (‘five limbs’) Padmanäbha Yearly almanac, which provides astro- One of Vi•æu’s VYÜHAS, bearing five nomical charts for every fortnight of a shields as emblem. year, indispensable for astrologers, as well as for the determination of feast days. (See also ASTROLOGY CALENDAR Padma Puräæa ; ; FESTIVALS.) One of the Vai•æava MAHÄPURÄŒAS, deriving its name from the period when the world was a golden lotus. Päñcarätra (‘five nights’) An ancient VAIÆŒAVA theological tradi- pagala (‘mad’) tion, which accepts the separate reality A type of saint, whose behaviour is of God, world and human being. It has abnormal, but still within certain recog- become part of the theology of nized religious limits. ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM. The name has also been explained as signifying the synthesis of five hitherto divided traditions, namely Pallavas the Ekäntika, the Bhägavata, the South Indian dynasty, c. 300–888 CE, Näräyaæïya, the Vaikhänasa, and the whose capital was Käñcïpuram; gener- Sätvata. The first promoter of the ous patrons of the arts and promoters of Päñcarätra doctrine was Ÿäæõilya, the ŸAIVISM. Well-known Pallava monarchs author of a Bhaktisütra. The main are Mahendravarma I (600–30 CE), sources for Päñcarätra are the volumi- Narasimhavarma I (630–60 CE), under nous Päñcarätra Ägamas, of which the whose reign the seven rathas of best known are the Ahirbudhnya, the MAHÄBALIPURA were constructed, Sanätkumära and the Parameÿvara. Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 133

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Pañcatantra (fifth century CE) wish, and became SATÏ. Since the five A collection of moral tales and fables in Päæõava brothers were the sons of his five (pañca) books (tantra), by two wives, they were treated as his sons. Vi•æuÿarman, for the teaching of nïti They were one of the major groups of (ethics) to young people. Its stories have protagonists in the Mahäbhärata. been often retold and translated into many languages. Many of Aesop’s Pandharpur fables are believed to be derived from it. Place of pilgrimage in Mahärä•flra, sacred to Viflflal or Viflflhobä (a form of pañcäyata (‘council of five’) Vi•æu) made famous by TUKÄRÄM and A traditional committee of five mem- his followers, the Värkarïs. bers of the same CASTE, to oversee observance of caste rules. After inde- paæõita (‘learned’) pendence pañcäyats were introduced all An honorific applied to high personalities. over India as village councils to decide on all issues concerning the interest of the local population. Päæõu (‘the pale’) Brother of Dhøtarä•flra, king of pañcäyätana püjä Hastinäpura. (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA; (‘the [simultaneous] worship of five PÄŒ¥AVAS.) deities’) The worship of Gaæeÿa, Sürya, Vi•æu, Päæõya Ÿiva and Devï was reputedly introduced A realm and a dynasty in South India, by ŸA¢KARA (2) to reconcile the various from c. 500 BCE to c. 1700 CE. The Hindu SAßPRADÄYAS. The practice suggests Päæõyas derive their name and origin that all the various deities are but appear- from the PÄŒ¥AVAS. The early history ances of the one (invisible) BRAHMAN. and the extent of the kingdom is uncer- tain. Several Päæõya rulers invaded Ÿrï Laökä, and they feuded with the Päæõavas PALLAVAS, the Ceras and the COLAS, The five putative sons of Päæõu, who whom they supplanted in the 13th cen- was deterred by a curse from fathering tury as the leading power of South his own children. While out hunting one India. One of their rulers, Neduvarman day he shot an antelope that was in the (c. 700 CE) became a ŸAIVA after marry- process of mating. The dying animal, a ing a Cola princess, and had 8,000 Jains transformed ØÆI (sage), cursed him with killed in MADURAI. One branch of the death during sexual intercourse. He Päæõyas, the Nayyakas (1420–1736) therefore refused to sleep with his two became famous as builders of magnifi- wives, and asked them to summon gods cent temples, including the Mïnäk•ï to father children for him. Kuntï, his temple at MADURAI (1600–50), the Raöganätha temple in ŸRÏRA¢GAM first wife, had YUDHIÆfiHIRA from (1620–89), and the huge temple at Dharma, BHÏMA from Väyu and ARJUNA RAMEŸVARAM. from Indra. Mädrï, his second and favourite wife, had NAKULA and SAHADEVA from the Aÿvins. However, Päæinï (sixth century BCE) one day desire overcame him, and he The most celebrated Indian grammarian, died during intercourse with Mädrï, author of the AÆfiÄDHYÄYÏ (‘eight-chap- who ascended his funeral pyre at his ter-work’), considered one of the greatest Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 134

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accomplishments of the human mind. teachers is considered unsound and not From ancient times Päæinï was revered as conducive to LIBERATION. a ØÆI (sage) and his work was considered to be inspired by Ÿiva. The study of gram- Paräÿara (14th century BCE?) mar was undertaken as a spiritual disci- A ø•i (sage) to whom some of the Øgvedic pline and was considered indispensable süktas (HYMNS) are attributed. He is also for anyone aspiring to become a teacher the narrator of the Vi•æu Puräæa and the of philosophy or religion. author of a major work on DHARMAŸÄS- TRA, commented upon by MÄDHAVA (2). panth(a) (‘path’, ‘following’) This is used especially in contexts such Paraÿuräma as Kabïr Panth, followers of the path (‘Rama with the battle-axe’) taught by KABÏR. The sixth AVATÄRA of Vi•æu; the fifth son of Jamadagni and Reæukä. He päpa appeared in the TRETA YUGA to end the tyranny of the KÆATRIYAS, whom he is See SIN. said to have annihilated 22 times. His story is told in the Rämäyaæa, the päpa-puru•a (‘man of sin’) Mahäbhärata and some PURÄŒAS. The personification of all unpardonable sins: his head consists of brahmanicide, Pargiter, Frederick Eden his arms of cow-killing, his nose of (1852–1927) woman-murder, his belly of intoxication, his legs of theft of gold. Officer in the Indian Civil Service, High Judge in Calcutta, historian and student of classical India who rejected the parama-haƒsa (‘supreme swan’) Äryan invasion theory. He was the An honorific title for a spiritual author of Ancient Indian Historical teacher. Tradition (1922) and The Puräæa Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age (1913). paramärthika (‘relating to the supreme reality’) Parijäta Transcendent; the opposite to vyava- The wonderful tree produced at the härika, relating to empirical reality. (See CHURNING OF THE OCEAN, whose blos- also VYAVAHÄRA.) soms perfumed the whole universe. It was placed in Indra’s heaven, but when Kø•æa paramätman (‘supreme soul’) visited it, his wife, Satyabhämä, induced The Absolute, BRAHMAN. him to carry it away. In the ensuing fight Indra lost and Kø•æa carried the tree to Dväraka. After Kø•æa’s death the tree was paraƒparä returned to Indra’s heaven. The lineage of teacher and disciple, tradition. The Upani•ads have long lines of teachers to whom their teachings are parikrama traced back. For members of Hindu reli- See CIRCUMAMBULATION. gious orders it is important to memorize their guruparaƒparä to authenticate their tradition. A teaching not traced Parik•it back to an acknowledged line of The grandson of Arjuna, father of Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 135

135 Pätañjala Yoga

Janamejaya. When YUDHIÆﬁHIRA retired by Ÿiva and later reorganized by from the throne, Parik•it followed him Lakulin, the reputed author of the Päÿu- as king of Hastinäpura. He died from a pata Sütra. The teaching is classified as snake-bite. In the interval between the bhedäbheda (difference–non-difference) bite of the snake and his death, the and deals with five categories: käraæa Bhägavata Puräæa was recited to him. (the cause, i.e. the creator, maintainer (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.) and destroyer of the universe); kärya (effect; created things); yoga (the way to Parliament of Religions achieve emancipation); vidhi (regulations and injunctions); and dukhänta A gathering of representatives of all (the final bliss). major religions, which took place in Chicago in 1893 in connection with the celebration of the 400th anniversary Paÿu-pati (‘Lord of animals’) of Columbus’ discovery of America. An epithet of ŸIVA, used to express his Swami VIVEKÄNANDA, the Hindu dele- lordship over all living beings, collec- gate, made a great impression through tively called paÿu, ‘bovines’. his speeches and became well known thereafter as an exponent of ADVAITA VEDÄNTA. Pätäla (‘netherworlds’) Not to be confused with Western pari•ad notions of netherworlds or hells (NÄRA- KA). The seven netherworlds, called A gathering of brahmins for the purpose Atala (white), Vitala (black), Nitala of studying and interpreting the Vedas. (purple), Gabhastimat (yellow), Mahätala The term has also been appropriated by (sandy), Sutala (stony) and Pätäla are groups such as the VIŸVA HINDU huge realms (each extending 10,000 PARIÆAD, giving it the more general yojanas – c. 130,000 km – beneath the meaning of ‘association’. surface of the earth), inhabitated by DÄNAVAS, DAITYAS, YAKÆAS and great Pärvatï (‘daughter of the mountains’) NÄGAS (1), filled with magnificent palaces and all kinds of treasures. An epithet of the consort of ŸIVA, mother NÄRADA (2), after visiting them, of the six-headed KÄRTTIKEYA and the described them as more delightful than elephant-headed GAŒEŸA. Indra’s heaven.

päÿa (‘noose’) Pätañjala Yoga A designation (in certain schools of ŸAIVISM) of the bond that ties people to Also called Räja Yoga, the ‘royal’ path, this finite existence and hinders them it is based on the YOGA SÜTRAS, ascribed from reaching the Lord. to PATAÑJALI. Making use of the terms coined by SÄßKHYA and taking over its worldview, the Yoga Sütras describe the paÿu (‘bovine’) practice of the process of discriminative A designation (in certain schools of knowledge that leads to the liberation ŸAIVISM) of the unenlightened and un- of the embodied spirit. Yoga is not mere emancipated human condition. theory, it also implies physical training, willpower and decisions. It deals with the human situation as a whole and Päÿu-patas aims at providing real freedom, not just A Ÿaivite sect, said to have been founded a theory of liberation. Although much Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 136

Pätañjala Yoga 136

Pätañjala Yoga in practice.

of its concern is psychological, it differs taking the transient, impure and evil radically from contemporary Western non-self for the eternal, pure and blissful psychology: it assumes the reality of a self’. This avidyä is both the root of our spirit-soul, it has a strong ethical orien- unhappiness and also the cause for our tation, and it focuses on states of con- search for liberation. sciousness that presently are not recog- The practice of precepts and virtues nized in modern Western thought. is preliminary to Yoga but considered The second sütra defines Yoga as indispensable. Without ethical ground- citta-vøttinirodha, ‘the quieting of all ing, the powers acquired through Yoga fluctuations of the mind’. Citta, mind, is practices proper could be used for evil the first evolved entity and its fluctua- purposes. The practice of virtues also tions, vibrations, irritations (vøttis) cause produces many helpful side-effects. the multiplicity of thoughts and material Thus the Yoga Sütras assert that in the objects. If they cease, the mind is free. presence of a person grounded in The impulse to seek that freedom is ahiƒsä, non-violence, others will give given by the experience of kleÿas, ‘afflic- up their enmity and that even wild ani- tions’ that beset life. They are identified mals become tame. The Yoga Sütras as avidyä (‘ignorance’, illusion), asmitä offer practical advice on how to gain (‘mine-ness’, egoism), räga (passion, these virtues and how to counteract attraction), dveÿa (aversion, hatred) and opposite trends. They analyse the root abhiniveÿa (fear of death, attachment to of all evil tendencies as contained in the life). While most of these terms may be triad of lobha (greed), moha (delusion), self-explanatory, it is interesting to and krodha (anger) and offer advice on examine what the Yoga Sütras mean by how to counteract these root vices in the term avidyä. It is explained as ‘mis- order to eradicate all sins. Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 137

137 päﬂha

While the Yoga that is taught in the The central feature of Pätañjala West usually concentrates on the learn- Yoga is samyama, ‘effort’, consisting of ing of a variety of postures supposed to the triad of dhäraæa–dhyäna–samädhi, be beneficial to health, Pantañjali says ‘concentration–contemplation–trance’. that any posture can be taken that is They are not seen as flowing from a agreeable and allows a practitioner to special ‘psychic’ capability but as result- sit in meditation for a length of time. ing from strenuous effort. They com- The aim of Räja Yoga is neither self- pletely interiorize consciousness and mortification nor physical exercise, but separate self-consciousness from every- the achievement of inner freedom. Some thing that is not self, i.e. the body and YOGIS focus on the extraordinary facul- sense-objects. By applying the technique ties connected with Yoga, such as mak- to a number of dimensions of reality the ing oneself small like an atom or large yogi both identifies with and transcends like a mountain, understanding the lan- each realm. The detail in which the guages of all peoples and even of ani- Yoga Sütras describe the process is high- mals, reading other people’s minds, ly technical and must be studied under making onself invisible etc., but the the guidance of an experienced teacher. Yoga Sütras discourage the practitioner From a certain point onwards in the from cultivating them. They are more of practice of Yoga the process becomes a hindrance than a help on the path to irreversible: kaivalya, complete intro- freedom. There are certain dietetic rules version, becomes the ‘natural’ goal of to be observed as well: a yogi is to avoid the practitioner’s mind. The state of spicy food, everything pungent, sour or mind shortly before reaching the final salty. While the use of drugs, especially condition is defined as dharma- bhaög (hashish), is widespread among meghasamädhi, ‘dharma-cloud trance’ Yogis in India, Patañjali discourages in which the finite, elementary nature of this practice. Kaivalya is a state of mind all things becomes experientially appar- that should be reached without any ent to the yogi. A kind of zero-time involvement of foreign substances. experience precedes the entering into Breath control, präæäyäma, is a cen- timelessness. Kaivalya is described as tral practice in Yoga. The Upani•ads the spirit ‘finding its own true state of contain many speculations on präæa, nature’, the coming home of the soul life breath, and controlling one’s breath from the exile of involvement in the is an ancient and widely practised process of material evolution. method of purification. Some yogis succeed in controlling their breath to such Patañjali (second century BCE) an extent that they can reduce the A celebrated name, the reputed author metabolism to a point where it becomes of a treatise on Yoga (Yoga Sütras), on possible for them to be buried for days medicine (Carakasaƒhitä) and on or even weeks and emerge alive. The grammar (Mahäbhä•ya), healer of Yoga Sütras do not encourage such body, mind and soul. extraordinary feats, but they consider breath control basic. Similarly, the ability to withdraw one’s senses, pratyahära, is päflha (‘reading’) essential. The senses, no longer occu- This applies especially to the reading of pied with transmitting impulses from a Vedic text. There are three päflhas: the body, cease to hinder the mind from samhitäpäflha (words read with sandhi, functioning according to its own rules for combining vowels and con- ‘mental’ mode. sonants), padapäflha (words read Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 138

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independently, without sandhi), and promise specific benefits (phala) from kramapäﬂha (each word read twice, first reading all or part of the book, or keep- combined with the preceding, and then ing a copy or part of it in one’s home. with the succeeding word). pilgrimage (yäträ) patita (‘fallen’) One of the most popular Hindu reli- Someone who is not qualified to parti- gious activities is visiting the countless pate in (Vedic) rites. holy places that dot India’s landscape. For SAMNYÄSIS it is a duty to spend most Pauravas of their time on pilgrimage. Pilgrimages are undertaken to have certain rites, Descendants of Puru of the lunar such as ÿraddha (the last rites), per- dynasty. See MAHÄ-BHÄRATA. formed, to redeem vows or to gain merit. Hindu ŸÄSTRAS regulate pilgrim- pavitra (‘holy’, ‘sacred’) age by defining the mode of travel, the The sacred thread of upper CASTES. resolve to be undertaken, the rituals to undergo. The more arduous the pilgrim- peacock (mayüra) age, the more meritorious it is deemed to be. Pilgrimage can also be undertak- The peacock is frequently employed in en by proxy in certain circumstances. At Indian art as a symbol both of vanity any given time millions of Hindus are and wealth. The peacock is KUBERA’s on pilgrimage, and most of the sacred VAHANA (vehicle) and peacocks are often places are crowded by pilgrims from far associated with Kø•æa and his dalliance and near all year long. Over the cen- with the GOPÏS. The peacock is also asso- turies pilgrimage has certainly helped to ciated with Ÿiva in the famous Ÿiva create a bond among Hindus, notwith- temple at Mylapur (Mayürapura) in standing sectarian differences. (See also Madras. TÏRTHA.)

penance Pillai Lokäcärya See PRAYAŸCITTA. (1205–1311) A sixth-generation successor of Pesh(a)was, also Pesh(a)vas RÄMÄNUJA as head of the Ÿrïvai•æavas Originally a title (comparable to prime in ŸRÏRA¢GAM and author of Tattva- minister). The Peshvas of Mahärä•ﬂra, traya, a compendium of Ÿrïvai•æava towards the end of the rule of Aurang- thought, arranged according to the zeb, asserted themselves as independent three principles (tattva), ïÿvara (God), rulers and founded a Hindu dynasty jïvätma (soul), and acit (nature). Several (with its capital in Pune) that seriously other works, such as Mumuk•upatti, threatened first the Mogul and then the Tattvaÿekhara and Ÿrïväcanabhü•ana, British rule of India. (See also ŸIVAJÏ.) are also attributed to him. Pillai Lokäcärya recommends PRAPATTI (self- surrender) as the means to salvation. He phala/phalaÿloka became the main theologian of the (‘fruit’/‘verse of promise’) Teögalai branch of ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM. According to Hindu tradition each religious act, performed properly, carries its reward or ‘fruit’ (phala). Many relig- piæõa ious texts end with verses (ÿloka) that A small ball of cooked rice, offered to Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 139

139 präcärya

the ancestors in connection with the last erature in Sanskrit, Hindï and English. rites by the nearest (male) relation. By He was the founder-editor of Kalyäæ, a connotation it then means (close) degree Hindï religious monthly, and Kalyäæa of relationship, such as in sapiæõa, for- Kalpätaru, an English-language religious bidden to marry. Hindu monthly, with large circulations.

piÿäca (fem. piÿäcï) Poögal Fiend, evil spirit. It is the most malig- nant of ghosts, often mentioned in The greatest festival of Tamilnäõü, and Vedas, Brähmaæas and epics. (See also a public holiday. It is a combination of BHÜTA; PRETA.) New Year and harvest/thanksgiving celebrations. One day is called maﬂﬂu- poögal, when COWS and oxen are decor- pitämaha ated and worshipped as an expression Paternal grandfather. A title of of thanks for their work. BRAHMÄ, especially in the Mahäbhärata.

Pope, George Uglow Pitäƒbara (‘dressed in a yellow (1820–1908) garment’) Christian missionary, educator and A name of VIÆŒU/KØÆŒA. scholar of Tamil. He taught at Pïflha, also Pïflha sthäna Tinnevelly, Tanjore and Ootacamund, and lectured in Tamil and Telugu at The 51 places where the limbs of Satï Oxford University; author and editor of fell, when scattered by Ÿiva after his many Tamil works, translator of the destruction of DAKÆA’s sacrifice. Also Tamil classic Tirukkural and the Tiru- called ÿakti-pïflhas, they are important vacakam by MÄŒIKKAVÄCAKAR. places of pilgrimage for Tantrikas. (See also KÄLIKÄ PÏfiHA.) power

pitøs See ŸAKTI. Fathers, forefathers, ancestors, to whom Prabandham PIŒ¥AS are offered. Also known as the ‘Tamil Praban- planets dham’, the collection of hymns by the Hindus knew and observed the move- Ä®VÄRS, undertaken by Näﬂha Muni, ments of the planets (Jupiter, Saturn, which is used in ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVA worship Mercury, Venus, Mars, together with alongside Sanskrit hymns. the sun and the moon) from ancient times and used constellations to deter- Prabhäkara Miÿra mine auspicious and inauspicious times. (c. 600–50 CE) HOROSCOPES were based on planetary A famous MÏMÄßSAKA scholar, founder astronomy. (See also ASTROLOGY.) of the Prabhäkara school, author of Bøhati and Vivaraæa, and commentaries Poddar, Hanuman Prasad on the Ÿäbarabhä•ya. (1892–1971) Journalist, religious leader and founder of the Gïtä Press in Gorakhpur, the präcärya largest publisher of Hindu religious lit- A guru’s GURU. Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 140

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pradak•iæa Prajäpati (‘Lord of creatures’) See CIRCUMAMBULATION. Progenitor, in a generic sense. In the Veda, Indra and other devas are called pradak•iæa pätha Prajäpati. Later the title is applied to Brahmä, the creator. Most commonly A CIRCUMAMBULATORY pathway in a the title is given to the ten mind-born temple. sons of Brahmä: Marïci, Atri, Aögiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasi•ﬂha, pradhäna (‘the first’) Pracetas (Dak•a), Bhøgu and Närada. Primary matter, inert matter, nature as Different sources give different numbers opposed to spirit. According to and different names for the Prajäpatis. SÄßKHYA pradhäna is opposite of PURUÆA: it does not possess conscious- Prajñä-tïrtha ness, but under the influence of puru•a One of the names of MADHVA. everything evolves out of pradhäna (prakøti). The relationship between pradhäna and puru•a is illustrated via prakøti (‘nature’) the simile of a blind but strong person In a general sense, matter, generative (pradhäna) carrying a lame but sighted substance. See also PRADHÄNA. person (puru•a) on her shoulders. They do everything jointly, but the sighted pralaya person directs the blind one. ŸA¢KARA The dissolution of the world at the end (2) argues against the possibility of an of a KALPA. eternal material principle, and against pradhäna as the source of all things. pramäda (‘error’) Pradyumna (1) A mistake, the opposite of right knowledge (VIDYÄ). Kø•æa’s son by RUKMIŒÏ.

Pradyumna (2) pramäæa One of the names of KÄMA, the god of A means of establishing truth; tradi- love. tionally six pramäæas have been recognized: pratyak•a (perception); anumäna (inference); ÿabda (verbal authority); Pradyumna (3) upamiti (analogy); arthäpatti (pre- Another name for SANAT-KUMÄRA, son sumption); abhäva (negation). Of these of Brahmä. the CÄRVÄKAS accept one only, the VAIŸEÆIKAS two, the SÄßKHYAS three, Prahläda the NAYÄYIKAS four, the Prabhäkara Son of the DAITYA king Hiraæyakaÿipu. school of MÏMÄßSA five, the Bhaﬂﬂa As a boy he became an ardent devotee school of Mïmäƒsä and the VEDÄNTINS of Vi•æu, proclaiming Vi•æu sovereign, six. Pramäæas are an important part of and thus enraging his father who had every Indian philosophical investiga- claimed world rulership. Hiraæyakaÿipu tion. attempted to kill Prahläda in many different ways but failed due to Vi•æu’s intervention. Finally Vi•æu appeared as präæa (‘breath’) NÄRASIMHA (a man-lion) and killed Breath is often identified with life. (See Hiraæyakaÿipu. also PRÄŒAYAMA.) Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 141

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praæava prasäda (‘grace’) See AUM. FOOD that has been offered to the deity and that is shared among devotees as präæäyäma (‘breath-control’) God’s gift and blessing. An important part of ritual practice and of YOGA, a method of purification and a Praÿastapäda (fourth century CE) way to concentrate the mind. A famous scholar of the VAIŸEÆIKA school; author of the Padärthadharma- saögraha. prapatti (‘self-surrender’) A central notion in BHAKTI, especially in Praÿna Upani•ad VAIÆŒAVISM. It is the culmination of a long process of devotion and consists of One of the principal Upani•ads. It deals five acts: the intention of submitting to with six questions (praÿna) which are the Lord; the giving up of resistance to asked of the sage Pippaläda. the Lord; the belief in the protection of the Lord; the prayer that the Lord may prasthäna trayï save his devotee; the consciousness of (‘the triad of proof-texts’) utter helplessness. The oldest reference to The major Upani•ads, the Bhagavad- prapatti may be Bhagavadgïtä XVIII, 66. gïtä, and the Brahmasütras, upon which a founder of a school of Vedänta has to präräbdha (karma) comment. Residual KARMA (2), karma left over from previous lives, which has to be prati-biƒba lived through; fate, destiny. See BIßBA–PRATIBIßBA; MADHVA.

Prärthana Samäj pratijñä (‘acknowledgement’) (‘Prayer Association’) A vow, promise. In NYÄYA: the state- Founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr ment of the proposition to be proved, Atmaram Pandurang (1823–98) as a the first part of the five-membered Hindu reform movement. Its most Indian syllogism. The others are: hetu prominent member was Justice Mahadev (reason); udaharaæa (illustrative exam- Govinda Ranade (1842–1901), who was ple); upanaya (corroborative instance); responsible for many social reform ini- nigamana (inference: identical with the tiatives and who exerted a major influ- first statement). ence on the Indian National Congress, of which he was a founder member. The Prärthana Samäj established the Social Prätiÿäkhya Reform Movement and founded the Treatises dealing with the phonetics of journal Indian Social Reformer. It Vedic language, for example the fought for the abolition of CASTE, the Taittirïyaprätiÿäkhya, which belongs to right of widows to remarry, the aboli- the Black YAJURVEDA. tion of child MARRIAGE and the education of WOMEN. It was instrumental in the foundation of many associations prati-sarga dedicated to the upliftment of the Dissolution of the created universe; one depressed classes, tribal people and of the pañcälak•ana (five topics of a women. Puräæa). Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 142

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prati-•ﬂhäpana are condemned to haunt the world as The solemn installation and consecration pretas. Texts such as the Pretakalpa of of an IMAGE (mürti) through which the the Garuõa Puräæa give instructions on presence of a deity is called down and the how to meet pretas and what to do to image becomes an object of worship. give them release.

pratyähära Pøthivï (‘the broad’) (‘withdrawal [of the senses]’) The earth, or the whole world. In the An important stage in PATAÑJALA YOGA. Vedas she is personified as mother of all beings. Her name is derived from PØTHU, who gave her life and thus was pratyak•a (‘perception’) considered her father. The first and most important means of proof. (See also PRAMÄŒA.) Pøthu Son of VEŒA, the first rightful pra-vøtti (‘progress’, ‘advance’) monarch on earth. He is credited with Active wordly life; projection. The having introduced agriculture, and opposite of NI-VØTTI. providing his subjects with peace and plenty. prayaÿcitta (‘atonement’) Action prescribed as penance for viola- püjä tion of precepts, such as repetition of a Worship, especially of an IMAGE formula or bathing. There are long lists , usually of prayaÿcittas that match specific an offering of fruit, cooked food, water, atonements for particular breaches of incense, flowers etc. Each saƒpradäya the law. (sect) has elaborate rules for the performance of püjä which have to be strictly followed by the devotees. As an act of predestination devotion püjä is both service to the deity MADHVA teaches a kind of predestina- and a means to win his/her favour. Püjä tion, by insisting that certain persons offered daily at the home shrine is a (nitya baddhas) never reach release. scaled-down version of the grand services performed at temples, especially at premä (‘love’) festive occasions. It has to include a minimum of sixteen acts: avahana (invi- In GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, a designation tation of the deity); äsana (offering a of the highest form of love for Kø•æa, seat); svagata (greeting); padya (wash- which transforms the devotee perma- ing the feet); arghya (rinsing the mouth nently. and hands); acamanïya (water for sipping); madhuparka (offering water preta (‘ghost’) mixed with honey); snäna or abhi•eka An evil spirit, the restless soul of a (bathing or sprinkling); vastra (clothing); departed person who for some reason gandha (perfumes); pu•pa (flowers); or other could not find a way to the dhüpa (incense); dïpa (lamp); naivedya beyond. There is a popular belief that or prasäda (offering food); nämaskära people who commit suicide or people or praæäma (prostration); visarjana who have not atoned for a serious crime (send-off). Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 143

143 Puräæa

(a) (d)

(b)

(g)

(c)

(f)

(e)

Püjä implements: a) sruva (spoon for offering ghï or water to deity); b) ärati-dïpa (used for waving burning camphor in front of deity); c) pätra (plate for prasäda – food offered to deity and then distributed to participants in worship); d) ghaæﬂä (bell, rung before deity); e) pänapätra (cup for offering water to deity); f) dïpa (oil lamp stand with multiple wicks); g) padma (lotus; can be opened up as flower during worship).

punar-janma the Vedas. The followers of various See REBIRTH. saƒpradäyas (sects) consider them to be revealed scriptures. They deal with the puæya creation of the universe, genealogies of gods and patriarchs, myths associated See MERIT. with various deities, rules for living and descriptions of heavens and hells as well Puräæa (‘old (books)’) as of the end of the world. As a source An important class of bible-like texts of for popular Hinduism they ares still of varying length and age. Their origins the utmost importance. Some, such as may be traced back to the stories by the Vi•æu Puräæa, the Bhägavata or the which the people attending Vedic sacri- Devïbhägavata, are often recited publicly fices were entertained. The Puräæas through loudspeakers at places of pril- themselves claim greater antiquity than grimage. (See also MAHÄPURÄŒA.) Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 144

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Purï puru•ärtha See JAGAN-NÄTHA PURÏ. (‘the [four] aims of man’) These are dharma (righteousness), artha purity (ÿuddhi, ÿauca) (wealth), käma (sensual enjoyment), mok•a (liberation). A central notion in Hinduism (as in all religions), with ritual, physical, psychological and spiritual dimensions. puru•ottama (‘supreme man’) Ritual purity plays a great role in the A title of VIÆŒU/KØÆŒA. Vedas; special rites are prescribed, particularly for brahmins to obtain ritual Puru•ottamäcärya purity after being polluted. Pollution (13th century) can be effected through contact with A teacher of the NIMBÄRKA school, corpses, certain bodily fluids and asso- disciple of Ÿrïniväsa and author of ciation with OUTCASTES RYA . The Ä Vedänta-ratna-mañju•a. He enumerated SAMÄJ introduced a special ÿuddhi cer- the six constituent elements of BHAKTI: emony to readmit to the fold of treating everyone with goodwill and Hinduism the followers of other reli- friendliness, discarding what is contrary gions, whose ancestors had left to it; refraining from all malice, back- Hinduism. Physical purity is part of the biting, falsehood and violence; having religio-hygienic routine which makes strong faith in the protection of the daily bathing also a religious obliga- Lord; praying to the Lord; discarding all tion. Purity of the soul consists in the false pride and egotism; entrusting one- absence of greed, hatred and other neg- self and all one’s belongings completely ative attitudes. Purity of mind consists to the Lord, being convinced that such in disinterestedness, ni•käma karma, complete resignation earns God’s grace activity without any selfish involve- and mercy. ment, the eradication of all sense of egoity. Pürva Mïmäƒsä (‘the earlier enquiry’) Püræaprajñä (‘full of wisdom’) One of the six orthodox schools of One of the names of MADHVA. Hinduism. See MÏMÄßSÄ.

purohita Pü•an (‘nourisher’) A priest, who conducts the prescribed A vedic deity, identified with the SUN. rituals for a particular family. Pu•kara (‘the blue lotus’) Puru•a (‘man’, ‘male’) Name of a famous tank and place of The name of the cosmic man, whose pilgrimage near Ajmer, glorified in the sacrifice resulted in the creation of all Pu•kara Puräæa. things. pu•pa (‘bud’, ‘blossom’) puru•a A flower; one of the essential ingredi- In SÄßKHYA, spirit, the counterpart of ents of a PÜJÄ. Metaphorically used for matter (PRAKØTI). virtues to be cultivated by a VAIÆŒAVA. Encyclo - Letter P 10/2/03 9:56 am Page 145

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pu•flimärga Kø•æa by suckling him on her poisoned (‘way of nourishment [grace]’) breasts. Kø•æa killed her and thus saved A school of VAIÆŒAVISM founded by her from her own wickedness. Vallabha (1481–1533) which exalts the uncaused grace of God (pu•fli) as the putra (‘son’) means of salvation. Vallabha considered it superior to all other forms of bhakti- According to a popular etymology ‘sav- märga, entailing complete surrender of iour’ (tra) from hell (put, the place to which childless men were condemned), oneself and one’s own to the GURU. The pu•flimärga is open to all. The highest explaining the great importance of aim is nitya lïlä, eternal enjoyment of the having a son. Only a son was qualified to company of the Lord. The greatest mod- perform the last rites for his parents, without which they would not be able to els are the GOPÏS of Vøndävana. find rest. The son also continued the family line. In some cases a daughter Pütanä could be ‘declared a son’, in order to per- A demoness, who tried to kill the infant form the last rites. (See also ŸRADDHA.) Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 146

Rädhä, also Rädhikä University, and was Spalding Professor The favourite GOPÏ of Kø•æa, wife of of Eastern Religions at Oxford Ayana Gho•a, a cowherd of Vøndävana. (1931–36). He also served as India’s Rädhä is seen as the earthly appearance representative at UNESCO (1946–52), of LAKÆMÏ. She is the focus of attention where he took a leading role in organiz- in GAU¥IYA VAIÆŒAVISM, at one and the ing important conferences. He was same time mediatrix and role model for among the first to plead for dialogue devotees. A large literature has devel- among religions. oped around her and her worship even outshines that of Kø•æa among the Radhasoami Satsang Rädhä-Vallabhis. She is the epitome of Sect founded by Siv Dayal Singh in the passionate devotion. (See also CAITANYA.) mid-19th century, who declared Radha- soami, ‘Lord of the Soul’, to be the only Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli appropriate name of God. Its teaching (1888–1975) consists in guiding the aspirant through Born in Tirutani, Tamilnäõü and edu- the lower reaches of the cosmos into cated in Christian schools and colleges, higher realms of reality. Several branch- he rose not only to the highest office in es split off from the original foundation, the Republic of India (vice-president which adds the name ‘Beas’ to identify 1952–62; president 1962–67) but also itself. became the most prominent and best- known exponent of Hinduism in the räga modern world. Beginning with an MA Musical mode, personified as male, thesis on ‘The Ethics of Vedänta’, he with rägiæï as consort, often illustrated systematially explored and explained in miniatures (Rägamälä). Hinduism in a large number of English publications, such as History of Indian Philosophy, The Hindu View of Life rägänuga bhakti and Eastern Religions and Western (‘passionate devotion’) Thought. He had a distinguished acade- A highly emotional form of BHAKTI mic career in India as professor of phi- developed by the CAITANYA school of losophy at the universities of Mysore GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, in which the and Calcutta, as vice-chancellor of passionate absorption in Kø•æa of the Andhra University and Benares Hindu GOPÏS of Vøndävana provides the model. Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 147

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Räghava to be present to acknowledge the sover- Räma, a descendant of RAGHU. eignty of the newly consecrated monarch.

