Ca so a o ks 0 A . Ove vie

f D. McCracken Editor

Bioloqical Station, St. Andrews, .B., 0 2XO

January 1979

is e ies Tee niea

Rsheries and En moment ~ et Enviromement Canada Canada

Fisheries service des pkhes and Marine service et de Ia mer , -. : 1 ... . r

~ - Fisheries and arine Service Technical Reports These report contain cientific and technical information that repre ents an important contribution to existing knowledge but which for orne reason may not be appropriate for primary scientific (i.e. Journal) publication. Technical Reports are directed primarily towards a world wide audience and have an international di tribution. 0 re triction is placed on ubject matter and the erie reflect the broad intere t and policie of the Fisherie and arine Service, namely, f herie management technology and development, ocean sciences, and aquatic en iron­ ments rele ant to Canada. Technical Report may be cited as full publication. The correct citation appear abo e the ab tract of each report. Each report will be ab tracted in Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts and will be indexed annually in the Service' index to cientific and technical publication. umber 1-456 in thi erie w"ere i ued a Technical Report of the Fi heries Re earch Board of Canada. umber 457-714 ere i ued a Department of the En ironment, Fi herie and arine Ser ice, Re earch and De elopment Director­ ate Technical Reports. The eries name was changed ith report number 1-. Detail on the a ailability of Technical Reports in hard copy may be obtained from the i uing establi hment indicated on the front co er.

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- Cover design by Chr ist ine Rusk Fisheries and Marine Service Technical Report 834

January 1979

CANSO MARINE ENVIRONMENT WORKSHOP PART 2 OF 4 PARTS AN OVERVIEW

F. D. McCracken Editor

St. Andrews Biological Station Resource Branch Fisheries and Oceans Canada St. Andrews, New Brunswick EOG 2XO

This is the one hundred and fifteenth Technical Report from the Biological Station, St. Andrews, N.B. ii

~ Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1979 Cat. no. Fs 97-6/834 ISSN 0701-7626 iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART II An Overview The Canso Causeway and its possible effects on regional inshore fisheries - an overview - M. J. Dadswell ••••••••••••••.••••••• 1 Some physical oceanographic features in relation to the Canso Causeway - an overview - R. W. Trites. ••••••••••• ••••• 14 A bibliography of the environment and fisheries of St. Georges Bay-Chedabucto Bay-Canso Strait region • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••.•• •• 30 -1-

THE CANSO CAUSEWAY AND ITS POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON REGIONAL INSHORE FISHERIES - AN OVERVIEW

by

M. J. Dadswell

Fisheries and Environmental Sciences Fisheries and Oceans Canada Biological Station St. Andrews, New Brunswick EOG 2XO -2- ABSTRACT

Dadswell, M. J. 1979. The Canso Causeway and its possible effects on regional inshore fisheries ­ an overview. Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834.

Fisheries in St. Georges Bay and Chedabucto Bay before and after completion of the Canso Causeway were examined. Most fisheries were apparently unaffected or changes within them can be explained solely by varying degrees of exploitation. The herring fishery in St. Georges Bay and Northumberland Strait and the lobster fishery in Chedabucto Bay may have been affected by the Causeway. Both collapsed within 10 yr of closure of the Strait. Cause of the herring fishery collapse in Northumberland Strait was confounded by an epizootic outbreak which occurred concurrent with closure of the Strait, and which is believed to have killed 1/3 of the Gulf herring stock. Collapse of the lobster fishery in Chedabucto Bay occurred too early in the 1960's to be attributable to the general overexploitation of lobster stocks then and may result from the Canso Causeway upsetting a recruitment mechanism and lowering general productivity of Chedabucto Bay.

Key words: Exploitation, pelagic fisheries, marine crustaceans, lobsters, recruitment, epizootic, Canso Causeway, environmental effects, fisheries -3- INTRODUCTION

Throughout history, straits and isthmuses have been a source of frustration and chall.~nge to man,< In Canada we have continually pr()gosed or actu~lly constructed causeways 0rc~naM through them •. Witness the long"'standing~ proposal s fOr a Pri nee Edward I slandica.~s~l1ay across Northumberl and St ra it (Farquhars8nl~59) , the Chignecto Canal and the. fact oftre/Canso Causeway. In the past, guide1ines for such work were almost solely economic with little>thought of possible changes that the construction might cause to natural systems involved. Undoubtedly a causeway across the strait of Canso had beendiscussedfor.a long. time, but in 1948 a committee was organized in Sydney, and a booklet was wr i'tten proposing to the Federal Government that a causeway be built (The Canso Crossing Association 1948). They were successful. In the falL9f 195.4 the Causeway was complete·andwasoffiGially "opened".in Fig. 1. The Strait of Canso region, Nova August 1955. Economically, for industrial Scotia, indicating location of the Canso development, the Causeway was a great success, Causeway, local industries, the extent of shell­ not only assisting industries in Sydney, for fish closures and location of Cerberus Rocks, which purpose it was originally proposed, but site of the tanker "Arrow" grounding. either by design or accident it stopped the southward flow of Gulf of St. Lawrence ice through the Strait creating one of the best ice-free, deep-water ports in eastern Canada. The local topography consists of low hills, This spurred growth of heavy industry and 500-600 ft in elevation at the northern end of population in the immediate area. the Strait with low hummocky land at the southern end. The northern hills have a Fisheries of the region may not have fared tunnelling effect on the predominantly westerly as well. For one, the lobster fishery in winds , turning and directing them southeastward Chedabucto Bay has declined precipitously from through the Strait (Environment Canada, almost 2 million lb in 1956 to 118,000 lb in 1963-71)• 1977, at a time when landed price of lobster has increased by 600%. OCEANOGRAPHIC CHANGES RELATED TO FISHERIES The Canso Causeway may have had an adverse effect on regional fisheries, but to what extent is still an open question. This paper will The major natural system of the region examine changes that have occurred in fisheries affected by the Causeway was the tidal regime of the St. Georges Bay-Chedabucto Bay system and and resulting currents in the Strait. Before point out areas of concern. closure, the two different tidal regimes at each end of the Strait (synodic in the south, THE SETTING declinational in the north), and the fact that they were 1.5-2.0 h out of phase (McLellan Formerly, the Strait of Canso separated 1954), caused the Strait to be swept by Cape Breton Island from mainland Nova Scotia alternate north- or south-flowing tidal currents (Fig. 1). It joined St. Georges Bay to the of varying intensity, but often in excess of 2.5 north, a part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to m/s (Fothergill 1954). Over 16 mo the mean Chedabucto Bay to the south, a part of the residual flow was 7.2 x 10 m3/s towards the Atlantic Ocean. The Strait is 27 km long, At.l ant i c (Fothergi 11 1954). Then as now, both running in a northwest-southeast direction. It St. Georges Bay and Chedabucto Bay were is relatively narrow, varying between 0.8 and 2 thermally stratified in summer with less saline km wide and ranging from 30 to 60 m deep. The surface water, with sharper stratification bathymetry of the Strait shows a flat-bottomed, occurring in St. Georges Bay (MacGregor 1952; U-shaped, fjord-like valley, but lacking true Buckleyet al , 1974). The current regime pro­ sills at either end. The Strait owes its duced vigorous mixing and decreased stratifica­ existence to a series of parallel faults, tion in the central portion of the Strait and running through soft sedimentary rocks of the resulted in a tidal displacement of 5-14 km/­ region, that were further deepened and shaped by half-cycle throughout the year (MacGregor 1952). gl acial scour (Map 1156A, Geol. Surv. Can; ; The most noticeable characteristic of the Owens 1971; Stevens, pers. comm.). The south residual flow was that less saline gulf waters side of Chedabucto Bay is also formed by this tended to leave the Strait southward on the fault system (Owens 1971). -4- surface (Fig. 2) (MacGregor 1952). Fothergill (1954) calculated that the southward surface flow where the Strait entered Chedabucto Bay was 1.6 times the flow in the center of the Strait, which suggested that an entrainment system was in operation.

$1Georges Cneuobucto 80\' . aoy - ~ ------",,-­~=c~~- _28__ ~31~

29~

r Salinily {%ol Aug. 1973 Aller Buckley el 01 [19741

Fig. 2. Longitudinal cross-sections of Fig. 3. Ice distribution during March 1973, temperature and salinity profiles in the Strait demonstrating how the Canso Causeway blocks ice of Canso before (August 1952) and after (August movement between St. Georges Bay and Chedabucto 1973) closure of the Strait. Bay. Photograph from Anon. (1976) Nar i t i.me Resource Management Service. With completion of the Causeway, this flow, mixing and currents ceased and the two tidal regimes were confined to either side of the Causeway. There is now no interchange between In effect, the Causeway changed the Strait from the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic Ocean a dynamic, probably highly productive system, to via the Strait of Canso. Oceanography of the a static, less productive one. Likely there was two bays has remained comparable to that of a net loss of production to the bays at either preclosure but the Strait has become a low end of the Strait and, because of the residual energy system similar to a stratified fjord currents, such loss would predominate in (Fig. 2) (Buckley et al. 1974). Currents are Chedabucto Bay. Drinkwater (1979) made an now weak, usually less than 0.5 cm/s and the estimate of production loss in Chedabucto Bay, mixing which occurs is wind-driven upwelling on and used an entrainment model for the system. the south side of the Causeway (Buckley et al. He calculated a net loss of 14% in yearly 1974)• primary production since construction of the Causeway. Prior to closure residual currents in the Strait caused quantities of ice from the Gulf of POSTGLACIAL HISTORY St. Lawrence to flow southeastward through the Strait, blocking it and Chedabucto Bay to Of unrecognized significance perhaps, is navigation until late May in some years. Since the possible importance of postglacial history closure ice flow has been halted resulting in as a factor in fish migration through the the Strait and Chedabucto Bay remaining ice free Strait. During maximum glaciation and until during winter (Fig. 3). Benefits of this to about 15,000 yr BP, the Canso region was over­ fisheries are less problems with navigation and ridden by ice from the west radiating from a gear loss during the early part of the lobster Maritime ice lobe (Fig. 4) (Prest and Grant fishing season and warmer average water 1969). Sea levels then were approximately 150 Til temperatures during summer (Dadswell 1979) lower than at present, and that portion of the Scotian Shelf which was not ice covered was dry One question that must be asked concerning land. The area around the Magdalen Islands, change in the oceanographic regime is "What however , was ice-free and the ice cover over the effect has the reduction of currents and Gulf of St. Lawrence region was thin (Prest and upwelling had on the basic productivity of the Grant 1969). Where the ice calved into the sea, St. Georges-Chedabucto Bay system?" Numerous retreat was rapid and by 12,500 BP, the Gulf, studies have shown that well mixed, upwelling all of the shelf and most of Nova Scotia, areas have high biological productivity due to including the Strait of Canso region were availability of nutrients for primary production ice-free. Sea level remained 100 m lower than (Cushing 1971, 1975; Garrett and Loucks 1976). present (Fig. 5), however, and altho~gh the -5- Strait was ice-free, it was dry land and fish seeking entrance to the Gulf (which was flooded) had to learn the northern route around Cape Laurentian Ice Lobe Breton. By 5,000 yr BP, the eustatic rise in j) sea level had reached -20 m present-day sea f! 15000 BP level but the forebulge of the continental ice Max.. lee Advance mass was centered in the Maritimes causing an Sea Level -ISO m extra 15 m of elevation in the region, effectively maintaining closure in Canso Strait (Fig. 6) (Grant 1975). Soon after this, the forebulge collapsed and the Strait was flooded with water, deepening until the present. The crust is still adjusting and present rate of change is 30 em/century downward (Grant 1975).

\ o ~ Late Hypeithermo! rff \ 5000 BP Sea Level - 20 m fJ!'7 Fore butqe +15m r

Fig. 4. Maximum extent of the classical Wisconsin ice advance over the Maritimes about 15,000 BP (after Prest and Grant 1969). Note that the Magdalen Islands were unglaciated then and the ice-free portion of the Nova Scotian shelf was dry land.

Fig. 6. Late Hypsithermal Period about 5,000 BP (after Prest and Grant 1969). Because of the forebulge in the Maritimes due to the ice mass over eastern North America, land above -35 m present-day sea level was dry. The Strait of Canso was still closed. All the Gulf except part of Northumberland Strait was under water and average summer sea temperatures were 2-3°C above present-day means (Bousfield and Thomas 1975).