Raghu Räja Yoga A king of the solar race and an ancestor See PÄTAÑJALA YOGA. of RÄMA. KÄLIDÄSA wrote the celebrated epic poem Raghuvamÿa, the genealogy rak•aka (‘saviour’) of Raghu and the life of Räma. A designation of VIÆŒU, whose essence is salvation. Rähu A mythical monster that consists of a räk•asa disembodied head, and causes eclipses A goblin, evil spirit, fiend, an enemy of by swallowing the sun and the moon. the ÄRYAS. They play a major role in Hindu literature as disturbers of peace Rahu käla (‘Rahu-time’) and as a constant threat to sages in their An inauspicious time. It varies from day forest retreats. to day, and no new or risky untertaking should be commenced during this period. Raktadantä (‘red-toothed’) An epithet of DURGÄ. Räïdäs, also Ravidäs (15th century) Räma, also Rämacandra A BHAKTI poet from the cämär (tanner) The oldest son of king Daÿaratha, ruler CASTE, who became the founder of a sect of Ayodhyä. According to traditional that perpetuates his memory. He took historians he lived c. 3800–3700 BCE He pride in showing the right way to brah- is considered to have been the seventh mins, in spite of being an OUTCASTE. He has become a hero of the DALITS.

räja-dharma Rules of life for a king, prescribing a king’s duties. There is a famous Räja- dharma section in the Ÿäntiparvan of the Mahäbhärata, and there are separate works on it as well.

Räjanya another name for the KÆATRIYA caste.

rajas See GUŒA.

räja-süya (‘royal sacrifice’) A great sacrifice celebrated at the installation of a king, at which all vassals had Räma with Sïtä. Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 148

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AVATÄRA of Vi•æu. His story is told at worldwide through the Ramakrishna great length in the RÄMAYAŒA. He is Mission. He spent most of his life as one of the most popular deities of India, temple priest in Dak•iæeÿvara, a new considered the ideal ruler. Repeating his Kälï–Durgä temple outside Calcutta, name, even wearing cloth on which his where he experienced frequent trances name has been printed, is a favourite in front of the image of the Goddess religious exercise. In the countryside (DEVÏ). A circle of devotees gathered people use ‘Räm, Räm’ as a greeting. around him and one of them began not- ing down his utterances and conversa- Räma Tïrtha, Swämi tions held over the years. The work (1873–1906) became known in its English translation as The Gospel of Ramakrishna by M. A professor of mathematics at Forman One of his disciples, Swami VIVEKÄ- College, Lahore, he became a SAMNYÄSI NANDA, began to form a religious order, in 1901 and went as a preacher of the Ramakrishna Mission, after his Vedänta to Japan and the United States death, which engaged in education, dis- (1902–04), where he gathered a large aster relief, publication of religious following. His Collected Works, con- books and preaching. sisting mainly of his lectures, have been published in 12 volumes by the Rama Tirtha Publishing League in Lucknow. Ramana Mahar•i (1879–1950) A widely recognized modern Hindu Ramakrishna ‘Paramahamsa’ mystic, visited by seekers from both (1834–86) East and West. He experienced death as a boy of fourteen while fully conscious, Possibly the best-known modern Ben- and experientially understood the dif- gali Hindu saint, who became known ference between the conscious, undying self and the body, the ‘not-self’. Shortly after he left home and went to Tiruvanammalai to become a SAMNYÄSI. In spite of his vow of silence, people came to him, asking for his advice. He set up an ashram, and a group of permanent followers began to form. Soon he became a celebrity and was visited by many important personalities. His teaching remained the same: seek the true self. After his death his followers continued to operate his ashram and to publish journals and books reflecting his teachings.

Rämänanda (1400–70) Founder of the Ÿrï saƒpradäya (sect), in which Rämä and Ÿita are prominently worshipped. Rämänanda accepted people from all CASTES as well as WOMEN into his order. His twelve principal disci- Shrine at the birthplace ples formed twelve subsects, called of Ramakrishna. dvaras. The headquarters of the Ÿrï Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 149

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saƒpradäya, called bara sthäna, is in of Righteousness, where people fol- Ayodhyä. As part of the initiation rites lowed the law and the country was the Rämänandis burn the name of Räma blessed by abundance and generally into their skin and add the word däsa favourable natural conditions. Mahatma (slave) to their names. Their greeting is GANDHI translated it as ‘Kingdom of ‘Jay Sïtä Räma’. God’, which he wished to see realized in India. The term Rämaräjya has been Rämänuja (1017–1137) taken up by Hindu nationalists and politicians as the goal of a Hindu state, Founder of the school of VIŸIÆfiÄDVAITA replacing the present secular state of Vedänta and the most important of the India. Ÿrïvai•æava äcäryas (teachers). Called to YAMUNÄCÄRYA’s deathbed, he promised to redeem his three unfulfilled wishes: to Rämaräjya Pari•ad honour the memory of the sages Vyäsa (‘reign of Räma assembly’) and Paräÿara, the authors of the Vi•æu A political Hindu party, founded by Puräæa; to keep alive the hymns of Swami Karpatriji Maharaj in 1948 to NAMMÄ®VÄR, the greatest of the Tamil promote a Hindu India. Ä®VÄRS; and to write a commentary on the Brahmasütras from a ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVA Rämäyaæa (‘Adventures of Räma’) perspective. He consolidated the Ÿrïvai•æava community, reformed wor- An ancient Sanskrit epic, ascribed to ship at Ÿrïraögam and claimed the VÄLMÏKI, the first poet. It received its famous temple of TIRUPATI for his com- present shape perhaps as late as the munity. He experienced persecution second century CE, but contains much from a Ÿaiva ruler and spent twelve older materials (Indian scholars date BCE years at MELKOTE, where he introduced Välmïki to the third millennium ). It a new code of worship. His teaching is tells the life of Räma from before birth known as Viÿi•fladvaita, qualified until death. It is divided into seven sec- monism. Rämänuja held Vi•æu to be tions (käæõas), of which the first and both the material and the efficient cause the last are considered later additions, of the universe; the material world is with greater variations among the vari- God’s body. The relationship between ous recensions than the rest: (1) God and the human being is that of Bälakäæõa: the birth and boyhood of whole and part (am•a-am•i-bhäva). Räma; (2) Ayodhyäkäæõa: description Rämänuja taught that by following of the capital city Ayodhyä and the ban- God’s will a person can earn God’s grace ishment of Räma; (3) Äraæyakäæõa: and be saved. Salvation consists in being Räma’s wanderings in the forest during transferred to Vi•æu’s heaven his fourteen-year exile and the abduc- (Vaikuæflha), being endowed with an tion of Sïtä by RÄVAŒA; (4) Ki•kin- incorruptible body and sharing God’s dhyäkäæõa: Räma’s sojourn in the bliss. The Ÿrïvai•æava community later capital of the monkey-king Sugrïva; (5) split into southern (TE¢GALAI) and Sundarakäæõa: Räma’s efforts to recov- northern (VA¥AGALAI) schools, but both er Sïtä and his winning of allies to recognize Rämänuja as their greatest invade Laökä; (6) Yuddhakäæõa: the teacher. war with Rävaæa, his defeat and the recovery of Sïtä, his return to Ayodhyä and coronation of Räma; (7) Räma-räjya (‘the reign of Räma’) Uttarakäæõa: Sïtä’s banishment, the An ideal condition believed to have pre- birth of her two sons in the forest, her vailed under the rule of Räma, the King ordeal and reunion with Räma, Sïtä’s Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 150

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death and Räma’s merging with Vi•æu. to God in Hindi Literature (1959), The Rämäyaæa, both in its original as Pathway to God in Marathi Literature well as in vernacular recreations such as (1961), Pathway to God in Kannada Tulsïdäs’s (Hindï) Rämcaritmanas or Literature (1960) and of many books in Kambha’s (Tamil) Kambharämäyaæam, Marathi, Hindï and Kannada. has remained extremely popular in India and parts of it are performed in rasa (‘juice’, ‘taste’, ‘flavour’) the yearly Rämlïläs, theatrical recreations especially of the battle between In Indian aesthetics, a term for emotion- Räma and Rävaæa, and Räma’s entry al experience in drama and poetry. into Ayodhyä. The Rämäyaæa has been Usually nine rasas are enumerated: edited in seven volumes in a critical edi- ÿøögära (erotic love), häsya (laughter), tion by the Oriental Institute of the karuæa (compassion), krodha (anger), University of Baroda (1960–75). bibhatsa (vexation), vïrya (heroism), bhayänaka (fearfulness), adbhüta (wonderment), ÿänta (tranquillity). The Räm(a)däs(a), Swami GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVA school under the (1608–81) inspiration of CAITANYA used the rasa Maharatta poet-saint, author of the theory in the development of a religion Daÿabodha, founder of the Rämdäsi based on emotion. Kø•æa is called akhi- saƒpradäya, a very popular order la-rasa-amøta-mürti, the perfect embod- which attracts mainly low-CASTE people. iment of all rasas, and devotees are Its headquarters is in Sajjangad, near instructed to develop all emotions in Satära. relation to Kø•æa, culminating in ÿrögära rasa, which was most perfectly embodied in the GOPÏS, among whom Rameÿvaram (‘Lord Räma’) RÄDHÄ stands out as Kø•æa’s favourite. A famous place of PILGRIMAGE on an island between India and Ÿrï Laökä. Its 17th-century Ramanathaswamy temple, Rä•tøïya Svayamsevak Sangh considered the most perfect example of (‘National Volunteer Organization’) Dravidian architecture, is set on the This was founded in 1926 by K. V. place where according to tradition Hedgewar (1889–1940), a member of Räma established a Ÿivaliöga (see the HINDÜ MAHÄSABHÄ, to counteract LI¢GA (3)) to atone for the killing of the perceived rising Muslim influence in Rävaæa, a brahmin by birth, who had the Indian National Congress. It devel- abducted his wife Sïtä. (See also oped into a tightly organized para- RÄMÄYANA.) military movement with many branches and front organizations attracting students, workers and businesspeople. It Ranade, R. D. (1889–1957) claims a membership of 5 million. Eminent Indian scholar, professor of Members of the RSS were instrumental philosophy at Fergusson College, Pune, in the development of the VIŸVA HINDÜ and at Allahabad University, vice-chan- PARIÆAD. Its weekly, The Organiser, cellor of Allahabad University and keeps pressing for the establishment of founder of Adhyatma Vidyapith at Hindü rä•ﬂra. Nimbal. He was a lifelong student of mysticism and the author of A Constructive Survey of Upanisadic ratha-mela (‘chariot-festival’) Philosophy (1926), The Creative Period A gathering at which the IMAGE of a of Indian Philosophy (1928), Pathway deity is placed on an often multi-storeyed Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 151

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chariot and taken in procession through as Hinduism. The Vedas contain the a town. oft-quoted prayer ‘from the unreal lead me to the real’ (asatya mä sat gamaya), Ratï (‘desire’, ‘lust’) and the Upani•ads’ main interest is in finding the ‘reality of the real’ (satyasa Personified as wife of Käma, the god of satyam). All Hindu systems are ways of love, and a daughter of DAKÆA. She is ‘realization’, i.e. methods of finding also known by other names such as truth and reality. Reality is by definition Kämi, Revä, Prïti, Kämapriyä and imperishable, possesses consciousness Mäyävatï. and is blissful (sat–cit–änanda).

ratna (‘jewel’) rebirth (punarjanma) This is used as title of distinction, and is From the time of the Upani•ads the name of a medal given by the Indian onwards the universal belief in the end- government (Bhärataratna). less round of rebirth (saƒsära) became widely accepted in India together with Raurava (‘dreadful’, ‘terrible’) the notion that it was the major task of One of the hells. (See also NÄRAKA.) a human being to break that cycle and attain a state of transcendent freedom. Rävaæa (‘crying’, ‘screaming’) While rebirth, under the inexorable law of karma, took place in time, LIBERATION The demon king of Laökä, the chief of (mok•a, nirväöa, kaivalya) meant reach- the RÄKÆASAS, half-brother of KUBERA, ing a timeless state. The major differ- grandson of the ø•i Pulastya. Laökä was ences between the competing traditions originally in the possession of Kubera, arose from differences in understanding but Rävaæa ousted him. He had ten the nature of the ultimate condition and heads (he is also known as Daÿagrïva or the means necessary to achieve it. Daÿavädana). He practised the most severe penances for 10,000 years to pro- pitiate Brahmä, and offered one of his religious persecution heads at the end of each millennium. While Hinduism prides itself on toler- Thus he gained invulnerability from ance towards followers of other religions, devas and asuras, but it was foretold religious persecution is not unknown. that he was doomed to die through a There are historic instances of persecu- woman. He is a major figure in the tion (even execution) of Jains in South RÄMÄYANA, where he is the main adver- India under the instigation of the Ÿaivite sary of Räma. He abducted Sïtä, Räma’s saint SAMBANDHAR as well as persecu- wife, but did not do violence to her. He tion of Vai•æavas by Ÿaivite kings. In eventually succumbed to Räma and his more recent times radical Hindus local- allies and lost his capital and his life. ly instigated persecutions of Muslims and Christians. Many Hindu works Øddhi (‘prosperity’) contain not only polemics against other sects and followers of other religions, The wife of KUBERA, the god of wealth. Sometimes the name is also used for but also a great deal of invective and condemnation. PÄRVATÏ, the wife of Ÿiva.

reality (sat/satya) Renou, Louis (1896–1966) The quest for a ‘reality’ behind the Eminent French Indologist. He was deceptive appearance of things is as old professor of Sanskrit at the Sorbonne Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 152

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and author of the standard work L’Inde generation by means of elaborate and classique (three volumes). complicated mnemonic devices. It was not to be divulged to strangers or to renouncer/renunciation low-caste people. Only brahmins were authorized to teach and to recite it. See SAMNYÄSA/SAMNYÄSI; TYÄGA/TYÄGI. Vedic hymns are still used in connection with SAßSKÄRAS (rites of passage), revelation especially at weddings and funerals. See SÄKÆÄTKÄRA; ŸRUTI. The beliefs expressed in the Øgveda have largely been superseded by more Øgveda recent Puräæic ones. But nominally adherence to the infallibility of the The oldest of the Vedic saƒhitäs Veda is still the criterion of orthodoxy (collections), consisting of 1017 hymns in Hinduism. (süktas) divided into ten books (or into eight a•ﬂakas or khaæõas) with an appendix of 11 so-called Välakhïlyas, Øg-vidhäna written in an archaic Sanskrit (‘Vedic’). Texts that deal with magical effects of There are widely differing opinions reciting the hymns of the Øgveda, regarding its age: since the time of Max attributed to ŸAUNAKA. MÜLLER (end of the 19th century) it has become customary to assign to it (fairly righteousness arbitrarily) the date of c. 1500–1200 See DHARMA. BCE; many Indian scholars postulate a much earlier date (c. 4000–3000 BCE) based on astronomical markers in the rites of passage texts. The hymns themselves are See SAßSKÄRAS. ascribed to various ø•is (sages) and addressed to a variety of devatas ritual (kriyä) (deities). About a quarter are hymns to Hinduism is strongly shaped by ritual: INDRA, next in frequency come AGNI a brahmin’s entire life is accompanied hymns. While early Western Indologists by ritual. Some of it is obligatory considered them a kind of nature poet- (nitya), i.e. non-performance for one ry, often clumsy and prosaic, modern year would lead to a loss of CASTE. scholars admit to not being able to Some is optional (naimittika) and per- understand most of what the süktas are formed for particular purposes about. Some contemporary Indian (kämya). Devotional Hinduism and scholars believe them to be an astro- tantric Hinduism have developed addi- nomical code, embedding the observa- tional rituals that are deemed essential tions of the ancient Vedic Indians, for their followers. Rituals are believed which were used to construct fire to be the means of joining the spiritual ALTARS and to determine the times of world and participating in the rhythms SACRIFICES (yajñas). According to many of the cosmos. Ritual initiation Hindu schools of thought the Øgveda (UPANAYANA) is a prerequisite for mem- was not created by any human nor con- bership in Hindu society; without it all ceived by any deity but pre-existed works would be in vain. Similarly it is from eternity and was arranged in its through ritual that a valid MARRIAGE is present shape by the mythical scholar entered into, and through ritual alone a VYÄSA. For many centuries it was oral- person can hope to find peace after ly transmitted from generation to death. (See also WORSHIP.) Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 153

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Daily life by the river Ganges.

rivers (with the kürma, tortoise) flank the entrance. Rivers were worshipped as Rivers played a great role in early Vedic nourishers as well as purifiers: ablutions in religion, where they were hymned as life them cleansed a person from many sins. giving. The SAPTASINDHU, the seven rivers, are a constant point of reference, among which the (now dried out) øk SARASVATÏ was praised as the greatest A hymn in general; a verse in the and the mother of all. When the Hindu Øgveda as well as the entire Øgveda; heartland moved eastwards, the worship, praise. YAMUNÄ and the GA¢GÄ became the two most important and holy rivers. Many tïrthas (places of pilgrimage) are Roy, Ram Mohan (1772–1833) located along them, and the confluence Early Indian religious and social of Yamunä and Gaögä (together with reformer, founder of the Brahmo Samäj, the invisible Sarasvatï) at Präyäga is one called ‘father of Modern India’. Born of the holiest spots in India. In South into an orthodox Hindu family, he India the KAUVERÏ is also called the received a liberal education that includ- ‘Southern Ganges’. The NARBADÄ in ed the study of Persian and Arabic, Central India enjoys the unique distinc- Sanskrit and later English. He was one tion among the Indian rivers of purify- of the first Indian employees of the ing a person on sight. Most rivers are British East India Company. Following treated as female (although Indus, a religious calling he left service and got Brahmaputra, Sone, Gogra and Sutlej in touch with the Christian missionaries are male) and personified as goddesses. at Serampore. He published many In many temples images of Gaögä (with essays and tracts and worked towards the makara, alligator) and Yamunä establishing a Hindu monotheism. His Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 154

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best known accomplishment is his suc- the SACRIFICE that resulted in the birth of cessful struggle for the abolition of SATÏ, Räma. His story became very popular; the burning alive of a widow on her it was used by SAMNYÄSIS to warn young husband’s funeral pyre, which was ascetics against becoming familiar with defended by many as part of the Hindu women. It can be found in the tradition. To respond to appeals from Bhägavata Puräæa. the pro-satï party he went to England, where he died. He is buried in Bristol. øta (‘cosmic order’) The eternal moral law that governs the Ø•abha universe. It parallels øtu, the sequence of The son of Näbhi, the great-grandson of seasons, which in their regularity MANU (2) Sväyambhuva, and Meru, embody constancy and lawfulness. father of BHARATA (2). After leaving his VARUŒA and MITRA are held to be the kingdom to his son he became an ascetic guardians of øta. of great austerity. He is also held to be the founder of Jainism. øtu The seasons, of which the Indians count ø•i six: cool season (ÿi•ira); spring (vasan- A sage or poet, especially one who com- ta); hot season (grï•ma); rainy season posed Vedic hymns. The ‘seven ø•is’ (var•a); autumn (ÿärada); snowy season (saptar•i), the ‘mind-born sons of (hïma). Thus the word øtu sometimes Brahmä’, are proverbial. Among them stands for the number six, or any fixed are Bhøgu, Gautama, Bharadväja, period of time. Viÿvamitra, Vasi•ﬂha, Atri and Aögiras (the lists given in various sources are not øtvik all the same). They are identified with the seven stars of the Big Dipper. There A priest who officiates at a Vedic SACRI- are many ancient and modern personal- FICE. The four chief classes of priests are ities to whom the title ‘ø•i’ was given in Hotø, Udgatø, Adhvaryu and Brähmaæa. recognition of their wisdom. Rudra (‘terrible’, ‘howler’) Ø•ya-ÿøöga also Eka-ÿøöga Mentioned in the Veda as a god of (‘deer-horned’, ‘unicorn’) death and destruction, feared and kept He was a descendant of KAŸYAPA and an away from sacrifices. Later identified ascetic from childhood. He grew up in a with Ÿiva, he represents this god’s fierce forest without any other human being side. He is also known as Bhava, Ÿarva, except his father. When the country of Ïÿäna, Paÿupati, Bhïma, Ugra and Aöga was threatened by a severe Mahädeva. drought King Lomapäda, advised by his brahmins, sent for Ø•yaÿøöga to marry him to his daughter Ÿäntä, as rain was rudräk•a-mälä promised as a result of their union. A rosary made of the fruit of the Lured out from his hermitage by some rudräk•a shrub, worn by ŸAIVITES beautiful young women, he married around the neck, used to count the rep- Ÿäntä and the desired rain fell. Ÿäntä etitions of MANTRAS (3). There are some was in reality the daughter of King late Upani•ads that glorify it and its DAŸARATHA, and Ø•ya•øöga performed effects. Encyclo - Letter R 10/2/03 9:57 am Page 155

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Rukminï CAITANYA. He was known as Dabir Kø•æa’s principal queen in DVÄRAKA, Khas, but renamed ‘Rüpa Gosvämi’ by mother of PRADYUMNA (1) as well as Caitanya. Through his efforts VØNDÄ- nine other sons and a daughter, called VANA was rediscovered and rebuilt, and Carumatï. he is the author of important works on GAUDÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, such as the Rüpa Gosvämi (c. 1460–1540) Bhaktirasämøtasindhu, the Ujjvala One of the six original disciples of Nïlämaæï, and many stotras. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 156

Ÿäbara (first century BCE) Sacred Books of the East (SBE) (‘one who lives in the mountains’, A series of 49 volumes of translations ‘savage’) (into English) of sources of all Eastern A celebrated MÏMÄßSAKA and author of religions (Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism, the Ÿäbarabhäsya, a lengthy commen- Islam, Taoism, Confucianism, Zoro- tary on the Mïmäƒsäsütra. astrianism) planned and edited by Max MÜLLER, and originally published by Clarendon Press, Oxford, from 1879 to ÿabda (‘word’) 1904 (reprinted 1965–6 by Motilal The object of lengthy treatises by gram- Banarsidass, Delhi). It was also intend- marians and theologians, who attrib- ed to include the Bible, to make the uted mysterious powers to it. As ÿabda- series fully representative of all major brahman, BRAHMAN in the form of a book religions. However, church word or a sound, the word has absolute authorities did not allow this for fear it power. Basically there are two schools would make Christianity appear to be of thought as regards the nature of the on the same level as all other religions. word: one believes that words are mere While many of the works selected have conventional signs of communication; been translated again more recently, the other holds that there is an eternally some of the translations have not been pre-existing model (akøta) of all words, superseded as yet. SBE contains 21 vol- which ensures that words are under- umes on Hinduism: selected hymns stood the same way everytime they are from Øgveda and Atharvaveda, some uttered. major Upani•ads, the entire Ÿatapatha Brähmaæa, several Dharmaÿästra works, the Manu-smøti, the Bhagavadgïtä and Ÿacï Ÿaökara’s and Rämänuja’s complete The wife of INDRA. commentaries on the Brahmasütra.

Sacred Books of the Hindus (SBH) saccidänanda, also A series of 38 volumes of texts and sat–cit–änanda (‘being/truth (sat) translations of sources of Hinduism – consciousness (cit) – bliss (änanda)’) planned and edited by Major B. D. The most popular designation/defini- Basu, originally published from the tion of the supreme being (BRAHMAN) in Panini Office in Allahäbad (1911–34; Hinduism. reprint AMS, New York, 1974). Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 157

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sacrifice (yajña) an act of violence (hiƒsä), since it was The central act of Vedic religion, con- prescribed by the Veda and conferred sidered indispensable for the continua- on the victim the privilege of a higher tion of the world and the well-being of REBIRTH. Some animals such as the society and individuals. The Vedas camel or the donkey were not consid- describe the creation of the world in ered suitable for sacrifice: they were terms of a sacrifice and derive the insti- believed to be lacking medha, the sacri- tution of the four VARŒAS from the sac- ficial substance. rifice of a primeval puru•a (human). In The puru•amedha (human sacrifice) the course of time the ritual of sacrifice was ranked as the highest among the became very intricate and elaborate, Vedic sacrifices, imitating the primor- and the performance of sacrifices dial sacrifice of the primeval puru•a. Its became the prerogative of brahmins, protective power was considered so who received an extensive schooling in great that in ancient times no bridge everything pertaining to it. The roles of was considered safe unless a human various classes of priests were precisely being had been sacrificed and built into defined in the sacred books. its foundations. Besides the regular routine of sacri- Human sacrifice was a major feature fices (such as new moon and full moon of the Goddess religions of India. sacrifices, quarterly seasonal sacrifices, Several Puräæas have lengthy descrip- daily oblations) there were special sacri- tions of the ritual of human sacrifice, fices performed to obtain particular and there are historic records of regular objectives: thus a person desirous of human sacrifices in places such as going to HEAVEN (after death) was Kämäkhyä (Assam), a centre of DEVÏ enjoined to perform a special sacrifice; a worship, and in Tanjore (Tamilnäõü) king desirous of establishing his far into the 19th century. supremacy over his realm was to per- An important aspect of all sacrifices form a horse sacrifice (aÿvamedha), a is the intention or purpose of the sacri- complex ritual stretched out over a fice (yajñänta) and the fee given to the whole year. It is extensively described in officiating priest (dak•iæa). The gifts the BRÄHMAŒAS, and has received a given to brahmins for their services great deal of attention from Western were often considerable: cattle, houses, Indologists. The last recorded aÿva- land, entire villages. medha was performed in the 18th Under the influence of Buddhism century by a Rajput king. and Jainism many Hindu communities Sacrifices were believed to provide abandoned animal sacrifices and substi- strength to the gods, on whose activities tuted offerings of fruit, flowers and depended the maintenance of the world. vegetables to honour the gods. (See also They were also used to expiate sins and AGNICAYANA; PÜJÄ.) to gain power. The sacrifice was supposed to have a great hidden power (prabhäva) which could become danger- sad-äcära ous if not handled properly by brahmins. (‘ethics’, ‘right behaviour’) Animals (especially goats), liquor Seen as an essential ingredient of all (especially the fermented juice of the religion by Hindus. The specific SOMA plant), plants and cooked FOOD sadäcära of various saƒpradäyas (especially barley cakes) were the ingre- (sects) also contains dietary and liturgi- dients of Vedic sacrifices. Killing an cal precepts, which vary from one to animal in a sacrifice was not considered the other. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 158

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Sadä-ÿiva references to brahman nirguæa (without The form in which Ÿiva exercises his qualities) are interpreted by VAIÆŒAVAS fivefold activities of attraction (anugra- and other theists as meaning the ha), concealment (tirobhava), taking absence of evil or limiting qualities; by away (adana), preservation (stithi) and Advaitins they are understood as signi- creation (sø•ﬂi), according to ŸAIVA fying a total absence of all qualities, i.e. SIDDHÄNTA. pure CONSCIOUSNESS. Those who ascribe qualities to the ultimate usually also conceive of God as having a body and •aõ-darÿana living in a special abode. (‘six philosophical systems’) The collective designation of the sahä-märga (‘associate’s way’) philosophies that are considered ‘orthodox’, namely SÄßKHYA, YOGA, NYÄYA, The third stage of bhakti (devotion) in VAIŸEÆIKA, Pürva MÏMÄßSÄ and Uttara ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA, consisting of yoga: Mïmäƒsä or VEDÄNTA. Nominally all withdrawal of senses from objects, accept the authority of the Veda as breath control, suspsension of mind revealed. activity, recitation of MANTRAS (3) and directing the vital breaths through the six body centres. sädhana (‘means to realization’) A generic term for the complex of Sahadeva practices recommended by the various saƒpradäyas (sects) or individual GURUS. The youngest of the five PÄŒDAVAS, son of MÄDRÏ. He was an expert on astronomy. (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.) sädhäraæa dharma (‘general law’) sahaja (‘inborn’, ‘natural condition’) Moral obligations such as truthfulness, honesty, purity etc. valid for all people, The designation for some tantric, anti- irrespective of CASTE or sect. nomian forms of worship, which follow ‘nature’ or ‘inborn instincts’ rather than the Vedic law. sädhu (fem. sädhvï, ‘good person’) Generic designation of those who have sahasra-näma (‘thousand names’) renounced and who dedicate themselves to the pursuit of religious aims, usually Litanies of a thousand names of major wearing garb that distinguishes them deities, which are recited by the devotees. from ordinary people. Ÿaiva Siddhänta sage (‘the final truth of Ÿiva’) See ØÆI. A major school of thought of South Indian ŸAIVISM, with a large following in Tamilnäõü. Its most important text is saguæa (‘with qualities’) the Ÿivajñänabodha by Meykaæõa (13th One of the major theological controversies century), based on the recognized 28 among Hindus is the question of Ägamas and the teachings of the 63 whether the ultimate is saguæa or nir- Näyaæmärs. It acknowledges a triad of guæa. All theist systems ascribe qualities principles: pati (the Lord, i.e. Ÿiva), to the supreme, whereas ADVAITA päÿu (the unredeemed human person); VEDÄNTA denies them. The Upani•adic and päÿa (the fetters, identified as Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 159

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karma, mäyä and aæava, ‘atomicity’, as Lord of Animals. Sophisticated reduced consciousness). To gain free- Ÿaivite philosophies developed in South dom one must practise knowledge India (ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA) and in (vidyä), ritual (kriyä), austerities (Yoga), Kashmir (KASHMIR ŸAIVISM or Tøka). and a virtuous way of life (cärya). The Many important figures in the history of supreme reality is Ÿiva, whose most fit- Hinduism, such as ŸA¢KARA (2), and many ting description is ‘grace’ or ‘love’. South Indian kings, were Ÿaivas. They Through his form of Sadäÿiva he exer- built magnificent sanctuaries in honour of cises his fivefold functions of attraction Ÿiva and established attractive festivals in (anugraha), concealment (tirobhava), places such as TANJORE, CIDAMBARAM and creation (sø•ﬂi), preservation (stithi), and MADURAI.VÄRÄŒASÏ, the holiest city of destruction (ädäna). Only in a human Hinduism, is sacred to Ÿiva, who is wor- form and through Ÿaiva Siddhänta can shipped in the Golden temple as liberation be gained. All other systems Viÿvanätha, Lord of the Universe. lead to lower stages of reality. Ÿaivite asceticism tended to run into Liberation consists in the appearance of extremes: groups such as the Kapälikas the hidden Ÿiva nature (ÿivatva) of the and Kälamukhas are said to eat human soul: humans then realize that their true corpses and to besmear themselves with and original Ÿiva nature was hidden and ashes taken from cremation grounds. curtailed through sins. The enlightened They do this to demonstrate the identity person is conscious of Ÿiva’s presence of everything with the supreme Ÿiva and and whatever such a person does, their indifference towards conventions whether the world thinks it good or of ordinary life. bad, is Ÿiva’s deed. Ÿaivism today is the second-largest segment of mainstream Hinduism, with Ÿaivism several hundred million followers. The worship of Ÿiva, probably the oldest of the Hindu traditions. Its begin- Ÿakadvïpa nings go back to prehistoric times. The continent of the ŸAKAS. Ÿakadvïpa LI¢GAS (3), the most typical expressions is also an alternative name for ŸVETA- of Ÿiva worship, have been found in DVÏPA, the ‘white island continent’, Indus civilization sites and some of the which is mentioned in the Mahäbhärata seals were interpreted as representing as a place where perfect beings worship Ÿiva Mahäyogi and Ÿiva Paÿupati, fig- NÄRÄYAŒA, and which was visited by ures still prominent in Ÿiva worship. the sages NÄRA and NÄRADA (2). It is Liögas were also found in South India, quite often mentioned in Hindu litera- which today is the centre of Ÿaivism. ture, but has not been satisfactorily iden- In the Øgveda the word ÿiva (bene- tified. volent, gracious) is not used as a proper name but as an attribute of various deities. However the worship of RUDRA, Ÿakas which later became fused with Ÿaivism, A people from the north, usually identified is quite prominent. Rudra, ‘the with the Yavanas. They are thought to Howler’, was feared rather than loved be the Indo-Scythans described by and his worship consisted in depositing Ptolemy. They invaded India between offerings at crossroads imploring him 200 BCE and 100 CE and founded a king- not to come or do harm. dom in north-western India. The Ÿaka The earliest known Ÿiva community era, beginning in 78 CE, still widely used are the PÄŸUPATAS, worshippers of Ÿiva in India, derives from them. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 160

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Ÿäkaﬂäyana Ÿäktism An ancient grammarian who lived (‘the worship of power energy’) before YÄSKA and PÄŒINÏ. Personified in a female divinity, it is a common feature of all forms of Hinduism. Specifically it designates the ÿäkhä (1) (‘branch’) traditon in which the Goddess (DEVÏ) is With reference to the Vedas ÿäkhä identified with the supreme principle means a particular recension of a text as and worshipped in an exclusive way. taught and transmitted by a particular One of the major differences between family or school, showing some minor Ÿäktism and other expressions of variations. Hinduism is the identification of the Goddess not only with spirit (BRAH- ÿäkhä (2) MAN), but also with nature or matter (prakøti). The smallest unit of the RÄÆTØÏYA SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH. Ÿäktism may be a remnant of the prehistoric worldwide cult of the Great Mother. In India terracotta figurines of säk•ät-kära the Goddess, almost identical in shape, A bodily vision of the deity, the goal of have been found in prehistoric sites, in many BHAKTI schools, believed to consti- the Indus civilization and in contempo- tute the assurance of final salvation. rary villages. As a form of mainstream Hinduism säk•ï (‘inner witness’) Ÿäktism is especially prominent in mod- Upani•adic notion of an immortal, ern Bengal and Assam. The main festiv- unchanging ‘witness’ consciousness, ity is Durgäpüjä, celebrated during nine which is the passive observer of every- days in autumn, when the image of Devï thing else. The Upani•ads use the simile Mahi•amärdiæi is displayed in homes of the two birds on one tree: one eats and public places and processions take (ordinary consciousness) while the other place in her honour. only watches (witness consciousness). The main literary sources of Ÿäktism By focusing all attention on the ‘witness are Devï Puräæas and Tantras. True to consciousness’ one can gain immortali- the principle that Ÿakti embodies both ty. MADHVA calls the presence of Vi•æu mind and matter, Ÿäktism combines in the soul ÿäk•ï. theoretical reflections on the identity of Ÿakti with brahman and the unity of ÿäkta everything with concrete forms of worship. The declared aim of Ÿäktism is A follower of ŸAKTI religion. (See also bhukti and mukti, enjoyment and liber- ŸÄKTISM.) ation in one. In Ÿäktism vidyä (knowledge) and mäyä (delusion) are seen as Ÿakti (‘power’) one and the same. Personified in the Goddess (DEVÏ). She is There are two main branches of Ÿäk- either conceived as consort of a male tism: ‘right hand’ and ‘left hand’. Right- god, or as an independent supreme hand Ÿäktism resembles other forms of being, created from the united power of BHAKTI: it consists of the worship of the all the gods. In the first instance she is image of the Goddess with fruits and identified with the letter ‘i’ in Ÿiva: with- flowers, the singing of hymns and the out it, he is ÿava, i.e. a lifeless corpse. burning of camphor and incense. Left- Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 161

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hand Ÿäktism involves the use of the five the tunes according to which the hymns ‘ms’, the transgression of ordinary of the Øgveda are to be chanted. morality in secret forms of worship. (See also DURGÄ; TANTRA (2).) Sämaveda The third of the four vedic saƒhitäs, Ÿakuntalä dealing with sämans or melodies Daughter of the sage VIŸVAMITRA and the appropriate to the øks or verses of the APSARA MENÄ, whom INDRA had sent Øgveda. The text as it is preserved down from heaven to seduce Viÿvamitra. exists in three recensions: Kauthuma, When Menä had to go back to heaven Räæäyanïya and Jaiminïya. The text she left the child in the care of birds was commented upon by Säyaæa in the (ÿakuntas), and thus she was called 14th century. Most of the verses are Ÿakuntalä. She was brought up in a for- identical with the verses in the Øgveda. est hermitage by a sage called Kanva. The most ancient melodies have not King Du•yanta saw her, was charmed by been preserved; the notations which we her and asked her to marry him. She bore possess are of a relatively late time. (See him a son, named BHARATA (4), who also VEDA.) became a universl monarch. India was called Bhärata after him. The Ÿakuntalä Sambandhar, also story was very popular with Indian Jñanasambandhar dramatists. One of the most famous (seventh century) plays by KÄLIDÄSA is Ÿakuntalä (translated into most Western languages). A famous poet and preacher of ŸAIVISM in South India at a time when most had turned Jainas. While the King of ÿäla-gräma Madurai had converted to JAINISM, his A round ammonite, found in the chief queen and his chief minister had Gandak river of Nepal, held sacred by remained Ÿaivites. With their help VAIÆŒAVAS as an emblem of Vi•æu. Sambandhar arranged a debate with a Most Vai•æavas either carry a ÿälagrä- large number of Jain monks, whom he ma or keep one or more in their homes. defeated. The king then re-converted to Ÿaivism. According to tradition samädhi (1) Sambandhar persuaded the king to (‘concentration’, ‘mindfulness’) impale 8,000 Jains. In another part of the Tamil country he brought back a The title of one of the sections of the large number of Jains and Buddhists to Yoga Sütras. Ÿaivism. His hymns are still widely sung in Ÿiva temples. samädhi (2) A stage in the process of YOGA (‘con- sa™dhyä (1), also sandhyä templation’). (‘joining’, ‘twilight’ [both of morning and of evening]) samädhi (3) Personified as daughter of BRAHMÄ and A memorial chapel erected over the wife of ŸIVA. tomb of a saint. sa™dhyä (2) säman (‘tune’) Obligatory rituals to be performed by As in Sämaveda, the Veda containing brahmins at dawn and dusk. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 162

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Sa™dhyäbhä•a fold, matter is one. Matter is character- (‘twilight language’) ized by three guæas (elementary princi- Compositions with double meaning, ples): sattva (lightness); rajas (passion); used by Tantrikas; their ‘surface’ mean- and tamas (darkness). These three are ing is accessible to everybody, the sec- originally in equilibrium, but under the ond, ‘secret’, meaning is only under- influence of spirit, evolution begins. The stood by the initiates. (See also TANTRA first product of the process is mahat (the (2).) great One), also called buddhi (the intellect). From mahat issues ahaƒkära, the principle of egoity. When one suffers sa™hitä (‘collection’) under the frustrations of life one begins An expression used to designate the a quest for freedom from misery. This mantra portion of the Vedas (e.g. quest leads to a reversal of the evolu- Øgveda Sa™hitä) or the later sectarian tionary process and a final separation of writings of VAIÆŒAVAS (e.g. Ahir- spirit from matter. The ultimate stage is budhnya Sa™hitä), to which a great called kaivalya (aloneness), when the amount of authority was attributed due spirit is all by himself and fully satisfied. to their authors. Säƒkhya-kärikä samïpa (‘nearness [to God]’) The oldest preserved text of the One of the modalities of salvation in SÄßKHYA system, ascribed to Ïÿvara theistic Hinduism. Another would be Kø•æa (third century CE). It explains in a SARÜPA (sameness of form). brief and systematic manner the basic principles of Säƒkhya. saƒkalpa (‘intention’) A declaration of intent at the beginning Säƒkhya-sütra of a pilgrimage. Without it, the pilgrim- Ascribed to Kapila (sixth century BCE), age would not earn any merit. but probably later than the Säƒkha- kärikä. It consists of a brief exposition Saƒkar•aæa of Säƒkhya in sütra form. One of the four vyühas (emanations) of Vi•æu, characterized by lordship (aiÿ- sam-kïrtaæa varya) and heroism (vïrya). Congregational singing of hymns, especially among GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVAS, usually Säƒkhya (‘number’) accompanied by cymbals and drums, often also by dancing. Nägara sam- One of the six orthodox systems, found- kïrtaæa, popularized by CAITANYA, is ed by Kapila (sixth century BCE); it public singing and dancing on the assumes that the whole universe con- streets of towns. sists of combinations of 24 elements (tattvas) in addition to puru•a (spirit). Säƒkhya is a dualistic system: spirit samnyäsa (‘renunciation’) (puru•a) and matter (prakøti) have The fourth and last ÄŸRAMA (2) (stage in opposite but complementary character- life) of a brahmin, in which all attachment istics. Everything originates from a to home and possessions, including combination of the two, and ultimate family, are to be given up. It has become liberation is due to a separation of spir- popular to enter into samnyäsa without it from matter. Spirit is originally mani- going through the äÿramas of house- Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 163

163 Saögam

holder and forest dweller. Usually the (jäta-karma), initiation (upanayana, formal entry into samnyäsa is preceded investiture with the sacred thread), mar- by a period of instruction in the partic- riage (vivaha), and last rites (ÿraddha or ular customs of a sa™pradäya (sect) and antye•ﬂi). A Hindu who wilfully neglects solemnly confirmed through an initia- the sa™skäras is no longer a member of tion ceremony (dïk•ä) by the GURU. This the community. includes stripping and symbolic self- cremation, the acceptance of a new samudra manthana name and the transmission of a MANTRA See CHURNING OF THE OCEAN. (3), through which the initiate becomes a member in the line of succession (guru paraƒparä). Samnyäsa, while freeing samvat the initiate from all normal religious A Hindu era, beginning in 57 BCE, a and social obligations, is strictly widely used chronological system in regulated by the rules of the yatidharma modern India. (see YATI). samyama samnyäsi In PATAÑJALI YOGA, the triad of dhär- (fem. samnyäsinï, ‘renouncer’) aæa, dhyäna and samädhi. Someone who has taken up SAMNYÄSA. Normally acceptance by a GURU from sanätana dharma (‘eternal law’) an acknowledged order is a prerequisite for becoming a samnyäsi. However, A self-designation of ‘Hinduism’ by there are cases of self-initiation, so- Hindus, implying either that the DHARMA called svatantra samnyäsis. The number is eternal or that it has been promulgat- of samnyäsis and samnyäsinïs in India is ed by an eternal lawgiver. Many Hindus fairly large: estimates range from 7 to derive from this explanation the univer- 15 million. There are associations of sal validity of Hindu dharma for the samnyäsis, such as the Akhila Bhäratïya whole of humankind and for all of his- Sädhu Samäj, and some Hindu orders tory. ‘Sanätanists’ are those who rigidly have also begun to accept non-Indians. adhere to traditional law.

saƒpradäya (‘tradition’) Sanat-kumära Usage, denomination, sect. The most prominent of the four mind- born sons of BRAHMÄ. (See also KUMÄRAS.) saƒsära The transient world, the cycle of birth and rebirth. Ÿäæõilya (c. 100 CE) The author of the Chäæõogya Upani- sa™skära (‘sacrament’) •ad, of a law book, and of a Bhakti- sütra. A rite of passage, through which a Hindu of the three higher VARŒAS becomes a full member of the communi- Saögam (‘confluence’) (1) ty. While in former times a great num- The place near Präyäga (Allähabad) ber of sa™skäras were performed, today where the YAMUNÄ flows into the there are mainly four that are important GA¢GÄ, merging with the (invisible) in the life of a Hindu: birth SARASVATÏ. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 164

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Saögam (2), also Cankam (DAŸANÄMIS). By many he is considered An early period of Tamil literature the greatest among Indian religious (c. 1st century BCE). thinkers. His followers consider him either an AVATÄRA of Ÿiva or a person inspired by him. One of his immediate Ÿaökara (1) (‘auspicious’) disciples, Änanda Giri, wrote a Name of ŸIVA in his role of creator. Ÿaökara Digvijäya, a report on the (spiritual) conquest of India by Ÿaökara, by defeating all his opponents in debate.

Ÿaökaräcärya The title given to the head monk of one of the mäﬂhas (religious centres) reputedly founded by ŸA¢KARA (2).

Ÿaökara Miÿra (16th century) A prolific writer, who produced major works on almost all of the orthodox systems of Hinduism.

Ÿaökara Deva (1449–1568) A major teacher of VAIÆŒAVISM in Assam.

ÿaökha (‘conch’) Used in many forms of Hindu WORSHIP; Ÿaökara, the founder of the school of the blowing of the conch often opens or Advaita Vedänta. closes worship.

san-märga Ÿaökara (2), also (‘the way of truth and reality’) Ÿaökaräcärya ‘Master Ÿaökara’, a great reformer of The fourth and highest stage in ŸAIVA Hinduism (eighth century CE). Born in SIDDHÄNTA. Kälaõi, Kerala, he entered SAMNYÄSA at a very early age. Defeating Buddhists Sanskrit (‘refined language’) and followers of other heterodox The language in which much of classical movements, he established ADVAITA Hindu literature has been written, con- VEDÄNTA through his commentaries on sidered a ‘sacred’ language, the language the major Upani•ads, the Bhagavadgïtä of the gods. For some time it was believed and the Brahmasütras. He also wrote to be the root language of all Indo- numerous hymns and many smaller European languages. (See also LANGUAGE.) treatises. He established maﬂhas (religious centres) in four strategic places in the east (Purï), west (Dväraka), north sant (1) ‘saint’ (Bädarïnätha), and south (Ÿøægerï) and Generic designation of all SAMNYÄSIS founded ten orders of samnyäsis (renouncers). Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 165

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sant (2) Saptasindhu, also Specific name for a group of late Saptasindhava medieval religious poets and teachers, (‘the seven rivers’) belonging to various denominations, These are frequently mentioned in the Hindus (e.g. Tulsïdäs), Sikhs (e.g. Gurü Vedas. Their names are: Gaögä, Nänak), and Muslims (e.g. Kabïr), Yamunä, Sarasvatï, Ÿutudri, Paru•æi, usually from the lower strata of society, Marudvødhä, Ärjïkïyä. Not all are but widely influential on account of the clearly identifiable today. appeal of their teachings. Säradä Devï (1853–1920) sant sädhana As RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHAMSA’s wife and, after his death, his successor as The teaching of the SANTS (2), focusing ‘The Holy Mother’ she had great on the practice of the divine name influence on the formation of the (näma), devotion to the divine guru Ramakrishna Mission. Ramakrishna (satguru) and the company of fellow never consummated the marriage with devotees (satsaög). Säradä Devï, worshipping her instead as Ÿakti incarnate. Her own vision of Kälï Ÿäntä set off her personal spiritual development. As long as Ramakrishna was alive The daughter of Daÿaratha, she was she took care of his material needs, adopted by Lomapäda, and married to especially cooking his food. After his ØÆYAŸØ¢GA. death she grew into the role of the ‘Holy Mother’. Her picture is found in all ÿänta (‘tranquillity’) Ramakrishna Mission temples along- One of the eight RASAS of Hindu side that of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa aesthetics. and Swami Vivekänanda. In 1954 the Ÿäradä Maﬂha was founded as independent monastic institution for women ÿänti (‘peace’) alongside the Ramakrishna Mission, Often exclaimed (three times) at the end which has only male monastics. of recitiations of religious texts as a kind of blessing. ÿaraæä-gati (‘taking refuge [in the Lord]’) saæto•a (‘contentment’) The highest act of devotion in One of the Hindu virtues, listed in the VAIÆŒAVISM, the last formal step in the Yogasütras as generating inner peace process of becoming a bhakta (devotee). and happiness, a precondition for suc- One of the last works of RÄMÄNUJA is cessful meditation. the Ÿaraæagatigadya, which extolls the salvific effects of this practice. Madhva saptar•i wanted his followers to demonstrate this self-surrender outwardly by brand- The seven great ØÆIS (sages): the names ing their bodies with the symbols of are not the same in all the references. Vi•æu. (See also PRAPATTI.)

Saptaÿatï (‘seven hundred [verses]’) A name of the Devïmähätmya, which Sarasvatï (1) consists of seven hundred ŸLOKAS The wife of BRAHMÄ, goddess of speech (couplets). and learning, inventor of the Sanskrit Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 166

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ÿarïra See BODY.

Ÿarïraka-bhä•ya The title of Ÿaökara’s commentary on the Brahmasütras.

sa-rüpa (‘having the same form [as the Lord]’) One of the qualities of a released VAIÆŒAVA, who receives an incorruptible body like that of Vi•æu.

Ÿarva A name of ŸIVA, derived from ÿaru (arrow). Ÿarva symbolizes the power of Ÿiva to kill, and is often invoked together with YAMA, the custodian of the underworld. Ÿarva is the embodiment of cruelty.

Sarasvatï. Sarva-darÿana-saƒgraha (‘Synopsis of all philosophical systems’) A famous work by the Advaitin language and the Devanägarï script, MÄDHAVA, in which he reviews and cri- patroness of the arts and sciences, usu- tiques 15 different systems (besides ally represented as seated on a lotus, CÄRVÄKA and several schools of with a vïna (lute) in one of her hands. Buddhism and Jainism, he deals with all major Hindu systems). Sarasvatï (2) Celebrated in the Vedas as a mighty Sarva-loka river, flowing from the Himälayas to the sea, it later disappeared in the sands. See BRAHMA-LOKA. Recent satellite photography has produced evidence of its course. It is ÿästra (‘teaching’, ‘rule’) believed to join underground the An authoritative source for Hindu GA¢GÄ and the YAMUNÄ at the SA¢GAM DHARMA, used either as a collective term (1) in Präyäga. As the most sacred of the or as designation of a single work, espe- Vedic rivers, it formed the eastern cially one dealing with law. boundary of the original Äryävarta, the homeland of the Vedic people. sat, also satya (‘being’, ‘truth’) sarga (‘creation’) As in SACCIDÄNANDA, the designation of One of the pañcälak•ana (five topics of the supreme being as ‘being/truth, con- a PURÄŒA). Most Puräæic accounts of sciousness, bliss; or in sat-guru, the ‘true creation speak of several creations. master’, i.e. the supreme. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 167

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Ÿatäk•ï (‘hundred-eyed’) AVATÄRA of Ÿiva and Ÿakti. He discov- A name of the Goddess (DEVÏ). ered, as a fourteen-year-old, his miraculous powers to cure illness by means of an ash-like substance that formed on Ÿata-rudriya the pictures of Sai Baba and that he (‘[invocation of] Rudra with a hundred himself is now creating freely. His fol- [names]’) lowers number millions in India and A text in the White YAJURVEDA, through abroad; hundreds of Sai Baba centres which RUDRA/Ÿiva is propitiated and have come into existence, some large asked to stay away from the sacrificer. establishments with schools, hospitals and other facilities. He predicted that he Ÿata-rüpä will live to the age of 95, and that after (‘the one with the hundred forms’) his death a third and last incarnation of a Sai Baba will appear. The first woman; daughter of BRAHMÄ, mother or wife of MANU (2). Satï (‘faithful’) A daughter of DAKÆA and wife of ŸIVA, sat-guru (‘the true teacher’) who killed herself out of anger at Usually identified with the supreme Dak•a’s contempt for Ÿiva. being. satï Sathya Sai Baba (b. 1926) A wife who ascends the funeral pyre of (‘true father of truth’) her deceased husband. A satï was usual- A contemporary charismatic Hindu ly honoured by her community through leader, who claims to be the reincarna- a memorial. Satï was declared illegal in tion of the Sai Baba of Ÿirdi (Mahä- 1829, but still occurs occasionally. (See rä•ﬂra) who died in 1918, as well as an also WOMEN.)

Bhajan attended by the contemporary guru Sai Baba (left). Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 168

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sat-putra-märga Satyavatï (1) (‘the way of the true son’) The daughter of Uparicara and the The second stage of devotion according apsara (nymph) Adrikä. She was the to ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA, consisting of mother of VYÄSA by the ø•i (sage) preparing articles for Ÿiva PÜJÄ and Paräÿara, and later married King Ÿän- meditating on Ÿiva as a form of light. tanu, and gave birth to VICITRA-VÏRYA and Citräögada. She became the grand- Ÿatru-ghna (‘destroyer of enemies’) mother of the KAURAVAS and PÄŒ¥AVAS. (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.) Twin brother of LAKÆMAŒA, half-brother of Räma. He supported Räma and killed Lavaæa, a RÄKÆASA leader. Satyavatï (2) The mother of JAMADAGNI and grand- sat-sang mother of PARAŸURÄMA. (‘community of true [devotees]’) Communal worship, usually consisting of ÿauca (‘purity’) singing hymns (bhajan) and listening to One of the traditional Hindu virtues, sermons. It is enjoined to devotees as a whose practice is a prerequisite to duty and as a means to sustain their faith. PÄTAÑJALA YOGA.

sattva saulabhya (‘benevolence’) See GUŒA. One of the (six) transcendental qualities of Vi•æu according to RÄMÄNUJA. satyägraha (‘truth-grasping’) Ÿaunaka A term coined by Mahatma GANDHI in South Africa, describing his insistence A famous sage, son of Ÿunaka, the on claiming his rights, defined as the reputed author of the Bøhaddevatä, a strength born of truth, love and non- major figure in the MAHÄBHÄRATA and violence. the Bhägavata Puräæa, where he nar- rates large portions of VAIÆŒAVA lore. Satya-loka See BRAHMA-LOKA. Saura Puräæas A group of Upa-Puräæas, dealing with Satya-nämi(s) Sürya (the SUN). An order of SAMNYÄSIS claiming great antiquity. Persecuted and almost eradi- sauÿilya (‘kindness’) cated under Aurangzeb, they were One of the (six) transcendental qualities revived in the late 18th century by of Vi•æu according to RÄMÄNUJA. Jagjivandäs. They are found mainly in western India. Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar (1883–1966) Satyärtha Prakäÿa For many years chief ideologue of the (‘light of truth’) HINDU MAHÄSABHÄ, and founder of the The title of the main work (in Hindï) by ABHINAV BHÄRAT SOCIETY, who Swami Däyänanda Sarasvatï, the founder attempted to ‘Hinduize politics and to of the ÄRYA SAMÄJ. militarize Hinduism’. His essay Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 169

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‘Hindutva’, in which he advocated a second birth distinction between Hinduism as a reli- Initiation (UPANAYANA) and investiture gion (Hindu dharma), divided into many with the sacred thread given to the three saƒpradäyas (sects), and Hinduism as a upper VARŒAS (Brahmaæas, K•atriyas, culture (HINDUTVA), which is supposed Vaiÿyas) is called a ‘second birth’ and to be one, became seminal for the fur- the initiated are called dvijatis, ‘twice- ther development of political Hinduism. born’.

Savitø (‘generator’) secularism A vedic name for the SUN, to whom The Indian constitution, written under many hymns are addressed. Also the prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru’s gov- title of an epic poem by AUROBINDO ernment, declared India (Bhärat) ‘a sec- GHOSE. ular democracy’. Many traditional Hindus resisted ‘secularism’ and wanted Säyaæa (14th century) India to be a Hindu rä•ﬂra (state) and Celebrated commentator of the entire Hinduism declared the state religion (as Øgveda and author of other works. He Pakistan had declared Islam its state was the brother of Mädhaväcärya, and religion). ‘Secularism’ was interpreted by lived at the court of VIJÄYANÄGARA. its defenders not as hostility towards religion or dismissal of religion, but as tolerance for all religions and impartiality säyujya (‘togetherness [with Vi•æu]’) towards all. One of the consequences of One of the forms of emancipation from secularism was the injunction against SAßSÄRA. teaching Hinduism in public schools. Secularism has become the main target of Schrader, Otto (1876–1961) the Hindu political parties who accuse the Congress governments that ruled the Renowned German Indologist, who country for over four decades of having pioneered the study of the VAIÆŒAVA legislated against Hindu DHARMA. They saƒhitäs. After studies in Indology in strive to overthrow secularism. several European universities, he accepted an appointment as director of the library of the Theosophical Society at self Adyar (Madras) where he learnt Tamil, The nature of the self has been con- Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. He ceived in a great variety of ways in travelled widely to collect manuscripts for Hindu thought and is one of the main the library. He is best known for his foci of all Hindu darÿanas (philosophi- pioneering work on PÄÑCARÄTRA. His cal systems). Many classical Hindu Introduction to the Päñcarätra and the scholarly works begin with a review and Ahirbudhnya Samhita (1916), written critique of all major conceptions of the while he was interned in Ahmednagar self before establishing their own posi- during the First World War, became tions. They all reject the materialist seminal for the study of the Vai•æava CÄRVÄKA notion that identifies the self saƒhitäs. After his return to Germany with the physical body, and the and as professor of Indology at Kiel Buddhist ‘no-self’ teaching. As far as University he concentrated on studies on Hindu systems are concerned, SÄßKHYA the Bhagavadgïtä. He was honoured with and YOGA teach a plurality of individual the title ‘Vidyäsägara’ by the Bhärata selves (puru•a) that are immaterial and Mahämandal in Väräæasï in 1924. eternal, uncreated and conscious. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 170

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According to VAIŸEÆIKA there are many split in the Samäj. Initially a great different selves, distinguished by their admirer of Christ and Christianity, he viÿe•as (properties, specifics), which can increasingly developed a notion that he be perceived by YOGIS. The ÄTMANS was a superman initiating a new dispen- themselves are eternal and not bound by sation. Socially progressive and active in time and space, but their actions are humanitarian work, he alienated many limited by the physical organisms with members of the Brahmo Samäj by his which they are connected. NYÄYA idiosyncracies and by violating the assumes the existence of a spiritual self principles he had himself established. different from the body. MÏMÄßSÄ postulates the existence of a soul/self service distinct from the body, because without it Vedic statements such as ‘the sacrifi- See SEVA. cer goes to heaven’ would not make sense. However, since Mïmäƒsakas Ÿe•a only recognize the karmakäæõha of the A serpent with a thousand heads which Veda as ‘revealed’, they must refrain serves Vi•æu as couch during the inter- from making statements about the vals between creations. It is also called nature of the self. Vedäntins, for whom ananta, infinite, as a symbol of eternity. the jñanakhäæõa is revelation proper, When Ÿe•a yawns, the earth trembles. focus on the nature of the self. They dif- At the end of each KALPA Ÿe•a vomits fer in their interpretation of Upani•adic poisonous fire which destroys all cre- statements such as ‘this ätman [self] is ation. At the time of the CHURNING OF the brahman [supreme being]’. The THE OCEAN the gods took Ÿe•a as a rope, Advaitins understand it as an expres- looping it around Mount Mandara. sion of complete identity, the liberated Ÿe•a’s hood is known as MAŒIDVÏPA, the self merging without trace into the qual- island of jewels. ityless brahman. Dvaitins insist on a categorical distinction between Vi•æu, the Supreme Being, and the individual seva (‘service’) souls (jïvätmas). Viÿi•ﬂädvaitins take a In pre-modern Hinduism this is usually middle position. While for Advaitins the understood as temple service and care self is uncreated and indestructible, the- for the divine IMAGE. Traditional Hindu istic schools of Vedänta usually consid- saƒpradäyas (sects) have very elaborate er the selves of individuals created by rituals which clearly define the range of the Supreme God, and, together with (obligatory) seva and also list acts that matter, the body of God. Consequently are considered ‘sins against seva’. With the importance of self-knowledge dif- Hindu reform movements in the 19th fers. For Advaitins knowledge of the self century seva began to acquire the con- is identical with emancipation; for the notation of social service, support for non-Advaitins, emancipation requires the needy and material as well as spiri- the knowledge of matter, selves and God. tual comfort. To worship God in the poor and to serve God in the needy has become an accepted contemporary interpretation of seva. Sen, Keshub Chandra (1838–84) One of the early members of the Sey, also Seyon BRAHMO SAMÄJ, a non-brahmin who Alternative names for the Tamil war rose to leadership and brought about a god MURUGAN. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 171

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Ÿibi ÿik•ä An ancient tribe in north-western India, Phonetics, one of the six VEDÄŒGAS, described as going about clad in the which teaches proper pronunciation skins of wild animals and using clubs as and recitation of the Veda. weapons, believed to be the original Ÿiva worshippers. Ÿik•ä•ﬂaka (‘eight couplets of instruction’) siddha (1) (‘accomplished’) A short text said to be the only written Semi-divine beings, said to number work of CAITANYA, embodying the gist 88,000, believed to be pure and holy. of his teachings.

siddha (2) ÿïla A person who has reached perfection See ETHICS. within a specific SÄDHANA.

siddha-rüpa (‘perfect form’) silence One’s true and original being; in Keeping silent for extended periods of GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, one of the origi- time (maunasädhana) is a common nal characters of the Kø•æa LÏLÄ in practice for Hindu ascetics. Braja, with which the devotees identify and through which they engage in ÿilpa (‘skill’, ‘craft’) rägänuga (passionate) BHAKTI. Artistic creation, production of something beautiful. It can be through archi- siddhi (‘accomplishment’) tecture, painting, dance or music. Usually designates the exercise of occult faculties, such as making oneself invisi- Ÿilpa-ÿästra, also Västu-ÿästra ble, understanding the languages of animals etc. They are mentioned in the The traditional teaching of temple Yogasütras as potential obstacles on the building and IMAGE making, originally way to KAIVALYA, but eagerly sought believed to have been imparted by semi- after by many lesser YOGIS. The divine beings to human craftsmen. The Transcendental Meditation Society two most important manuals are the offered courses in siddhis. Mänasära and the Mayamata, supposed to be by the architects of the gods and ÿikhä the demons respectively. In addition to technical detail the Ÿilpaÿästras also The tuft of hair kept at the back of the contain mythological and religious head after tonsure. It is also called choﬂi. materials. It had to be worn by Hindu house- holders (supposed to cover the Brahmä- randhra, the place at which the soul ÿilpin leaves the body at the time of death). It Traditional craftsman, architect, sculptor, is shorn off during the initiation (dïk•ä) artist. of a SAMNYÄSI. sin (päpa, pätaka, do•a) ÿikhara Offences against the moral and ritual The ‘spire’ of a Hindu temple (of the law, which require penances (praya- Northern or nägara type). ÿcittas). Vedic religion used the distinction Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 172