-JV Probably the major impact of this ..-/ /\ '\ ../ postglacial transgression history was its effect on the migration pathways of fishes. Migration '~ U ~ ./ routes have been shown to be a genetic trait, with the homing instinct usually fixed during some period of egg or larval life (Leggett 1977). The 10,000 yr during which the Gulf was Fig. 5. Retreat of the Maritimes Ice Lobe about warm open water (Bousfield and Thomas 1975) and 12,500 BP (after Prest and Grant 1969). Land the Strait of Canso was closed would be ample above -100 m present-day sea level was dry. time for a migration trait to become fixed. About 1/2 the present-day Gulf of St. Lawrence Evidence such as the present haddock and was then open water and the Strait of Canso was mackerel migration paths seems to bear out this closed. reasoning (Needler 1930; McCracken 1963; Goode -6- 1884). Best evidence against large-scale use of Most change in the inshore fishermen work force Canso Strait migratory fishes was the absence occurred in the Chedabucto Bay fishery where the of any large shery in the Strait area. If number of lobster fishermen in Richmond and large quantities of fish, particularly pelagics, Guysborough Counties declined from a peak of had used the Strait, probably large fisheries about 1850 men in 1958 to about 650 in 1972. would have existed to exploit a concentrated During this same period the number of lobster stock. There is no evidence that this occurred. fishermen in Antigonish and Inverness Counties Schools of fish undoubtedly used the Strait, (St. Georges Bay) remained stable between 700 since parts of a major migration could have and 800 (Statistics Canada). passed through during random feeding excursions. Some small discrete populations may have used In 1972 fishermen of the region totalled the Strait exclusively, but evidence to support 1224 with an additional 1000 persons employed in this assertion is non-existent except as casual the processing industry during peak periods observations or inference. (Counc. of Maritime Premiers 1975). Tables 1 and 2 show distribution of fishermen by area and fishery and processors by location. The MARINE FISHERIES RESOURCES difference in numbers of full-time fishermen between St. Georges Bay and Chedabucto Bay is due to the number of offshore fishermen, St, Georges Bay is relatively shallow, situated in the latter, who supply the large summer-warm and well mixed. Nutrient cycling is processors in Canso and Petit-de-Grat. rapid and primary productivity high (Prouse and Hargrave 1977). The eastern shoreline is rocky Commercial fisheries landings were valued and ar with no bays. The western shoreline at $5.3 million in 1973. Table 3 shows weight is ntly sand and gravel and is indented and landed value for various species. Lobsters by numerous large lagoon estuaries. These were the mainstay of the industry, accounting lagoon estuaries are dominated by eel grass-salt for 52% of inshore and 20% of all landed val ue. marsh communities. Particulate matter from these estuarine plant communities undoubtedl y Cod supported the second most important makes a significant contribution to productivity inshore fishery, while redfish were the dominant of the (Mann 1972). catch by the offshore fleet. Inshore landings represent only 1/7 by weight of total landings Chedabucto Bay is deeper and cooler with but 2/5 of the value (Table 3). Landings at the average summer-maximum surface temperatures of towns of Canso and Petit-de-Grat totalled $3.6 16°C rather than maximums of 20°C as occur in million. Table 4 summarizes trends in the St. Georges Vernal warming is slower on fishery for St. Georges and Chedabucto Bays. In the Atlantic of the Strait than in the general, lobster landings are stable in St. Gulf. The shoreline is irregular and consists Georges Bay but declining in Chedabucto Bay. ~~,,~r'~'nantl of rock with a Fucus community or The inshore and offshore finfish fisheries are cobble Owens 1971). Before closure there either stable or show a slight increase. In the may have been a net import of nutrients and Maritimes as a whole the finfish fisheries have particulate carbon via residual currents from shown increases in landings during 1976 and 1977 St. Georges to Chedabucto Bay, thereby enhancing as fisheries-regulating policies have taken productivity of the latter. hold. THE FISHING INDUSTRY THE FISHERY St. Georges Bay, Chedabucto Bay and their ~A'"AAA+'ve offshore areas support productive fis es. Before industrialization of the ALGAE Strait of Canso region, the fishing industry was the or and almost only employer. Fish Only in St. Bay are algae an plants, then as now, employed a considerable important fishery ( ngle 1979). There the work force. Actual number of fishermen, commercial species is Chondrus crispus. however, has declined in the last 30 yr in Chondrus has been harvested in St. Georges Bay concert with the decline in fishermen numbers for 50 yr and landi records go back to 1943 the Maritimes (Statistics Canada). (Pringle 1(79). i were at a low level As late as 1961 fishermen of the Strait of Canso (30,000 kg or less) unt 1957 because only one on sed 9.6% of the labor force whereas company was purchasi marine plants. After level the remainder of Nova Scotia was 1957 new the market and landings 3.2%. By 1971 numbers of fishermen in the region increased to about 1,985,000 kg in 1974 and have had declined to 2.7% of the work force, whereas remained near this level since (Pringle 1979). fishermen in the province as a whole declined to Landed values for marine plants are about 2%. This relative change during that timespan $50,000-$200,000 per year. is ially due to an increase of jobs in i in the Canso Strait region (12% in Mosely and MacFarlane (1969) carried out 1961, in 1972), increases in fishing the onl su on al resources in St. technology and a decline in lobster stocks in Georges that the Chondrus beds Chedabucto Bay, forcing men out of this fishery. were mostly small or without conmerci al -7- Table l. Number of res ident fi shermen in the fi shi ng industry of the Strait of Canso region during 1972 (Fishery Statistical Districts 3, 9, 13, 14, 15).

Numbers St. Georges Chedabucto Bay Bay Total

Duration Full time 0 165 165 Part time 380 679 1059 Total 380 844 1224

Fishery Lobster 345 492 837 Groundfish 65 473 538 Pelagic 223 567 790 She11 fi sh 81 12 93 Algae 45 0 45 Other 72 7 79

Table 2. Processors and fish plants in the Strait of Canso region and numbers of employees as of 1973.a

Town and Employees Plant county Products Permanent Total

St. Georges Co-op Ballantynes Cove Herring Antigonish Lob sters 1 6 Groundfish Kennedy Fisheries Auld Cove (closed 1975) Guysborough Lobsters 3 Canso Sea Foods Canso Groundfish 290 500 Guysborough Herri ng Mackerel

National Sea Canso Groundfish 5 Products Guysborough Herring Lobster Blue Ribbon Co-op Little Dover Groundfish 4 7 Guysborough Lobsters Eastern Shore Larry River Groundfish 20 31 Fisheries Guysborough Lobsters Ri chmond Petit-de-Grat Groundfish 350 425 Fisheries Richmond Isle Madame Petit-de-Grat Groundfish 15 20 Co-op Richmond Lobsters aFrom: Anon. (1975). Fish and Wildl ife Resources: Strait of Canso Natural Environmental Inventory. Marine Resource Management Service, Council of Maritime Premiers. -8-

Table 3. Landings and value of various fishes in the Strait of Canso region, 1973.a

Inshore fisheries Offshore fisheries weight value weight~ value Species (lbx10)3 ($) (lb x 10~) ($)

Lobster 1,048 1,062,342 Cod 4,919 525,708 9,271 657,597 Mackerel 1,678 130,573 Hake 707 42,040 50 1,700 Haddock 155 34,759 375 53,129 Salmon 28 34,033 Plaice 501 33,520 742 135,337 Herring 610 25,894 17,954 346,675 Pollock 133 7,008 46 1,553 Halibut 6 5,799 12 4,790 Ye l lowtai 1 7 499 753 43,386 \~i tch 1 79 1,196 89,500 Redfish 2 53 37,926 1,878,605 Gaspereau 173 8,796 Smelt 41 10,577 Oysters 60 13,520 Scallops • 5 6,770 Totals 10,074 $1,941,970 68,325 $3,212,272

aFrorn: Anon, (1975). Fish and Wildl ife Resources: Strait of Canso Natural Environmental Inventory. Marine Resource Management Service, Council, of Maritime Premiers.

Table 4. Trends in landings (lb x 103) and value ($ x 103) of commercial fisheries in the Strait of Canso ~egion. Finfish values include inshore and offshore landings.

SL Georges Bay Chedabucto Bay Lobster Finfish Lobster Finfish Year (1 b) ($) (lb) ($) (lb) ($ ) (lb) ($ )

1956 1572 715 1866 849 1960 1269 441 3136 522 1358 526 63600 2626 1965 1105 664 3184 793 546 302 76819 3045 1970 ,1144 843 3665 976 377 341 70334 2217 1973 1159 1054 7773 1420 418 485 75847 4254 1977 855 1318 118 182 -9- potential and indicated a potential harvest of Traditionally there is a stronggroundfish only 10,000 kg from the south shore of the Bay. industry centered in the town of Canso, which From current landings either their estimates utilizes fish stocks both inshore and offshore were wrong or beds are being overexploited. in Chedabucto Bay and on offshore banks. The They also believed that increased sedimentation fishery is concentrated on cod, haddock and was evident throughout the Bay since completion po11 ock, In the past, traps, gill nets and of the Causeway and the increase was most longlines were used but of late the fishery uses significant near the Causeway itself. That mainly trawlers. In the early 1900's most of sedimentation is greatest near the Causeway has this fishery was inshore (Cornish 1907). been adequately shown by Vilks et al. (1977). Catches were about 3-4 million lb of cod, But to assume it has increased throughout the 500,000 lb of pollock and 3 million lb of Bay, without the existence of baseline data haddock per year. Except for haddock, which has prior to closure, is unwarranted, especially in declined in all eastern Nova Scotian areas, view of the normal high rates of sedimentation landings today are similar; however, most of observed by Prouse and Hargrave (1977). these come from offshore trawling (Table 3). The inshore fishery, which presumably occurs on the At present there is no commercial fishery same grounds today as in 1910, is down to 500,000 for algae in Chedabucto Bay. The seaweed lb total (Table 3) of which the inshore haddock community there is dominated by Fucus and landings are only 30,000-50,000 lb. Laminaria (MacKay 1907) and commercially important species are present only in low Interviews with fishermen concerning the abundance (Sharpe 1970; Craigie and McLachlan inshore groundfish fishery indicate the Canso 1970)• Causeway has had an effect on inshore water temperatures extending out to the town of Canso. A point to note, concerning algae and Formerly, in late summer, warm water from St. possible breaching of the Causeway, is from Georges Bay used to penetrate Chedabucto Bay as studies conducted by the Environmental far as the town of Canso (Fig. 7) and cod then Protection Service which indicated plants moved offshore. Since closure this no longer collected within 3 km of the industrial center happens and inshore fishermen can take cod all of the Strait had impaired photosynthesis and summer. This fact was confirmed by McCracken respiratory activity (Kumbhare 1973). If (pers. comm.), who stated that fishery surveys breaching was done and pollutants were carried were carried out in the early 1950's in an north to St. Georges Bay by tidal currents, attempt to locate alternate underutilized stocks there could be a decline in algal production and for local fishermen to exploit during this warm­ some loss to the future fishery. water peri od, GROUNDFISH Two major questions concerning groundfish stocks are whether the Causeway has prevented or Fishery statistics indicate there has been hindered migration patterns and/or caused a little change in gross, long-term landings of decline in critical habitat for certain species. groundfish since 1960 in the statistical areas Fortunately, some good studies done before and under consideration. Prior to this, during the after closure indicate that at least for certain 1950's, landings increased dramatically with the species migration patterns have not been increase of offshore effort by Canadian changed. Needler (1931) tagged haddock off fi shermen (Fi g. 7). eastern Nova Scotia and reported on tag returns from the haddock trapnet fishery around Cape Breton. Recaptures during spring were progressi vely inward to the Gulf around northern Cape Breton and, in fall, outward to the Shelf by the same route. Although recaptures were made around the periphery of Chedabucto Bay and it was the site of a large fishery, no early spring recaptures came from St. Georges Bay, though one would expect it if haddock used the Strait. McCracken (1963) reversed this experiment by tagging haddock in fall in the Gulf off the mouth of St. Georges Bay. His results showed the same seasonal migration pattern as Needler's. Haddock in this migration are larger individuals of the Scotian Shelf population on an inshore feeding excursion (Scott, pers. comm.). Quite likely their route is determined by water depth and temperature and Fig. 7. Groundfish landings by species for the perhaps an ancestral route established during St. Georges Bay-Chedabucto Bay region (Fishery the 8,OOO-yr period when the Strait region was Statistical Districts 13, 3, 8, 9, 14, 15) above sea level (Prest and Grant 1969). between 1945 and 1965 (after Scott 1979). Migration patterns of two other groundfish species are known. Halibut stocks in the Gulf are distinct from those on the Shelf and -10- movement is apparently inshore-offshore in the The primary evidence dictating against a respective regions with little interchange wholesale use of the Strait by large mackerel (Martin and McCracken 1950). Cod stocks in the and herring runs is the preclosure absence of a Gulf and on the Shelf are also distinct (Kohler large fishery within or at either end of the 1968). Migration is between the southwestern Strait. Probably such highly visible pelagic Gulf and banks off eastern Cape Breton and fishes, by using the Strait, would have inshore Nova Scotia to the offshore Shelf for attracted fishermen and concentrated landings the other. there. Apparently this was not the case. Since early 1800's, the mackerel fishery has been pollock, another groundfish species, may centered along the eastern Nova Scotia shore and have lost a considerable portion of desirable north around Cape Breton (Goode 1884; McCallum habitat in the Canso region when the Strait was 1933). Quite possibly both herring and mackerel closed. Interviews indicated that large numbers continued to use an ancestral migration route to of pollock inhabited the Strait and its the Gulf that they were confined to for the 8000 approaches and contributed to the local yr before the Strait was open. commercial catch before 1954. The situation there was probably analogous to the present In the past the fishery for these two situation in the passages into Passamaquoddy species was inshore. For mackerel this is still Bay. Direct evidence, however, on the amount of the case. Most landings, about 1-2 million pollock caught and landed from the Strait of lb/yr, are made along the eastern Nova Scotia Canso is unrecorded except perhaps in records of shore (Anon. 1975). The herring fishery is now local fishermen or fish processors. primarily ~0re offshore in Chedabucto Bay and pursued by the mobile fleet (Messieh and Moore White hake is the major groundfish species 1979)• Land ings have increased tremendous 1y exploited in St. Georges Bay. There are no data since development of this fleet, from about 1 available to indicate this stock is migratory million lb in the late 1960's to 18 million lb although it may be. More likely, it is non­ in 1973 (Fig. 8) (Messieh and Moore 1979). migratory since white hake typically remain in deeper water year round and are somewhat 70 sedentary (Leim and Scott 1966). That hake landings in Inverness and Antigonish Counties 60 have remained at levels comparable to 50 pre-Causeway conditions supports this view. 40 Also, to pass through the Strait, especially in ": fall, would have meant crossing a temperature '2 30 - barrier (~1acGregor 1952). Personal interviews K