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between upapätaka (‘lesser sins’), such as teaching the Veda for money, adultery, killing a woman or a man from a low caste, and MAHÄPÄTAKA (‘capital sins’) which were difficult to atone for. The latter were brahmaæahatya (killing a brahmin), sürapäna (intoxication), steya (stealing gold from a brahmin), guruvaöganagama (variously interpreted as incest or cohabitation with the guru’s wife), mahäpätakasaƒsarga (association with great sinners). The number of sins was greatly augmented by the various saƒpradäyas (sects), who declared infringements of their ritual as sins. Thus the GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVAS enumerate 32 offences against worship (which can be atoned for) and 10 offences against the name, which are virtually unpardonable. Sins which are not atoned for lead to ‘downfall’, i.e. loss of Ÿiva Näﬂaräja, King of the Dance. CASTE in this life and punishment in the next. philosophical reflection. Some seals found in Harappa–Mohenjo Daro were Sïtä (‘furrow’) interpreted as Ÿiva Paÿupati (Lord of the The daughter of King Janaka of Videha, Animals) and Ÿiva Mahäyogi, motifs wife of Räma, a principal figure in the found in later Ÿaivism. LI¢GAS were also RÄMÄYAŒA. She was found in a furrow found in the Indus civilization; these by her father while he was ploughing his have always been associated with field, and was also called Ayonijä, ‘not ŸAIVISM. The oldest myth associated born from a womb’. As Räma’s only with Ÿaivism – the destruction of wife she embodied all the virtues of a DAKÆA’s sacrifice by Ÿiva at Kankhala, traditional Hindu woman and was held near Hardwar – suggests initial hostility up as model for Hindu girls to follow towards Ÿaivism from the side of Vedic throughout the ages. This notion has religion. Other myths, such as Ÿiva’s come under attack by Indian feminists. drinking the poison HALÄHALÄ, which threatened to engulf the world, are seen Ÿïtalä by Ÿaivites as proof of Ÿiva’s willingness The goddess of smallpox, widely wor- to save the world at personal risk. The shipped in rural India. best-known iconic representation of Ÿiva is that of the Näﬂaräja (King of Dance), symbolizing the creative, salvif- Ÿiva (‘graceful’) ic and destructive functions of Ÿiva. A deity, whose followers represent one Ÿaivism has been a major component of of the ancient mainstream traditions of Hinduism since at least the fifth century Hinduism. Early on identified with the CE and has inspired its followers to Vedic RUDRA, Ÿiva appears in some late magnificent temple buidings and rich Upani•ads and in the epics and Puräæas poetry. VÄRÄŒASÏ, for millennia the as the focus of a vast mythology and most sacred city of Hinduism, is Ÿiva’s Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 173

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abode: the ‘Golden temple’ is a Ÿiva studied medicine and practised as a doc- sanctuary. ŸA¢KARA (2), the founder of tor for many years in Malaya before Advaita Vedänta, was a Ÿaivite and so becoming a SAMNYÄSI in Hø•ikeÿa in were many luminaries of India. Ÿiva is 1924. As a medical doctor he selflessly also known as Maheÿvara (‘Great attended to the poorest and most down- God’), Gaögädhära (‘Bearer of the trodden, and continued to do so after Gaögä’), Iÿäna (‘Ruler’) and Viÿvanätha founding the Ÿivänanda Ashram in (‘Lord of the Universe’), among other 1932 and the Divine Life Society in names. Among the philosophical 1936. In 1948 he established the Yoga schools based on Ÿaivism are ŸAIVA Vedänta Forest Academy. He continued SIDDHÄNTA and KASHMIR ŸAIVISM. taking an interest in medicine, especial- Ÿaivism is a vigorous and active Hindu ly in AYURVEDA, and opened a dispen- tradition today. sary and clinic. He also gave discourses on spiritual matters and began publish- Ÿiväji (1627–80) ing pamphlets and books. The Ÿivänanda Ashram has an international following The son of Shahji Bonsle, a PESHWA, he and both in letter and spirit promotes rose up against the Mogul emperor universalism in religion. It is one of the Aurangzeb, and became the founder of major establishments in Hø•ikeÿa and the last great Hindu empire. From his well known all over India. The activities capital city Pune he conquered large of the ashram have been continued and tracts of north-western India and the broadened by Ÿivänanda’s successor, Deccan. He forced the Mogul emperor Swami Cidänanda (born 1916). to conclude a treaty conceding his suzerainty over the conquered land. He was just and took care of the weaker ÿivatva (‘Ÿiva-ness’, Ÿiva nature) sections of society, especially of women, ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA teaches that the true and was much admired and loved by his nature of all humans is ÿivatva, Ÿiva people. He was very respectful towards nature, which is hidden and curtailed brahmins, but as he came from a ŸÜDRA through sin. When sin is removed, the background they denied him coronation Ÿiva nature reveals itself, bringing truth according to Vedic rites. In later cen- and happiness. turies he acquired almost legendary status and a Mahratta nationalist political party established itself in 1962 under slavery the name of ‘Siv sena’, Ÿivajï’s army. It Slavery did exist in ancient India, and has become the ruling party in under the form of indentured labour it Mahärä•ﬂra and is becoming an all- continued into the 20th century. India party now.

Ÿivaliöga ÿloka (‘couplet’) The smallest literary unit of the EPICS. See LI¢GA (3).

Ÿivänanda, Swami Ÿloka-värtika (1887–1963) Celebrated work by Kumärila Bhaﬂﬂa of Founder of Ÿivänanda Ashram and the MÏMÄßSÄ school, a commentary to Yoga Vedänta Forest Academy in the first part of the Mïmäƒsä Sütras, Hø•ikeÿa. Born into the illustrious family containing critiques especially of various of Appaya Dik•ita in South India, he Buddhist schools. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 174

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smaraæa (‘remembering’) demands for equality by women, and The second stage in the process of abandonment of many old caste regula- MEDITATION. tions have seriously challenged the Hindu social order. Hindu political parties are concerned with re-establish- smärta (‘pertaining to smøti’) ing a Hindu social order. (See also ÄRYA A designation of ultra-orthodox tradi- SAMÄJ; BHÄRATÏYA JÄNATÄ PARTY; tional brahmins in South India. HINDU MAHÄSABHÄ; RÄÆTØÏYA SVAYAM- SEVAK SANGH; VIŸVA HINDÜ PARIÆAD.) smasäna Burning place, crematorium. social reforms Like Ram Mohan ROY, who succeeded smøti (‘what has been remembered’) in 1828 in having SATÏ banned, many Hindus have felt the need for reforming Tradition, as opposed to ŸRUTI (revelation). In a generic sense, all authoritative aspects of Hindu society, such as writings pertaining to Hindu tradition untouchability (Mahatma GANDHI), that are not ÿruti, i.e. all works com- widow remarriage (RANADE, R. D.), posed after the Veda, such as epics and FEMALE INFANTICIDE, education for Puräæas. In a specific sense, works deal- women and others. There have been ing mainly with law ascribed to inspired demands to abolish caste and to estab- lawgivers, such as the Manusmøti, lish gender equality. (See also EQUALITY Yäjñavalkyasmøti. OF WOMEN.)

snake Soma A name of the MOON. See NÄGA.

social order soma The Hindu social order is circumscribed The fermented juice of a not yet satisfactorily identified plant, which was one by CATUR–VARŒA–ÄŸRAMA-DHARMA, i.e. of the main ingredients of Vedic SACRIFICE. the division into four ‘classes’ (VARŒA) A whole section of the Øgveda contains and four ‘stages of life’ (ÄŸRAMA (2)). Theoretically all rights and duties are hymns that were used in soma libations. defined according to this schema. In Indra is described as lover of soma, and practice each varæa is subdivided into a the intoxication caused by soma con- very large number of jätïs (‘sub-castes’), sumption is frequently referred to. each with its own rules, and most people no longer follow the progression of Som(a)näth(a), the stages of life. CASTE is still a power- also Someÿvara ful factor in social life in India, and for (‘Lord of the moon’) many the ideal of SAMNYÄSA is still alive. A celebrated Ÿiva sanctuary in Gujarat. Besides the caste society, which is large- It was destroyed and plundered by ly identical with Hindu society, there Mahmud of Ghazni in 1025, rebuilt by are a large number of ‘outcastes’ or Kings Bhima and Bhoja, several times ‘untouchables’ (nih•priya), who began thereafter destroyed and rebuilt. Its organizing under the name of DALIT final restoration took place through the (‘oppressed’) and are actively fighting initiative of K. M. Munshi, governor of for their rights. Modernization of soci- Bombay Presidency, and the original ety, the exigencies of industrialization, Ÿivaliöga (see LI¢GA (3)) was installed Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 175

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by Rajendra Prasad, president of India, spirit in 1951. See SELF.

son ÿraddhä A son was considered essential to the See FAITH. continuation a family line, and his birth was an occasion of joy. A married ÿräddha, also antye•fli, woman without a son was considered møtyu-sa™skära unlucky and only a son was entitled to light the funeral pyres of his parents, The last rites, the whole complex ritual ensuring a good afterlife. In recent years (sometimes lasting a full year) required it has often happened that pregnant after the death especially of a brahmin. women, after learning about the sex of the future child, would abort female ÿrauta (1) foetuses. FEMALE INFANTICIDE – by Belonging to ŸRUTI. drowning, poisoning, starvation, expo- sure – was quite frequent. ÿrauta (2) One of the VEDÄ¢GAS, dealing with Sontheimer, Günther-Dietz ceremonial occasions: the Kalpasütras (1934–92) or Ÿrautasütras contain the ritual for Scholar of Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi and (public) SACRIFICES. Hindu law. He was professor of the history of Indian religion and philosophy at the Süd-Asien Institut Heidelberg ÿravaæa (‘listening’) (Germany), author of The Concept of The first of the three steps in MEDITATION. Daya and The Joint Hindu Family, studies of tribal deities (Khandobha) of Mahärä•flra, and producer of several Ÿrï (‘good luck’, ‘fortune’, ‘prosperity’) films on tribal religions. A name for Vi•æu’s consort (LAKÆMÏ). The Sanskrit sign ÿrï is used as an auspicious emblem on the covers of books, soul the front of houses, and added as a hon- See ÄTMAN; SELF. orific to names of eminent persons or books. In ordinary life today used as the Spaæõaÿästra equivalent to ‘Mister’. One of the two branches of KASHMIR ŸAIVISM. Ÿrï-bhä•ya The title of RÄMÄNUJA’s commentary on sphofla (‘boil’) the BRAHMASÜTRA. A term used by grammarians and philosophers of language, such as Ÿrïkaæflha (13th century) BHARTØHARI, to illustrate the sudden An exponent of Ÿiva-viÿi•flädvaita, appearance of the meaning of a WORD author of the Ÿrïkaæflhabhä•ya, com- after the individual letters have been mented upon by Appaya Dïk•ita, a enunciated. Also identified with the 16th-century Advaitin who belonged to cause of the world, BRAHMAN. (See also the so-called Bhämatï-school. (See also ŸABDA.) VIŸIÆfiÄDVAITA.) Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 176

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Ÿrïraögam ship of Vi•æu and the principle of salva- Situated on an island in the Kauverï tion through Vi•æu’s grace alone, he river, near Tirucirapalli, it houses the ascribed to Ÿrï the important role of famous Raöganätha (Vi•æu) temple, mediatrix. Ÿrï is the prototype of the surrounded by seven concentric walled- GURU who leads forgetful souls back to in enclaves, arguably the biggest temple Vi•æu. She is also the embodiment of complex in India. It became famous as grace and mercy whose endeavours win the seat of the Ÿrïvai•æava äcäryas the forgiveness of Vi•æu for the devotee. (teachers), of whom RÄMÄNUJA is considered the greatest. He reordered tem- Ÿrï-vatsa ple worship and gave shape to the faith A mark on Vi•æu’s or Kø•æa’s chest, of the Ÿrïvai•æava community. The indicating the presence of ŸRÏ. history of the temple has been recorded in the Ÿrïraöga Mähätmya and the Koil ÿøögära (‘erotic love’) Olugu, which traces its origins back to the Saögam period (first century CE). One of the RASAS of traditional Indian Rämänuja had to flee from Ÿrïraögam, aesthetics. and spent twelve years in a neighbouring country because of persecution of Ÿøögerï Vai•æavas by the ruling Ÿaiva king. A mountain retreat in Karæätaka. It was Later the temple was attacked several named after Ø•yaÿønga, who according times and occupied by Muslim troops, to tradition had his abode there. It but left largely untouched. Today it is a became famous as the main centre of major place of pilgrimage and the centre Ÿaökara’s DAŸANÄMI samnyäsis. Since of the southern branch of ŸRIVAIÆŒAVISM. the eighth century it has been occupied by an uninterrupted succession of Ÿrïvai•æavism Ÿaökaräcäryas, called jagad-gurus, One of the four major Vai•æava many of them of great fame, such as saƒpradäyas (sects), so called because SUREŸVARA, a direct disciple of ŸA¢KARA of the role that Ÿrï (Vi•æu’s consort, (2), Vidyäÿaökara (13th century) and LAKÆMÏ) plays in it. Ÿrïvai•æavism, MÄDHAVA (2). It contains, besides the although representing an age-old tradi- ashram, a temple dedicated to Ÿäradä, tion, received its doctrinal and ritual the goddess of wisdom, and a residen- codification through the work of the tial school for instruction in Sanskrit äcäryas of ŸRÏRA¢GAM: NÄﬁHA MUNI; and traditional Hindu studies, especially YAMUNÄCÄRYA; and RÄMÄNUJA. Later ADVAITA VEDÄNTA. Ÿrïvai•æavism split into a northern school (VA¥AGALAI) with its centre in sø•ﬂhi KÄÑCÏPURAM, and a southern school See CREATION. (TE¢GALAI) with its centre in ŸRÏRA¢GAM. The most renowned teacher of the former was Pillai Lokäcärya ÿruti (1205–1311), of the latter Vedänta (‘what has been heard’, ‘revelation’) Deÿika (1269–1370). The most sacred part of the scriptures of The universally acknowledged greatest Hinduism. All Hindus consider the Ÿrïvai•æava theologian was Rämänuja, Veda (Sa™hitäs, Brähmaæas, Äraæyakas, through whom Ÿrïvai•æavism received Upani•ads) as ÿruti. Depending on affil- its own Brahmasütra commentary, the iation, Puräæas, Ÿaiva Ägamas, Ÿrïbhä•ya. While emphasizing the lord- Vai•æava Sa™hitäs and Tantras would Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 177

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be considered ÿruti by the followers of ÿuddhi (‘purification’) these saƒpradäyas (sects) as well. Ÿruti A ceremony introduced by the ÄRYA is the ultimate authority in matters of SAMÄJ to readmit (Indian) Muslims and faith and practice: it can be interpreted, Christians into the Hindu fold. (See also but not superseded or bypassed. PURITY.)

stotra (‘[Sanskrit] hymn’) Ÿüdra(s) A large genre of religious composition, The fourth and lowest VARŒA (class), usually in verse form, that is used in whose members do not receive public and private worship. Many UPANAYANA or wear the sacred thread, stotras were composed by famous are not entitled to recite or listen to the people such as Ÿaökara, Rämänuja and Veda, and whose duty it is to serve the Vivekänanda, or are part of Puräæas three higher varæas, the ‘twice-born’. and other scriptures. Collections of such (See also CASTE; SOCIAL ORDER.) hymns (Stotramäläs) are quite popular.

suffering strï-dharma (‘women’s law’) This is unavoidably associated with a That part of the Hindu lawbooks that bodily existence. Birth in SAßSÄRA is deals specifically with the duties of indicative of a karmic necessity to atone WOMEN. (through suffering) for past misdeeds. Self-imposed suffering (TAPAS) is more study effective than that imposed by others. Daily study of scriptures (svädhyäya) is All Hindu systems of thought have been a duty for all brahmins. Study is called devised to bring an end to suffering by the ‘hightest austerity’ in the Upani•ads providing LIBERATION from the cycle of and has always been considered a reli- rebirth. gious necessity by Hindus. The support of students and teachers was one of the suicide sacred duties of Hindu kings. Many While suicide is normally condemned temples maintain schools and the ‘gift by Hindus as a heinous crime, whose of knowledge’ is considered the highest punishment consists in remaining a charity. ghost (PRETA) and not finding rest after death, under certain circumstances and Subrahmaæia in certain places, for example at the Äryan name for the Tamil god SA¢GAM in Präyäga, ‘religious suicide’ MURUGAN, introduced in the SA¢GAM was permitted or even commended. (2) period. Ÿuka-deva (1760–1838) Sudäs The author of several works on YOGA A Vedic king, famous for his SACRIFICES. and founder of the Cäraæadäsis, a The ØÆIS (sages) VIŸVAMITRA and branch of YOGIS. VASIÆﬁHA lived at his court. sukha–duåkha ÿuddha (‘pure’) (‘enjoyment and pain’) Especially in a ritual sense. (See also A necessary conjunction of states for PURITY.) everyone living in SAßSÄRA. Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 178

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ÿukla-pak•a (‘bright part’) Tiruttondattogai (part of the Tiru- The fortnight of a lunar month begin- mulai), famous for his many miracles ning with the new moon (ämavasya). Its and his practice of worshipping the opposite is KØÆŒA-PAKÆA. deity as a friend (sakhi).

Ÿukra (1) superimposition The son of Bhøgu and a priest of BALI See ADHYÄSA. and the DAITYAS, author of the Ÿukra- nïti, a law code. (See also BHÄRGAVAS.) supreme reality See BRAHMAN. Ÿukra (2) The planet Venus. Ÿukravar, Friday, is sura (‘god’) named after it. The opposite of ASURA (demon). sük•ma ÿarïra (‘subtle body’) The body formed of subtle matter that Sürdäs (1479–1584) does not disintegrate at the time of Born blind, he achieved great fame as a death and that as the carrier of KARMA singer and composer of songs glorifying is responsible for rebirth. (See also Kø•æa, collected in the Sürsägar, ‘The BODY.) Ocean of Sürdäs’. He was a follower of VALLABHÄCÄRYA and celebrated the sükta Rädhä Kø•æa LÏLÄ. Emperor Akbar is A Vedic HYMN. said to have visited him incognito to listen to his songs. Sumiträ The wife of Daÿaratha and mother of Sureÿvara (ninth century) Ÿatrughna and LAKÆMAŒA. A direct disciple of ŸA¢KARA (2) and author of such influential works of sun ADVAITA VEDÄNTA as Nai•karmyasiddhi, The sun plays a major part in Hindu Bøhadäraæyakabhä•yavärttika and mythology. It was worshipped in the Taittirïyabhä•yavärttika. One of the form of Sürya and glorified as one of points where he disagrees with other three chief Vedic deities in the Saura Advaitins is his positing of the locus of Puräæas (sun worship was supposed to avidyä (ignorance) in brahman (the uni- bring relief from leprosy). Vi•æu has versal), not in the jïvätmas (individual also been connected with the sun, and consciousness). his three strides have been associated with the journey of the sun from morn- Ÿurpa-nakhä ing through midday to evening. One of (‘one with nails like winnowing fans’) the most celebrated temples of India is the sun temple at Konärak in Orissa, A sister of RÄVAŒA. She fell in love built in 1287. with Räma and offered to marry him. He referred her to Lak•maæa, who cut off her nose and ears, thus provoking Sundaramurti, Sundarar the enmity of Rävaæa, who subse- (ninth century) quently abducted Sïtä. (See also One of the 63 NÄYAŒMÄRS, author of RÄMÄYAŒA.) Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 179

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Sürsägar collections of them, e.g. Vedänta- See SÜRDÄS. sütra(s), Kalpasütras etc. There are sütras on virtually every traditional subject of study. They had to be memorized Sürya by students and were commented upon See SUN. by teachers.

sva-dharma (‘one’s own duty’) Specific obligations for a member of a particular VARŒA (social unit).

svädhyäya See STUDY.

svapna sthäna (‘dream state’) The second state of CONSCIOUSNESS.

Svarga (‘heaven’) This refers especially to INDRA’s heaven, the abode of blessed mortals, situated on Mount MERU. In later Hinduism it is usually considered a lower form of ultimate bliss, as compared to Vi•æu’s Vaikuæﬂha or the absorption in BRAH- MAN. (See also INDRALOKA.)

Svarloka See INDRALOKA.

Sürya, the sun. svastika From svasti (hail), an ancient solar sym- sustenance (sthithi) bol often found in Hindu temples as One of the three divine cosmic functions well as on the first pages of books. It is ascribed to the Supreme Being. Within thought to be auspicious. the trimürti (Brahmä–Vi•æu–Ÿiva) Vi•æu is called the ‘preserver’. He is immanent in everything, and under particular cir- sva-tantra sädhus cumstances descends to earth as an Ascetics who do not belong to one of AVATÄRA to save it from peril. (See also the recognized saƒpradäyas (sects) and ANNIHILATION; CREATION.) have not received initiation through an acknowledged guru. su•upti (‘deep [dreamless] sleep’) The third mode of CONSCIOUSNESS. svayam-bhü liögas (‘self-existent liögas’) sütra (‘thread’, ‘string’) A number of LI¢GAS (3) believed to have Short formulaic statements as well as originated without human agency, and Encyclo - Letter S 10/2/03 9:59 am Page 180

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which are considered especially power- Ÿvetaketu ful, such as the liöga formed of ice at A son of UDDÄLAKA, he received instruc- Kedarnäﬂh. tion in the Chäæõogya Upani•ad regarding the identity of ÄTMAN and svayam-vyakta (‘self-revealed’) BRAHMAN. In the Mahäbhärata he is IMAGES that appear in dreams and are mentioned as a ø•i (sage) who intro- believed not to be artificially made. duced the law of marital exclusivity. They are considered more powerful than artificial ones. Ÿvetäÿvatara Upani•ad Ÿveta-dvïpa (‘white island’) One of the principal Upani•ads, belong- Mentioned in the Näräyaæïya section of ing to the YAJURVEDA, containing a fair- the Mahäbhärata as lying to the north ly systematic discussion of Ÿiva Advaita. of Bhärata, inhabited by a race of white wise beings, worshippers of NÄRÄYAŒA, who communicated to NÄRA and Ÿyäma (‘black’) Näräyaæa a doctrine of salvation. A name of KØÆŒA. Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 181

Tagore, Debendranath authority referred to by PÄŒINÏ reputed (1818–1905) to be the founder of a Vedic school of Religious and social reformer. Founder the Black YAJURVEDA. He is the author of Sädhäran Brahmo Samäj and of the of the Taittirïya Saƒhitä, the Taittirïya forest retreat Ÿantiniketan, near Brähmaæa and the Taittirïya Upani•ad. Calcutta. Known as ‘Mahar•i’, he dis- carded the sacred thread and claimed to tamas receive direct messages from the See GUŒA. Almighty, which he communicated to his disciples. He compiled the Brahmo- tämasa-ÿästras dharma, an anthology from the (‘scriptures of darkness’) Upani•ads, the Mahäbhärata and Manusmøti. The designation of all non-Vai•æava scriptures by VAIÆŒAVAS. Tagore, Rabindranath (1861–1941) täæõava Son of Debendranath Tagore, poet, The dance of world destruction, per- painter, playwright, essayist, founder of formed by ŸIVA in Cidambaram. Its ety- the forest university Ÿantiniketan and mology is derived from Taæõu, one of the women’s university Ÿrïniketan. He Ÿiva’s attendants, who invented the received the Nobel Prize for Literature dance. in 1913 for his collection of poems Gïtäñjalï and a knighthood in 1915. He Tanjore was fond of the Baul songs of Bengal A city in Tamilnäõü, famous for the and wrote poetry and plays both in Bøhadïÿvara (Ÿiva) temple, built by the Bengali and English. Among his major COLA king Rajaraja I (985–1013), one prose works are Sädhana and Creative of the largest in India. According to Unity. He lectured and travelled widely tradition the king built this temple in all over the world, and received many the hope of being cured from honours. leprosy.

Taittirïya Tantra (1) (‘ritual’, ‘rule’) (‘relating to Tittiri [the partridge])’ The designation of a class of works con- A Vedic sage, the pupil of YÄSKA, an nected to goddess worship. Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 182

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Tantra (2) Tärä (‘star’) A form of Hinduism in which ÿakti, the The wife of BØHASPATI. She was abduct- energy of Ÿiva, is worshipped. ‘Right- ed by Soma, the moon, and recovered hand’ Tantra (daksinäcära) is a form of by Brahmä. She was delivered of a child, Goddess worship similar to that of fathered by Soma, whom she called Vi•æu. ‘Left-hand’ Tantra (vämäcära) Budha (Mercury). involves the worshippers in secret rituals that are characterized as pañca- tarka-ÿästra makäras (the ‘5 ms’), namely madya (‘the science of reasoning’) (intoxicating drinks), mäƒsa (meat), Formal logic, part of NYÄYA. matsya (fish), mudrä (parched grain and gestures), and maithuna (extramarital sexual intercourse). Tarka-bhä•a See KEŸAVA MIŸRA. Tantra-värttika A subcommentary by KUMÄRILA tarpaæa BHAﬁﬁA on part of the Ÿäbarabhä•ya. Libation, the sprinkling of water as part of certain rituals, especially connected tapas (‘heat’) with the commemoration of ancestors. Self-mortification. This is an important notion in Hinduism from the earliest tat tvam asi (‘that you are’) times to the present. According to wide- One of the MAHÄVÄKYAS (from the spread belief, self-mortification leads to Chäæõogya Upani•ad) teaching the an accumulation of power which can be unity of self (tvam) and absolute (tat). used to summon the gods to be of service. Many stories in the epics and tattva Puräæas tell of attempts by Indra and (‘principle’, ‘element’, ‘that-ness’) other gods to prevent ascetics from accu- mulating too much power through tapas, True or essential nature. by either having them seduced or provoked to anger, through which all power Tattva-cintä-maæi was annihilated. Hindu scriptures enu- A celebrated work by GA¢GEŸA, consid- merate a great variety of forms of tapas: ered the basic text of Navya NYÄYA, besides fasting or not lying down to dealing with the PRAMÄŒAS. sleep, they recommend standing in water up to the neck, holding one arm up high, tattva-jñäna (‘knowledge of looking into the sun etc. One of the most principles, or of truth’) celebrated forms is the ‘five-fire’ tapas: an ascetic is to build four blazing cow- Metaphysics. dung fires, in each direction of the compass. With the midday sun overhead (as Telang, Käÿïnäth Trimbak a fifth fire) he is to spend some time (1850–93) exposed to the heat of all these fires. Professor of law at Bombay University and notable Sanskrit scholar, as well as Tapo-loka social reformer, editor of Bhartøhari’s The second-highest of the worlds in the Nïti-ÿätaka and Vairägya-ÿätaka and Hindu universe, below Satyaloka (see Viÿakhadatta’s Mudrä-räk•asa. He BRAHMÄ-LOKA). wrote important essays on the Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 183

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Mahäbhärata and the Rämäyaæa and also more tolerant with regard to CASTE entered into polemics with Western affiliation of teachers. (See also PILLAI Indologists on several issues. He trans- LOKÄCÄRYA.) lated the Bhagavadgïtä for the Sacred Books of the East (1880). Thibaut, Georg (1848–1914) Prominent German Indologist. After temples (maæõira) studying Indology in Heidelberg and While the Vedas do not mention tem- Berlin, concentrating on Vedic studies, ples (yajñas (sacrifices) were performed he became assistant to Max MÜLLER in on temporarily established sites) these Oxford in editing the Øgveda. In 1875 have been a hallmark of Hinduism since he moved to India, first as Anglo- the fifth century CE. Hindu temples are Sanskrit professor and principal at the not primarily places of meeting for a Benares Hindu College, then as profes- congregation to worship as community, sor and principal of Muir Central but palaces for the god who is present in College. His work on Indian mathemat- an IMAGE (mürti) and who is wor- ics and astronomy was pathbreaking. shipped individually by an appointed He was co-editor of the Benares priest. In the course of centuries Hindus Sanskrit Series and translated a number have developed a great variety of archi- of important works into English, e.g. tectural styles for temples, the chief ones ŸA¢KARA’s (2) and RÄMÄNUJA’s commen- being the nägara or North Indian, and taries on the Brahmasütras, which the dräviõa, or South Indian styles. All appeared in the Sacred Books of the East. details of temple construction are laid down in the texts on västuÿästra. A vil- Tilak, Bal Gangadhar lage or a town was not deemed com- (1856–1920) plete and habitable unless it had a Poona-based lawyer, revolutionary, temple. Some of the major temples are educator, founder of Fergusson College, veritable temple cities and attract mil- editor of newspapers and author of sev- lions of worshippers every year. The eral important, if controversial works: major temples have Sthäla Puräæas Orion or Researches into the Antiquity which record their histories and major of the Vedas (1893), and The Arctic events that took place at the site. To Home in the Vedas (1903), in which he have a temple built has been a time- postulated prehistoric origins of the honoured activity among Hindus, still Vedas. He wrote a Mahratti commen- much in evidence in modern India and tary on the Bhagavadgïtä, Gïtä Rahasya also among Hindus in the diaspora. (See (1915), subtitled The Gïtä as a Gospel also ARCHITECTURE.) of Action, which became very popular. Forbidden by the British authorities to Teögalai organize political mass rallies, he used the local GAŒEŸA festival as an occasion Southern school of ŸRÏ VAIÆŒAVISM, giv- for huge protest demonstrations. Since ing equal weight to Sanskrit and Tamil then GAŒEŸA CATÜRTHI has become a scriptures (Ubhäya Vedänta) with its major religious festival in Mahärä•ﬂra. seat in Ÿrïraægam. It is also known as the cat school, because it believes that God’s grace saves without human time effort, as a cat carries its kitten from fire Most Hindu systems distinguish without the kitten’s active co-operation between divisible and indivisible time: (märjaranyäya). The Teögalais were the first is identified with empirical time Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 184

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and its divisions, the second is an uncre- but these differences are not related to ated principle of the universe. The different ideological conceptions of Øgveda speaks of the rotating wheel of time. The major divisions of time are time as having 12 spokes, it connects effected by the revolutions of moon, sun the seasons with the ingredients of the and Jupiter (Bøhaspati). The lunar all-important SACRIFICE. The Maitri month is divided into a dark half Upani•ad contains the famous passage: (KØÆŒAPAKÆA) and a bright half ‘Time cooks all things in the great self. (ŸUKLAPAKÆA); each half is divided into He who knows in what time is cooked fifteen tithis (each with a specific name). is the knower of the Veda.’ In the The solar movement divides the year Mahäbhärata time appears as fate into six seasons (determined by entry (daiva) or even death. Time is seen both into certain constellations) and twelve as giver of happiness and misery; its solar months. The seasons are vasanta effects are considered inescapable. In (spring), grïÿma (hot season), var•a the Puräæas time (käla) is often intro- (rainy season), ÿaräd (autumn), hemän- duced as one of the uncreated principles ta (winter), ÿiÿira (cool season). The on a par with pradhäna (matter) and months (beginning with Caitra in puru•a (spirit), emerging from the spring) are neither identical with the unmanifested being (avyäkta). The months of the Western calendar nor Yogaväsi•ﬂha Rämäyaæa has a large sec- with the lunar months. Every now and tion devoted to käla: time is said to be then an intercalary month is required to the cause for both the creation and the realign the beginning of spring with the destruction of the universe. Käla is com- beginning of the month Caitra (or pared to an actor, who appears on the Me•a). Different schools of astronomers stage, disappears and reappears again to issue yearly calendars/almanacs (pañ- perform his play. In the Bhagavadgïtä cäöga) which are followed by different Kø•æa says about himself: ‘Time am I, groups of people. Major feasts are world-destroying, grown mature, sometimes celebrated on different days engaged in subduing the world.’ In one (even a month apart) because of dis- of the last sections of the Mahäbhärata, agreements between the calendars. For the Mauÿalyaparvaæ, which is charac- astronomical/astrological calculations terized by a deep sense of doom, the the nak•atras (‘houses’) are important: speaker tells us that his heroes ‘met with there are 28, each measuring 13º20’ of destruction, impelled by time.’ Time (in the ecliptic. Each nak•atra is subdivided an embodied form) is described as wan- into 4 pädas of 3º20’ each. Over and dering around the earth: ‘He looked like above the lunar and solar cycles, the 12- a man of terrible and fierce aspect’ and year and 60-year cycles of Jupiter are was ‘none else but the Destroyer of all important. creatures’. The evil deeds the protago- The 24-hour solar day is subdivided nists commit and which earn them their into 30 muhürtas (48 minutes each). A fate are ascribed to ‘the perverseness of muhürta is subdivided into two ghati the hour that had come upon them’. (of 24 minutes each). Each ghati is subdivided into 30 käla (of 48 seconds time, divisions of each). Each käla is divided into 2 pala Regardless of philosophical differences (of 24 seconds each), and each pala into Hindus throughout the ages accepted 6 präæa (of 4 seconds each). Each präna certain divisions of empirical time is divided into 10 vipala (of 0.4 seconds which were used both in daily life and in each) and each vipala into 60 astronomical/astrological calculations. prativipala (0.000666 seconds each). Different systems were and are used, One month in human terms is consid- Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 185

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ered to be one day and night of the pitø all pervasive. Time is an instrument in (deceased forefathers); one human year the cosmic sport of God. In his ‘sport is equal to one day and night of the deva manifestation’ God functions as depen- (gods); one thousand years of the deva dent on time. is equal to one day of Brahmä. History Relativistic notions of time: for the is reckoned in manvantara, ‘ages of Advaitin ŸA¢KARA (2) brahman, which patriarchs’ of which there are fourteen, is timeless, is the only reality. Time does each presided over by a specific MANU not possess an independent reality of its (2). The largest time-frame are the own; it is only associated with events in kalpas (eons) equal to 4,320,000 years, time. and subdivided into 4 yugas, each suc- Momentariness vs. temporality: cessively shorter and more wicked. PATAÑJALI defines the end and purpose (Køta Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dväpara Yuga of YOGA to be ‘the cessation of all mod- and Kali Yuga). We are at present living ifications of consciousness’ and endeav- in a Kali Yuga (age of strife) which will ours to lead the practitioner to a end with a pralaya (total dissolution of transcendence of time and space. Since the world) before a new age arises. As the ultimate condition is one of time- regards details of these calculations lessness, time cannot be an aspect of there is a certain amount of discrepancy reality. ‘Temporality’ is a figment of the among various authors. But the notion imagination; however, the moments of a devolution of history, a gradual and that cause the perception of time are irreversible worsening of the world situ- real. The Yogasütra says that one gains ation is common to all, as is the idea of metaphysical knowledge by concentrat- a cyclic destruction and creation of the ing on the sequence of moments. As the universe, whether attributed to the commentator VYÄSA explains: ‘Just as action of a deity or to an impersonal the atom (paramäæu) is the smallest process. (See also CALENDAR; FESTIVALS.) particle of matter (dravya) so a moment (k•aæa) is the smallest particle of time (käla).’ Physically a k•aæa is the amount time, philosophies of of time an atom in motion takes to cross Substantialist notions of time: In the a space equalling the space it occupies. VAIŸEÆIKA system, time is one of nine The sequence of such moments cannot substances (dravya). It is described as be combined into a ‘thing’. Notions ‘of three kinds, being characterized by such as ‘hours’ or ‘days’ are mental creation, sustention and destruction’. combinations. Time (käla) is not a real NYÄYA accepts the Vaiÿe•ika notion of thing, but is based on changes in the time as a substance and attempts to mind. The moment, however, is a real work out the epistemological implica- thing in itself and constitutive of the tions. It holds that ‘perception and the sequence. The sequence is constituted rest cannot be regarded as instruments by an uninterrupted succession of of cognition on account of the impossi- moments. Past and future can be bility of connecting them with any of explained on the basis of change. The the three points of time.’ VIŸIÆﬁÄDVAITA world that exists in this moment under- considers the physical universe to be goes instant change. Patañjali accepts ‘the body of God’ and thus invests the notions of present, past and future. nature with a degree of reality hardly Unlike the present, however, past and parallelled anywhere else. Consequently future do not exist in manifest form. time also acquires a substantiality of its When the mental condition called dhar- own as the manifestation of God’s eter- mamegha is reached, the sequence of nity and omnipresence. It is eternal and changes comes to an end and the Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 186

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sequence can no longer sustain even a declared the image to be Vi•æu and k•aæa. In dharmameghasamädhï the introduced a mode of worship follow- YOGI reaches a zero-time experience ing the example of ŸRÏRA¢GAM. One before merging his consciousness in the peculiar custom at Tirupati is the offer- timeless KAIVALYA. ing of one’s hair. Veökaﬂa also has the reputation of fulfilling all the desires of his devotees, who deliver large dona- tïrtha (‘ford’) tions of money and valuables into a A place of PILGRIMAGE. There are thou- huge hundi (chest). The temple complex sands of places of pilgrimage in India, is under the administration of the visited every year by millions of people. Tamilnäõü Devasthänam Board and its Each tïrtha offers something special, be enormous income is used, among other it a particular blessing, the favour of a things, to support the Veökaﬂeÿvar deity or a natural peculiarity. Usually University and a temple museum. pilgrims arriving at a tïrtha are being taken care of by local paæõas (guides) Tiru-väcakam (‘sacred utterances’) who for a fee show the pilgrims around and tell them what ceremonies to per- The title of a celebrated collection of form. hymns in honour of Ÿiva, by MÄŒIKKAVÄCAKAR, one of the 63 Näyaæmärs. Tirukkural (first century CE?) Ancient collection of aphorisms, in tithi (‘day’) Tamil, often called the ‘Tamil Bible’ because of its popularity and wisdom. The thirtieth part of a lunar month, the basic unit of the Hindu calendar, according to which sacred days and fes- Tirumal tivals are calculated. (See also TIME, IÆŒU Tamil name for V . DIVISIONS OF.)

Tirumular Tolkappiam (second century CE) The legendary author of the 3,000 verse An ancient Tamil grammar, considered Tirumaæõira, an importance source for the oldest Tamil text. Ÿaiva Siddhänta. According to the Periya Puräæa he was born in Kailäsa, entered the body of a dead cowherd, tradition and spent 3,000 years composing the See SMØTI. Tirumaæõira, one verse per year. The Tirumaæõira, one of the earliest works transmigration of Tamil Ÿaivism, is believed to have been written in the seventh or eighth See REBIRTH. century CE. trees Tirupati (‘Holy Lord’) Trees are considered models of generos- Arguably the most popular and richest ity and patience. Some trees are sacred Hindu temple, in Andhra Pradesh, to specific deities: the TULASÏ is sacred to sacred to Veökaﬂa, assumed to be Vai•æavas, the bilva to Ÿaivites. Major HARI–HARA, i.e. a combination of Vi•æu trees in or near a village often become and Ÿiva. While it functioned as a Ÿaiva objects of worship, or shrines are built shrine for several centuries, RÄMÄNUJA beneath them. There is also a ceremony Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 187

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The wedding of trees.

called ‘marriage of the trees’, when two Trilocana (‘three-eyed’) close-standing trees are united in a ritu- A designation of Ÿiva, who has a third al not unlike that of vivaha (MARRIAGE). eye in the middle of his forehead that is very destructive. He burned KÄMA to Tretä Yuga death with a glance from it. The second of the four world ages. (See also TIME, DIVISIONS OF.) triloka (‘three worlds’) Variously understood as either compris- trident (triÿula) ing netherworlds (näraka), earth Ÿiva’s weapon. It is also carried by (bhümi) and heaven (svarga), or earth Ÿaivite NÄGAS (3) both as a symbol and (bhurloka), sky (bhuvarloka) and plan- a weapon. ets (svarloka). The great gods are often called ‘rulers of the three worlds’.

triguæa (‘[possessing] three qualities’) The designation of matter (prakøti) as tri-märga (‘three ways’) composed of sattva (light), rajas (excite- The triad of karmamärga (path of ment) and tamas (darkness), affecting action), bhaktimärga (path of devotion) all material entities. (See also GUŒA.) and jñänamärga (path of knowledge). Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 188

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tri-mürti (‘three forms’) artificer, to construct three aerial The designation either of the triad of fortresses – one each of gold, silver and Brahmä (creator), Vi•æu (sustainer) and iron – of immense dimensions, and Ÿiva (destroyer), or of the three aspects wonderfully equipped with all conceiv- of either Vi•æu, Ÿiva or Devï, each exer- able amenities. They terrorized the pop- cising these three functions. ulation of the earth from their triple city, and so humans and devas (gods) asked Brahmä for help. Brahmä told them that only Sthänu (an aspect of Ÿiva) could pierce all three cities with one shaft. Ÿiva accordingly had an armoured car made, with the help of all the gods, and shot a fiery arrow into Tripura, destroying it.

Triÿaöku (‘three arrows’) A mythical king of the solar dynasty, he was first called Satyavrata but later called Triÿaöku because he had ruined his reputation through the three ‘arrows’ of adultery, cow killing and beef eating. He tried to persuade his family priest, VAŸIÆﬁHA, to perform a SACRIFICE through which he would be A replica of the famous Tri-mürti in the able bodily to ascend to heaven. Tri- caves of Ganapuri (Elephants) near ÿaöku was condemned by Vaÿi•ﬂha to Mumbai (Bombay). become a caæõäla (OUTCASTE), but VIŸVAMITRA, who had been helped by Triÿaöku in times of famine, performed tripunõøa the ritual. Rejected by INDRA at the A mark on the forehead consisting of entrance to heaven, Triÿaöku remained three parallel lines, made with ashes suspended from the vault of heaven, from cowdung, which Ÿaivites have to head downwards, and can be seen as a apply before worship. Without wearing star. Triÿaöku is often referred to in this sign all prayers would be fruitless. India as an example for a task only half (See also ŸAIVISM.) accomplished.

Tri-purä tri-sthalï (‘three places’) A name of the Goddess (DEVÏ). A The most sacred places of PILGRIMAGE famous tantric text is called for Hindus: Väräæasï, Gayä and Tripurärahasya. Präyäga. There is a famous work by Naräyaæabhaﬂﬂa, Tristhalïsetu (‘Bridge of Three Places’), which describes them Tri-pura (‘triple city’) in detail. An aerial tri-tiered phenomenon, which was destroyed by Ÿiva. The story according to the Ÿiva Puräæas, is that tri-varga (1) (‘three states’) three ASURAS (demons), desirous of The three aims of life: ARTHA (1) immortality, asked MAYA, the divine (wealth), KÄMA and DHARMA (law). Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 189

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tri-varga (2) in a family that worshipped VIﬁHOBA Three conditions: loss, stability and (Vi•æu). Neglecting his family business, increase. he spent his days composing abhaögs (songs) in the temple. His life is surrounded by many miraculous events. tri-varga (3) He is one of the most popular of all The three qualities of nature: sattva, poet-saints, and his memory is kept rajas, tamas. alive by the Värkarïs, a group of devotees of Viﬂhoba at Dehu, who meet tri-varga (4) every fortnight to spend hours singing Tukäräm’s abhaögs. The three higher VARŒAS: Brähmaæas, K•atriyas and Vaiÿyas. tulasï Tri-vikrama The sacred basil, a shrub identified with the presence of Vi•æu, kept by each A name of VIÆŒU, referring to the three pious VAIÆŒAVA household in a pot, strides he took at BALI’s sacrifice. worshipped and used in rituals. Beads made from its wood (tulsïmälä) are truth worn by many Vai•æavas around the The Sanskrit word satya means both arm and neck, and also carried along to truth and reality; it is the central notion count JAPA of the holy names. of Hindu ethics and philosophy/theology. Truthfulness is the highest and most Tul(a)sïdäs(a) (1511–1637) inclusive virtue; the search for reality – (‘servant of the tulasï’) satyasya satya, ‘the reality of the real, Celebrated author of the Rämcarit- the truth of truth’ – is the ultimate aim manas, a Hindï (Avadhï) recreation of of VEDÄNTA. The ‘golden age’ of the Rämäyaæa, which has become the humankind was called satyayuga, the most popular religious book of North age of truth when people were honest India, and of many hymns and poems and did not need any laws. In Hindu celebrating the greatness of Räma. philosophy much effort was spent on definining criteria for truth (PRAMÄŒAS). turïya (‘the fourth [state]’) SAMNYÄSA is meant to be an uncompro- mising search for truth/reality not hin- A designation of the highest stage of dered by the necessities of conventions CONSCIOUSNESS, when subject–object and the burden of everyday occupations. duality disappears. Mahatma GANDHI prided himself in reversing the adage ‘God is Truth’ into Tvastø ‘Truth is God’ and he called his political In the Øgveda he is the ideal artist and method satyägraha, ‘truth- grasping’. His artisan, manufacturer of many wonder- autobiography bears the title My ful contraptions, nourisher of all beings. Experiments with Truth. The Indian His son Viÿvarüpa, three-headed and government adopted the Upani•adic for- six-eyed, became an enemy of Indra and mula satyam eva jayate (Truth will be was killed by him. In the Puräæas Tvastø victorious) as the crest on its official seal. is identified with VIŸVAKARMA (2), the architect of the gods. Tukäräm(a) (1608–49) Mahratta poet-saint. Born into a ŸÜDRA twice-born family in Dehu, near Pune, he grew up See DVIJÄTI. Encyclo - Letter T 10/2/03 10:00 am Page 190

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tyäga (‘renunciation’) a devotee of Räma and composer of This applies especially to the formal act numerous songs (in Kaææäõa) with reli- of becoming a SAMNYÄSI. gious content, widely used in bhajan sessions.

Tyägaräja (1767–1847) tyägi (fem. tyäginï) (‘renouncer’) One of India’s most famous musicians, A renouncer, in a generic sense. Encyclo - Letter U 10/2/03 10:01 am Page 191

Udäyana (10th century) Ugra-sena Author of Nyäyakusumañjäli, a King of Mathurä. He was deposed by celebrated text. KAßŸA, and reinstated by Kø•æa, who killed Kaƒÿa. ud-bhava (‘appearance’) This applies especially to the appear- Ujjainï (‘victorious’) ance of Ÿiva from within the Ÿivaliöga One of the seven ancient sacred cities, in (Ÿivaliögodbhava, often represented in Central India, a Ÿiva sanctuary, the site art) or other objects. (See also LIŒGA (3).) of the Amareÿvara LI¢GA (3). It is one of the four places where the KUMBHAMELA Uddälaka is celebrated every 12 years. It was the capital of Vikramäditya, and famous A teacher identified in the Chäæõogya for its astronomical observatory. Hindu Upani•ad as the author of a new cos- astronomers use the longitude of Ujjainï mology. His son ŸVETAKETU figures as their first meridian. prominently in the Upani•ads and the Ÿathapatha Brähmaæa. His other son, NACIKETAS, became famous for his dia- Ujjvala Nïlämaæi logues with YAMA, as reported in the (‘burning sapphire’) Kaﬂha Upani•ad. Among his students The title of a celebrated work by were YÄJÑA-VALKYA, ŸAUNAKA and Kahoda. RÜPA GOSVÄMI, dealing with mä- dhuryabhakti, the highest form of Uddhava devotion according to the GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVAS. Kø•æa’s cousin, counsellor and friend, mentioned in the Bhägavatam. Ul, also Ul vinai (Tamil, ‘fate’, ‘destiny’) Uõipï A major factor in Tamil folk religion, A city in Karæätaka state, headquarters addressed in the TIRUKKURAL as the of the Madhva saƒpradäya (sect), seat greatest power. of its supreme pontiff. The change of pontiff which takes place every twelve years is a major occasion in Uõipï. (See Umä (‘light’) also VAIÆŒAVISM.) Another name for SATÏ, Ÿiva’s consort. Encyclo - Letter U 10/2/03 10:01 am Page 192

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Umäpati untruth (anøta) (‘lord of Umä’, ‘Uma’s husband’) The opposite of ØTA, the right order of A frequent designation of Ÿiva. things; it is seen as destructive and a negative power. unborn (aja) An epithet of the ultimate, ÄTMAN and upadeÿa (‘instruction’) BRAHMAN. The teaching of a GURU.

universe (jagat; viÿva) Upa-deÿa-sahasrï The Hindu universe, as described in the (‘thousand instructions’) Puräæas, is geocentric: the earth is the The title of a popular ADVAITA work, centre, but not the best part of it; it is attributed to ŸA¢KARA (2). suitable only for ‘work’, for gaining liberation from saƒsära. The universe as a upadhyäya (‘teacher’) whole is encompassed by the shell of the Used today as the Indian equivalent of WORLD EGG, 500 million yojanas in the academic title ‘doctor’. diameter. Inside this egg there are concentric layers of firm continents surrounded by oceans containing different upamäna, also upamiti liquids. It contains the heavens of the Analogy. One of the acknowledged various deities as well as the nether- PRAMÄŒAS. worlds and the hells. Most Hindu schools of thought accept a periodic upa-nayana creation and destruction of the universe in a succession of world ages (kalpas) Initiation. Upanayana is given only to and they also assume the simultaneous members of the three upper CASTES (usu- existence of a multitude of parallel uni- ally only to boys). Its outward sign is verses. (See also COSMOLOGY; DVÏPA; the JANËU (sacred thread). (See also TIME, DIVISIONS OF.) SAßSKÄRA.)

unreality (1) Upani•ads In logic, abhäva (non-existence), accept- Derived from upa (near), ni (down), sad ed by some schools as a separate entity. (sit), this is the designation of the fourth and last part of the VEDAS (also called VEDÄNTA) containing mystical teachings. unreality (2) It is the basis of the jñänamärga and In Vedänta, asat(ya), the whole of finite Vedänta darÿana. The so-called ‘principal beings, in contrast to sat(ya) (reality) Upani•ads’ are Bøhadäraæyaka, Chäö- which by definition must be unchang- õogya, Ïÿa, Kena, Aitareya, Taittirïyä, ing, eternal and conscious. Kauÿïtaki, Kaﬂha, Muæõaka, Ÿveta- ÿvatara, Praÿna, Maitri, and Mäæõukya. unrighteousness The traditional number of Upani•ads is 108. Several hundred Upani•ads are See ADHARMA. known, some of very recent origin such as an Allah Upani•ad and a Khrist untouchability Upani•ad. The Upani•ads belong to the See OUTCASTE. prasthäna-trayï, and every Vedänta Encyclo - Letter U 10/2/03 10:01 am Page 193

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äcärya (master) had to write a commen- tion of one’s diet, either quantitatively tary on the principal Upani•ads, the first or qualitatively. Many Hindus untertake and longest being that by ŸAŒKARA (2). fasting in fulfilment of vows. GANDHI undertook ‘fasts unto death’ several upa-pätakas (‘lesser sins’) times in an attempt to move rioting Muslims and Hindus to reconciliation. In contrast to MAHÄ-PÄTAKAS (great sins), breaches of DHARMA that can be atoned for relatively easily. (See also Upa-vedas SIN.) (‘lesser’ or ‘complementary’ Vedas) The four traditional arts and sciences: (1) Upa-puräæas (‘lesser Puräæas’) Ayurveda (medicine); (2) Gandharvaveda (music and dancing); (3) Dhanurveda In contrast to the MAHÄ-PURÄŒAS (great (archery, martial arts); (4) Sthäpatyaveda Puräæas). The classification is not (architecture). always unambiguous. Thus ŸÄKTAS classify the Devïbhägavatam as a Mahäpuräæa, while VAIÆŒAVAS consider U•as it an Upapuräæa. The dawn, daughter of heaven and sister of the ÄDITYAS, praised in the Vedas upäsana for her charms and her immortality. See WORSHIP. utsava (‘feast’) upaväsa (‘fasting’) Especially a temple feast. The utsava- bera is the processional IMAGE of a A very popular form of penance. There temple which is taken out on feast days. are a number of fast days in the Hindu CALENDAR, varying from saƒpradäya (sect) to saƒpradäya. In its strict sense it Uttara Mïmäƒsä entails total abstinence from food and (‘later Mïƒäƒsä’) drink. Often it is understood as a restric- VEDÄNTA. (See also MÏMÄßSÄ.) Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 194

vac (‘speech’, ‘word’) key school’, from its insistence that a per- In the Øgveda (Väksükta) personified as son, in order to be saved by God, has to a goddess, through whom everything is co-operate actively, like the young of a created, and through whom the ØÆIS monkey, which must cling to its mother if receive their inspiration. it wants to reach safety in a fire (märkatanyäya). (See also VEDÄNTA-DEŸIKA.) Väcaknavï väda-väda (‘disputation’, ‘dialogue’) Upani•adic female philosopher, who challenged YAJÑAVÄLKYA. One of the traditional methods of engaging scholars from other schools of thought. Väcaspati Miÿra (ninth century) A versatile Advaitin writer, known as a vähana (‘vehicle’) sarvatantrasvatantra (independent commentator on all systems of philosophy). Usually an animal carrying a god, e.g. He wrote commentaries on Ÿaökara’s Vi•æu has the bird GARU¥A as his vahana, Brahmasütrabhä•ya (the Bhämatï), on the Säƒkhyakärikäs (the Vaiÿäradï), on the Yoga Sutras (the Yogabhäsya), and on the Nyäya Sütras (the Nyäyavärttika). He held that the individual human beings were the seat of ignorance.

väcika japa The repetition of a MANTRA (1) with words, i.e. audibly (in contrast with mänasa japa, which entails mental repetition only).

Vaõagalai The northern school of ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM, preferring the Sanskritic tradition over the Tamilian. Its headquarters are in KÄÑCÏPURAM. It is also known as the ‘mon- Garuda, the vähana (vehicle) of Vi•æu. Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 195

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Ÿiva the bull NANDI, Indra an elephant, Vaiÿe•ika Durgä a tiger etc. In temples the One of the six orthodox systems of vahanas are represented before the main Hinduism. The oldest text, the entrance, and often in a separate Vaiÿe•ika Sütras, are ascribed to temple. Kaæäõa. Its name derives from its assumption of the existence of viÿe•as, vaidhi-bhakti ultimate qualifiers of primary sub- (‘devotion consisting of following stances such as atoms, time, space etc. It commands [vidhi]’) emphasizes DHARMA as the means to This is considered the first stage in the prosperity and salvation. It is often development of BHAKTI. grouped with the NYÄYA system as ‘Nyäya–Vaiÿe•ika’. It assumes a plurality of independent selves and the eterni- vaidik(a) dharma (‘vedic religion’) ty of atoms, the smallest units of matter. A self-designation of ‘Hinduism’. Vai•æava Saƒhitäs Vaikuæﬂha A large number of voluminous texts The paradise of Vi•æu, the destination belonging to the PÄÑCARÄTRA tradition, of those who have been saved through which acquired high authority among Vi•æu’s grace. VAIÆŒAVAS as the source for regulations of life and ritual. Most are associated vairägi (fem. vairäginï) (‘renouncer’) with specific centres of Vai•æavism in South India. Examples are the Specifically VAIÆŒAVA ascetics, who Parameÿvara Saƒhitä (Ÿrïraögam), usually wear white (in contrast to Ahirbudhnya Samhitä, and Sanat- Ÿaivite samnyäsis, who wear ochre). kumära Saƒhitä.

vairägya (‘renunciation’) Vai•æavas A generic expression, synonymous with Devotees of Vi•æu, numerically the TYÄGA and SAMNYÄSA. largest segment of mainstream Hinduism (500 million plus), divided into a Vairägya ÿatakam number of saƒpradäyas (sects). (‘century of renunciation’) A celebrated poetic treatise by Vai•æavism BHARTØHARI, which urges mortals to A conference in the 14th century estab- practise renunciation before it is too late. lished the division of Vai•æavas into four major constituencies (catuhsam-. Vairocana pradäya) with which all others have to A name of BALI. affiliate in order to receive recognition. They are: (1) Ÿrïvai•æava saƒpradäya (sect), established by the äcäryas (masters) Vaiÿampäyana of Ÿrïraögam, among whom RÄMÄNUJA A celebrated sage, the original teacher is the greatest. Their centres are in of the Black YAJURVEDA. He was a disci- Ÿrïraögam and Tirupati; (2) Brahmä ple of the sage VYÄSA, from whom he saƒpradäya, also called the Madhva heard the Mahäbhärata, which he later saƒpradäya, founded by MADHVA. Its recited before King JANAMEJAYA. centre is in Uõipï; (3) Kumära Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 196

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saƒpradäya, founded by NÄRADA (3), Väla-khïlyas (2) also called the Hamsa saƒpradäya, or Mythical pygmy sages, the size of a Nimbärka saƒpradäya, after its best- thumb, able to fly swifter than birds, the known representative, NIMBÄRKA, with guardians of the sun chariot. its headquarters in Govardhana; (4) Rudra saƒpradäya, founded by Vi•æus- Valiyon vami, also called Vallabha saƒpradäya, after Vallabha (1479–1531), its best- The Tamil name for BALADEVA, the known reformer, with its headquarters elder brother of Vi•æu. He is described in Gokula. as having a light complexion, one ear- While all later saƒpradäyas are sup- ring and a ploughshare as a weapon. posed to be affiliated with one of the His emblem is the palmyra tree. four, there are two major saƒpradäyas that are often mentioned separately: the Vallabhäcärya, also GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVA saƒpradäya (affili- Vallabha (1481–1533) ated with the Madhva saƒpradäya), A Telugu brahmin, founder of a school founded by CAITANYA, with its centre in of theistic Vedänta called Ÿuddhädvaita Navadvïp, and the Ÿrï saƒpradäya, (pure non-dualism). He emphasized founded by RÄMÄNANDA, with its head- most strongly the role of grace in the quarters in Ayodhyä. process of salvation. He elevated the Vai•æavism is characterized by Bhägavata Puräæa to the position of the upäsana (ritual worship) and säraæägati most authoritative scripture. He also (taking refuge in Vi•æu). Vai•æavas sub- considered revelation the only way to scribe to ahiƒsä (non-violence), vege- acquire knowledge of God. (See also tarianism, selflessness and active PUÆﬁIMÄRGA.) altruism. Vai•æavism has brought forth an extremely rich literature both in Sanskrit and Indian vernaculars as well Välmïki as artistic productions (music, dance, The author of the RÄMÄYANA, the first sculpture, architecture). Major revival poet (Ädikävi). His name is derived movements within Vai•æavism have from välmïka, an anthill. According to been founded by the A®VARS of South legend he led the life of a brigand before India, the North Indian BHAKTI move- being converted to Räma worship. ments and the Neo-Caitanyite Mission Doing penance he meditated so long (19th–20th centuries), which has and so intensely that ants built their hill reached the West in the form of the around him, leaving only his eyes visi- INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA ble. He received the banished SÏTÄ into his CONSCIOUSNESS. hermitage and educated her two sons.

Vaiÿya vämäcära (‘left-hand way’) See TANTRA. The third of the VARŒAS (classes), the lowest of the twice-born, composed of traders, farmers and artisans. Väma-deva (1) A name of ŸIVA. Väla-khïlyas (1) Eleven hymns in the Øgveda that are Väma-deva (2) added as an appendix, due to their spu- A Vedic ø•i (sage), author of many rious nature. hymns. Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 197

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Väma-deva (3) Varäha Puräæa An Upani•adic sage. One of the UPA-PURÄŒAS, in which the exploits of Vi•æu’s Varaha AVATÄRA are Väma-deva (4) described. The name of a daÿanämi samnyäsi, founder and president of the Akhil Väräæasï Bhäratïya Sant Samiti (1986).

Vämana The dwarf AVATÄRA of Vi•æu. (See also BALI.)

Vämana Puräæa One of the Upapuräæas, dealing with the dwarf AVÄTARA of Vi•æu.

vamÿa Genealogy, lists of succession of ø•is (sages) as found attached to some BRÄHMAŒAS (1); also one of the pañcälak•ana (five subjects of a Puräæa).

vamÿänucarita The third of the pancälak•ana (subjects of a Puräæa). It consists of the genealogies of various gods and Väräæasï and the Ganges. patriarchs.

Van Buitenen, Johannes One of the seven ancient holy cities of Adrianus Bernardus India, and probably one of the oldest (1925–89) cities on earth, it is situated on the Dutch–American Indologist, professor Gaögä, in today’s Uttar Pradesh. Its of Sanskrit at Chicago University, trans- name comes from the names of two lator of Rämänuja’s Gïtäbhä•ya, Yamunä- rivers (Väräæa and Asï) that formed the cärya’s Ägamaprämuanya, and the borders of the ancient town; it is also Mahäbhärata (incomplete). known as Käÿï (the shiny one), Avimuktaka (place of highest libera- vänaprastha (‘forest dweller’) tion). From time immemorial it was a The third stage in a brahmin’s life. (See holy city (it was an ancient place by the time of Buddha) and a centre of Hindu also SAMNYÄSA.) learning. Its major temples, especially the Viÿvanäﬂha (‘Golden’) temple, were Varäha (‘boar’) destroyed and rebuilt several times One of the AVATÄRAS of Vi•æu, who in under Muslim rule. The present shrine, this form saved the earth from being built on part of the original temple (the submerged in the ocean. other part is occupied by a mosque), Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 198

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was constructed in 1783 by Ränï Varuæa is the ruler of the universe, con- Ahalyabäï. Many Hindus come to troller of the destiny of humankind. His Väräæasï to die in the hope of finding consort is Väruæï, the goddess of wine. instant liberation from rebirth. Besides its many traditional places of Hindu vasanta learning, Väräæasï is the seat of the Spring, also personified as a deity. Käshï Sanskrit Vidyäpïth and the Benares Hindu University. Väräæasï has been the object of Vasi•flha (‘wealthiest’) much literature, ancient and modern. A Vedic ØÆI (sage), composer of many One of the most extensive descriptions hymns. He is one of the seven great ø•is of ancient Väräæasï is found in the and one of the ten PRAJÄPATIS. As owner Käÿïkhaæõa of the Skandha Puräæa. of Kämadhenu, the ‘cow of plenty’, he Väräæasï has been praised in countless could obtain all wishes. A law book is hymns and poems throughout the ages. also attributed to him. In the Veda Vasi•flha appears as family priest of king Värkarïs Sudäs and as the enemy of his rival Viÿvamitra. The name Vasi•flha occurs See TUKÄRÄM A ( ). frequently in the epics and Puräæas, and not all the stories connected with this Varma name agree with the Vedic tradition. A name, designating affiliation with the There is also a Väsi•flha Rämäyaæa (also K•atriya VARŒA. known as Yogävasi•flha) which offers a philosophical, advaitic rewriting of the epic. varæa (‘colour’) The largest social unit, based on birth. västu-puru•a The four varæas are Brähmaæas (priests, scholars, counsellors), K•atriyas (sol- A figure in the shape of a person diers, administrators, nobles), Vaiÿyas enclosed by a quadrangle, subdivided (landowners, businesspeople, artisans) into a number of smaller squares, used and Ÿüdras (servants, landless labour- as the basic ground plan for the con- ers, menials). struction of a TEMPLE.

varæäÿrama dharma västu-ÿästra The (Hindu) law regulating the rights See ŸILPA-ŸÄSTRA. and duties of the four VARŒAS according to their station in life (ÄŸRAMA (2)), con- Vasu sidered binding for all members of The eight Vasus are described in the Hindu society. (See also SOCIAL ORDER.) Øgveda as attendants of INDRA: Äpa (water), Dhruva (the pole star), Soma varta (‘economy’) (the moon), Dhara (earth), Anila One of the focal points of Hindu state- (wind), Anala (fire), Prabhäsa (dawn), craft (the other being daæõa, justice, the Pratyü•a (light). They are also called power of punishment). Aditi’s children.