~ with Mr. Kennedy of Kennedy Fisheries Ltd. -0 C 20~ indicate that in some years a considerable catch ~ Bay~ 0 Chedabucto of hake from St. Georges Bay was landed at his (L plant in Auld Cove (Fig. 1) and therefore

cr> recorded in Guysborough County. This has lead c; 10 to an anomalous picture in hake landings for -0 C I Chedabucto Bay (i.e., Guysborough County) (Scott , -'" St Georges Bay : 1979)• ~ ___ ..... I _! PELAGIC FISHES ~ ...... -""-- .... _ ....--.... ,;- __ ... J' I The major pelagic fishes exploited in the 1935 '40 '45 50 '55 '60 '65 '70 Canso Strait region are herring, mackerel and salmon (Table 3). There are fisheries for anadromous species such as alewives and smelt Fig. 8. Herring landings from Chedabucto Bay but these are centered in estuaries. Since and St. Georges Bay in 1933-75, 3-yr running these species remain close to their home river means, centered (Fisheries Statistics of while at sea, their movements and habitat were Canada) . likely not altered by the Causeway. Herring and mackerel are both highly mobile Whether or not some herring stocks which species. Undoubtedly some mackerel and herring may have formerly used the Strait migrated moved through the Strait prior to closure and around Cape Breton instead is argued elsewhere likely the Strait itself would have been a by Ware (1979) and Messieh and Moore (1979). feeding area especially for young herring. Ware (1979) argues that there seemed to be quick Upwelling in the area probably provided change in herring spawning dates immediately favorable feeding conditions such as are now after closure averaging 17 d later in spring and found in passages of Passamaquoddy Bay. Small this 17-d period is approximately the required fisheries for these species were centered in the period for swim-around time. Messieh and Moore Strait. The major question is whether a large (1979) associate this change in spawning time portion of the stock or anyone particular stock with cooler spring temperatures beginning soon migrated through the Strait. -11- after closure (Fig. 9). The correlation they since the building of the Causeway (Messieh and derive (between spawning time and mean April Moore 1979). Fishermen of Egmont Bay contend temperature) is good and their conclusion seems that in pre-Causeway times the annual spri ng to fit other evidence from tagging and meristic herring run proceeded east-west along studies. Northumberland Strait an~ in order to fish the run early, they steamed eastward during the Tagging and meristic studies have shown first weeks of the season to meet the fish. that herring stocks in the Gulf of St. Lawrence With closure, they say, the run stopped and on the Nova Scotia Shelf are distinct. immediately. After this change, it took them 5 Messieh (1974) showed the Chedabucto stock was yr to discover that herring were available in distinct meristically from the Gulf stock, as the opposite di recti on around the west of P. E. I. did Hodder and Parsons (1971). Tagging and On the other hand, fisheries statistics indicate biological studies by Tibbo (1957), Tibbo et al. the collapse of the entire Northumberl~nd Strait (1969), Day (1957) and Winters (1976) indicate stock was not immediate but occurred in two that the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence stock stages, an early decrease, a small subsequent migrates between the Gulf and southern rise in catches, then by 1964 a complete Newfoundland and probably Sydney Bight, while disappearance (Messieh and Moore 1979). the Shelf stock migrates on and offshore and northeast and southwest along the eastern Nova The cause of this population disappearance Scotia shore. is confounded by the Ichthyosporidium epizootic outbreak among Gulf herring which occurred just One herring population, however, may have prior to the closure of Canso Strait. Peak been adversely affected by the Causeway. The mortality among herring occurred during the herring fishery at the western end of spring of 1954 (Sindermann 1958), and it was Northumberland Strait in Egmont Bay, P.E.I. and estimated about 1/3 of the Gulf herring stock Kent Co., N.B., has collapsed and disappeared died (Tibbo and Graham 1963). The epi zoot i c was

1211 I I 1251 I I I 130l I I J 135! ! I I 1401 I ! I !4:5! II t 1501 I I ! I I 150! ~:NCE ''t vI\,,, . 5 STATION ->: -, •• " --. ~-,. 1'" vy/ 'V'\;r (.A)••• , . " -

'2 LURCHER L.V "1 rt'M--/\ r-. (B) --0 I V V-''1_-~

-z ST. ANDREWS (C)

+2 +2

o

-2 -2

-4 -4

1211 f I !z:)l 1 I 1,,61 II 1351 /401 I II 1451 I 1:>01 II J 1551 I I 116m II

YEAR

Fig. 9. Quarterly deviations of water temperatures: (A) Prince 5 Station, bottom temperatures average 1924-1960; (B) Lurcher L.-V., bottom temperatures, average 1950-1959; (C) St. Andrews, surface temperatures, average 1921-1960; (D) Sambro L.-V., bottom temperatures, average 1949-1959; (F) Emerald Bank, bottom temperatures, average 1950-1959. Maximum temperatures within bottom layer of Scotian Gulf, curve (E). The dash lines represent temperature trends (after Lauzier 1965). -12- probably temperature related and was brought on occurs. All tagged salmon caught to the west of by the high sea temperatures prevalent in the Canso Strait have been destined for Gulf of St. early 1950's (Fig. 9) (Sindermann 1958; Lauzier Lawrence rivers. Apparently salmon adapted and Hull 1969). Deaths were concentrated among quickly to the change and there is no indication spring spawning fish and changed the composition the Causeway has had an adverse effect. of the Gulf stock in favor of fall spawners (Tibbo and Graham 1963). The fishery in Egmont SHELLFISH Bay was on a spring spawning population (Day 1957). The shellfish fishery in the Canso region exploits lobster, scallops and oysters. The mode of decline for the Northumberland Mussels, quahog, soft-shell clams, crab and stock, that is a sharp drop, a rise and a final shrimp are occasionally landed but lack of decline, suggests a reason of greater ecological adequate stocks and/or local processing has significance than a point effect in time and may restricted development (Caddy and Chandler 1976; be the ultimate cause of the demise of this Stasko 1979). stock. St. Georges Bay and Canso Strait are situated correctly according to the currents in scallops are fished conrner-c i al l y only in Northumberland Strait (Lauzier 1965) to have St. Georges Bay (Anon. 1976). The fishery there served as the downstream larval and juvenile is concentrated on two beds in the northern part nursery area for Northumberland spawners, a of this Bay and has been proseyuted since 1956. situation similar to that described for other Landings have fluctuated between 5,000 and herring stocks (Iles 1975). Canso Strait itself 100,000 lb and are a reflection of effort (Caddy may have functioned as an upwelling system and Chandler 1976). In Chedabucto Bay scallops (Cushing 1971) of importance to the do not occur in commercial quantities and the Northumberland stock, similar to the importance only landings are by sport divers. Since there of the Passamaquoddy passages to the Bay of were no pre-Causeway landings, we cannot Fundy herring (Graham 1936; Huntsman 1953). determine whether or not the population has Closure of the Strait and cessation of upwelling changed. would have radically reduced the carrying capacity of the area for juvenile herring but Oysters are found and fished commercially the full effect would manifest itself only after only in the estuaries of St. Georges Bay. a time lag of 4-6 yr or one herring generation Landings have ranged from 1,000 to 500,000 Ib time. Possibly this one stock wintered in during the past 30 yr and reflect abundance, Chedabucto Bay and used Canso Strait as juvenile effort and pollution closures (Caddy and nursery grounds and a migration route. Chandler 1976). The fishery is probably unaffected by the Causeway as the entire oyster Final decline of the Northumberland herring life cycle is confined to its estuary. fishery was probably caused by a combination of Additionally, landings over 300,000 lb have factors of which the Causeway may have been the occurred as recently as 1967. most important. The decline sequence may be explained as follows: an initial drop in In the Canso region, as in most of the landings caused primarily by the epizootic Maritimes, lobsters are the mainstay of the outbreak removing the adult portion of the inshore fishery. As late as 1973 they stock, a rise as new adults coming from a pre­ constituted 52% of the value of inshore landings Causeway juvenile population entered the fishery (Table 3). The fisheries on either side of the and a final complete decline as the effects of Causeway present marked contrasts. In St. reduced recruitment due to loss of nursery Georges Bay the fishery has remained relatively grounds and continued exploitation took effect. stable at somewhat over a million pounds (Fig. Of the possible changes induced by the Causeway, 10). In Chedabucto Bay landings from 1930 to loss of a migration route should be the least about 1950 declined quite steadily to about detrimental to a population and have a 1 1/2 million Ib in 1950. Around the time of relatively short-term effect since the closure between 1950 and 1954, landings were population could be expected to adjust to a averaging over 2 million lb/yr but declined changed route. Loss of a nursery ground, on the rapidly to low levels in 1964. Landings in 1977 other hand, would be expected to have the long­ were 118,000 Ib, a 95% decrease since 1955 (Fig. term effects that have taken place with the 10). A decline of this magnitude indicates Northumberland herring. recruitment failure. But what caused recruitment failure in Chedabucto Bay? Was it Salmon migrate along the coast of the Canso pollution from new industrial concerns, region on their return from sea to fresh water. overfishing, long-term environmental change, or The fishery is concentrated in St. Georges Bay a failure of a more widespread recruitment and off Canso. The catch is small and vari ab1e mechanism such as larval transport and (28,000-100,000 Ib/yr) (Table 3) and landings settlement? These different hypotheses are closely follow the pattern in the rest of the analyzed in other papers in this report Maritimes. Tagging data indicate that before (Robinson 1979; Dadswell 1979). closure some salmon followed the western Cape Breton coast, passed through the Strait and returned to rivers in eastern Nova Scotia (Marshall 1979). Since closure this no longer -13- 7. Mackerel migrations have apparently been sa- unaffected by the Causeway. The major historical route seems to have been north ,,,,,.-."'30'1'"'''' 800 70B 11"'''' around Cape Breton. Local mackerel catches 5160,or9'" 'so ''" '>0 eo 'to 'rr 8;~~,d Or have been low since the Causeway was built, Of \ tnve rnes s Co - - _ probably because small segments of the /~/~ mackerel population which by chance used to migrate through the Strait no longer do.

Anligonish Co 8. The lobster fishery in Chedabucto Bay, after increasing in the early 1950's, has declined 45"30' from an average 2 million lb during the ctedotocto Boy 1950's to 118,000 lb in 1977. Landings in GuysbOfough Co , St. Georges Bay have remained stable. The HOG .. _.\Q <-400 ielo=, .,,- ''' Ii! number of lobster fishermen in Chedabucto i 1.0 i "",Wt·······~'1 .. ' lobster londings 10 20 Bay have declined from 1,750 in 1956 to 650 soc Thousonds of Ibs. in 1972 and landed values decreased from

~ °19;0 40 .~ '£0 '70 'nll'J $849,000 in 1956 to $182,000 in 1977. A lobster fishery decline of this magnitude is probably due largely to recruitment failure. Fig. 10. Lobster landings in the counties bordering St. Georges and Chedabucto Bays between 1930 and 1977 (Fisheries Statistics Canada). NOTE: For Dadswe 11 's Bibl i ography see page 30. SUMMARY

1. With closing of the Canso Causeway in the fall of 1954, the Strait of Canso was altered from a high-energy, tidally-mixed system to a low-energy, wind-mixed system. Residual f l ows from St. Georges Bay to Chedabucto Bay ceased and Chedabucto Bay and the Strait south of the Causeway became ice­ free in wi nt er, 2. The fishing industry as a whole has remained stable with an increase in landed values. 3. Percentage of fishermen as a part of the regional labor force has declined from nearly 10% to about 3%, close to the present Nova Scotia average.

4. The algae (Chondrus) fishery is situated in St. Georges Bay only. Exploitation has increased markedly from 1950 to the present. Apparently the Causeway has not adversely affected production. 5. Overall landings of groundfish have remained stable but the major landings which once came from an inshore, fixed-gear and hook­ and-line fishery now are taken in an offshore, trawler fishery. There was apparently little or no movement of groundfish through the Strait, although it may have been a habitat for pollock. 6. Herring landings in Chedabucto Ray have increased since introduction of purse seines (1969). The local, inshore fishery has been poor in Chedabucto B~y and has declined to nothing in St. Georges Bay and eastern Northumberland Strait. Possibly the Northumberland Strait population used the Strait as a migration route and nursery ground. -14-

SOME PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC FEATURES IN RELATION TO THE CANSO CAUSEWAY - AN OVERVIEW

by

R. W. Trites

Marine Ecology Laboratory Bedford Institute of Oceanography Dartmouth, Nova Scotia -15­ ABSTRACT

Trites, R. W. 1979. Some physical features in relation to the Canso Causeway - an overview. Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834.

Construction of the Canso Causeway has produced dramatic changes in the physical oceanographic regime within Canso Strait. Although insufficient data are available to document quantitatively changes that may have occurred in St. Georges Bay and Chedabucto Bay, it is highly likely that the residual current pattern has been appreciably altered. On the scale of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Scotian Shel~ fluctuations in oceanographic properties arising from large-scale processes appear to be much larger than anything that could reasonably be attributed to construction of the Causeway.

Key words: Physical oceanography, tidal currents, water temperature, salinity, environmental conditions, water circulation, Canso Strait, causeway, water transport -16- INTRODUCTION prime effect was to eliminate the mixed tide within the Strait and to bring a slightly enlarged Chedabucto Bay tide type up to the This paper will review briefly what is south side of the Causeway. Similarly, the St. known about the general physical oceanographic Georges Bay tide type reached southward in the conditions of the Canso Strait region, both Strait to the Causeway. Also, the slope in mean before and after the Causeway was completed in level which formerly was spread throughout the 1955 (Fig. 1). It will try to set the local Strait is now recorded as an abrupt change in conditions and variability in context with level on either side of the Causeway, the larger scale features of the Canadian Atlantic d~fference in mean level being about 0.1 m. Continental Shelf. Hopefully in this way one may be in a better position to judge for oneself For tidal currents, the effect of the the extent to which changes and fluctuations in Causeway was to diminish their magnitudes to physical oceanographic conditions in the area insignificant levels within the Strait. are likely to have resulted from the Causeway Velocities reported by Lawrence et al , (1973) compared to those brought about by other large­ for sites 4-5 miles south of the Causeway were scale processes. generally less than 0.15 m/s. Amplitude of the semi-diurnal tidal constituents was less than 0.05 m/s. Significant changes in tidal currents OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS IN CANSO STRAIT AND must have occurred in both St. Georges Bay and CONTIGUOUS REGIONS Chedabucto Bay. Presumably, the eddies referred to previously have disappeared or at least been greatly weakened. Tidal currents at the mouth TIDES, TIDAL CURRENTS, AND WATER LEVELS of St. Georges Bay must also have increased appreciably since the northward tidal transports Tidal characteristics of St. Georges Bay in Canso Strait previously were about 7 x 103m3, and Chedabucto Bay are distinctly different. compared to the mean intertidal volume of St. The diurnal inequality is particularly marked iii Georges Bay of 10 x 108m3. A decrease St. Georges Bay and at times of maximum lunar in tidal current strength must likewise have declination one tide of the day nearly occurred at the mouth of Chedabucto Bay. disappears. Before construction of the Causeway the maximum range of tide in St. Georges Bay and Caution must be exercised in attributing Chedabucto Bay was about 1.45 m and 1.95 m, observed changes in mean levels solely, or in respectively. The tidal range within the Strait some cases even partially, to the Causeway. thus 9radually increased from north to south. There are normal seasonal variations in sea The differing tidal characteristics between St. level as well as longer-period changes. An Georges Bay and Chedabucto Bay, including a example of the character and magnitude of these phase difference of 1-2 h, resulted in strong changes is indicated for two points on the tidal currents through the Strait. Fothergill Atlantic coast (Charlottetown and Halifax) (Fig. (1954) measured currents for 24-h periods at 2). Mean annual water levels have been plotted several stations in the Strait prior to the for a 25-yr period (1940-65). On an annual Causeway construction and illustrated patterns basis changes in level of as much as 0.07 m have of tidal currents. Of particular interest were been observed. Thus, despite precautions taken the two cyclonic eddies, one present in St. by Fothergill to remove seasonal effects, Georges Bay when the current in the Strait was apparently year-to-year changes in mean level flowing northward and one in Inhabitants Bay may be comparable to the difference in mean when the current was flowing southward. At the level computed for St. Georges Bay-Chedabucto Causeway site, where the cross-sectional area Bay. was minimal, he observed southgoing currents up to 2.65 mls and northgoing currents up to 2.1 TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY m/s. Fothergill found a linear relationship between currents in the Strait and the water There is a limited data base available for level difference between St. Georges Bay (Havre the Strait region prior to construction of the Boucher) and Chedabucto Bay (Arichat). Using Causeway. In 1952 the Atlantic Oceanographic the values for monthly differences in level, he Group occupied a line of 7 stations running from computed a mean net velocity for 1952 of 0.35 Chedabucto Bay to St. Georges Bay (Fig. 3). mls southward at the Causeway site. This was Results from these have been reported by used to compute a net volume transport of 8.46 x MacGregor (1953). Thirteen passages in the 10 3m3/ s , Fothergi 11 concl uded that, if period May-November were completed. Paired frictional effects were considered, net flow passages at different stages of the tidal cycle would probably be reduced to about 50% of this showed evidence of tidal disolacement of the value or 4.26 x 103m3/ s . complete body of water in the Strait. Two of these section occupations have been selected to After construction of the Causeway, water indicate the general features (Fig. 4, 5). levels in St. Georges Bay and Chedabucto Bay, as Vigorous mixing and consequent decreased measured at Havre Boucher and Arichat, stratification were characteristic of the apparently were similar to pre-Causeway central portion of the Strait in all seasons. A conditions. Only in the Strait itself were recurring feature of the section was the changes readily measured (Anon. 1955). The downward sloping of isotherms and isohalines -17- from south to north in the central and southern measured in the southern Strait, subsequent to part of the Strait. MacGregor (1953) concluded Causeway construction. Lawrence et al , (1973) that a residual surface transport southward and recorded current speeds of generally less than a reverse flow at the bottom existed, besides 0.15 mis, with no clearly defined persistent the tidal displacement of from 3-10 miles for a residual circulation. half-cycle. Seasonal variations in temperature were readily apparent, with nearly isothermal There are only limited data available from conditions observed in May and again in pre-Causeway days for St. Georges Bay and November. During summer months the water column Chedabucto Bay. However, as mentioned was highly stratified in St. Georges Bay with previously, the two gyres generated tidally surface temperature reaching about 20°C and a would have produced a residual counter­ bottom temperature typically less than 4°C. The clockwise circulation pattern in St. Georges and surface layer at that time was about 20 m thick. Inhabitants Bay. There are no subsequent Surface waters in Chedabucto Bay did not attain observations from Inhabitants Bay. However, as high a temperature as in St. Georges Bay, nor Petrie and Drinkwater (1977a, b) present was the surface layer as well defined thermally. oceanographic data collected in St. Georges Bay in 1974 and 1975, from current meters moored at Observations made subsequent to the a number of sites for several months. Residual Causeway completion reveal marked changes in currents, although rel ati vely weak «0.1 m/s) temperature and salinity within the Strait and variable, nevertheless suggest that a itself, but for St. Georges Bay and Chedabucto clockwise eddy exists in the Bay, with currents Bay there is no clear evidence from available typically less than 0.05 mls (Fig. 10-12). That data that measurable changes have occurred. The the circulation pattern within St. Georges Bay section occupied in 1952 and reported by may have been altered significantly since 1955 MacGregor (1953) was re-run on several occasions is suggested. in the 1956-59 period. Two of these have been plotted and are shown in Fig. 6 and 7. Data SOURCE WATERS AND FLUSHING TIMES taken in the Strait in 1973 (Vilks et al. 1975) show the temperature and salinity situation in Using Fothergill's net t§ansport figures more detail within the southern half of the for Canso Strait of 4.26 x 10 m3/s, and Strait (Fig. 8-9). In Fig. 9 conditions are making some oversimplified assumptions, one can shown for the same months as depicted in Fig. 4 make some calculations on possible replacement and 5. Although the section does not extend times for water in the area. Mean daily into St. Georges Bay or Chedabucto Bay, perhaps transport through Canso Strait was equivalent to the most notable feature is as expected, namely about 1.4% of the volume of St. Georges Bay. that conditions typical of St. Georges Bay Assuming that water flowing through Canso Strait penetrate the Strait to the Causeway and, was being drawn uniformly from only the upper 10 similarly, Chedabucto Bay conditions are found m of St. Georges Bay, this volume of water would within the Strait on the southern side of the have passed into Chedabucto Bay in about 29 d. Causeway. The drastic reduction of tidal Fothergill's data suggest that residual flow currents and hence the intensity of mixing southward in the Strait was operative at all permit more vertical stratification and thus, depths, and likely a layer more than 10 m deep during summer months at least, bottom salinities would have been drawn from St. Georges Bay. A have increased and temperatures decreased. more realistic value may have been 25 m, the Conditions are much more dependent on wind limiting depth separating deep water in St. conditions than previously, with upwelling of Georges Bay from that of the Strait. A volume deep water or piling up of surface water equal to the upper 25 m of St. Georges Bay would occurring near the Causeway depending on wind have passed through the Strait in about 60 d. direction. Thus, in pre-Causeway days the source of CIRCULATION waters in St. Georges Bay appears to have been from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and in Chedabucto Fothergill (1954) concluded that at the Bay much of the surface layer, at least, may site of the Causeway the residual flow was have been supplied from the Gulf directly southward. Based on water level differences at through Canso Strait. Since 1955 source waters Havre Boucher and Arichat, he concluded that net for each of the Bays must come from the velocity for September 1952 was 0.35 m/s. In contiguous areas. For St. Georges Bay, there is September 1953 the residual was computed to be no evidence to suggest that flushing time has 0.60 m/s. Residual currents determined by appreciably changed. Even though the "drain" n+loo,-nill at the 24-h anchor stations showed a through Canso Strait has been plugged, the new southward motion at most stations and depths in circulation pattern, combined with possibly the Strait. There was some evidence of a increased tidal currents at the mouth of the northward flowing current of deep waters in the Bay, may have resulted in a quite similar southern part of the Strait. Plausibly the area residence time for St. Georges Bay water. of vigorous mixing in the central Strait was bei fed previously by deep water from Likely the flushing time in Chedabucto Bay Bay and surface water from St. has been increased, since tidal currents have Bay. However, this was not clearly been diminished and residual flow through the from the data. Currents have been Strait reduced to zero. -18- LARGE-SCALE AND LONG TIME PERIOD FLUCTUATIONS the character of this pattern must reflect to an important extent fresh water discharged from the rivers. Sutcl iffe et al. (1976) demonstrated In a previous section it was pointed out that the effects of the St. Lawrence River that fluctuations in mean sea level on a discharge can be traced by correlation analysis year-to-year basis are comparable to the with sea temperatures and found to propagate difference in mean level between St. Georges Bay from the Gulf of St. Lawrence onto the Scotian and Chedabucto Bay as computed by Fothergill SheIf and through the Gu If of Ma i ne at known (1954). Some of these changes may be brought ocean drift speeds. Plots of salinity-time about by strictly local conditions, such as curves, extracted from Sutcliffe et al. (1976), changes in wind conditions, while others may be show a systematic progression of the salinity due to broad-scale changes in atmospheric minimum through the Gulf of St. Lawrence and circulation and pressure patterns. onto the Scotian Shelf (Fig. 19). Lacking significant freshwater discharge into St. It is useful to see the Canso Strait region Georges Bay-Chedabucto Bay, the principal related to the larger scale of the Canadian salinity control in the region must arise from Atlantic area. For residual circulation Canso outside the local area. is downstream from the freshwater source of the St. Lawrence River and other rivers discharging Although there are no long-term temperature into the Gulf of St. Lawrence from the Province or salinity records available for the Canso of Quebec (Fi g. 13). Still fa rther "upst ream" Strait region, almost certainly the region would fresh water from Hudson Bay enters and have been influenced by these large space and influences the coastal circulation system. long time-scale processes, with a magnitude Thus, for the gross salinity features of the comparable to other areas along the Canadian Canso region, the way these larger systems Atlantic coast. Thus, for example, trends in fluctuate is important since there is little temperature for the Canso area would have had to local freshwater 9ischarge. be in the opposite direction to those of the surrounding area or else much greater than 2°C Examining year-to-year variations in air or in magnitude before one could discern with water temperatures, one finds that they are confidence that local man-made activities were correlated over relatively wide geographic the causative agent. areas. For example, the relatively close correlation between the 3-yr running means of the annual averages of air temperature for SOME COMPARISONS OF TRANSPORT FIGURES Ottawa, Fredericton, Eastport, and Sable Island is readily apparent (Fig. 14). Similarly, the correlation between air and water temperatures For an appreciation about how extensive the is generally good when running means over changes brought about by the Causeway have been, several years are used (Fig. 15). A number of it is interesting to compare residual flow investigators have studied these large-scale through Canso Strait prior to 1955 with variations, Rodewald (1972) has studied decadal transports in some ~t~er areas. Fothergill's changes from 1951-60 to 1961-70 for the North figure of 4.25 x 10 m /s will be taken Atlantic and has shown the geographic scale and as the net transport through Canso Strait. , and magnitude of these changes (Fig. 16 and 17). Detailed examination of these changes for one It is impossible to accurately quantify the site (Boothbay Harbour, Me., Fig. 18), shows transport within the clockwise gyre of St. that mean annual temperature decreased by 1.43°C Georges Bay as identified by Petrie and over the decade. Maximum changes took place in Drinkwater (1977a, b) since the sites are too winter months with a decrease of 2.03°C widely separated. However, if one assumes that occurring in February. the gyre had a radius of 12 km, extended to 20 m depth, and had a mean velocity of 0.02 mis, it That these temperature variations correlate would produce a transport of 4.8 x 103m 3/s. over wide areas suggests that the changes may be Thus, it appears plausible that the transports induced by large-scale weather patterns, but how involved in this gyre are comparable to the does one make the right connections? Basically, previous residual flow through Canso Strait. these large-scale systems must control wind patterns, air temperatures, heat budget and Lauzier (1965) reported on surface residual precipitation. Thus, for any given location one currents in Northumberland Strait as determined would expect the variation to be determined both from drift bottles (Fig. 20). In general, he by direct action and by indirect routes. found there was a drift from west to east in the Sutcl iffe et al . (1976) have examined this Strait with speeds varying from about 0.03 to question in some detail. For example, their 0.08 m/s. Most bottles drifted at a speed of correlations between sets of air and sea surface about 0.04 m/s. Assuming these values could be temperatures for the ~ame month or within a few applied throughout the cross-section between months, were seldom very high. This suggests Cape Tormentine, N.B. and ~03den, P.LI., a mean that air temperatures alone cannot account for transport of about 11 x 10 m /s would sea temperature variability. It should be noted exist'3 ~inimum and max~m~m transports would be that the whole Atlantic region can be connected 8 x 10 m /s and 22 x 10 m Is. by the circulation pattern (Fig. 13) and that -19- Table 1. Inflow, outflow and net volume transport through Cabot Strait (from E1 Sabh 1977) •

Velocity adj ust , for zero t~ean Geostrophic transport (103m3/ s) salt salinities No. of transport of sections ~10nth sections Outflow Inflow Net (cm/s) (0/00)

January (1960-74) 5 -678.9 666.0 -12.9 +3.02 33.76 February (1956-73) 5 -362.7 363.6 -00.1 +0.03 33.72 February 1973 14 -676.6 672.8 -03.8 +0.01 33.57 Apri1 (1954-74) 5 -290.7 281.4 -09.3 +0.58 33.75 June (1957-66) 5 -215.2 199.3 -15.9 +0.46 33.71 June 1962 6 -386.5 367.4 -19.1 +0.62 33.79 July (1954-69) 6 -340.2 328.9 -11. 3 +0.08 33.71 August (1950-69) 6 -678.2 661.4 -16.8 +2.35 33.62 August 1966 6 -744.0 719.1 -24.9 +1.80 33.64 November (1950-69) 12 -434.9 414.4 -20.5 +0.44 33.70 Weighted mean 70 -504.6 491. 5 -13.1 33.68

Table 2. Some transport figures for comparison to residual flow through Canso Strait prior to 1955.