Varuæa Vasu-deva A major Vedic deity, associated with The son of Ÿura of the YÄDAVA clan of creation and the upholding of law. the lunar dynasty, father of Kø•æa. He Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 199

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married the seven daughters of Ähuka. 1500–1200 BCE and consider them the Devakï, the youngest, became the moth- products of nomadic invaders of India er of Kø•æa. After Kø•æa’s death he also from the area of southern Russia. Veda died and four of his wives became SATÏS in the wider sense includes, besides the (2) with him. saƒhitäs, the Brähmaæas, voluminous treatises dealing with the technicalities Väsudeva of sacrifice, the Äraæyakas, ‘forest treatises’, and Upani•ads, texts for per- The patronymic of Kø•æa. sons who have renounced and no longer participate in the routine of ritual. Vätsyäyaæa (1) The saƒhitäs consist of the Øgveda The author of a commentary on the (Veda of mantras), the Sämaveda (Veda Nyäyasütra. of melodies), the Yajurveda (Veda of rituals), and the Atharvaveda (Veda of Vätsyäyaæa (2) incantations). The most important is the Øgveda, a collection of 1,017 hymns The author of the Kämasütra. (with an additional 11 VÄLAKHILYAS (1)) divided into ten books or eight Väyu, also Pavana (‘air, wind’) maæõalas. Every hymn is addressed to Personified in the Vedas, often associat- one or more Vedic deities, is attributed ed with INDRA. In the Puräæas he is the to a Vedic ØÆI (some of them women), king of the GANDHARVAS (2), the father and has to be recited at a certain pitch of BHÏMA (2) and HANUMANT. to accompany a ritual. While much of Vedic ritualism has become obsolete, Väyu Puräæa many Vedic hymns are still recited at occasions such as birth-ceremonies, ini- A Puräæa in which Väyu announces tiation, marriage and cremation. dharma in connection with the Ÿveta- The text of the Øgveda has been ka¶pa, the age preceding the present meticulously preserved over thousands one. It is considered to be the oldest of years through oral transmission. among the MAHÄPURÄŒAS and to con- Various mnemotechnic devices were form most closely to the definition of a employed to ensure faultless memoriza- Puräæa as pañcalak•ana (five topics). tion and recitation. The various texts of the Veda were transmitted by particular Veda ÿäkhäs (branches) of brahmin families. From the root ‘vid’, to know; ‘knowl- For example, the White Yajurveda was edge’, with the connotation of revela- passed on by the Vajasaneyi ÿäkhä. tion. The Vedas are the foundation of Certain Hindu schools of thought, such Hinduism and their acceptance as ulti- as Pürva MÏMÄßSA, consider the Veda mate authority is the criterion of ortho- apauru•eya (not the work of a person, doxy. Veda in the narrower sense either divine or human) and pre-exis- comprises the four saƒhitäs, collections tent. Others consider it the utterance of of hymns written in Vedic, an archaic the Supreme Being revealed to ø•is. form of Sanskrit. The date of their com- Learning and recitation of the Veda was position, as well as the place, have been the prerogative of brahmins. Persons the object of major scholarly disputes. not belonging to the twice-born castes Indian tradition dates the Vedas to were not allowed to either recite or lis- about 4000 BCE and assumes a north- ten to it and severe punishment was west Indian origin. Western scholars, meted out for transgressions. (See also since Max MÜLLER, assume a date of appendix 2, HINDU SCRIPTURES.) Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 200

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Vedäægas (‘limbs of the Veda’) Vedänta-karikävalï Six auxiliary sciences to be studied in A short manual of VIŸIÆﬁÄDVAITA order to understand and use the Veda Vedänta by the 18th-century scholar correctly: ÿik•ä (phonetics and pronun- Bucci Venkaﬂäcärya. ciation); chandas (verse metres), vyäkäraæa (grammar), nirukta (etymol- Vedänta-paribhä•a ogy, explanation of obsolete words), A short manual of ADVAITA Vedänta jyoti•a (astronomy), kalpa or ÿrauta written by the 17th-century scholar (ritual). Dharmaräja Adhvarin.

Vedänta (‘end of Veda’) Vedänta-sära This can mean both the Upani•ads and A short ADVAITA VEDÄNTA manual writ- systems of Upani•adic philosophy and ten by Sadänanda, a celebrated Advaitin theology. The Upani•ads were the last who lived in the first half of the 15th portion of the Veda (in the wider century. He is the author of Vedänta- sense) and, according to Vedäntins, sära, a concise compendium of Advaita, constitute the core purpose of the much in use even today. Veda, because they teach final emancipation from the cycle of birth and death. An attempt was made to sys- Vedänta-sütra tematize their teaching in the BRAHMA- See BRAHMA-SÜTRA. SÜTRAS (also called the Vedäntasütras). The lengthy commentaries upon these Vedärtha-saögraha composed by various authors from dif- (‘the gist of the meaning of the Veda’) ferent backgrounds gave rise to many A small work by RÄMÄNUJA, in which schools of Vedänta. Vedänta in one he critiques Advaita understandings of form or other has been the major the Upani•ads and advances his own Hindu philosophy of religion for the from the standpoint of VIŸIÆﬁÄDVAITA. past 1,200 years and has many contemporary academic and religious exponents. (See appendix 3, The Ten vedi Principal Schools of Vedänta.) A Vedic sacrificial altar. The Ÿulva- sütras contain exact rules for the con- Vedänta Deÿika (1269–1370) struction of altars for specific purposes. The most elaborate was the altar in the The most prolific exponent of ŸRÏ- form of a falcon used for the solemn VAIÆŒAVISM after RÄMÄNUJA, and AGNICAYANA. It consisted of 10,800 believed to be the AVATÄRA of the bell of bricks (the number of hours in a Vedic the temple at TIRUPATI. He wrote works year) in five layers (the five seasons) rep- in Sanskrit and Tamil as well as in resenting the year, and with it the uni- Manipraväla, a mixture of the two. verse. Contemporary scholars believe Many of his writings are subcommen- they have found correlations between taries on Rämänuja’s commentaries and the dimensions of the altars and the dis- are widely used by students of tances of sun, moon and planets as well VIŸIÆﬁÄDVAITA. He became the main as their orbits. authority for the northern school (VA¥AGALAI) of Ÿrïvai•æavism. His works include Rahasyatrayasära, Nyäsa Vedic civilization Viƒÿati and Saökalpa Suryodaya. A major dispute has developed about Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 201

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the age and origin of Vedic civilization. vegetarianism While the majority of Western scholars, Vedic Indians were meat eaters; they following the lead of Max MÜLLER, even consumed cattle after they had assume that Vedic civilization in India been sacrificed. Vegetarianism appar- was the result of an invasion by semi- ently developed under the influence of nomadic, cattle-breeding Äryan people Buddhism and Jainism, religions that from outside India around 1500–1200 insisted on ahiƒsä, ‘non-killing’, repudi- BCE, following the decline of the ating animal sacrifice and meat eating. Mohenjo Daro/Harappan city culture, Among Hindus VAIÆŒAVAS are the most Indian scholars contend that Vedic strictest vegetarians (Bengali brahmins civilization developed in India itself eat fish, which they do not consider around 4000 BCE and that the so-called against their religion); ŸAIVAS and ŸÄK- Indus civilization (renamed Indus– TAS continue animal sacrifices and also Sarasvati civilization) was a late phase eat meat. Neo-Hindu movements are of Vedic civilization, which spread east- proponents of strict vegetarianism for wards to the Gangetic plains after the ethical as well as health reasons. desiccation of the original homeland in Accepting the doctrine of rebirth and what is today Sindh. While there is nei- the possibility that a human might be ther literary nor archeological evidence reborn in an animal, they view animal for an invasion from outside India, slaughter and meat eating as tanta- satellite photography and archaeogeog- mount to cannibalism. (See also FOOD.) raphy seem to have established that the river-bed of the Sarasvatï, described in the Øgveda as the mightiest of rivers, Vel beside which the Vedic people had set- A name of MURUGAN, the Tamil god of tled, had completely dried out by 1900 war, also known as Sey and Neduvel. BCE. It is to be expected that both His priests were known as Velan. groups of scholars would engage in debate to validate their assumptions. Veæa A mythical king, son of Anga, who Vedic religion angered the brahmins of his realm by The religion based on the Veda was forbidding SACRIFICES to anyone but strongly focused on SACRIFICE (yajña), himself. When their remonstrations did which was believed to be the source of not help they killed him with blades of everything. Vedic religion was also kuÿa grass. When lawlessness overtook characterized by the division of VARŒAS, the kingless country they drilled the left believed to have originated at the arm of the dead king and produced puru•ayajña with which humankind Ni•äda, who proved to be wicked and began. Vedic religion was polytheistic: useless. They drilled the right arm and Indra, Agni, Varuæa and Mitra were the obtained Pøthu, who cultivated the main deities; however, as one Vedic earth (prthivï) and was a just ruler, verse has it, ‘Indra is known by many restoring the privileges of the brahmins. names; all the different names design His story is told in the Mahäbhärata but One.’ Vedic religion was the basis of and in several Puräæas. later Hinduism, which received influences from other sources. Many Hindus would call their religion ‘vedic’, empha- Vendan sizing the continuity of practice and A Tamil form of INDRA, worshipped in belief from Vedic times to today. Maridan. Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 202

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Veökafleÿvara (‘Lord of Veökafla’) vidyä (‘knowledge’, ‘wisdom’) A title of Vi•æu as worshipped in According to the Upani•ads the highest TIRUPATI, situated on the Veökafla hill. aim of life and the only means to find full emancipation from SAßSÄRA. It arises from discrimination (viveka) between vetäla the eternal self and the transient world A ghost or goblin, which especially of the senses. Indian philosophers have haunts cemeteries, animating dead developed diverse interpretations of its bodies. (See also BHÜTA; PRETA.) meaning and its acquisition.

vibhava Vidyäbhü•ana Baladeva (18th century) The appearance (of Vi•æu) in a visible, bodily form (like an avatära). A follower of the CAITANYA school, author of a commentary on the Brahmasütras from a Caitanyite per- Vibhï•aæa (‘terrible’) spective, the Govinda Bhä•ya. The younger brother of RÄVAŒA, a virtuous man opposed to the activities of Vidyäpati (1400–1507) the RÄKŸASAS. He became an ally of Poet, author of the celebrated Gïta- Räma and was made king of Laökä govinda extolling the love between after Rävaæa’s death. RÄDHÄ and KØÆŒA.

vibhuti Vidyäraæya Miraculous powers, dealt with in a sec- See MÄDHAVA. tion of the YOGA-SÜTRAS. It is also used to designate the ash-like substance forming on pictures of SATHYA SÄÏ BÄBÄ, which is Vijaya-nagara (‘city of victory’) said to have miraculous properties. The last Hindu state in India, founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka, Vicitra-vïrya MÄDHAVA becoming the first prime min- A king who plays a major role in the ister. It covered a large area on the Mahäbhärata. Deccan, up to modern Cennai (Madras). Its capital was beautified through many temples, the largest and most famous vidhi (‘injunction’, ‘command’) being the Virupak•a, sacred to Ÿiva. According to MÏMÄßSA only that part Sixteenth-century European travellers of the Veda is authoritative that gives described it as the richest kingdom in injunctions with regard to things to be Asia and its capital comparable in size to done, the rest being mere ‘eulogy’ Rome. The räyas of Vijayanagara were (arthaväda). patrons of Tamil, Telugu and Kanarese poetry and encouraged Sanskrit studies. They fully supported orthodox Vidura Brahminism and the revival of Vedic The son of VYÄSA by a slave girl, called animal (and human) SACRIFICES. Muslim ‘the wisest of the wise’, adviser to both forces conquered and destroyed the city PÄŒ¥AVAS and KAURAVAS, and ally of in 1565. The remnants of the rulers of Päæõavas in the Great War. (See also Vijayanagara moved to Chandragiri and MAHÄBHÄRATA.) the empire disintegrated. Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 203

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Vijñäna-bhik•u (15th century) Madhyadeÿa, homeland of the Äryas, The founder of a school of VEDÄNTA from the south, the Deccan. Many called Sämänya-väda. He attempted to events described in epics and Puräæas show the compatibility of SÄßHKYA and relate to the Vindhyas. Vedänta in his commentary to the Brahmasütras called Vijñänämøta violence (hi™•a) Bhäsya. He also wrote a commentary This is normally considered a vice by on the Ÿavaragïtä of the Kürma Puräæa. Hindus. It is justified, however, if sanctioned by the ŸÄSTRAS: the killing of ani- Vikramäditya (95 BCE–78 CE) mals in SACRIFICE is not considered A legendary king, whose identity has sinful, because it is done on the strength been variously established, from whose of a Vedic injunction, and by being sac- reign the beginning of the Vikram era rificed an animal obtains a higher exis- dates (57 BCE). His capital was Ujjainï, tence. The killing of enemies by and he was renowned as a soldier and K•atriyas (warrior class) is also permit- politician, as well as a patron of the ted, or even required, if involved in a arts. He was said to have assembled at just (dharmic) war. As Kø•æa explains his court the ‘nine jewels’, men highly to Arjuna in the Bhagavadgïtä, a war- accomplished in their fields of endeav- rior must fight in order to fulfil his our: Dhanvantari, a physician; K•apa- duties and to contribute to the well- æaka, Ÿaöku, and Vetäla Bhaflfla, poets; being of the world (lokasangraha). Amarasinha, a lexicographer; Ghata- Unconditional ahiƒsä (non-violence), kharpara, Kälidäsa and Vararuci, poets as GANDHI taught it, is not part of main- and dramatists; and Varähamihira, an stream Hindu tradition. astronomer. The title Vikramäditya was also used by other kings. Viräj, also Viräfl (‘splendid’, ‘excellent’) village religion A primordial being, variously described The discrepancy between the sophisti- as the male half of BRAHMÄ or as an cated Hindu systems such as VEDÄNTA issue of PURUÆA, the prototype of all and the down-to-earth religious practice male creatures. In VEDÄNTA it is the of Indian villages was noticed early. name of the intellect that rules over the Village religion in India is characterized aggregate of bodies. by locality: the most important objects of worship are usually local heroes and viräja goddesses, often former members of the The mythical river that divides village community. Worship is offered Vaikuæflha from Ÿivaloka. not only in formal temples but at impro- vised shrines, under trees, at peculiarly Vïra-ÿäivas shaped stones, at places where appari- tions were sighted, etc. A number of See LI¢GÄYATS. studies of village religion in different parts of India have been undertaken virtues recently. The most common list of traditional (universal) Hindu virtues is provided in Vindhya the five YAMA (non-violence, truthful- A range of mountains that stretch ness, honesty, continence and non-cov- across Central India, dividing the etousness) and five NIYAMA (purity, Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 204

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contentment, ritual actions, study, making the Lord the motive of one’s actions) as listed in Patañjali’s Yogasütra, as preparation for higher meditation. Specific virtues are enjoined on members of particular saƒpradäyas (sects), such as fasting on specific days, observing feasts, contributing to temple worship etc.

vïrya (‘strength’) One of the attributes of Vi•æu, according to RÄMÄNUJA.

Viÿi•ﬂädvaita The interpretation of VEDÄNTA developed by RÄMÄNUJA and his followers, in opposition to ŸA¢KARA’s Advaita. While maintaining the ultimate oneness of all reality, Rämänuja postulates a multiplicity of real beings: the world of material things as well as that of living Vi•æu. beings, in addition to BRAHMAN, identical with Vi•æu. The universe is seen as God’s body. As a consequence both the the jewel Kaustubha, on his wrist he way to salvation and the ultimate end wears the jewel Syamantaka. Usually he are conceived differently from Ÿaökara’s is represented standing or seated on a Advaita: for Rämänuja human effort lotus, with Lak•mï beside him. In some aided by divine grace is required, and temples he is also pictured lying on the the final state is not one of complete dis- coils of ŸEÆA, the world snake, who rep- solution of individual existence but one resents eternity. His VAHANA (vehicle) is of eternal companionship with Vi•æu GARU¥A. together with all the released. He is worshipped in a litany of thousand names (sahasranäma). His most Vi•æu (‘the all-pervader’) popular names are Acyuta (‘unfallen’), He appears in the Øgveda as INDRA’s Ananta (‘infinite’), Caturbhuja (‘four- younger brother, but emerges in epics armed’), Hari, Hø•ïkeÿa (‘Lord of the and Puräæas as the Supreme Being, with sense organs’), Janärdana (‘worshipped the largest numerical following. He is by men’), Keÿava (‘the radiant’), usually shown together with his consort Lak•mïpati (‘husband of Lak•mï), Ÿrï or LAKÆMÏ. He is essentially a saviour Madhusüdana (‘destroyer of the demon god, called muktidätä. His worship is Madhu’), Nära, Näräyana, Pitäƒbara joyous and often emotional. (‘clothed in yellow’), Puru•ottama (‘the Pictorially he is represented as having supreme person’), Vaikuntanäﬂha (‘lord a dark blue body, with four arms, hold- of heaven’), Yajñeÿvara (‘lord of sacri- ing cakra (a discus, sign of world-power, fice). Since KØÆŒA is considered by his called Sudarÿana), gada (a mace, called followers not just as an avatära of Vi•æu Kaumodakï), padma (a lotus), and but Vi•æu appearing as such (svayam ÿaöka (a conch, called Pañca-janya). On bhagavän), the titles of Vi•æu and Kø•æa his breast is the curl called Ÿrïvatsa and are often used interchangeably. Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 205

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His community is divided into a Vi•æu-svämi (1200–50) great many different saƒpradäyas Founder of the Rudra (VAIÆŒAVA) (sects). The most characteristic feature saƒpradäya (sect). of Vi•æu is his appearance in the form of AVATÄRAS (incarnations), whose most Viÿva Hindü Pari•ad prominent are RÄMA and Kø•æa. A rich (‘Universal Hindu Assembly’) mythology has been created around A movement founded in 1964 by about Vi•æu as well as a sophisticated theolo- 150 Hindu religious leaders in Bombay gy. (See also RÄMÄNUJA, VAIÆŒAVAS, to reawaken Hindu consciousness VIŸIÆfiÄDVAITA.) (Hindu jagaran) and to bring about worldwide co-operation among Hindus. It also attempts to articulate a common Vi•æu Puräæa platform for Hinduism, to modernize The Puräæa dealing with Vi•æu, his the Hindu tradition and to give political AVATÄRAS, his legends, his worship etc. power in India back to Hindus. It sup- It is one of the oldest (fifth century CE?) ports Hindu political parties and has and best corresponds to the definition held several major public events to draw of a Puräæa as dealing with five subjects attention to Hindu concerns. It is very (pañcalak•ana): primary creation, sec- active in the Hindu diaspora and has ondary creation, genealogies of gods attracted the support of leading figures and patriarchs, reigns of MANU (2), his- in economy and culture. tory. It is very popular among Hindus and considered ÿruti (revelation) by Viÿva-karma (1) (‘all-maker’) many VAIÆŒAVAS. A Vedic deva, who is addressed in two hymns as ‘all-seeing, mighty in mind Vi•æu-gupta and power, the father who made us, the Minister of Candragupta Maurya one above the seven ø•is (sages).’ (322–298 BCE), usually identified with CÄNAKYA (or Kauflilya), the celebrated Viÿva-karma (2) author of the Kaufliliya Arthaÿästra. The architect, engineer and master craftsman of the gods, the author of Vi•æu-sahasra-näma Viÿvakarmavästuÿästra. (‘thousand names of Vi•æu’) A litany of a thousand names or titles of Viÿvämitra Vi•æu, found in the Mahäbhärata and A celebrated figure who, though born as several Puräæas. It has been commented a KÆATRIYA, rose to brahminhood upon by ŸA¢KARA (2) and by PARÄŸARA through intense tapas (self-mortification) Bhaflfla, and is often recited in VAIÆŒAVA and became one of the SAPTAØÆIS (Seven worship. The Cäraka Saƒhitä, a work Sages). He was the arch rival of on medicine, recommends recitation of VASIÆfiHA, another Mahar•i (Great Sage). the Vi•æusahasranäma in cases where Viÿvamitra is the sage of the third medical remedies no longer help and in maæõala of the Øgveda, which contains former times it was recited during child- the famous gäyatrï, Vasi•flha that of the birth. seventh. Both were at some time purohi- tas (family priests) of the famous King SUDÄS. The epics and Puräæas contain Vi•æu-smøti many stories about the enmity between One of the older, authoritative codes of law. Viÿvamitra and Vasi•flha. Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 206

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Viÿva-näflha (‘universal Lord’) Dutt, a disciple of RAMAKRISHNA A title of Ÿiva and name of the most ‘PARAMAHAMSA’ and founder of the famous of the temples in VÄRÄŒASÏ, of Ramakrishna Mission. He was sent by which Ÿiva is patron deity. the räja of Rämnäd as Hindu delegate to the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893 and impressed the Viÿva-nätha Cakra-varttin West by his forceful reinterpretation of (1664–1754) Vedänta and his practical plans for the One of the most prolific scholarly expo- upliftment of India. He founded nents of GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM and ashrams in India, which became centres author of numerous commentaries on for spiritual and material support, and major works by Rüpa and Jïva established Vedänta societies in Gosvämi, as well as of dramas and plays America and England, to propagate with Caitanyite plots. Among his best- Indian spirituality in the West. He also known works are Sarärtha Darÿinï, a became one of the proponents of Hindu commentary on the Bhägavatam, a nationalism and is one of the most cele- Gïtäbhä•ya, Bhaktirasamøtasindhu- brated figures of the Hindu renaissance. bindu and Ujjvalanïlämanikiraæa, short summaries of the two main works of vrata (‘vow’) RÜPA GOSVÄMI. A voluntary religious practice, taken up by individuals in fulfilment of certain viÿva-rüpa (‘all forms’) promises made. They usually consist of A title of Vi•æu, the form in which particular fasts, pilgrimages or repeti- ARJUNA beheld KØÆŒA in the eleventh tions of prayer formulas to gain healing chapter of the Bhagavadgïtä. for a sick family member or friend, obtain help in difficult situations, or to Viflflhobä, also Viflflal give thanks for divine support received. A Mahärä•flrian form of the name of They are an important aspect of popular Hinduism. Vi•æu. His sanctuary is in PAŒ¥HARPUR.

vivaha Vrätyas See MARRIAGE. A heretical group. There is much controversy about the identity of the viveka (‘discrimination’) Vrätyas. Some claim they were non- Äryan immigrants from the Middle Discrimination between what is self, East, others think they were lapsed eternal, and what is non-self, transient. high-caste Äryans, while some (associat- It is one of the preconditions as well as ing the name with the term vrata, ‘vow’) the means for liberation from SAßSÄRA. consider them to be a ‘people who took a vow’, religious mendicants who Viveka-cüõä-maæi adopted a particular lifestyle. (‘crest jewel of discrimination’) A famous short work, ascribed to ŸANKARA (2), teaching how to gain Vøndävana, also Vøndäban, LIBERATION through VIVEKA. Vrindaban, Brindaban (‘Vønda forest’) Vivekänanda, Swami One of the most popular Hindu pil- (1863–1902) grimage centres, in western Uttar The monastic name of Narendra Nath Pradesh, near Mathurä, associated with Encyclo - Letter V 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 207

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Kø•æa’s youthful exploits, especially his Mahäbhärata and all the Puräæas. dalliance with the GOPÏS, the milkmaids According to tradition he was the illegiti- of Braja, as described in the Harivamÿa mate child of PARÄŸARA and SATYAVATÏ and the Bhägavatam. It owes its present (1) (before her marriage to King Ÿäntanu) status and popularity to its rediscovery and retired to the forest to practise aus- and revival by CAITANYA and his associ- terities immediately after birth. He was ates, who settled there in the late 16th called upon by his mother to beget sons century and began building major tem- on the widows of her son Vicitravïrya, ples, identifying the locations men- and became the father of Päæõu and tioned in the BHÄGAVATAM and starting Dhøtarä•ﬂra as well as of Vidura and a prolific literary activity. Its closeness Ÿuka. He was called Kø•æa because of his to Delhi (120 km to the north) and its dark complexion, and Dvaipäyana accessibility from the Agra–Delhi trunk because of his birth on an island (dvïpa) road has created an enormous influx of in the Yamunä. He is one of the seven visitors in recent years. Many retired cira-jïvins, or deathless persons. (The oth- people spend their lives in Vøndävana, ers are Aÿvathämä, Bali, Hanumän, participating in the rich fare of temple Vibhï•ana, Køpa and Paraÿuräma). worship, raslïlä performances (re-enact- ments of the life of Kø•æa) and presenta- vyavahära (‘conduct’, ‘action’, tions by famous religious leaders. ‘transaction’, ‘procedure’) In general it denotes all manner of deal- Vø•æi ings, especially legal procedure. In A descendant of Yadu, of the lunar Vedänta, especially in ADVAITA dynasty, an ancestor of Kø•æa, also VEDÄNTA, it is used to desribe the mun- called Var•æeya. (See also YÄDAVAS.) dane, innerwordly, imperfect standpoint (vyavahärika) over against the Vøtra perfect, eternal (paramärthika) perspec- The antagonist of INDRA in the Øgveda, tive on reality. sometimes identified with drought or darkness, the embodiment of everything vyühas (‘arrangement’) oppressive, whom Indra slays, thereby In VIŸIÆﬁÄDVAITA, the fourfold form of relieving his followers. BRAHMAN, manifesting himself as Väsudeva (possessing all six divine vyäkaraæa attributes), Saökar•aæa (possessing Grammar, one of the six VEDÄŒGAS, a knowledge and strength), Pradyumna major preoccupation in Hindu scholar- (endowed with lordship and virility) and ship. Study of grammar was an indis- Aniruddha (possessed of potency and pensable prerequisite for any higher splendour) for purposes of meditation by studies, and in itself was considered a the devotees and creation of the universe. religious discipline. The major grammar- Each of the four descends into three sub- ians, such as PÄŒIŒÏ, enjoy a high status. vyühas who are the presiding deities of the twelve months of the year. Their names are Keÿava, Näräyaæa, Mädhava, Vyäsa (‘arranger’) Govinda, Vi•æu, Madhusüdana, A celebrated sage, the arranger of the Trivikrama, Vämana, Ÿrïdhara, Hø•ïkeÿa, Vedas, and the compiler of the Padmanäbha and Dämodara. Encyclo - Letter W 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 208

war (vigraha) ancestors is part of daily ceremonies, Hindu history, from the Vedas the rivers are considered sacred and onwards, is replete with stories of wars, must not be polluted. Gaögä (Ganges) climaxing in the Great Bhärata War, water, especially, said not to putrefy, is with which the KALI YUGA, the age of taken away by pilgrims and used as strife, began. Wars of defence and of medicine and for libations, especially in conquest were considered the legitimate connection with the last rites. occupation of K•atriyas (the warrior class). Conventions of fair warfare wheel (cakra) included the rule that only K•atriyas An ancient solar symbol, used also to were to engage in warfare, that non- denote universality of domination or combatants should be spared, that no teaching. A universal monarch is a one was to attack another from behind, cakravartin, and the cakra is a popular at night, or in a position in which he symbol for the DHARMA as well. could not defend himself. Wars accord- CIRCUMAMBULATION is the customary ing to chivalric conventions were called form of worship of an object. dharmayuddha and seen as a means to win fame and a good afterlife; wars in which these conventions were violated, Whitney, William Dwight or which were caused by greed and lust, (1827–94) were called kuﬂayuddha or asurayud- The first professor of Sanskrit at Yale dha. Warfare was developed as one of University, long-time president of the the traditional sciences, and received the American Oriental Society, he published attention of many writers on statecraft a Sanskrit grammar which is still used, (ärtha ÿästra). Battles were usually initi- and wrote many essays on language. ated with long rituals and prayers, and His translation of the Atharvaveda was wars were regarded as ‘sacrifice’. published posthumously (1905).

water Wilkins, Sir Charles Besides its practical uses, water was (1750–1836) always important in Hindu RITUAL: A member of the Indian Civil Service, he daily ritual ablutions are prescribed, was the first Englishman with a sub- additional ablutions were done to atone stantial knowledge of Sanskrit. His for sins, the sprinkling of water Sanskrit Grammar (1779) was path- (tarpaæa) for the benefit of deceased breaking, and his translation of the Encyclo - Letter W 10/2/03 10:03 am Page 209

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Bhagavadgïtä (1785) inspired many performed by women. Women chanted Europeans. He became co-founder of the SÄMANS and composed many of the the Asiatick Society of Bengal (1784). hymns of the Øgveda. There was a pro- He also translated the Hitopadeÿa and vision for change in gender (uha) in Kälidäsa’s Ÿakuntalä, which prompted many ritual formulae to alternately Goethe’s admiration for Indian drama. have a woman or a man perform the ritual. Women were also teachers of Vedic Wilson, Horace Hayman lore, and girls were given the same edu- (1786–1860) cation as boys. By the time of MANU Sanskrit scholar. He was the first Boden (2) the role of Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford women in society was drastically cur- University, the translator of Kälidäsa’s tailed, and women were considered Meghadüta, the Vi•æu Puräæa, and unfit for Veda study. Women were author of Lectures on the Religion and treated like ŸÜDRAS: they could not eat Philosophy of the Hindus and Sanskrit or walk with their husbands, or con- Grammar. verse with them on anything of consequence. The epics and Puräæas, while extolling some women such as Sïtä and Winternitz, Moriz (1863–1937) Draupadï, generally exhibit a negative A diverse and creative Indologist, who attitude towards women: they describe promoted the study of Hinduism in them as vicious, sensual, fickle, untrust- many fields. While studying Indology at worthy and impure. Women’s only Vienna, he wrote a thesis on the Hindu sacrament was marriage and only marriage ritual, comparing it with other through service to their husbands, traditions. He published a critical edi- regardless of their behaviour, could they tion of the Äpastambïya Gøhyasütra hope to find salvation. A faithful (1887) and worked as an assistant to woman (satï) was supposed to accom- Max MÜLLER in Oxford. As professor pany her husband (if she was childness) of Indology in Prague from 1899 on, he on the funeral pyre. Childless widows prepared the general index to the 49 could expect a grim fate: they could not volumes of the Sacred Books of the East remarry, and were almost without any series and became instrumental in initi- rights. ating the critical edition of the After centuries of subordination and Mahäbhärata. His three-volume repression Hindu women found advo- History of Indian Literature (1905–22) cates in the reformers of the 19th and has remained a standard reference 20th centuries: they agitated for the work. abolition of satï, fought for the right of women to get an education, to remarry, wisdom to earn an income. The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 (with later amendments) See VIDYÄ. gives women the right to divorce their husbands and to remarry, to own prop- women erty independently, and establishes legal In Vedic times women were the equals parity of women with men. (See also of men in almost every respect: they EQUALITY OF WOMEN.) shared rituals and sacrifices, learning and honours. Some sacrifices, such as the harvest sacrifice (sïtä) and the sacri- Woodroff, John (1865–1936) fice to secure good husbands for their Writing under the pen name Arthur daughters (rudrayäga), could only be Avalon, he translated and wrote many Encyclo - Letter W 10/2/03 10:04 am Page 210

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books on Tantric Hinduism, until then suns. From it issued BRAHMÄ, the cre- all but unknown in the West. Among ator god. Remaining in the shape of an his best-known works are Introduction egg for a full year, he divided himself to Tantra Ÿästra, Principles of Tantra, through the power of meditation into Maha-nirväæa-tantra, Wave of Bliss, two halves out of which were fashioned Ÿakti and Ÿakta and The World as Power. heaven and earth. Puräæic cosmography describes the universe as being con- word tained within the shell of the world egg (aæõakaﬂaha), whose diameter is calcu- From early on Hindus were conscious of lated at 500 million yojanas. the importance of the word and its power; the entire Veda is testimony to this in a general way and some of its sük- worship tas (hymns), especially the Väksükta, The various Sanskrit terms translated explicitly affirm the creative power of the by ‘worship’, such as yajña, püjä, word through which everything has been upäsana, and others, indicate varieties made and everything is sustained. The of worship that evolved throughout the power of the brahmins rested entirely on ages. In Vedic times SACRIFICE (yajña) the power of the word, whose custodians was the most comprehensive term, they were. The continued interest of encompassing public and domestic ritu- Hindus in language and grammar is evi- als, from the offering of hundreds of denced by a long tradition in these disci- cattle to the burning of a stick of fire- plines and works of lasting value such as wood. When theistic religions devel- PÄŒINÏ’s Astädhyayï and BHARTØHARI’s oped, PÜJÄ, the offering of flowers, fruit Väkyapadïya. (See also LANGUAGE; and incense in a formal or informal set- ŸABDA.) ting, became the predominant form of worship. Upäsana is the most generic world egg (bramäæõa) expression, encompassing both out- The tradition that the universe evolved wardly visible ritual worship as well as out of a primordial egg is found in many interior acts of devotion, meditation different versions. The Vedas speak of a and self-surrender. Usually Hindus dis- world egg floating on the primordial tinguish between acts of worship that ocean and giving birth to various crea- are mandatory (nitya) and those that tures. The first being to come forth from are optional (naimittika). Overall, wor- the world egg was Viÿvakarma, the ship in some form or other is typical for Vedic creator god. In Manu’s account Hinduism and the great variety of forms of creation the desire of Svayambhü as well as the lavishness of execution Bhagavän appeared as a golden egg especially in connection with temple shining with the brilliance of a thousand festivals is quite unique. Encyclo - Letter Y 10/2/03 10:05 am Page 211

Yädavas especially in the Rämäyaæa, where he is The descendants of King Yadu, the son represented as a dissenter from tradi- of King YAYÄTI of the lunar dynasty. tional religion. Kø•æa was born among the Yädavas, who were known as pastoralists but also yajñopavïta established a kingdom in Dvärakä, in See JANËU. Gujarat. When Dvärakä was submerged by the ocean, all its inhabitants perished. The founders of the Vijayanägara Yajur-veda empire claimed to be descendants of The second of the VEDA saƒhitäs (col- those Yädavas who were not present at lections), a book for priests, containing Dvärakä when it was destroyed. ritual formulas for full and new moon yajñas (SACRIFICES), the räjasüya, the Yädava-prakäÿa (11th century) aÿvamedha, and the SOMA sacrifices. It insists on strict observance of the pre- Advaitin guru, the first teacher of scribed ritual and considers the yajña so RÄMÄNUJA , who rejected his interpreta- important that even the gods have to tion of the Upani•ads, which he criti- follow the commands of the brahmins. cized in his Vedärthasaƒgraha. It is divided into many ÿäkhäs (schools) and is available in two recensions, the Yadu White (Väjasaneyï) and the Black See YÄDAVA. (Taittirïya) Yajurveda.

yajña yak•as See SACRIFICE. Semi-divine beings, the attendants of KUBERA, the god of wealth. Yajña-välkya A celebrated sage, reputedly the author Yama (‘restrainer’) of the White YAJURVEDA, the Ÿatapatha The Vedic god of the realm of the dead, Brähmaæa and the Bøhadäraæyaka son of Vivasvat (the Sun); his twin sister Upani•ad, as well as the Yäjñavalk- is Yamï or Yamunä. They are described yasmøti, a code of law second in as the first human pair, the first to die, importance only to the MANUSMØTI. He and the first to depart to the nether- figures prominently in the epics, worlds, and Yama is the judge of all Encyclo - Letter Y 10/2/03 10:05 am Page 212

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who have died. In the epics and Puräæas the Ägamaprämänya in which he he becomes the overseer of a vast com- established the validity of the Vai•æava plex of hells (NÄRAKA), each specializing ÄGAMAS as sources of orthodox religion. in particular punishments for specific sins committed. He sends his servants to yantra (‘loom’) fetch the dying soul and becomes a A symbol of the Goddess (DEVÏ), used as symbol of terror, from which devotion to a meditation device in ŸÄKTISM. It usual- Vi•æu saves. He is also called Dharma- ly consists of a combination of triangles räja, Daæõadhära, Pretaräja, death, time, and other geometric figures. On it are and ender. inscribed the monosyllabic mantras that constitute the body of the Goddess. The yama design is intended to focus on the (‘rule’, ‘universal moral duty’, ‘major centre, usually formed by the sign ŸRÏ observance’) and a dot, the mantra-body of the Their number is usually given as ten, Goddess. There are many different although the lists differ between various yantras, the most celebrated being the writers. One such list enumerates the Ÿrï Yantra, whose construction is pro- following: continence (brahmacarya); vided in several tantric texts. compassion (däya); forbearance (k•änti); charity (däna); truthfulness (satya); in- tegrity (akalkatä); non-violence (ahiƒsä); non-stealing (asteya); kindness (mäd- hurya); and self-restraint (dama). In the YOGA SÜTRAS their number is given as five (complemented by five NIYAMA). (See appendix 4, The Eightfold Practice of Yoga: A•ﬂäöga Yoga.)