Transport in thousands of cubic metres per second Item Mean Fluctuation

Residual flow through Canso Strait, pre 1955 4.26 Gyre St. Georges Bay 4.8 Northumberland Strait 11 14 Monthly mean freshwater inflow to Gul f of St. l.awence 19 17 Annual mean freshwater inflow to Gulf of St. Lawrence 19 7 Mean monthly flow seaward, Cabot Strait 505 530 Mean monthly flow of Scotian current 250 200 -20- Total discharge of fresh water into the come entirely from the Scotian Shelf, must have, Gulf of St. Lawrence calculated by E1Sabh in pre-Causeway days, been supplied in (1977) on a monthly and annual basis for the significant proportions from St. Georges Bay. period 1950-70 showed a~~arly mean over the 20-yr period of 19 x 10~ Is. Mean month~ Beyond St. Georges Bay and Chedabucto Bay, values varied from a minimum of 14 x 101m Is in there is no obvious basis for suggesting that February to a maximum of 31 x 10Jm3/ s in May. measurable changes have occurred. Fluctuations Year-to-year fluctuations in the3m5an annual in water levels, currents, temperature, and discharge.were as high as 7 x 10 m Is (Fig. 21). salinity arising from large-scale processes appear to be much larger than anything that Transports in Cabot Strait between Cape could reasonably be attributed to the closure of Breton and Newfoundland have been computed from Canso Strait. current measurements (Trites 1972) and from geostrophic transports adjusted for zero salt transport (El Sabh 1977). Direct current REFERENCES measurements taken for a I-mo period (August 19~6j yielded a seaward transport of 750 x 10 m Is. Geostrophic transports were Anon. 1955. Tidal changes within Strait of computed for 70 section occupations (Table 1). Canso region. Tides and water levels Total me~n out~ard transport.decreases from section, Dept. Energy, Mines &Resources, 680 x 10 m3/s 1n ~anuary to 1tS lowest Ottawa. value of 215 x 10 m3/s in June and increases agai n to a maximum of 745 x 1Q3m3/s in 1974. Monthly and yearly mean water August. An averag~ §f all sections yielded a levels. Vol. 2 Tidal. Dept. Environ., value of 505 x 10 m Is. Thus, the mean and the Ottawa, Canada. seasonal variation are more than two orders of magnitude higher than the computed transport El Sabh, M. 1. 1977. Oceanographi c features, through Canso Strait. In comparison the ratio currents, and transport in Cabot Strait. of the cross-section of Cabot Strait between J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34: 516-528. Cape North, N.S. and Port aux Basques, Nfld. to Canso Strait at its constriction point is 145. Fothergill, N. O. 1954. Tidal circulation in the Strait of Canso. In Report of tidal Transports down the Nova Scotian coast com­ and current survey, Canadian Hydrographic puted by Sutcliffe et al. (1976) for the Halifax Service (unpubl , MS), 17 p, Section show a seasonal var~a~ion from a minimum in summer of about 100 m Is to a maximum of Lauzier, L. M. 1965. Drift bottle observations approximately 300 x 103x m310Is in The in Northumberland Strait, Gulf of St. yearly mean was about 250 x 103N§vember. m Is. For easy Lawrence. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 22: comparison these foregoing transport figures 353-368. have been summarized in Table 2. The fact that seasonal fluctuations of transport in larger 1972. Climatic change in the marine systems such as the Gulf of St. Lawrence or the subarctic. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. 10: Scotian Shelf are typically several orders of 297-307. magnitude larger than the former flow through Canso Strait suggests that measurable impact has Lawrence, D. J. 1972. Oceanographic and water been largely confined to more localized areas quality parameters in the Strait of Canso contiguous with the Strait. 1968-1970. Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Data Ser. B1-D-72-10. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Lawrence, D. J., L. A. Foster, and R. H. Loucks. 1973. Statistics of currents for navigation and dispersion in Canso Strait Construction of the Canso Causeway produced and Come-by-Chance Bay. Bedford Institute dramatic changes in the physical oceanographic of Oceanography, Rep. Ser. BI-R-73-6, 10 p. features within Canso Strait. Beyond the Strait the picture is not so clear, since the available MacGregor, D. G. 1953. Water conditions in the data base is fragmentary and the magnitude of Strait of Canso. Unpubl. MS, Atlantic the changes diminished in comparison with the Oceanographic Group, Fish. Res. Board Can., Strait itself. 15 p. While there is no evidence that measurable Petrie, B., and K. Drinkwater. 1977a. Physical changes in temperature and salinity have oceanographic measurements in St. Georges occurred in St. Georges Bay or Chedabucto Bay as Bay, Nova Scotia. Bedford Institute of a whole, it seems highly likely that residual Oceanography, Rep. Ser. BI-R-77-5, 78 p. circulation patterns have been appreciably altered. Tidal currents should have changed 1977b. The physical oceanography of measurably as well, although the magnitude St. Georges Bay, 1975. Bedford Institute presumably would not have been large. Surface of Oceanography, Rep. Ser. BI-R-77-IN layer water in Chedabucto Bay, which now must PRESS, 86 p. -21- Rodewald, M. 1972. Temperature conditions in the north and northwest Atlantic during the decade 1969-70. Int . Conm, Northw. At 1. Fish. Spec. Publ. 8: 9-33. Sutcliffe, W. H., Jr., R. H. Loucks, and K. F. Drinkwater. 1976. Coastal circulation and physical oceanography of the Scotian Shelf and the Gulf of Maine.· J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33: 98-115. Trites, R. W. 1972. The Gulf of St. Lawrence from a pollution viewpoint. p. 59-72 In Marine pollution and sea life. FAO 1972: 59-72.

Vilks, G., C. 1. Schafer, and D. A. Walker. 1975. The influence of a causeway on oceanography and foraminifera in the Strait of Canso, Nova Scotia. Can. J. Earth Sci. 12: 2086-2102. -22-

( Cape Breton 1,1,n'

Nova Scotia

AI/anlie Ocean Cape Breton Island

Fig. 1. Place name map.

Nova Scotia 1.7 / "v.,..-}\...-- .--/ 20 Fms. Charlottetown tv·.- ,/' G)( .» 20 FIl'l$, r..... • \.. ./ 16 j\ IV·' / '-/ ,.-. ....\/ / Chedobucfo Boy . \/ <; ......

Fig. 3. Chart of the Strait of Canso showing stations (1-7) occupied during 1952, 1955, 1956 and 1959 surveys.

12

Fig. 2. Mean annual water level for Halifax, N.S. and Charlottetown, P.E.I. 1940-65. -23-

0 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 A Temperature °C e'" 50 A Temperature °c ~ '" ~ :::;;'" Q. 0 Cl'" Q. ) 0 Cl'" /28 28.5 II ~17/' 10 10 ____28 28.5 '/ ~ 20 ~ 29 20 / 29.5 /' ~~)O 30 30 40 40 50 B Sa linity %0 50 B Salin ity %0

Fig. 4. Distribution of temperature °c (A) and Fig. 5. Distribution of temperature °c (A) and salinity 0/00 (B) in the Strait of Canso, May 11 salinity 0/00 (B) in the Strait of Canso, August (20:40 G.M.T.) to May 12 (02:50 G.M.T.), 1952 22 (11:56 to 15:03 G.M.T.), 1952 (from MacGregor (from MacGregor 1953). 1953) . -24- Station 6 3 2 o 7 6 5 4 3 2 I o 7

10 10 >19 20 20

30

40

e'" 50 A Q) ::IE

.<: ~ O"r---.----.-....-...... :~._--___r--___,_---,__ ~O...... ,,....,..--....---r...... --....--...,...---..----r­ Q

10 -31~ 10 <30 20 20 ~o- 30 ~ 30.5- ~31.5 _____

50 B 50 B Salinity "kG

Fig. 6. Distribution of temperature .~ (A) and Fig. 7. Distribution of temperature DC (A) and salinity 0/00 (B) August 22, 1~59, in the Strait salinity 0/00 (B) October 6, 1959, in the Strait of Canso (same stations as shown in Fig. 3). of Canso (same stations as shown in Fig. 3).

.1147 8.G. ~BUI'lloll GYPSUIII, Loading Ttflllinlli N.S.P. ~ Nova Scalia Pulp C.6.E.~ Coftudiu Guual [I.elfie HtcY~ Weller PlaM Gulf 011 ~R.f1n'f' ad Ocun T.rlllinal • ~OctGn9rllphle $Iollau

Fig. 8. Location of oceanographic stations visited between May and August 1973. Numbers designate localities revisited (from Vilks et al. 1975). -25-

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 .. ST.G£ORG£S BAY 0£0A8UCTO BAY 1001 26 JOIO I()()g 10ill 102.1 1025 -2- -v-!- ~2 -2~

10 ~, ~ 1 •

CANSOI CAlJS{WAY 2 , 60 TEMPERATURE (·C) 1-3 IIAY 73 KIl..OMETRES

.. ST.G£ORGES BAY CHED4BUCTO BAY 1001 KJX /OK} 1006 KJ23

...... _... 111 ~ .~::::::::::: '" . -.. . 10 - ·->0------30 ->0-

~,,------=

CANSO/ • CAUS£WAY 2 , 60 SALINITY (%.) 1-3 MAY 73 KILOMETRES

Fig. 9a. Temperature and salinity recorded along the axis of the Strait of Canso during May 1-3, 1973. The large numbers designate localities revisited between May and August (see Fig. 3-8) (from Vilks et al. 1975).

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 .. ST.OI:MGUlAv-- 10 • :~~:~'II . ~.~~

2 • 60 TElIP£RATURE IOC) 13-IilAUGn KI.OM£TMS

.. ST. G[QRG[S_ BAY /204 O£DA8UCTOBAY 1212 1219 1220 12Z! ...... •...... ••....•...,... . . 10 • . ; . -" . '.:~---->O- _

'ol 60

Fig. 9b. Temperature and salinity recorded during Aug. 13-15, 1973 (from Vilks et al. 1975). -26- St Georges Bay St Georg es Bay Mean Currents June a July Mean Currents July a August -1974 1975 ------1974 1975----- 8m 20 m 8m ~ 20m

13~

.. ':: \ \ .... \ r ~~~~~ J

5cm/sec- 5 em-/ sec 1ntegra ted Integrated 30 m 30 m Circulation Circulation . .~ ·····~/\'

).·A,.' ····,..... _.~~ .. 1~/ '~-.

Fig. 10. Nai n currents in St. Georges Bay, June Fig. 11. Hean currents in St. Georges Bay, July and July 1974 and 1975 (from Petrie and and August 1974 and 1975 (from Petrie and Drinkwater 1977b). Drinkwater 1977b). Sf Georges Bay Mean Currents August a October -1974 1975----- 8m 20 m

5 em / sec Inlegrated Circulalion

Fig. 12. Hean currents in St. Georges Bay, August and October 1974 and 1975 (from Petrie and D'ri.nkwat e r 1977b). -27-

60'

55' se-

50' 50'

45'

SLOPE WATER REGION ATLANTIC.. OCEAN STREAM

70' 65' 50'

Fig. 13. Northwestern Atlantic coast showing general circulation patterns (from Sutcliffe et a l , 1976).

Fig. 14. Plots of the 3-yr equally weighted Fig. 15. Surface water temperatures at St. means of the annual averages of air temperature Andrews, N.B., air temperatures at Sable Island at Eastport, Me., Fredericton, N.B., Ottawa, and Halifax, N.S. Ten year moving averages of Onto and Sable Island, N.S. (from Sutcliffe et annual means credited to the last year of the al. 1976). period (from Lauzier 1972). -28-

Fig. 17. Change of the decada1 mean sea temperature for the Maritime winter (Dec.-Mar.) from 1951-60 to 1961-70. Polar part: change of decada1 mean air temperatures for the same winter months (from Rodewald 1972).

+3.6 _.\ / <, +3.2 . BOOTHBAY HARBOR, MAINE . +2 8

+ 2.10 + 2.0 .,,"""'~ L1'~ + 1.6 ..,,,.'\ <, '\ \ST 0951-60>i' . Fig. 16. (Above) Change of the decada1 mean sea +1.2 temperatures from 1951-60 to 1961-70 for the winter season relative to the change for the +0.8 ,,:,.~~ summer season. +0.4 ANNUAL' EAN -1-'1/''''' NORMAL 0 (Pe1ow) Change of the decada1 mean sea Of------:lo""" (1906-45) temperatures for the Maritime summer - 0.4 (July-Sept.) from 1951-60 to 1961-70 (from Rodewa 1d 1972). -0.8 -1.2

-16

I I JAN MAR MAY JUL SEP NOV • JAN

Fig. 18. Deviation of 1951-60 and 1961-70 decada1 monthly and annual means of sea temperature from normal for Boothbay Harbour, Maine, USA (from Rodewald 1972). -29-

30r GAA~ RIVIERE,QUE. SURFACE 29 1941-44,1965-70 28

27 26 v NORTH r.uSTICO,PE.1. " SURFACE 30 1945-1949 29

28

27

30 CHET1CAMP, N,S SURFACE 29 1947 ~ 28 ~ ~ 27

26 >- Fig. 20. The inferred non-tidal drift in f- 32 CABOT STRAIT SOUTH STATIONS Northumberland Strait (from Lauzier 1965). Z 25m

..J 1950 * 1912 « " BROKEN DATA

29

~ 32r HALIFAX STATIONS I 8. 2 20m 1938 - 1972 " BROKEN DATA 30 1

PRINCE 5,OFF S1.ANDREWS,N.B 25m u 32 1950- 1971 '" "f '" 26 3' ""E PORTLAND LIGHTSHIP, MAINE "'0 ( 1950 -1970) 46m 32 "[ 1956 -1970 24 w " 19 BOSTON LIGHTSHIP, MASS. 0:: 30m [; "r « 22 / ¥ V 32 [ 1956 1970 I [/ 31 u Cf) fj Iii Iii i i \ iii IIII i II i II !! I r::: I~ J F Pot AM J J AS 0 NO J F M AM JJ A SON OJ 0 1< MONTHS 20 1/17 IT/ I/f/ 0:: L: / VV w f;: / > 1/1/ 7 [7 / 0:: 18 f;:/ 1/1/ b' vV [7 1/1/ 1/ I/V // I/ 1/1/ ...J t >" V- 1/ 1/1// « /V / 1/V 1/ / f- 16 Fig. 19. Seasonal salinity curves at several 0 V 1/1/1/1/ 1/ 1/ locations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the f- 1/1/1/1/ V 1/ tt1/ 1/1/ Scotian Shelf and in the Gulf of Maine (from I/l/1/ 1/1/ 1/ 1/1/ V 1/1/ 1/1/ 1/ Sutcliffe et al. 1976). 14 j/I/V t-t. 1/ 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

Fig. 21. Mean annual variations of the total r~ver discharge into the Gulf of St. Lawrence (from El Sabh 1977). -30-

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND FISHERIES OF THE ST. GEORGES BAY-CHEDABUCTO BAY-CANSO STRAIT REGION

by

M. J. Dadswe l l

Fisheries and Environmental Sciences Fisheries and Oceans Canada Biological Station St. Andrews, New Brunswick EOG 2XO -31- I NTRODUCTI ON

The bibliography is an attempt to gather together the literature dealing with the environment, fisheries, and socio-economic situation in the Canso Strait region prior to and following completion of the Causeway. As usual, when dealing with environmental impact problems, the amount of literature available for the 'before' period is scanty and not directly pertinent to the questions being asked. Unfortunately, for the fisheries problem, there is little available literature dealing with the Canso area for the 'after' period either. This bibliography follows two previous ones: one complied by Hughson (1973) dealing mainly with migratory hirds in the area and the second, by Palegato (1975) dealing more with environment, pollution and socio-economics. I have leaned heavily on annotations by Palegato in the bibliography, and I thank him for allowing me to do so. The bibliography is divided into topic sections with little attempt to cross-reference, although many of the papers do not fit easily in anyone section. I wish to thank Brenda f'lcCullough, Esther Lord, Joyce Taylor and Nancy Armstrong for their help in assembling this contribution. -32- FISHERIES, GENERAL Kohler, A. C. 1968. Fish stocks of the Nova Scotia Banks and Gulf of St. Lawrence. Allen, K. R., and J. K. Lindsey. 1967. Fish. Res. Board Can. Tech. Rep. 80, 25 p. Commercial catches of Atlantic salmon in the Maritimes area, 1949-1965. Fish. Res. Summary of groundfish stocks by species on Board Can. Tech. Rep. 29, 143 p. the Shelf. Summary of salmon landings in Maritimes. Leggett, W. C. 1977. The ecology of fish migrations. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 8: Anon. 1975. Fish and wildlife resources: 285-308. Strait of Canso Natural environmental inventory. Maritime Resource Management Discusses genetic, environmental and Service, Council of Maritime Premiers, physiological basis of fish migration, 18 p. primarily anadromous species. Good reference for basic socio-economic Leim, A. H., and W. B. Scott. 1966. Fishes of aspects of the Canso area fishery. the Atlantic coast of Canada. Bull. Fish. Separates inshore, offshore landings by Res. Board Can. 155, 485 p. species for 1961 and 1973. Porter, J. B. 1938. Notes on the salmonidae of Cornish, G. A. 1907. Report on the marine eastern Guysborough Co., N.S. Res. Dev. polyzoa of Canso, N.S. Contrib. Can. Br. MS Rep. 38-2. Bio1., Sess. Pap. 224: 75-80. Ricker, W. E. 1975. Computation and interpre­ This paper describes the higher inverte­ tation of biological statistics of fish brates of the area. It refers to the town populations. Bull. Fish. Res. Board Can. of Canso, Guysborough County. 191, 382 p. 1907. Notes on the fishes of Canso. Ri ley, D. 1973. "Stream Survey". Federal Contrib. Can. Biol., Sess. Pap. 22A: 81-90. Fisheries Service, Ottawa, Canada. The report describes and lists fishes of This report is a survey of streams in the the area. It refers to the area around the province and includes the Strait of Canso town of Canso, Guysborough County. Lists area. species caught and some aspects of their fishery. Shields, W. D., and J. A. Veinot. 1969. Strait of Canso fish farm feasibility study. ARDA Dalziel, J. A. 1970. Oil pollution and the Project No. 22052. N.S. Dept. F'ish , , N.S. fishing industry in Chedabucto Bay. Res. Found., Halifax. Unpubl. MS, Dept. Fish. Forest., Halifax, N.S. Not seen. May be pertinent to any lobster hatchery discussions (i.e. sites, etc.). Effects of tanker "ARROW" grounding and other possible spil~ fishing equipment Sutcliffe, W. H., Jr., K. Dr i nkwater , and B. S. and catches. Muir. 1977. Correlations of fish catch and environmental factors in the Gulf of Dickie, L. M., and J. C. Medcof. 1963. Causes ~1aine. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34: 19-30. of mass mortalities of scallops (Placopecten magellanicus) in the south­ Paper demonstrates correlations with lag western Gulf of St. Lawrence. J. Fish. periods to long-term climatic changes Res. Board Can. 20: 451-482. primarily temperature. Documents mass mortalities in Gulf. Seven Templeman, W., and A. M. Fleming. 1953. Long­ instances known since 1927. Authors term changes in hydrographic conditions and believe directly attributable to rapid corresponding changes in the abundance of temperature changes in shallow water. marine animals , Int. Conm. Northw. Atl , Fish. Ann. Proc. 1952-53: 79-86. Dow, R. L. 1977. Effects of climatic cycles on the relative abundance and availability of Similar to Sutcliffe et al. (1977), concen­ corrrnercial marine and estuarine species~ trates more on Gulf of St. Lawrence and J. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer 37(3): 274-280. Newfoundland. Summary of temperature fluctuations between 1950 and 1977 and its effect on commercial landings of inshore marine species in Maine. Coldwater species negatively correlated to temperature rise and decline, warmwater species, opposite relationship. -33- FISHERIES, ALGAE Robinson, C. B. 1907. The seaweeds of Canso. Contrib. Can. Biol. 1902-1905, Sess. Pap. 22A: 71-74. Bell, H. P., and C. MacFarlane. 1933. The marine algae of the maritime provinces of These are the seaweeds of the harbour of Canada. I. List of species with their the town of Canso in 1902. distribution and prevalence. Can. J. Res. 9: 265-279. Sharpe, G. 1970. Observations of macro-algae populations in the oil polluted shores of Craigie, J. S., and J. Mclachlan. 1970. Obser­ Chedabucto Bay. Unpubl. Rep. Nova Scotia vations on the littoral algae of Chedabucto Dept. Fish., Halifax, 3 p• following the ARROW Oil Spill. Atl. Reg. Lab., Nat. Res-:-COUnc., Hal i f ax, ARL-8, NRC#11489, Tech. Rep. 8, 8 p. FISHERIES, GROUNDFISH

MacFarlane, C. 1. 1966. Subtidal seaweed investigation (Havre Boucher, Tracadie). Cornish, G. A. 1907. Notes on the fishes of Nova Scotia Res. Found., unpubl. MS. Canso. Contrib. Can. Biol. Sess . Pap. 22A: 81-90. Investigation of Chondrus beds in lower St. Georges Bay. The report describes and lists the fish of the area. It refers to the area at the 1966. Subl ittoral surveying for town of Canso, Guysborough County. Some commercial seaweeds in the Northumberland good summaries of groundfish captures in Strait. Proc. 5th International Seaweed the area at the time. Symposium, Pergamon Press, Oxford and New York, p. 169-176. Huntsman, A. G. 1918. The effect of the tide on the distribution of the fishes of the MacKay, A. H. 1907. The diatomacea of Canso Canadian Atlantic coast. Trans. Roy. Soc. Harbour, Nova Scotia. Contrib. Can. Biol. Can., Ser. 3, 12(4): 61-67. 1902-1905, Sess. Pap. 22A: 55-58. Kohler, A. C. 1968. Fish stocks of the Nova Background data on conditions 70 yr ago. Scotia Banks and Gulf of St. Lawrence. Survey may be worth repeating to see if any Fish. Res. Board Can. Tech. Rep. 80, 25 p. changes have occurred. Diatoms taken in town of Canso Harbour. Description of where each species is captured commercially, Gulf of St. Lawrence Mann, K. H. 1972. The ecological energetics of to Bay of Fundy. Distribution maps very the seaweed zone in a marine bay on the useful. Atlantic coast of Canada. II. Productivity of the seaweeds. Mar. Biol. 14: 199-209. 1971. Tagging of white hake Urophysi s tenui s Mitchi 11 in the southern Gulf of St. McLachlan, J., and T. Edelstein. 1970-71. Lawrence. Int. Comm. Northw. Atl. Fish. Investigations of the marine algae of Nova Bull. 8: 21-25. Scotia. IX. A preliminary survey of the flora of the Bras d'Or Lake, Cape Breton Martin, W. R., and F. D. McCracken. 1950. Island. Proc. N.S. Inst. Sci. 27: 11-22. Movements of halibut on the Canadian Atlantic coast. Fish. Res. Board Can., Moseley, C. M., and C. 1. MacFarlane. 1969. Prog. Rep. Atl. Coast Stations No. 50, Note Sublittoral seaweed investigation in 114: 3-5. Northumberland Strait and George Bay 1967-68. Unpubl. MS, Nova Scotia Res. Results of halibut tagging around Anticosti Found., Seaweeds Div., Halifax. Island and southwest Nova Scotia indicate separate populations on the shelf and in They concluded the Bay could support only the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Results indicate moderate harvesting (about 25,000 lb/yr). some seasonal movement to shoal water from Describe sedimentation of algae beds in the greater depths. south of the Bay about the Strait. McCracken, F. D. 1957. Results of cod tagging Pringle, J. D. 1979. The Canso Causeway and off eastern Nova Scotia. Fish. Res. Board benthic alqae. In Canso Marine Environment Can. Prog. Rep. Atlantic Coast Stations 67: Workshop, Part 4:- Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. 6-13. Rep. 834. 1963. Migrations of haddock between Review of Chondrus landings in St. Georges the Gulf of St. Lawrence and offshore Nova Bay. Causeway does not seem to be a Scotia Banks. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 20: problem. Discusses findings of Moseley and 855-857. MacFarlane, 1969. -34­ Results of tagging in Northumberland Strait Brodie, P. F. 1973. Marine mammals of the and St. Georges Bay. Haddock recaptured Chedabucto and Georges Bay region. Mar. north around Cape Breton, then offshore on Ecol. Lab., Bedford Inst. Oceanogr., Nova Scotian shelf. Dartmouth, N.S. Library Nos. 46-29. McKenzie, R. A. 1956. Atlantic cod tagging off This report deals only with those marine the southern Canadian mainland. Bull. mammals which are either year-round resi­ Fish. Res. Board Can. 105, 93 p. dents of Chedabucto and St. Georges Bay or those which regularly spend some time in or Needl er, A. B. 1931. The haddock. Bull. Biol. near this region. None of the local stocks Board Can. 25, 28 p. currently provide a base for a commercial fishery, however, there is potential. The Summary of the life history of haddock as importance of marine mammals in this area known at that time, growth, feeding, is more of an indicator, and significant reproduction, migrations, fishery. consumer of marine production. Destruction of fishing gear and the role as a parasite Needler, A. W. H. 1930. The migrations of had­ vector is of considerable economic dock and the inter-relationships of haddock importance. This study also describes the populations in North American waters. marine mammals in Cape Breton, none of Contrib. Can. Biol. Fish. 6(10): 241-313. which is stock for commercial fishing. They are important as indicators of This paper summarizes the results of ecosystems and as a potential tourist haddock tagging experiments. It gives attraction. details about the trap-net fishery for this species around Cape Breton Island and Mansfield, A. W. 1970. Field reports of seal indicates the northward coastal movement on investigations in Chedabucto Bay and at the east side of the Island in the spring Sable Island, Nova Scotia. Unpubl. Rep., in shallow water and its reverse in the Fish. Res. Board Can., St. Anne de fall in deeper water. Tagging experiment Bellevue, Que., 3 p. of the reverse to McCracken 1963. Similar results. Mansfield, A. W., and B. Beck. 1977. The grey seal in eastern Canada. Fish. Mar. Servo Pitt, T. K. 1963. Vertebral numbers of Tech. Rep. 704, 81 p. American plaice Hi 0 lossoides platessoides (Fabricius in the northwest Atlantic. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 20: FISHERIES, PELAGIC 1159-1181. Powles, P. M. 1965. Life history and ecology Allan, K. R., and J. K. Lindsey. 1967. of American plaice (Hippoglossoides Commercial catches of Atlantic salmon in platessoides F.) in the Magdalen Shallows. the Maritimes area, 1949-65. Fish. Res. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 22: 565-598. Board Can. Tech. Rep. 29, 143 p. Scott, J. S. 1971. Abundance of groundfishes Beckett, J. S. 1971. Interim report of herring on the Scotian Shelf. Fish. Res. Board tagging in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1970. Can. Tech. Rep. 260, 18 p. Int. Cornn, Northw. Atl. Fish., Res. Doc. 71/95, 4 p, Update of groundfish situation, similar to Kohler, 1968. Berenbein, D., and r. K. Sigaw. 1977 • On correlation between the water temperature 1975. Geographic variation in and the spawning times of Georges Bank incidence of trematode parasites of herring. Int. Conm, Northw. At l . Fish. American plaice (Hippoglossoides Res. Doc. 77/VI/42, 6 p. platessoides) in the northwest Atlantic. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32: 547-550. Cushi ng, D. H. 1971. Upwel I ing and the production of fish. Adv. Mar. Biol. 19: 1979. Groundfish landings and 255-334. movements related to the Strait of Canso area. In Canso Marine Environ. Workshop, 1975. Marine ecology and fisheries. Part 3,-rish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. Cambridge Univ. Press, London, 278 p. Day, L. R. 1957. Populations of herring in the FISHERIES, MAMMALS southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Bull. Fish. Res. Board Can. 111: 121-137. Boulva, J. 1973. The harbour seal, Phoca Some good data on statistics and biology of vitulina concolor, in eastern Canada. herring in the Gulf before Canso Strait Ph.D. Thesis, Dalhousie University, closure. Halifax, Nova Scotia, 152 p. -35- Garrett, C. J. R., and R. H. Loucks. 1976. Early life history data for Shippegan. Upwelling along the Yarmouth shore of Nova Fall migration studies. Based on work off Scotia. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33: east coast Cape Breton. Main mackerel 116-117. migration to north around the Sydney Bight. Goode, G. B., J. W. Co 11 ins, R. E. Earll, and A. fvlessieh, S. N. 1974. The structure of herring H. Clark. 1884. Materials for a history populations on the Atlantic coast of Cape of the mackerel fishery. Rep. U.S. Comma Breton Island, N.S. Fish. Res. Board Can. Fish. for 1881, App. B: 91-531. MS Rep. 1321, 24 p. Data on mackerel fishery in 1800's. Good Meristic and morphometric data indicate evidence that fish have always migrated herring from Chedabucto not related to Gulf around tip of Cape Breton. of St. Lawrence stocks. Post-closure. Graham, M. 1936. Investigations of the herring 1979. The decline of the herring of Passamaquoddy and adjacent regions. J. fishery in northern Northumberland Strait BioI. Board Can. 2: 95-140. and its possible causes. In Canso Marine Environ. Workshop, Part 3.--Fish. Mar. Hodder, V. M., and L. S. Parsons. 1971. Some Servo Tech. Rep. 834. biological features of southwest Newfoundland and northern Scotian Shelf Messieh, S. N., and A. C. Kohler. 1972. herring stocks. Into Comm. Northw. Atl . Distribution, relative abundance and growth Fish., Res. Bull. 8: 67-73. of larval herring Clupea harengus harengus L. in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Huntsman, A. G. 1939. Salmon for angling in Fish. Res. Board Can. Tech. Rep. 311, 31 p. the Margaree River. Bull. Fish. Res. Board Can. 57, 75 p, Messieh, S. N., and D. S. Moore. 1979. On the possible effect of the Canso Causeway on 1953. Movements and decline of large the herring fishery. In Canso Marine Quoddy herring. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. Environ. Workshop, Parr-3. Fish. Mar. 10: 1-50. Servo Tech. Rep. 834.