Yamunä, also Kälindï, Süryajä, Triyämä A major river in northern India, which joins the GA¢GÄ at Präyäga (Allahäbad). She is sacred especially to The Ÿrï-Yantra (the Yantra of the VAIÆŒAVAS, whose holy cities of illustrious one) consists of nine Mathurä and Vøndävana are situated superimposed triangles, converging on on her. In the Puräæas she is said to be the central spot (bindu); the latter the daughter of the Sun by his wife symbolizes the unmanifested potentiality Sanjñä. Yamunä is often represented in of all things; the triangles symbolize the art as a female goddess figure, often successive stages of creation, emanating paired with Gaögä. from the bindu.

Yamunäcärya (10th century) The second of the äcäryas (masters) of Yäska ŸRÏRA¢GAM, and a grandson of NÄTHA The author of the NIRUKTA, the oldest MUNI, the immediate predecessor of explanation of obsolete and uncommon RÄMÄNUJA. He was the author of words in the Veda. Encyclo - Letter Y 10/2/03 10:05 am Page 213

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Yaÿodä physical exercises (Haflhayoga) or a sys- The wife of the cowherd Nanda and tem of meditation and concentration foster mother of Kø•æa. (Räja Yoga). The latter is also often called PÄTAÑJALA YOGA, with reference to Patañjali’s YOGA SÜTRAS, which are yati (‘pilgrim’) its principal text, or Säƒkhya Yoga, A generic designation for samnyäsis because of the close proximity of the (‘renouncers’). The rules by which they SÄßKHYA system to the philosophy are to abide are known as yatidharma. underlying Yoga. It places little empha- A major collection of such has been sis on physical exercises (äsanas) but made by Viÿveÿvarasarasvatï in his insists on ethical preparation (yama- Yatidharmasaögraha. (See also TYÄGA.) niyama) and a process of interiorization (saƒyama) in order to lead the spirit Yatïndra-mata-dïpikä (puru•a) to the realization of its original (‘the lamp of the teaching of the king nature (kaivalya), free from admixture of the renouncers’) with matter (prakøti). The practice of A popular work by Ÿrïniväsa (18th cen- Yoga is fairly universal among SAMNYÄ- tury) explaining systematically the phi- SIS and also quite popular among Hindus generally. losophy of VIŸIÆfiÄDVAITA, the teachings of RÄMÄNUJA. Yogänanda, Swami (1893–1952) Yayäti Founder of the Yogoda Sat Sangha A mythical figure about whom a great (1917). Born Mukunda Lal Ghosh, he variety of stories circulate in the epics came to the USA in 1920, and began and Puräæas, and who became the sub- teaching a simplified form of KUŒ¥ALINÏ ject of many plays. The Mahäbhärata Yoga. He was the founder of Self- introduces him as the fifth king in the Realization Fellowship (1937): its head- lunar dynasty, the son of Nahu•a, the quarters are near Los Angeles, and the father of Yadu and Puru, who became author of Autobiography of a Yogi. the founders of the lines of the Yädavas and Pauravas. His infidelity brought upon him the curse of old age and infir- Yoga-nidrä (‘Yoga sleep’) mity from Ÿukra, the father of his wife The trance-like condition of Vi•æu Devayänï. Ÿukra agreed to transfer the between the destruction of a universe curse to one of his sons, if one was will- and the creation of a new one; personi- ing to bear it. Puru did so, and Yayäti fied in Devï Mahämäyä, the Great enjoyed a thousand years of sensual Illusion. pleasures. He then restored youth to Puru. Yoga Sütras Ascribed to PATAÑJALI, these consist of Yoga 196 brief aphorisms, arranged in four One of the six orthodox systems. parts entitled samädhi (concentration), Derived from the word yuj (to join, to sädhana (practice), vibhuti (extraordi- yoke, to combine), Yoga is often used in nary faculties) and kaivalya (emancipa- India as an equivalent of religious prac- tion). The teaching of the Yoga Sütras tice, or as a generic term for a system of has also been called a•fläöga Yoga philosophy or religion. In a more specific (eight-limbed Yoga) because of its sense, Yoga may either mean a set of structure in eight stages. (See appendix Encyclo - Letter Y 10/2/03 10:05 am Page 214

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4, The Eightfold Practice of Yoga: DEVÏ temples as objects of worship. A•fläöga Yoga.) The most important Metaphorically BRAHMAN is called ‘the exercise is samyama (effort), consisting yoni of the universe’ in the Brahma- of a repeated application of the triad sütras. concentration– contemplation–trance to the various dimensions of reality until Yudhi-•flhira (‘firm in battle’) kaivalya is reached, a point of no return. The oldest of the five PÄŒ¥AVAS, the son of YAMA, a model of calmness, pru- Yogaväsi•flha Rämäyaæa dence and justice. He was brought up at See VÄŸIÆfiHA. the court of the KAURAVAS, and the blind king Dhøtarä•flra chose him rather yogi than his own son Duryodhana as his successor, thereby causing the mortal In a general sense every serious practi- feud between the Kauravas and tioner of a spiritual path; more specifi- Päæõavas. Yudhi•flhira with his four cally the practitioners of Yoga in one of brothers had to go into exile to its forms. Väraæävata (Väräæasï?). After the MAHÄBHÄRATA war he was formally yoni (‘womb’) crowned emperor of Hastinäpura and This is both physiological and reigned righteously for many years. At metaphorical. Stylized images of the the end he departed together with his yoni, representing ŸAKTI, are found in remaining family for the Himälayas, conjunction with the LI¢GA (3) in Ÿiva and finally was enthroned in INDRALOKA temples; without the liöga they serve in (Indra’s heaven). Encyclo - Letter Z 10/2/03 10:06 am Page 215

Zimmer, Heinrich (1890–1943) German: Kunstform und Yoga (1926), One of the best-known interpreters of Ewiges Indien (1930), Indische Hindu thought and mythology. After Sphaeren (1935). His English works studying Hebrew literature, German were posthumously edited by his for- philology and history of art at Berlin, mer student Joseph Campbell: The Art he discovered his interest in ancient of Indian Asia (1955), Philosophies of India. Dismissed from his position in India (1951), Myths and Symbols in Heidelberg by the Nazi government Indian Art and Civilization (1946), (because of his Jewish wife), he first The King and the Corpse (1947). moved to Oxford and then to the USA Zimmer had a gift for presenting where he became visiting professor at Indian ideas in an intellectually and Columbia University. His writings aesthetically accessible and appealing cover a wide range, from mythology to way, and created a great amount medicine, from Buddhism to Jainism to of interest in Hinduism among the Hinduism. His early writings were in general public. zEncyclo - Chronology 10/2/03 9:35 am Page 216

Chronology

The chronology of Ancient India up to the time of Buddha is at present the focus of fierce scholarly debates. The majority of Indian scholars assume a date of 4000 BCE for the Øgveda, rejecting also the so-called ‘Aryan invasion theory’, whereas the majority of Western scholars maintain the invasion theory and date the Øgveda to 1500–1200 BCE. The chronology offered here represents largely the traditional Indian position. Indians who do not use the Western (Gregorian) calendar have several other systems of dating. The most common eras used in today’s India are samvat (beginning 57 BCE) and saka (beginning 78 CE). On the basis of the more recent research, based on archaeology and astronomy, the following chronology can be tentatively established:

c. 4000 BCE Earliest Vedic hymns c. 3500 BCE Early Harappan civilization c. 3100 BCE Traditional dates for the ‘Great Flood’ and Manu Vaivasvata c. 3000–2750 BCE Traditional date for Yayäti Period c. 2750–2550 BCE Traditional date for Mändhätri Period c. 2700–1500 BCE Mature Indus civilization c. 2350–1950 BCE Traditional date for Rämacandra period c. 1900 BCE Age of Rämäyaæa c. 1500–500 BCE Major Upani•ads, development of early Säƒkhya, early Pürva Mïmäƒsä c. 1400 BCE Great Bhärata War – Age of Kø•æa. Early version of Mahäbhärata c. 1200 BCE Early Sütra literature. Consolidation of Vedic civilization: Manusmøti 624–544 BCE Life of Gautama Buddha according to traditional reckoning 527 BCE End of Mahävïra’s earthly life according to Jain tradition 518 BCE Persian invasion under Skylax and conquest of the Indian satrapy for Darius I c. 500 BCE–500 CE Composition of Ÿrauta Sütras, Gøhya Sütras, zEncyclo - Chronology 10/2/03 9:35 am Page 217

217 Chronology

Dharma Sütras, Vedäögas; the basis of the orthodox systems; composition of the epics and the original Puräæas c. 500–200 BCE Composition of the Bhagavadgïtä c. 500–200 BCE Bädaräyaæa’s Vedänta Sütra c. 490–458 BCE Reign of Ajataÿatru, king of Magadha c. 400 BCE Päniæi’s A•ﬂädhyayï (Grammar) c. 400–200 BCE Jaimini’s Pürvamïmäƒsä Sütra 327–325 BCE Alexander of Macedonia’s invasion of India c. 322–298 BCE Reign of Candragupta of Magadha c. 300 BCE Megasthenes, Greek Ambassador to Magadha c. 300 BCE Kautilïya’s Ärthaÿästra (according to some scholars: 100 CE) Gautama’s Nyäya Sütra and Kaæaõa’s Vaiÿe•ika Sütra c. 273–237 BCE Reign of Aÿoka c. 200 BCE–100 CE Invasions of Ÿuögas, Iranians, Ÿakas and Kuÿänas, who founded kingdoms in India c. 200 BCE–200 CE Peak period of Buddhist and Jain influence c. 150 BCE–100 CE Patañjali’s Mahäbhä•ya c. 115 BCE Besnagar inscription of Heliodorus with a mention of Kø•æa worship c. 100 BCE–500 CE Patañjali’s Yoga Sütra c. 100 BCE–100 CE Upavarÿa’s commentary on Pürvamïmäƒsä Sütra and Vedänta Sütra c. 100 BCE–400 CE Ÿabara-bhäÿya on Jaimini Sütras c. 100 BCE–800 CE Composition of Tirukkural c. 100 BCE Early Mathurä sculpture; images of gods in temples c. 25 BCE Indian embassy to Emperor Augustus of Rome c. 50 CE First documentation of images of gods with several pairs of arms c. 10 Indian embassy to Emperor Trajan of Rome c. 100–500 Expansion of Hinduism in South–East Asia c. 100–200 Yäjñavalkyasmøti c. 100–300 Vi•æudharma Sütra c. 100–400 Näradasmøti c. 200–500 Composition of Vi•æu Puräæa c. 250–325 Säƒkhya Kärikä of Ïÿvarakø•æa c. 300–600 Composition of some of the older Puräæas in their present form c. 300–888 Pallava rulers in South India (Käñcïpuram) c. 319–415 Gupta empire of Mathurä c. 400–500 Vatsyayana’s Käma Sütra c. 400 Composition of Harivam•a Puräæa, Ahirbudhnya Saƒhitä. Age of Kalidäsa, the greatest Indian dramatist. Spread of Vai•æavism, especially Kø•æa cult. Beginning of Tantricism c. 400–500 Vyäsa’s Yoga-bhä•ya zEncyclo - Chronology 10/2/03 9:35 am Page 218

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 218

c. 450–500 Huna invasions c. 500 Devï-mähätmya (in Markaæõeya Puräæa). Spread of Ÿäktism into larger areas c. 500–800 Composition of Kürma Puräæa 547 Kosmas Indikopleustes travels to India c. 600–650 Poet Bana, author of Kadämbarï and Harsacarita c. 600–800 Peak of Päñcarätra Vai•æavism c. 600–900 Late (metrical) smøtis; composition of Agni Puräæa and Garuõa Puräæa after 600 Strong development of Vedänta c. 600–800 Brahmanical renaissance; successful fight against strongly tantric Buddhism c. 640 King Har•a of Kanauj sends embassy to China c. 650–1200 Several independent kingdoms in western, central, eastern and southern India c. 650–700 Life of Kumärilabhaflfla and Mäæikkaväcakar since c. 700 Prevalence of bhakti religions Flourishing of Kaÿmïr Ÿaivism c. 700–750 Gauõapada, author of a kärikä on the Mäæõukya Upani•ad and Paramaguru of Ÿänkaräcärya c. 788–820 Life of Ÿaökaräcärya [according to some: c. 700] c. 800–900 Composition of the Bhägavata Puräæa in its present form; Ÿukra-nïti-sära c. 800–1250 Cola dynasty in Tami¶nädu c. 825–900 Medathiti, writer of a commentary on Manu-smøti c. 900 Udäyana’s Nyäyakusumañjalï c. 900–1100 Ÿiva Puräæa; Saivite Tantricism in Indonesia Composition of Yogavasi•flharämäyaæa and Bhaktisütra 999–1026 Mahmud of Ghazni repeatedly raids India 1025–1137 Life of Rämänuja 1026 Muslims loot temple of Somnäth c. 1100 Buddhism virtually extinct in India. Life of Abhinavagupta. Composition of Hindu Tantra c. 1100–1400 Composition of Ÿäkta Upani•ads; rise of Vïraÿaivism in South India c. 1150–1160 Composition of Kalhana’s Räjataräöginï, recording the history of Kaÿmïr c. 1150 Ÿrïkaæflha-bhä•ya. Building of Jagannäth Temple at Puri c. 1197–1276 Life of Madhväcärya 1211–1236 Reign of Iltutmish, first sultan of Delhi; beginning of Muslim rule over large parts of India c. 1216–1327 Rule of Pändyas at Madurai; foundation of the famous Minäk•i and Ÿiva Temple of Madurai c. 1250 Beginning of Ÿaiva-siddhänta. Building of Sun Temple in Konäraka zEncyclo - Chronology 10/2/03 9:35 am Page 219

219 Chronology

c. 1275–1675 Jñäneÿvara of Mahärä•ﬂra and other bhakti mystics 1288 Marco Polo at Kalyan c. 1300–1386 Life of Säyaæa, famous commentator on the Vedic Saƒhitäs and Brähmaæas 1327 Muslims loot temple at Ÿrïraögam c. 1333 Ibn Battuta’s travels in India 1336–1565 Kingdom of Vijayanägara, last Hindu empire in India, extending as far as Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines c. 1340 Life of Mädhava, author of Sarvadarÿanasaögraha and Pañcadaÿï c. 1350–1610 Vïraÿaivism as the state religion of Mysore c. 1350–1650 Composition of many works of the Pürvamïmäƒsakas c. 1360 Life of Vedäntadeÿika c. 1400–1470 Life of Rämänanda c. 1420 Life of Mïräbäï 1440–1518 Life of Kabïr c. 1449–1568 Life of Ÿaökaradeva, great Vai•æava preacher in Assam c. 1469 Birth of Gurü Nanak, founder of Sikhism c. 1475–1531 Life of Vallabha c. 1485–1533 Life of Caitanya 1498 Vasco da Gama, after having rounded the Cape of Good Hope, lands on the Malabar coast c. 1500 Composition of Adhyätma Rämäyaæa and of Sädänanda’s Vedänta-sära c. 1500–1800 Peak of Durgä worship in Bengal c. 1500–1600 Life of Sürdäs of Agra c. 1550 Life of Brahmänanda Giri, author of a famous commentary on Ÿaökara’s Ÿarïraka-bhä•ya 1510 Portuguese occupy Goa c. 1526–1757 Moghul rule in India, destruction of most Hindu temples in North and Central India c. 1532–1623 Life of Tuläsidäsa c. 1542 The Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier lands in Goa c. 1548–1598 Life of Ekanätha 1580 Akbar the Great invites some Jesuit missionaries from Goa to his court for religious discussions c. 1585 Life of Harivam•a, founder of the Rädhä-Vallabhis 1608–1649 Life of Tukaräma 1608–1681 Life of Rämdäs 1610–1640 Composition of Mitramiÿra’s Vïramitrodaya, famous digests of the dharma-ÿästras c. 1630 Composition of Ÿrïniväsadäsa’s Yatïndramatadïpikä 1631 Death of Mumtaz, in whose honour Shah Jahan built the famous Taj Mahal or Agra zEncyclo - Chronology 10/2/03 9:35 am Page 220

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1651 The (British) East India Company opens first factory on the Hugli (Bengal) 1657 Dara Shikoh translates the Upani•ads into Persian 1661 Bombay becomes a British possession 1664 Ÿivajï declares himself king of Mahärä•flra c. 1670–1750 Life of Nagojibhaflfla, author of numerous works on grammar, dharma-ÿästra, yoga etc. 1675 Foundation of the French colony of Pondichéry 1690 Foundation of Calcutta through East India Company (Fort St. George) c. 1700–1800 Life of Baladeva, author of Govinda-bhä•ya c. 1750 Composition of the (reformist) Mahänirväæa-tantra 1757 Battle of Plassey; Clive is master of India 1784 Asiatick Society founded in Calcutta by Sir William Jones 1818 Defeat of the last Maratha Peshwa 1828 Räm Mohan Roy founds Brahma Samäj 1829 Law against satï 1829–1837 Suppression of the thags 1834–1886 Life of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa 1835 Introduction of English school system in India 1842–1901 Life of M.D. Ranade, great social reformer 1857 The so-called ‘Mutiny’ (‘First Indian War of Independence’ in more recent history books) 1858 The British Crown takes over the administration of India from the East India Company 1875 Foundation of Ärya Samäj by Swami Däyänanda Sarasvatï 1885 Foundation of Indian National Congress in Bombay 1909 Foundation of Hindü Mahäsabhä by Pandit Mohan Malaviya 1913 Nobel prize in literature for Rabindranath Tagore 1920 Mahatma Gandhi begins first All-India Civil Disobedience Movement 1925 Foundation of Rä•flrïya Svayamsevak Sangh 1947 Partition of India and creation of the Indian Union and Pakistan as independent nations 1948 Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi Foundation of Räm Räjya Pari•ad Pandit Nehru elected prime minister of the Indian Union; Sri Cakravarti Rajagopalacari appointed governor general 1950 India declared a republic within the Commonwealth; acceptance of the constitution. Death of Sri Aurobindo Ghose and Ramana Mahar•i 1951 Inauguration of the Bhüdän movement by Vinoba Bhave. Foundation of the Bhäratïya Jana Sangh zEncyclo - Chronology 10/2/03 9:35 am Page 221

221 Chronology

1955 The Hindu Marriage Act passed in parliament 1956 Reorganization of states (provinces) according to linguistic principles 1961 Portuguese colonies in India (Goa, Damao and Diu) liberated in a military action 1962 Dr Rajendra Prasad, the first president of the Republic of India (since 1950), dies; Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, vice-president, succeeds him 1964 Death of Jawaharlal Nehru; Lal Bahadur Sastri succeeds him as prime minister. Foundation of Viÿva Hindü Pari•ad (VHP) 1965 Conflict with Pakistan (West). Indira Gandhi succeeds Sastri as Prime Minister 1984 Sikh agitation for an independent Khalistan; Central government forcefully evicts Sikh extremists from Golden Temple in Amritsar/Punjab; Indira Gandhi assassinated by two of her Sikh guards 1985 Rajiv Gandhi, Indira’s eldest son, elected prime minister 1991 Rajiv Gandhi assassinated by Tamil extremist. 1992 Hindu agitation on behalf of temple on Räma’s presumed birthplace in Ayodhyä culminates in destruction of Babri-Masjid and major rioting in many Indian cities 1998 Electoral victory of Hindu parties: establishment of a Bharatiya Janata Party minority government Celebration of Kumbhamela at Hardwar with millions of pilgrims attending zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 222

Appendices

Appendix One: The Philosophical Schools of Hinduism

Ästika (‘orthodox’, i.e. those that accept the Veda) Säƒkhya Yoga Nyäya Vaiÿe•ika Pürva Mïmäƒsä Uttara Mïmäƒsä (Vedänta) Nästika (‘unorthodox’, ‘heretical’) Cärväkas Buddhists Jainais

Appendix Two: Hindu Scriptures I. Ÿruti (‘Revealed’ writings) = Veda (in wider sense) Veda (in narrower sense): Four Saƒhitäs: Øg-veda Säma-veda Yajur-veda Atharva-veda Brähmaæas Øgveda: 1) Aitareya (Aÿvaläyana) 2) Kauÿïtakï (Samkhäyana) Yajurveda: 1) Taittirïya 2) Sätapatha Samaveda: eight, of which the most important are: 1) Prauõha (Pañcaviƒÿa) 2) Täæõya 3) Sadviƒÿa Atharvaveda: Gopatha Äraæyakas: 1) Bøhad 2) Taittirïya 3) Aitareya 4) Kauÿïtakï zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 223

223 Appendices

Upani•ads (108) = ‘Vedänta’ II. Smøti (‘Tradition’) Itihäsa Rämäyaæa Mahäbhärata (Including Bhagavadgïtä) Puräæas 18 Mahäpuränas: 6 Vai•æava (sättva) Puräæas: Vi•æu-Puräna Näradïya-Puräæa Bhägavata-Puräæa Garuõa-Puräæa Padma-Puräæa Väraha-Puräæa 6 Ÿaiva (räjasa) Puräæas: Matsya-Puräæa Kürma-Puräæa Liöga-Puräæa Ÿiva-Puräæa Skanda-Puräæa Agni-Puräæa 6 Brahmä (tämasa) Puräæas: Brahmä-Puräæa Brahmäæõa-Puräæa Brahmavaivarta-Puräæa Märkaæõeya-Puräæa Bhavi•ya-Puräæa Vämana-Puräæa 18 Upapuräæas Numerous Sthälapuräæas Smøtis (= Codes of Law) Manü-smøti Yajñavälkya-smøti Vi•æü-smøti etc. III. Sütras: Ÿrautasütras Gøhyasütras Kalpasütras Dharmasütras Ÿulvasütras IV. Vedäögas (Auxiliary sciences connected with Veda-study): 1) Ÿïk•ä (Phonetics) 2) Chandas (Metre) 3) Vyakäraæa (Grammar) 4) Nirukta (Etymology) 5) Jyoti•a (Astronomy) 6) Kalpa (Ritual) V. Upavedas (Sciences not connected with Veda-study) 1) Ayur-veda (Medicine) 2) Gandharva-veda (Music and dancing) zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 224

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 224

3) Dhanur-veda (Archery) 4) Sthäpatya-veda (Architecture) VI. Sectarian scriptures Saƒhitäs (Vai•æava) Ägamas (Ÿaiva) Tantras (Ÿäkta)

Appendix Three: The Ten Principal Schools of Vedänta Each is listed with its founder and his main work, a commentary on the Brahmasütra. Advaita Vedänta: Ÿaökara (788–820) Ÿarïrakabhä•ya Viÿi•flädvaita Vedänta: Rämänuja (1017–1136) Ÿrïbhä•ya Dvaita Vedänta: Madhva (1238–1317) Aæuvakhyäyana Bhedäbheda: Bhäskara (9th century) Brahmasütrabhä•ya Dvaitädvaita: Nimbärka (11th century) Vedäntaparijätasaurabha Ÿuddhädvaita: Vallabhäcärya (1473–1531) Aæubhä•ya Acintya Bhedäbheda: Baladeva (18th century) Govindabhä•ya Dvaitädvaita: Ÿrïpati (1350–1410) Ÿrïkarabhä•ya Ÿivädvaita: Ÿrïkaæflha (13th century) Ÿrïkaæflhabhä•ya Samänyaväda: Vijñänabhïk•u (16th century) Vijñänämøta Appendix Four: The Eightfold Practice of Yoga: A•fläöga Yoga Remote Preparation: yama (practice of precepts) ahiƒsä (non-violence) satya (truthfulness) asteya (non-stealing) brahmacarya (continence) aparigraha (absence of greed) niyama (practice of virtues) ÿauca (purity) samto•a (contentment) tapas (discipline) svädhyäya (study, especially of sacred lore) ïÿvara pranidhäna (surrender to God) äsana (postures) präæäyäma (breath control) pratyähära (withdrawal of senses) Direct Preparation: These are collectively called samyama (effort) and successively applied to various categories of objects dhäraæä (concentration) dhyäna (contemplation) samädhi (trance) Beginning of Real Yoga: This comprises the exercise of extraordinary powers and the practice of advanced forms of meditation, leading to kaivalya, complete isolation and freedom. zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 225

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General Aiyangar, S.K. Some Contributions of South India to Indian Culture. Calcutta, Calcutta University, 1942 Aiyar, C.P. Ramaswamy Fundamentals of Hindu Faith and Culture. Trivandrum, Government Press, 1944 Altekar, A.D. The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization from Prehistoric Times to the Present Day. Benares, Motilal Banarsidass, 1956 Altekar, A.D. State and Government in Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1962 (4th edn) Auboyer, J. Daily Life in Ancient India from Approximately 200 BC to AD 700. New York, Macmillan, 1965. Basham, A.L. The Wonder that was India. New York, Grove Press, 1959 Bhattacharya, H. (gen. ed.) The Cultural Heritage of India, 6 vols. Calcutta, Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, 1957–62 (2nd edn) Brockington, J.L. The Sacred Thread. Hinduism in its Continuity and Diversity. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1981 Carpenter, J.E. Theism in Mediaeval India. London, Constable & Co., 1921 Carstairs, G.M. The Twice-Born. London, Hogarth Press, 1957 Diksitar, V.R. Studies in Tamil Literature and History. London, Luzac, 1930 Dowson, J. A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961 Farqhar, J.N. An Outline of the Religious Literature of India. Benares, Motilal Banarsidass, 1967 (repr.) Filliozat, J. The Classical Doctrine of Indian Medicine: Its Origins and its Greek Parallels, trans. D. R. Chanama, Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1964 Fuller, C.J. The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992 Ghoshal, U.N. A History of Indian Political Ideas: The Ancient Period and the Period of Transition to the Middle Ages. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1959 (3rd edn) Heimann, B. Facets of Indian Thought. London, Allen & Unwin, 1964 Hutton, J.H. Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origins. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1961 (3rd edn) zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 226

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Kane, P.V. History of Dharmasastra, 5 vols. (7 parts). Poona, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1930–62 Kapadia, K.M. Marriage and Family in India. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1959 (2nd edn) Karve, I. Hindu Society: An Interpretation. Poona, Deshmukh Prakashan, 1961 Klostermaier, K. A Survey of Hinduism. 2nd ed., Albany, State University of New York Press, 1994 Lannoy, R. The Speaking Tree. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1971 Majumdar, D.N. Caste and Communication in an Indian Village. Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1962 (3rd edn) Meenaksisundaram, T.P. A History of Tamil Literature. Annamalainagar, Annamalai University, 1965 Prabhu, P.H. Hindu Social Organisation: A Study in Socio-Psychological and Ideological Foundations. Bombay, Popular Prakashan, 1963 (4th edn) Raghavan, V. The Indian Heritage. Bangalore, Indian Institute of Culture, 1956 Rajagopalachari, R.C. Hinduism: Doctrine and Way of Life. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1959 Rice, E.P. Kanarese Literature. Calcutta, Association Press, 1921 Sarkar, S. The Aboriginal Races of India. Calcutta, Bookland, 1954 Schwartzberg, J.E. (ed.) Historical Atlas of India. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1978. 2nd rev. ed. 1990 Seal, B.N. The Positive Sciences of the Hindus. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1958 (repr.) Sharma, R.S. Sudras in Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1958 Srinivas, M.N. Caste and Other Essays. Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1965 (2nd edn) Thomas, P. Hindu Religion, Custom and Manners. Bombay, D.B. Tareporevala Sons & Co., 1961 Thurston, E. and Rangachari, K. Tribes and Castes of South India, 4 vols. Madras, Government Press, 1929 Upadhyaya, K.D. Studies in Indian Folk Culture. Calcutta, Indian Publications, 1964 Volwahsen, A. Living Architecture: Indian. New York, Grosset & Dunlap, 1969 Walker, B. The Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism, 2 vols. New York, Praeger, 1968 Winternitz, M. A History of Indian Literature, trans. S. Ketkar and H. Kohn, 3 vols. Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1927–67 (repr.) Wiser, W.H. Behind Mud Walls 1930–60. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1963 Zaehner, H. Hinduism. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1962 Zimmer, H. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. New York, Harper & Row, 1963 (4th edn)

Geography Ali, S.M. The Geography of the Puranas. New Delhi, People’s Publishing House, 1966 zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 227

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Bhardwaj, S.M. Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India: A Study in Cultural Geography. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1973 Choudhuri, D.C. Roy. Temples and Legends of Bihar. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1965 Cunningham, A. Ancient Geography of India. Calcutta, Archaeological Survey of India, 1924 Dave, J.H. Immortal India, 4 parts. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1959–62 (2nd edn) Eck, D.L. Banaras: City of Light. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1983 Havell, E.B. Benares, The Sacred City: Sketches of Hindu Life and Religion. London, W. Thacker & Co., 1905 Jha, M., (ed.) Dimensions of Pilgrimage. New Delhi, Inter-Indian Publications, 1985 Mate, M.S. Temples and Legends of Maharastra. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1962 Morinis, E.A. Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: A Case Study of West Bengal, South Asian Studies Series. New York and New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1984 Panikkar, K.M. Geographical Factors in Indian History. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1955 Ramesan, R. Temples and Legends of Andhra Pradesh. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1962 Spate, O.H.K. India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography. New York, Dutton, 1963 (rev. ed.) Srinivasan, D.M. (ed.) Mathura: The Cultural Heritage. New Delhi, American Institute of Indian Studies, 1989 Vaidyanathan, K.R. Sri Krishna, the Lord of Guruvayur. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1974

History

Derret, J.D.M. History of Indian Law (Dharmasastra). Leiden, Brill, 1973 Drekmeier, C. Kingship and Community in Early India. Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1962 Gibb, H.A.R. (ed.) Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1957 (2nd edn) Majumdar, R.C. The Classical Accounts of India. Calcutta, Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, 1960 Majumdar, R.C. (gen. ed.) The History and Culture of the Indian People, 11 vols. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1945–78 Majumdar, R.C. Hindu Colonies in the Far East. Calcutta, Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, 1963 (2nd edn) Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C. and Datta, K. An Advanced History of India. London, Macmillan, 1965 (3rd edn) Marshall, J. Mohenjo Daro and the Indus Civilization, 3 vols. London, Oxford University Press, 1931 zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 228

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Marshall, P.J. (ed.) The British Discovery of Hinduism in the Eighteenth Century, European Understanding of India Series. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971 Panikkar, K.M. Asia and Western Dominance. London, Allen & Unwin, 1955 (3rd edn) Panikkar, K.M. A Survey of Indian History. Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1947 Pargiter, F.E. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1962 (repr.) Pargiter, F.E. The Purana Text of the Dynasties of the Kaliage. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1913 Parpola, A. The Sky Garment: A Study of the Harappan Religion and the Relation to the Mesopotamian and later Indian Religions. Helsinki, Finnish Oriental Society, 1985 Piggott, S. Prehistoric India. Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1961 Possehl, G.C. (ed.) Harappan Civilisation: A Contemporary Perspective. Warminster, Aris & Philips, 1982 Renou, L. Vedic India. Calcutta, Sunil Gupta, 1957 Saletore, B.A. Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institutions. Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1963 Sankalia, H.D. Indian Archeology Today. New York, Asia Publishing House, 1962 Sastri, K.A. Nilakantha. The Colas, 3 vols. Madras, University of Madras, 1935 Sastri, K.A. The Culture and History of the Tamils. Calcutta, Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, 1964 Sengupta, N.C. Evolution of Ancient Indian Law. London, Probsthain, 1953 Sengupta, P.C. Ancient Indian Chronology. Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1941 Sharma, R.K. (ed.) Indian Archeology. New Perspectives. Delhi, Agam Kala Prakashan, 1982 Shendge, M. J. The Civilized Demons: The Harappans in Rgveda. New Delhi, Abhinav, 1977 Smith, V. History of India. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1955 Spellman, J.W. Political Theory of Ancient India. New York, Oxford University Press, 1964 Thapar, R. A History of India, 2 vols. Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1966 Tod, J. Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, ed. William Crooke, 3 vols. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, n.d Vyas, S.N. India in the Ramayana Age. Delhi, Atura Ram & Sons, 1967 Wheeler, M. The Indus Civilization. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1953

Sacred Books Balasundaram, T.S. The Golden Anthology of Ancient Tamil Literature, 3 vols. Madras, South India Saiva Siddhanta Book Publishing Society, 1959–60 Coburn, T.B. Devi Mahatmya: The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1984 zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 229

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Pusalker, A.D. Studies in Epics and Puranas of India. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1955 Rocher, L. The Puranas. In J. Gonda, A History of Indian Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, Vol. 2, fasc. 3 Santucci, J.A. An Outline of Vedic Literature, American Academy of Religion Aids to the Study of Religion Series. Missoula, Scholars Press, 1977 Sukthankar, V.S. On the Meaning of the Mahabharata. Bombay, Asiatic Society, 1957 Thomas, P. Epics, Myths and Legends of India. Bombay, Taraporevala, 1961 Tilak, B.G. The Arctic Home in the Vedas. Poona, Tilak Bros., 1956 (repr.) Tilak, B.G. Vedic Chronology. Poona, Tilak Bros, 1909 Tilak, B.G. Orion or Researches into the Antiquity of the Veda. Bombay, Sagoon, 1893; repr. Poona, Tilak Bros., 1955

Religions Aiyer, V.G. Ramakrishna The Economy of a South Indian Temple. Annamalai, Annamalai University, 1946 Ayyar, C.V. Narayana Origin and Early History of Saivism in South India. Madras, University of Madras, 1936 Ayyar, P.V. Jagadissa South Indian Festivities. Madras, Higginbothams, 1921 Banerjea, J.N. The Development of Hindu Iconography. Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1956 (2nd edn) Barz, R. The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhacarya. Faridabad, Thompson Press, 1976 Beane, W.C. Myth, Cult and Symbols in Sakta Hinduism: A Study of the Indian Mother Goddess. Leiden, Brill, 1977 Bhandarkar, R.G. Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems. Benares, Indological Book House, 1965 (repr.) Bharati, A. (L. Fischer) The Tantric Tradition. London, Rider & Co., 1965 Bloomfield, M. The Religion of the Veda. New York, G.B. Putnam’s, 1908 Bloomfield, M. Gorakhanatha and Kanphata Yogis. Calcutta, Association Press, 1938 Brown, C.M. God as Mother: A Feminine Theology in India, An Historical and Theological Study of the Brahmavaivarta Purana. Hartford, Claude Stark, 1974 Carman, J.B. The Theology of Ramanuja. An Essay in Inter-religious Understanding. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1974 Carman, J.B. and Marglin, A. (eds.) Purity and Auspiciousness in Indian Society. Leiden, Brill, 1985 Chattopadyaya, S. The Evolution of Theistic Sects in Ancient India. Calcutta, Progressive Publishers, 1963 Chaudhuri, R. Doctrine of Srikantha, 2 vols. Calcutta, Pracyavani, 1959–60 Courtright, P.B. Ganesa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. New York, Oxford University Press, 1985 Crooke, W. Popular Religion and Folklore in Northern India, 2 vols. 1896; repr. Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1968 De, S.K. Early History of the Vaisnava Faith and Movement in Bengal. Calcutta, Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, 1961 (2nd edn) zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 230

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Diehl, C.G. Instrument and Purpose: Studies on Rites and Rituals in South India. Lund, Gleerup, 1956 Farqhar, J.N. Modern Religious Movements in India. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1914; repr. Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1967 Fergusson, J. Tree and Serpent Worship. London, W.H. Allen, 1868 Fuller, C.J. Servants of the Goddess: The Priests of a South Indian Temple. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984 Gatwood, L.E. Devi and the Spouse Goddess: Women, Sexuality and Marriage in India. Delhi, Manohar, 1985 Getty, A. Ganesa. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1936 Ghurye, G.S. Indian Sadhus. Bombay, Popular Prakashan, 1964 (2nd edn) Gonda, J. Aspects of Early Visnuism. Utrecht, 1954; repr. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1965 Hardy, E.T. Viraha Bhakti Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1983 Hawley, J.S. and Wulff, D.M. (eds.) The Divine Consort: Radha and the Goddesses of India. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1982 Ions, V. Indian Mythology. London, Paul Haymlyn, 1967 Kakati, B.K. The Mother Goddess Kamakhya. Gauhati, Lawyers’ Book Stall, 1948 Keith, A.B. The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanisads. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1925 Kennedy, M.T. The Chaitanya Movement. Calcutta, Association Press, 1925 Kinsley, D. Hindu Goddesses. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1986 Kinsley, D. The Sword and the Flute: Kali and Krsna, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1975 Klostermaier, K. Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India. Waterloo, Ont., Wilfred Laurier University Press, 1984 Kramrisch, S. The Presence of Siva. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1981 Lorenzen, D.N. The Kapalikas and Kalamukhas: Two Lost Saivite Sects. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1972 Macdonell, A.A. Vedic Mythology. Benares, Indological Bookhouse, 1963 (repr.) Macnicol, N. Indian Theism. London, Oxford University Press, 1915 Mahadevan, T.M.P. Outline of Hinduism. Bombay, Cetana, 1960 (2nd edn) Mookerjee, A. and Khanna, M. The Tantric Way: Art – Science – Ritual. London, Thames & Hudson, 1977 Nandimath, S.C. Handbook of Virasivism. Dharwar, L.E. Association, 1941 Pandey, R.B. Hindu Samskaras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments. Benares, Vikrama Publications, 1949 Pandeya, L.P. Sun Worship in Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1972 Paranjoti, Saiva Siddhanta. London, Luzac, 1954 (2nd edn) Parekh, M.C. The Brahmo Samaj. Calcutta, Brahmo Samaj, 1922 Payne, A.A. The Saktas. Calcutta, YMCA Publishing House, 1933 Pillai, G.S. Introduction and History of Saiva Siddhanta. Annamalai, Annamalai University, 1948 Rai, L. The Arya Samaj. London, Longman, 1915 zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 231

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Roy, D.K., and Devi, J. Kumbha: India’s Ageless Festival. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1955 Sakare, M.R. History and Philosophy of the Lingayata Religion. Belgaum, publ. by the author, 1942 Schour, K. and McLeod, W.H. (eds.) The Saints: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India. Delhi–Benaresi–Patna–Madras, Motilal Banarsidass, 1987. Sharma, H.D. Brahmanical Asceticism. Poona, Oriental Book Agency, 1939 Sheth, Noel, The Divinity of Krishna. Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1984 Shinn, L.D. The Dark Lord: Cult Images and the Hare Krishnas in America. Philadelphia, Westminster, 1987 Shulman, D.D. Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1980 Siegel, L. Fires of Love – Waters of Peace: Passion and Renunciation in Indian Culture. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1983 Siegel, L. Sacred and Profane Dimensions of Love in Indian Traditions as exem- plified in the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1978 Singer, M. (ed.) Krishna: Myths, Rites and Attitudes. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1969 Sirkar, D.C. The Sakta Pithas, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1948 (rev. ed.) Staal, J.F. AGNI: The Vedic Ritual of the Fire Altar, 2 vols. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983 Staal, J.F. The Science of Ritual. Poona, Deccan Institute, 1982 Stevenson, M. The Rites of the Twice Born. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1920 Strickman, M. (ed.) Classical Asian Rituals and the Theory of Ritual. Berlin, Springer, 1986 Underhill, M.M. The Hindu Religious Year. Calcutta, Association Press, 1921 Vidyarthi, L.P. Aspects of Religion in Indian Society. Meerut, Vednat Nath Rammath, 1962 Vogel, J.P. Indian Serpent Lore. London, Probsthain, 1926 Waghorne, J.P. and Cutler, N. (eds.) Gods of Flesh/Gods of Stone: The Embodiment of Divinity in India. Chambersburg, Anima Publications, 1985 Welborn, G. and Yocum, G.E. (eds.) Religious Festivals in South India and Sri Lanka. Delhi, Manohar, 1985 Whaling, F. The Rise of the Religious Significance of Rama. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1980 Whitehead, H. The Village Gods of South India, Religious Life of India Series. Calcutta, Association Press, 1921 (2nd edn) Wilson, H.H. Religious Sects of the Hindus. London, Trübner & Co., 1861; repr. Calcutta, Punthi Pustak, 1958 Woodroffe, J. (Arthur Avalon) Introduction to Tantra Sastra. Madras, Ganesh & Co., 1963 (4th edn) Yamunacarya, M. Ramanuja’s Teachings in his Own Words. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1963 Zvelebil, K. Tiru Murugan. Madras, International Institute of Tamil Studies, 1982 zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 232

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Philosophies Balasubramanian, R. Advaita Vedanta. Madras, University of Madras, 1976 Cenkner, W. A Tradition of Teachers: Sankara and the Jagadgurus Today. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1983 Chandavarkar, B.D. A Manual of Hindu Ethics. Poona, Oriental Book Agency, 1965 (3rd edn) Chatterji, S. and Datta, D.M. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1968 (7th edn) Coward, H.G. Bhartrhari. Boston, Twayne Publishers, 1976 Creel, A.B. Dharma in Hindu Ethics. Columbia, MO, South Asia Books, 1977 Dasgupta, S.N. History of Indian Philosophy, 5 vols. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1961–2 (3rd edn) Eliade, M. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. Bollingen Series 41. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1969 (2nd edn) Feuerstein, G. The Philosophy of Classical Yoga. Manchester, University of Manchester Press, 1982 Gächter, O. Hermeneutics and Language in Purvamimamsa, A Study in Sabara Bhasya. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1983 Ghate, V.S. The Vedanta. Poona, BORI, 1926; repr. 1960 Heimann, B. Indian and Western Philosophy: A Study in Contrasts. London, Allen & Unwin, 1937 Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London, George Allen & Unwin, 1958 (4th edn) Larson, G.J. Classical Samkhya. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1969 (2nd edn) Lott, E.J. God and the Universe in the Vedantic Theology of Ramanuja: A Study in his Use of the Self–Body Analogy. Madras, Ramanuja Research Society, 1976 Maitra, S.K. The Ethics of the Hindus. Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1963 (3rd edn) Marfatia, M.I. The Philosophy of Vallabhacarya. Delhi, Munsiram Mano- harlal, 1967 Matilal, B.K. Logic, Language and Reality. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1985 McKenzie, J. Hindu Ethics. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1922 Neufeldt, R. (ed.) Karma and Rebirth: Post-classical Developments. Albany, State University of New York Press, 1986 O’Flaherty, W.D. Siva: The Erotic Ascetic. New York, Oxford University Press, 1981 O’Flaherty, W.D. (ed.) Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1980 O’Flaherty, W.D. and Derret, J.D.M. (eds.) The Concept of Duty in Southeast Asia. New Delhi, Vikas, 1978 Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy, 2 vols. London, Allen & Unwin, 1948 (2nd edn) Raja, K. Kunjunni. Indian Theories of Meaning. Adyar, Adyar Library and Research Centre, 1963 Raju, P.T. The Philosophical Traditions of India. London, Allen & Unwin, 1971 zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 233

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Riepe, D. The Philosophy of India and its Impact on American Thought. Springfield, Charles C. Thomas, 1970 Sastri, G. A Study in the Dialectics of Sphota. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1981 Sharma, A. The Purusarthas: A Study in Hindu Axiology. East Lansing, Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University, 1982 Sharma, B.N.K. A History of Dvaita School of Vedanta and its Literature, 2 vols. Bombay, Booksellers Publishing Co., 1960–1 Sharma, B.N.K. Madhva’s Teaching in His Own Words. Bombay, Bhavan’s Book University, 1961 Sharma, B.N.K. Philosophy of Sri Madhvacarya. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1962 Singh, S. Vedantadesika. Benares, Chowkhamba, 1958 Sinha, J. History of Indian Philosophy, 2 vols. Calcutta, Sinha Publishing House, 1956–61 Sinha, J. Indian Psychology, 2 vols. Calcutta, Sinha Publishing House, 1958–60 Sinha, J. Indian Realism. London, K. Paul, French, Trübner & Co., 1938 Sivaraman, K. Saivism in Philosophical Perspective. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1973 Srinivasacari, P. The Philosophy of Visistadvaita. Adyar, Theosophical Society, 1946 Sundaram, P.K. Advaita Epistemology. Madras, University of Madras, 1968 Tagore, R. Sadhana. Calcutta, Macmillan, 1950 Taimni, I.K. The Science of Yoga. Wheaton, Theosophical Publishing House, 1972 (3rd edn) Vidyabhusana, S.C. A History of Indian Logic. Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1921 Zimmer, H. Philosophies of India, ed. J. Campbell. Princeton, Bollingen Foundation, 1951

Political Hinduism Golwalkar, M.S. Bunch of Thoughts. Bangalore, Vikrama Prakashan 1966 (2nd edn) Heimsath, C.H. Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1968 Jhangiani, M.A. Jana Sangh and Swatantra: A Profile of the Rightist Parties in India. Bombay, Manaktalas, 1969 Panikkar, K.M. Hindu Society at Cross Roads. Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1956 Panikkar, K.M. Hinduism and the Modern World. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1956 Rudolph, L.I., and Rudolph, S.H. The Modernity of Tradition. Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1967 Sarma, N.S. Hindu Renaissance. Benares, Benares Hindu University, 1944 Sen, S.P. Social Contents of Indian Religious Reform Movements. Calcutta, Institute of Historical Studies, 1978 Smith, D.E. India as a Secular State. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1967 Thapar, R. India in Transition. Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1956 zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 234

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Varma, V.P. Modern Indian Political Thought. Agra, Laksmi Narain Agarwala, 1968 (4th edn) Vyas, K.C. The Social Renaissance in India. Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1957

Art and Architecture Bhattacharya, T. The Canons of Indian Art: A Study of Vastuvidya. Calcutta, Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, 1963 (2nd edn) Bussabarger, R.F. and Robins, B.D. The Everyday Art of India. New York, Dover, 1968 Goetz, The Art of India. New York, Crown, 1964 Harle, J.C. The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1987 Kramrisch, S. The Art of India: Traditions of Indian Sculpture, Painting and Architecture. London, Phaidon, 1954 Kramrisch, S. The Hindu Temple, 2 vols. Calcutta, University of Calcutta 1946; repr. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1977 Liebert, G. Iconographic Dictionary of the Indian Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism. Leiden, Brill, 1976 Rowland, B. The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1967 (2nd edn) Popley, H.A. The Music of India. Calcutta, YMCA Publishing House, 1950 Swarup, B. Theory of Indian Music. Allahabad, Swamy Brothers, 1958 (2nd edn) Zimmer, H. The Art of Indian Asia, 2 vols. New York, Bollingen Foundation, 1955

Individual personalities Abbot, J.E. (ed. and trans.) The Poet Saints of Maharastra, 12 vols. Poona, Scottish Mission Industries, 1926–41 Bihari, B. Minstrels of God, 2 vols. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1956 Brunton, P. Maharsi and his Message. London, Rider & Co., 1952 Deheja, V. Antal and her Path of Love. Albany, State University of New York Press, 1990 Deming, W.S. Ramdas and Ramdasis, Religious Life of India Series. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1928 Godman, D. (ed.) Be as you Are: The Teachings of Ramana Maharsi. Boston, Arkana, 1985 Gold, D. The Lord as Guru: Hindi Saints in the Northern Indian Tradition. New York, Oxford University Press, 1987 Harper, M.H. Gurus, Swamis, and Avataras: Spiritual Masters and their American Disciples. Philadelphia, Westminster Press, 1972 Keay, F.E. Kabir and his Followers. Calcutta, Association Press, 1931 Madhavananda, Swami, and Majumdar, R.C. (eds.) Great Women of India. Calcutta, Advaita Ashrama, 1954 Majumdar, A.K. Caitanya: His Life and Doctrine. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1969 zEncyclo - Appendices 10/2/03 9:34 am Page 235

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Oman, I.C. The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India. Delhi, Oriental Publishers, 1973 (repr.) Osborne, A. Ramana Maharshi and the Path of Self-Knowledge. Bombay, Jaico, 1962 (2nd edn) Parekh, M.C. Brahmarshi Keshub Chander Sen. Rajkot, Bhagavat Dharma Mission, 1926 Parekh, M.C. Sri Swami Narayana. Rajkot, Bhagavat Dharma Mission, 1936 Parekh, M.C. Vallabhacarya. Rajkot, Bhagavat Dharma Mission, 1936 Raghavan, V. The Great Integrators: The Saint Singers of India. Delhi, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1966 Ruhela, S.P. and Robinson, D. (eds.) Sai Baba and his Message. Delhi, Vikas, 1976 Sastri, K.S. Ramaswami Sivananda: The Modern World Prophet. Rishikesh, Divine Light Society, 1953 Sharma, S.R. Swami Rama Tirtha. Bombay, Vidya Bhavan, 1961 Tendulkar, D.G. Mahatma: Life and Work of M.K. Gandhi, 8 vols. Bombay, V.K. Jhaveri, 1951–8 Westcott, G.H. Kabir and the Kabir Panth. Calcutta, Susil Gupta, 1953 (2nd edn; repr.) Williams, R.B. A New Face of Hinduism: The Swaminarayan Religion. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984 Yogananda, Paramahamsa. Autobiography of a Yogi. Bombay, Jaico, 1960 zEncyclo - Thematic Index 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 236

Thematic Index

Mythology Rävaæa Triÿaöku Ancestors, sages: Tvastø Agastya Aögiras Gods and goddesses: Atri Aditi Bøha•pati Agni Durväsas ardhanärï Ïk•väku Aÿvins Kaÿyapa Brahmä Mändhätø Cämuæõä Manu Chinnama•ﬂä Naciketas Dattätreya Parik•it Diti Prajäpati Durgä Ÿvetaketu Gaja-Lak•mï Vasi•ﬂha Gaæeÿa, Gaæapati Vasu Hanuman Viÿvamitra Hayaÿiras Vyäsa Kalki Yayäti Käma, Kämadeva Kärttikeya Demons and villains: Kø•æa ahi (ahirbudhnya) Lak•mï Andhaka Manasä, Manasä devï Äpasmära Mätøkäs, Mätøs asura Mïnäk•ï Bali Mitra Hariÿcandra Murugan Hiraæyakaÿipu Paraÿuräma Janamejaya Pøthvï Kaikeyï Räma, Rämacandra Käliya, Käliya näga Ÿiva Kaƒÿa, Kaöÿa Ÿrï Mahi•äsura Vi•æu Rädhä, Rädhikä Yama zEncyclo - Thematic Index 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 237

237 Thematic Index

Heroes and heroines: Emerson Arjuna Farquar Baladeva, Balaräma Filliozat Bhïma, Bhïmasena Glasenapp Bhï•ma Gonda Daÿaratha Griffith Dhøtarä•flra Guenon Draupadï Hacker Droæa Hazra Duryodhana Jha Ekaÿøæga Jones gopïs Kane Karæa Karve Lak•maæa Kosambi Prahläda Kuppuswami Sïtä Macdonell Välmïki Mahadevan Yudhi•flhira Monier-Williams Müller Mythical localities: Munshi Maæidvïpa Murti Pätäla Oldenberg Tripurä Otto Vaikuæflha Pargiter Poddar Supernatural beings: Pope Airävata Radhakrishnan apsaras Ranade dig-gaja, dik-päla Renou Gandharva Schrader Garuõa Sontheimer lokapäla Telang Ÿeÿa Thibaut Viräj, Viräfl Van Buitenen Whitney Wilkins History, historic personalities Wilson and scholars Winternitz Woodroff Modern scholars: Zimmer Basham Bhandarkar Bühler Religious leaders and reformers: Burnouf Agnihotri Coomaraswami Akka Mahädevï Dasgupta Ambedkar Deussen Änandamayï Mä Edgerton Äæflä¶ Eidlitz Appar Eliade Aurobindo Ghose zEncyclo - Thematic Index 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 238

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 238

Bädaräyaæa Tagore, D. Bahiæabäï Tilak Basava Tükaräm Besant Tulsïdäs Bhave Tyagäräja Blavatsky Vijñänabhïk•u Buddha Vivekänanda Caitanya Yamunäcärya Chinmoy Yogänanda Cinmayananda Cokamela Rulers and dynasties: Däyänanda Sarasvatï Akbar Ekanäflha Colas Gandhi Dara Shukoh Golwalkar Gupta Hedgewar Hoyÿalas Janäbäï Mahmud of Ghazni Jñänasambandhar Maurya Jñäneÿvara Pallavas Kabïr Paæõya Krishna Prem Peshawas Krishnamurti Ÿakas Lalla Ÿivajï Madhva Vikramäditya Malaviya Vi•æugupta Manikkavacakar Mïräbäï Traditional scholars: Muktananda Abhinavagupta Nämadeva Äpastamba Nammä¶vär Äryabhaflfla Näflha Muni Bhartøhari Nimbärka Bhäsa Räïdäs Bhäskara Räma Tïrtha Dandin Rämadäsa Gaögeÿa Ramana Mahar•i Gauõapäda Rämänanda Gopäla Bhaflfla Rämänuja Gorakhnäflha Roy Ïÿvara Muni Sambandhar Jaimini Ÿaökara Jayadeva Ÿaökaradeva Keÿava Miÿra Sathya Säï Bäbä Kumärila Bhaflfla Savarkar Kureÿa Sen Mädhava Ÿivänanda Mahïpati Ÿukadeva Mandana Miÿra Sundaramürti Meykaæõa Tagore, R. Päæinï zEncyclo - Thematic Index 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 239

239 Thematic Index

Paräÿara child marriage Pillai children Prabhäkara Miÿra chronology Praÿastapäda circumambulation Puru•ottamäcärya consciousness Rüpa Gosvämi cosmology Ÿäbara creation Ÿäæõilya cremation Ÿankara Miÿra dance Säradä Devï darÿana Säyaæa death Sureÿvara demons Väcaspati Miÿra deva, devatä Vedäntadeÿika dharma Vidyäbhüsana divine qualities Vidyäpatï emotions Vidyäraæya environment Viÿvanaﬂha Cakravarttin epistemology Yädavaprakäÿa equality of women eternity Others: ethics Alberuni evil Cäæakya experience Godse faith Kalidäsa female infanticide Megasthenes festivals food Concepts, doctrines, freedom rituals, symbols God and gods good and evil Concepts: hair afterlife heart altar heaven ancestors hell animal sacrifice Hindu Marriage Act animals Hindu jagaran architecture Hindutva art horoscope asceticism hospitality astrology immortality atonement impurity attachment joint family auspicious karma bhakti kingship birth language body liberation bondage life calendar light caste lïlä zEncyclo - Thematic Index 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 240

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 240

macrocosm–microcosm apauru•eya matriarchy aspøÿya matter äÿrama medicine a•flävaraæa meditation ätman miracle avatära mok•a avidyä music avyakta name bhakti-märga nationalism brahmacarya outcaste brahman pramäæa brahma-vidyä preta cat school purity caturvaræäÿramadharma Rämaräjya daæõa real, reality guæa rebirth guru religious persecution karma-märga revelation loka sacrifice Mahäpralaya sanätana dharma mäyä sarga meat eating secularism näõi self pañcayata seva paraƒparä sin phala, phalaÿloka social reform prapatti social order pu•flimärga study rägänuga bhakti temples rasa time ø•i truth øta universe saccidänanda unreality •aõdarÿana varnäÿrama dharma sädhana vedic religion sahämärga vedic civilization säk•ätkära vegetarianism säk•ï village religion ÿakti war sphofla women vidyä word Rituals: Doctrines: Agnicayana ahaƒkära ashes akøti a•flamürti ak•ara aÿvamedha änanda circumambulation antaryämi confession zEncyclo - Thematic Index 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 241

241 Thematic Index

daily rituals i•ﬂa devatä däna jyotirliöga dïk•ä liöga domestic rites maöõala gäyatrï moon ghï näga janëu peacock japa ÿabda kïrtaæa sant mantra Sun marriage tortoise medha trees milk trimürti møtyusa™skära water month wheel pilgrimage world egg Poögal yoni püjä putra Virtues and vices: räjasüya ahiƒsä rathamela duties ritual greed saƒkïrtaæa hiƒsä samnyäsa humility samskära ignorance ÿaraæägati illusion satï mahapätakas second birth sädhu soma unrighteousness son violence ÿraddhä stotra Denominations, groups of people, tapas associations: tïrtha Abhinav Bhärat Society upaväsa Äbhïras vedi Ädi Samäj vidhi Advaita Vedänta vrata Aghori worship Akhil Bhäratïya Vidyärthi Pari•ad yantra Akhil Bhäratïya Sädhu Samäj Akhil Bhäratïya Sant Samitï Symbols: Ä¶värs bïja-mantra Änanda Märga biæõu Ärya Samäj cow Aughara elephant Bhäratïya Jänatä Party flood Bhärgavas goat Brahmä Kumäris image Brahmä saƒpradäya zEncyclo - Thematic Index 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 242

A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism 242

Buddhism Bhämatï Cärväkas Bhavi•ya Puräæa Dänavas Brahmäæõa Puräæa daÿanämis Brahma Puräæa Divine Light Mission Brahmasütra Divine Life Mission Brahmavaivarta Puräæa Gaudïya Vai•æavism Bøhadäraæyaka Upani•ad Harïjan Bøhaddevatä International Society for Kø•æa Bøhadsaƒhitä Consciousness (ISKCON) Devï Bhägavata Puräæa International Transcendental Devï Mähätmya Meditation Society (TM) Dharmaÿästra Jainism Dräviõa Prabandham Jana Sangh Gïtagovinda Jänatä Party Gïtärahasysa Käæphata Gøhya Sütra Kashmir Ÿaivism Hariva™ÿa (Puräæa) Kaula hymns Liögäyats Ïÿa(vasya) Upani•ad Mïmäƒsä Kälikä Puräæa Nambüdiris Kaflha Upani•ad Nïmavats Kathäsaritsägara Nyäya Kauÿïtakï Päñcarätra Kena Upani•ad Rä•flrïya Svayamsevak Sangh (RSS) kramapäflha Ÿaivism Kürma Puräæa Ÿaiva Siddhänta Liæga Puräæa Ÿäktism Mahäbhärata Säƒkhya Mahäbhä•ya Ÿrïvai•æavism Mahäpuräæa Vai•æavas Mahänäräyaæa Upani•ad Viÿi•flädvaita mahäväkyas Viÿva Hindü Pari•ad (VHP) Mäæõukya Upani•ad Yoga Manusmøti Yädavas Märkaæõeya Puräæa Matsya Puräæa Scriptures, commentaries, other Muæõaka Upani•ad writings: Näradïya Puräæa Adhyätma Rämäyaæa Näräyanïyam Ägama Nirukta Agni Puräæa Nïti ÿästra Ahirbudhnya Saƒhitä Nyäya Sütras Aitareya Brähmaæa Padma Puräæa Aitareya Upani•ad Pañcatantra A•flädhyäyï Praÿna Upani•ad Atharvaveda Rämäyaæa Ätmabodha Øgveda Bhägavata Puräæa Øgvidhäna Bhagavadgïtä Sacred Books of the East (SBE) zEncyclo - Thematic Index 10/2/03 9:36 am Page 243

243 Thematic Index

Sacred Books of the Bhimbhetka Hindus (SBH) Bhuvaæeÿvara Sämaveda Braja, Brajbhümi Säƒkhyakärikä Cidambaram Säƒkhyasütra Dak•iæeÿvara Sarvadarÿanasaƒgraha Ellora, Elurä Satyärtha Prakäÿa Gaögä, Ganges Ÿilpasästra Godävarï Ÿlokavärttika Gokula Ÿvetäÿvatara Upani•ad Govardhana Tantra Gudimally Ujjvala Nïlämaæi Halebid Upani•ads Harappa Upa-puräæas Himälaya Upa-vedas Hø•ikeÿa, Rishikesh Vai•æava Saƒhitäs Indraprastha Vämana Puräæa Jagan-nätha Purï Väyu Puräæa Kalahasti Veda Kämäkhyä Vedäægas Käñcïpura Vedänta Kauverï Vedänta-karikävalï Khajuräho Vedänta-paribhä•a Konärka Vedänta-sära Kuruk•etra Vedänta-sütøa Madurai Vedärtha-saögraha Magadha Vi•æu Puräæa Mahäbalipuram Vi•æu-sahasra-näma Mänasa, Mänasasarovara Viveka-cüõä-maæi Mathurä Yajur-veda Melkote Yatïndra-mata-dïpikä Mithilä Yoga Sütras Pandharpur Pïtha, Pïﬂha sthäna Places, areas, rivers: rivers Adyar Ÿrïraögam Aihole Ÿrögerï Ajantä Tirupati Allahäbad Uõipï Aruæäcala Ujjainï Ayodhyä Väräæasï Badamï Vijayanägara Badrïnäth Vindhya Belur Vøndävana