Iles, 1. D. 1975. The movement of seabed Herring landings have risen dramatically drifters and surface drift bottles from the since introduction of mobile fleet, many spawning area of the "Nova Scotia" herring tons landed from Chedabucto Bay. Summary stock and the herring larval transport­ of meristic data (Messieh 1974). Indicates retention hypothesis. ICES C.M.1975/C:37, later arrival on spawning grounds for 16 p. herring in Gulf may be related to cooling trend in weather after 1954. Lea, E. 1919. Age and growth of herring in Canadian waters. Can. Fish. Exp. Parsons, 1. R. 1976. The structure of 1ife in 1914-1915: 77-164. the sea. In The ecology af the seas. Edited by CUshing, D. H., and J. J. Walsh. Original work on some herring populations W. B. Saunders Co., Toronto, 467 p. including Isle Madame fish. Perley, M. H. 1852. Reports on the sea and Lett, P. F., and A. C. Kohler. 1976. river fisheries of New Brunswick. Recruitment: a problem of multispecies Fredericton, 294 p. interaction and environmental perturba­ tions, with special reference to Gulf of Porter, J. B. 1938. Notes on the salmonidae of St. Lawrence Atlantic herring (Clupea eastern Guysborough County, Nova Scotia. harengus harengus). J. Fish. Res. Board Fish. Serv, Dept. Fish. &Forest. of Canada Can. 33: 1353-1371. Resource Dev. Br. MS Rep. 38-2. Interaction of mackerel and" herring. Sameoto, D. D. 1971. The distribution of Mackerel abundance suppresses herring herring (Clupea harengus L.) larvae along stocks. the southern coast of Nova Scotia with some observations on the ecology of herring Marshall; T. L. 1979. Atlantic salmon and the larvae and the biomass of macrolooplankton Canso Strait, In Canso Marine Environ. on the Scotian Shelf. Fish. Res. Board Workshop, Part 39 Fisho Mar. Serv. Tech~ Can. Tech. Rep. 252, 72 p. Rep. 834. 1972. Distribution of herring (Clupea McCallum, C. M. 1933. The life history of the harengus) larvae along the southern coast mackerel, Scomber scombrus L. Preliminary of Nova Scotia with observations on their studies 1924-1925. BioI. Board Can. MS growth and condition factor. J. Fish. Res. Rep. 53, 26 p, Board Can. 29: 507-515. -36- Concentration of larval herring over Canso Discussion of fishery landings and gear. Bank in fall may be due to water currents. Biology and possible migrations for eastern Nova Scotia. 58 million lb of herring were Scattergood, L. W. 1948. A report on the landed in 1946. appearance of the fungus Ichthyosporidium hoferi in the herring of the northwestern Tibbo, S. N., and 1. R. Graham. 1963. Atlantic. U.S. Fish. vJildl. Serv., Spec. Biological changes in herring stocks Sci. Rep. 58, 40 p. following an epizootic. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 20: 435-439. Background to epizootic of herring in 1950's. Epizootic mortalities of herring during 1954, 1955 and 1956. Discussion of stock Sette, O. E., and A. W. H. Needler. 1934. changes since epizootic. Decline to 1/3 by Statistics of the mackerel fishery off the 1955, very large year-class 1958-59. Shift east coast of North America, 1804-1930. to fall spawning populations due to U.S. Bur. Fish. Invest. Rep. 19, 48 p, differential mortality. High cod growth rate from feeding on dying herring. Comparisons of catches and fishery 1804-1930. Discusses equipment, market and Tibbo, S. N., S. N. Messieh, and C. D. Burnett. price changes and their effect on the 1969. Catch statistics, length, and age mackerel stock. Condemns purse seining. composition of Gulf of St. Lawrence herring. Fish. Res. Board Can. Tech. Rep. Sindermann, C. J. 1956. Diseases of fishes of 139, 76 p, the western north Atlantic. IV. Fungus disease and resultant mortalities of Ware, D. M. 1977a. Spawning time and egg size herring in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in of Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus, in 1955. t1aine Dept. Sea Shore Fish. Res. relation to the plankton. J. Fish. Res. Bull. 25, 23 p, Board Can. 34: 2308-2315. 1958. An epizootic in Gulf of St. 1977b. The possible impact of the Lawrence fishes. Trans. 23rd North Amer. Canso Causeway on the migration of Atlantic Wildl. Conf.: 349-360. mac kere1 and herri ng. Canso Mari ne Environ. Workshop, Part 3. Fish. Mar. Summary of epizootic outbreak in Gulf of Servo Tech. Rep. 834. St. Lawrence herri ng. Peak mortalities occurred in 1954. Discussion of the time change in yearly arrivals of Northumberland Strait stocks of Sindermann, C. J., and L. W. Scattergood. 1954. herring and mackerel since Causeway Diseases of fishes of the western north construction; mean arrival time has been 17 Atlantic. II. Ichthyosporidium disease of days later since closure. The correlation the sea herring (Clupea harengus). Maine between swim speed and arrival time was Dept. Sea Shore Fish. Res. Bull. 19,40 p. significant considering the extra distance which had to be traversed. Description of Ichthyosporidium hoferi. Winters, G. H. 1976. Recruitment mechanisms of Stobo, W. 1., and J. J. Hunt. 1974. Mackerel southern Gulf of St. Lawrence Atlantic biology and history of the fishery in herring (Cljpea harengus). J. Fish. Res. Subarea 4. Int. Conm, Northw. Atl. Fish. Board Can. 3: 1751-1763. Res. Doc. 74/9, Ser. No. 3155, 14 p, Biology of Gulf of St. Lawrence-southern Length-weight, growth, reproductive data Newfoundland stock. for the offshore wintering mackerel populations on the Shelf. Winters, G. H., and V. M. Hodder. 1975. Analysis of the southern Gulf of St. St obo , W. 1., cJ. J. Hunt, and 1. D. Iles. 1973. Lawrence herring stock and implications A preliminary report on the herring fishery concerning its future management. Int. in ICNAF Subdivisions 4V and 4Wa. Int. Comm. Northw. Atl. Fish. Res. Bull. 11: Comm. Northw. Atl. Fish. Res. Doc. 73/94, 43-59. . 20 p. Fishery and statistics Chedabucto-Cape FISHERIES, SHELLFISH Breton purse seine fishery for herring.

Tibho, S. N. 1957. Contribution to the biology Aiken, D. E., and S. L. Waddy. 1976. of herring (Clupea harengus L.) on the Controll ing growth and reproduction in the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia. Bull. Fish. American lobster. Proc. 7th Ann. Meet. Res. Board Can. 111: 139-151. World Maricul. Soc.: 415-430. -37- Amaratunga, T., J. F. Caddy, and A. B. Stasko. Dadswell, M. J. 1979. A review of the decline 1976. Northumberland Strait Project: an in lobster (Homarus americanus) landings in interdisciplinary study of the declining Chedabucto Bay between 1956 and 1977 with shellfish resources. ICES Shellfish and an hypothesis for a possible effect by the Benthos Committee, C.M.1976/K: 26. Canso Causeway on the recruitment mechani srn of eastern Nova Scotia lobster stocks. Decline thought due to overfishing more Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. than any other factor. DeWolf, A. G. 1974. The lobster fishery of the Boudreault, F. R., J. N. Dupont, and C. Sylvain. Maritime provinces. Economic effects of 1977. Modeles lineaires de prediction des regul at ions. Fish , Res. Board Can. Bull. debarquements de homard aux Iles-de-la­ 187, 59 p. Madeleine (Golfe du Saint-Laurent). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34: 379-383. Effects of changing economic climate and fishery regulations on the lobster fishery. Bourne, N., and 1. W. Rowell. 1965a. Gulf of Good background data. St. Lawrence scallop explorations, 1963. Fish. Res. Board Can. MS Rep. (Biol.) 808, Douglis, M. B. 1946. Some evidence of a 25 p. dominance-subdominance relationship among lobster Homarus americanus. Anat. Rec. 96: 1965b. Gulf of St. Lawrence scallop 57. survey, 1954. Fish. Res. Board Can. MS Rep. (Biol.) 809, 33 p. Dominance of larger lobsters inhibits growth rates of smaller individuals and Dept. de Biologie, Univ. de Moncton. 1976. exposes them to predation. Biologie et productivite des populations de homards (Homarus americanus) dans le Dow, R. L. 1969. Cycl ic and geographic trends Detroit de Northumberland. Oct. 1974 ­ in seawater temperature and abundance of Mars 1976, 70 p. Ameri can lob ster . Sci ence 164: 1060-1063. Caddy, J. F., and R. A. Chandler. 1976. Comparison of climatic changes and lobster Historical statistics of landings of landings. 5-8 yr lag time between high inshore species in the maritime provinces temperatures and improved lobster fishing 1947-73. Fish. Mar. Servo Res. Dev. Tech. in north. Shows high temperature Rep. 639, 240 p, detrimental to southern U.S. fishery. Summary for Maritimes of all inshore 1977. Relationship of sea surface species except marine fish. Excellent temperature to American and European source of data. Many additional notes on lobster landings. J. Cons. Int. Explor Mer the reliability and accuracy of the landing 37: 186-191. data. DOI'I, R. L., F. W. Bell, and D. M. Harriman. cobb, D. A. 1972. Effects of suspended solids 1975. Bioeconomic relationships for the on larval survival of the eastern lobster, Maine lobster fishery with consideration of Homarus americanus. Applic. Mar. Tech.: alternative management schemes. NOAA Tech. 394-402. Rep. NMFS SSRF - 683, 44 p. Cole, G. H., R. L. Copp, and D. C. Cooper. Ennis, G. P. 1968. Young lobsters prefer rocky 1977. Estimation of lobster population bottom. Fish Res. Board Can. Biol. Sta, size at Millstone Point, Connecticut by St. John's Circ. 15: 27-29. mark-recapture techniques, 1975-1976. Proc. Nat. Shellfish Assoc. 67: 60-66. Flowers, J. ~1., and S. B. Saila. 1972. An analysis of temperature effects on the Cooper, R. A., R. A. Clifford, and C. D. Newell. inshore lobster fishery. J. Fish. Res. 1975. Seasonal abundance of the American Board Can. 29: i221-1225. lobster Homarus americanus in the Boothbay region of Maine. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. Similar to above. Lobsters move inshore in 104: 669-674. Connecticut and southern regions when average temperatures are lower. During Cooper, R. A., and J. R. Uzmann. 1977. Ecology periods of increased sea temperatures of juvenile and adult clawed lobsters, lobster production is increased in northern Homarus americanus, Homarus gammarus, and waters which in this paper is represented Nephrops norvegicus. ~ Workshop on by a mathematical model. lobster and rock lobster ecology and physiology. B.F. Phillips and J.S. Cobb Harding, G. C. H., P. G. Wells, and K. F. (eds.). CSIRO Div. Fish. Oceanogr. Circ. Drinkwater. 1978. The distribution and 7: 187-208. abundance of lobster larvae in St. Georges Bay, Nova Scotia, in 1975 and the hypothesized effect of the Canso Causeway -38- on the Chedabucto Bay lobster fishery. In Summary of how to keep lobster in best Canso Marine Environ. Workshop, Part 3. condition during shipment. Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. Paloheimo, J. E. 1963. Estimation of Hughes, J. T., and G. C. Matthiessen. 1962. catchabilities and population sizes of Observations on the biology of the American lobsters. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 20: lobster, Homarus americanus. Limnol. 59-88. Oceanogr. 7: 414-421. Popul ati on estimates, capture-recapture of Summary of growth and reproduction data for tagged animals. Catchability related to a 20-yr period in the Massachusetts lobster water temperature and time of year. hatchery. Robinson, D. G. 1977a. Size limit increase in Iles, T. D. 1975. An analysis of the decline lobster district 6B. Biological Station, in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence St. Andrews, MS Rep., 17 p. lobster landings to demonstrate differential area and time effects. ICES Good discussion of landings and the effects C.M.1975/K:55, 13 p. of post-regulation changes on them for all of Cape Breton. Links good fishery to the production of large year-classes. Compares Pictou Co., 1977b. Review of lobster ecology Antigonish Co. landings. Discusses down­ relevant to the district #8 size-limit stream effect on Antigonish. Reasons for increase recommendation. CAFSAC Working major decline since 1973 in Pictou area Paper 77/39, Nov. 1977,35 p, (author's cannot he defined. permission). Knight, A. P. 1917. Official report upon 1979. Consideration of the lobster lobster conservation in Canada. Suppl. recruitment overfishing hypothesis; with 51st Ann. Rep. Fish. Branch, Dept. Naval special reference to the Canso Causeway. Servo 1916-17, Sess. Paper 38C. Canso Marine Environ. Workshop, Part 3, Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. Details the need for length regulations, argues for one season for entire maritimes. Rutherford, J. B., D. G. Wilder, and H. C. Recommends closing hatcheries. Excellent Frick. 1967. An economic appraisal of the history of early lobster fishery in Canadian lobster fishery. Bull. Fish. Res. maritimes. Many good observations on Board Can. 157, 126 p, lobster biology. Concludes too much capital investment and 1918. Report upon lobster too many fishermen for a good economic investigations at Long Beach Pond, Nova retu rn , Scotia during the summer of 1915. Suppl. Ann. Rep. Fish. Branch, Dept. Naval Servo Saila, S. B., J. M. Flowers, and J. T. Hughes. 1917(2), 53-71. 1969. Fecundity of the American lobster Homarus americanus. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. Lobster hatchery operations. Recommends 98: 537-539. closure of hatcheries. Larval raising methods very primitive. Presents binomial equation for correlation between female lobster carapace length and Krouse, J. S. 1973. Maturity, sex ratio and total number of eggs produced during each size composition of the natural population reproductive period. of American lobster, Homarus americanus, along the Maine coast. U.S. Dept. Comm., Sameoto, D. D., and L. O. Jaroszynski. 1969. NOAA Fish. Bull. 71: 165-173. Otter surface sampler: a new neuston net. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 26: 2240-2244. Lund, W. A., and L. L. Stewart. 1970. Abundance and distribution of larval Sastry, A. N., and J. A. Pechenik. 1977. A lobsters, Homarus americanus off the coast review of ecology, physiology and behavior of southern New England. Proc. Nat. of lobster larvae (Homarus americanus and Shellfish. Assoc. 60: 40-49. ~. gammarus). ~ Workshop on lobster and rock lobster ecology and physiology. B.F. Larvae concentrated in nearshore stations. Phillips and J.S. Cobb (eds.) CSIRO Div. Fish. Oceanogr. Cire. 7: 159-173. Mauchline, J. 1977. Growth of shrimps, crabs and lobsters - an assessment. J. Cons. Good review article, based almost entirely Int. Explor. Mer 37: 162-169. on H. americanus. McLeese, D. W., and D. G. Wilder. 1964. Scarratt, D. J. 1964. Abundance and distri­ Lobster storage and shipment. Fish. Res. bution of lobster larvae (rlomarus Board Can. Bull. 147,69 p. americanus) in Northumberland Strait. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 21: 661-679. -39- Distribution and abundance of all Excellent ecology work on an underwater planktonic-stage lobster larvae in western plot using SCUBA. end of Northumberland Strait. Stage IV tend to be most common in middle, therefore Sutcliffe, W. H. 1973. Correlation between susceptible to transport. seasonal river discharge and local landings of American lobster (Homarus americanus) 1968. An artificial reef for and Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus lobsters, Homarus americanus. J. Fish. hippoglossus) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Res. Board Can. 25: 2683-2690. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 30: 856-859. 1973a. Abundance, survival and Another correlation between environmental vertical and diurnal distribution of factors and landings. Lag period is 6-9 yr lobster larvae in Northumberland Strait, depending on type of fishery. 1962-63 and their relationships with comnercial stocks. J. Fish. Res. Board Templeman, W. 1931. Preliminary contributions Can. 30: 1819-1824. to the life history of the lobster (Homarus americanus) in Canadian waters. Biol. Estimates of mortality and demonstration Board Can. Biol. Sta., St. Andrews , Orig. diurnal distribution of larvae. They MS 443, 96 p, concentrate in upper 1 m at most times. General discussion of lobster biology in 1973b. Lobster populations on a man­ Magdalen Is. and other Gulf of St. Lawrence made rocky reef. ICES Shellfish and 1oca1iti es . Benthos Committee Paper C.M.1973/K:47. 1935. Lobster tagging in the Gulf of Reef colonized in 3 yr, ~ 15 g/m2• St. Lawrence. J. Biol. Board Can. 1: Possibly attracted large lobsters from 269-278. nearby areas. No evidence of new settlement. Tagging in the Magdalen Islands. Migra­ tions similar to Wilder, short distance. 1973c. The effects of raking irish moss (Chondrus crispus) on lobsters in 1936. Local differences in the life Prince Edward Island. Helgolander wiss. history of the lobster (Homarus americanus) Meeresunters. 24: 415-424. on the coast of the maritime provinces of Canada. J. Bf ol . Board Can. 2: 41-88. Sherman, K., and R. D. Lewis. 1967. Seasonal occurrence of larval lobsters in coastal Data on growth and hatching in the waters of central Maine. Proc. Nat. maritimes. Lobster hatchery in Canso had She11 fish. As soc, 57: 27-30• the latest dates of hatching in the maritimes. Mature females are smaller in Squires, H. J. 1970. Lobster (Homarus the Gulf of St. Lawrence than elsewhere. americanus) fishery and ecology in Port au Very good discussion of lobster biology Port Bay, Newfoundland, 1960-65. Proc. throughout maritimes. Indicates warm water Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. 60: 22-39. from Gulf influenced lobster growth in Canso. Stallworthy, W. B. 1976. The advisability of an oyster hatchery on the Northumberland 1936. The influence of temperature, shore of New Brunswick. N.B. Dept. Fish., salinity, light, and food conditions on the Fredericton, N.B. survival and growth of the larvae of the lobster (Homarus americanus). J. BioI. Stasko, A. B. 1977. Possible causes for Board Can~1f:S5-497. decline of lobster landings in Northumberland Strait. Unpubl. MS, Physiological experiments to determine Biological Station, St. Andrews, 8 p. period of larval planktonic stage. Time period varies from 20-30 days to mid-stage Overfishing main cause of decline. IV in a temperature range of 10-20°C. Sedimentation and toxic chemicals may Better growth at salinities slightly less contribute. than normal sea water and with an abundance of food. 1979. Invertebrate fisheries in the Canso area, N.S. (anso Marine Environ. 1937. Habits and distribution of Workshop, Part 3. Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. larval lobsters (Homarus americanus). J. Rep. 834. BioI. Board Can. 3: 343-347. Stewart, L. L. 1972. The seasonal movements, Investigation on the diurnal distribution population dynamics, and ecology of of lobster larvae off the counties of lobsters, Homarus americanus, off Ram Pictou and Antigonish. Good, old data on Island, Conn. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Conn., relative abundance. Larvae on surface in 112 p, -40- top 1 m at most times. Contains only t~cNally, r~. A. 1976. A study of benthic available pre-Causeway lobster larvae data forar:linifera as environmental indicators for St. Georges Bay. with particular reference to species of the Northumberland Strait and Buctouche, N.B. Templeman, W., and S. N. Tibbo. 1945. Lobster M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. of Geology, Univ. of investigations in Newfoundland, 1938-41. New Brunswick, 101 p. Res. Bull. mv. Fish. Res. Nfld. 16, 98 p, \4eeks, L. J. 1954. Southwestern Cape Breton Thomas, J. C. 1973. An analysis of the Island, Nova Scotia. Geol. Surv. Can. Mem. commercial lobster, Hor:larus amer ic anus , 277, 112 p, fishery along the coast of Maine, August 1966 through December 1970. NOAA Tech. Geology of Inverness and Richmond Counties, Rep., NMFS, SSRF-667, 57 p, bedrock characteristics, mineralization, gravel deposits. Wagner, F. J. E. 1975. Mollusca of the Strait of Canso. Geological Survey of Canada, Pap. 75-23. GEOLOGY, POSTGLACIAL

\4ilder, D. G. 1953. The qrowth rate of the American lobster Homarus americanus. J. Bousfield, E. L., and ~1. L. H. Thornas • 1975. Fish. Res. Board Can. 10: 371-412. Postglacial changes in distribution of littoral marine invertebrates in the 1954. The lobster fishery of the Canadian Atlantic region. Proc. N.S. Inst. southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Fish. Res. Sci. 27: 47-60. Board Can. At 1. Bi 01. Stn. Gen. Ser. Circ. 24, 16 p. Zoogeographical and postglacial summary for the Atlantic region. Good reference for Summary data and trends, pre-Causeway. deglaciation, seawater temperatures in the past 15,000 years, emergence and 1960. Possible effects of submergence of the coastline and present Passamaquoddy tidal power structures on the species distributions. Canadian lobster industry. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 17: 553-563. Grant, D. R. 1970. Recent crustal submer qence of the Maritime Provinces, Canada. Can. J. Wright, R. R. 1907. The plankton of eastern Earth Sci. 7: 676-689. Nova Scotia water s , Contrib. Can. Biol. 1: 1-19. Exce 11ent reference for the movement of the earth's crust and its effects on the sea Discussion of phyto- and zooplankton in the 1eve1 in the maritimes. Submergence has waters of the town of Canso. No mention is been occurring durinq the last 5,000 yr. made of lobster larvae or zooplankton Submergence is at 30 em/century. Maritimes abundance. was a forebulge. Fundy depression accentuated by water mass in the Bay. GEOLOGY 1975. Recent coastal submer qence of the Maritime Provinces. Proc. N.S. Inst. Sci. 27, Supp l , 3: 83-102. Cranston, R. E., R. A. Fitzgerald, and G. V. Winters. 1974. Geochemical data from the Similar to above. Strait of Canso and Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. Can. Dept. Energy, Mines and Res., Hickox, C. F., Jr. 1962. Late Pleistocene ice Atl. Geosc. Center, Geol. Surv. Can. Data cap centered on Nova Scotia. Geol. Soc. Ser. KI-D-74-3, 56 p, Amer. Bull. 73: 505-509. Goldthwait, J. W. 1924. Physiography of Nova Reference with evidence for an ice cap Scotia. Geol. Surv. Can. Mem. 140, 179 p, centered on Nova Scotia after the main ice sheet retreated. Description of the geology, land forms, and postglacial physiography of Nova Scotia. Honeyman, Rev. D. 1890. Glacial geology of Cape Breton Island. Proc. N.S. Inst. Nat. Loring, D. H. 1970. Geological investigations Sci. Vol. VII (4) Art. 1: 337-344. of the oil pollution in Chedahucto Bay, N.S. Unpuhl. Rep ., Mar. Ecol. Lab., Evidence for radiating movement of ice Dartmouth. outward from the highlands of the island. Maclean, B., G. B. Fader, and L. H. King. Kranck, K. 1971. Geomorphic development and Surficial geology of Canso Bank and post-Pleistocene glaciation sea level adjacent areas. Can. Dept. Energy, t~ines changes, Northumberland Strait, Maritime and Re s , , Mar. Sci. Branch (in Provinces. Can. J. Earth Sci. 9: 835-844. preparation) • -41- Summary of postglacial conditions in oil spill in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. Northumberland Strait. Profiles of these beaches are compared with those surveyed on a high-energy beach on Mott, R. J., and V. K. Prest. 1967. Strati­ Crichton Island. Beaches affected by graphy and palynology of buried organic cleaning operations, since sediments deposits from Cape Breton Island, Nova removed from areas beyond the limit of Scotia. Can. J. Earth Sci. 4: 709-724. normal wave action have not been replaced. Excessive sediment removal can seriously Palynological time scale for deglaciation alter the equilibrium of a beach and this of Cape Breton. was demonstrated by a 20-m retreat of the beach crest at the eastern end of Indian Prest, V. K., and D. R. Grant. 1969. Retreat Cove. of the last ice sheet from the Maritime Provinces-Gulf of St. Lawrence region. Geol. Surv. Can. Pap. 69-33, 15 p, METEOROLOGY Summary of ice retreat in maritimes. Evidence for a separate ice sheet over the Allen, W. T. R. 1964. Break-up and freeze-up maritimes not part of Laurentian mass. dates in Canada. Met.-Branch D.O.T. Magdalens were ice free during classic CIR-4116. Wisconsin. Ice retreat was onto the various highlands. Environment Canada, Atmospheric Environment Service. 1963-71: Wind frequency analysis Prest, V. K. 1970. Quaternary geology of Canso, N.S. Rerun Project No. 10773 UTIL Canada. In R.~J.,J. Douglas (ed.), Geology 24. and economTc mineral s of Canada. 5th ed, Geol. Surv. Can. Econ. Rep. 1: 676-764. Wind conditions from station nearest to Strait. Conditions are unlikely to be Summary of postglacial history in eastern similar to St. Georges Bay due to stronger Canada. maritime influence at Canso. Environment Canada, Marine Environmental Data GEOMOR PHOLOGY Service, 1959. Data report, Canso Strait, 1952, 1955, 1956, 1959. 104 p.

Goldthwait, J. W. 1924. Physiography of Nova 1973. Waves recorded off Eddy Point, Scotia. Geol. Surv. Can. ~,1em. 140, 179 p, Nay 31, 1972 to February 15, 1973. 46 p. Description of the geology, land forms and 1974. Waves recorded off Parker postglacial physiography of Nova Scotia. Point, Nova Scotia, November 30, 1973 to December 10, 1974. 35 p. Owens, E. H. 1971. A reconnaissance of the coastline of Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. 1976. Waves recorded off Chedabucto Can. Environ. f\1ar. Sci. Br., Mar. Sci. Pap. Bay, Nova Scotia., Stn. 84, October 25, 4, 24 p, 1974 to February 4, 1976. 68 p, A map of the sediment types and shoreline 1976. Waves recorded off Mel ford for the coastline - a review of the Point, Nova Scotia, Stn. 85, December 10, geological and geomorphological history was 1974 to February 4, 1976. 57 p, made to assess the submerging coastline erosion patterns, the beach composition, O'Neill, A. D. J. 1979. Climate and ice in the some low energy beach environments in the Strait of Canso region. Canso Marine area; fine sediments are rare and the Environ. Workshop, Part 4. Fish. Mar. beaches are of coarse sand and gravel. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. Scope: Point Michaud to Canso. A review of the physiography (ice-laid tills) is Putnam, D. F. 1940. The cl imate of the included, the marine environment, tides, Maritime Provinces. Can. Geogr. J. 21: waves, and sediment are included along with 135-147. shorel ine features. Erosion level is low, many bars, tambalas, abundant sediment. Good overall description of the Maritimes with maps. Temperatures, frost-free days, Owens , E. H., and G. Drapeau. 1973. Changes III fog days, precipitation, etc. beach profiles at Chedabucto Bay following 1arge-scale sediment removal. Can. J. Earth Sci., Nat. Res. Counc . 10: 1226-1232. The effects of sediment removal on three beaches have been monitored during a l-yr period following attempts to clean up an -42- OCEANOGRAPHY, CURRENTS Report for use by those using the supertanker ports in these two locations. Currents are treated statistically and Bl ackford, B. L. 1966. A simple two­ analyzed to predict the width of a dimensional electrical analog model for pollutant plume at a time after discharge. wind-driven circulation in the Gulf of St. Mathematical models to predict extremes of Lawrence. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 23: current expected in summer. Determined 1411-1438. patterns of water movement and monitored waste control. Gives a good description of Bumpus, D. F., and L. H. Lauzier. 1965. the currents in Canso Strait and Chedabucto Surface circulation on the continental Bay and a "Deal Plot" of the current data shelf off eastern North America between (like a wind rose), also extreme "Handles" Newfoundland and Florida. Ser. Atlas Mar. waves (water moves in on one larger, out in Environ. Amer. Geogr. Soc. Fol i o, 7, 4 p., another, the surface stays the same). Data 8 pl., Appendix. presented in statistical formats. Most significant feature was presence of Good overall review of ocean currents for internal waves (15 knots, not predictable, Atlantic coast. Indicates counterclockwise related to weather). flow of Gulf of St. Lawrence and westerly flow of water along the Nova Scotia coast. Lawrence, D. J., and D. Greenberg. 1979. Data separated and summarized by month. Estimates of pre-causeway flow through the Strait of Canso. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. El-Sabh, M. I. 1969. Bibliography and some (in press). aspects of oceanography in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Mar. Sci. Cent. McGill Univ. MS Neu, H. A. 1970. The hydrodynamics of Rep. 14, 60 p, Chedabucto Bay and its influence on the "ARROW" oi1 di saster. Can. Dept. Energy, 1977. Oceanographic features, Mines and Res., Atl. Oceanogr. Lab., currents, and transport in Cabot Strait. Bedford Inst. Oceanogr. AOL Rep. 1970-6, J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34: 516-528. 63 p. (unpublished). Environment Canada. Waves recorded off Eddy This is a technical report on the movement Point, May 31, 1972 to February 15, 1973. of oil in the ARROW spill. Pri mari1y moved Fish. Mar. Serv., Mar. Environ. Data Serv., by forces of wind and tides. No data Hal ifax, 46 p, available on winds, tides and inconsistent weather conditions. This report presents Largest wave in Chedabucto Bay at point was data on waves, wind, currents, and 8 feet, average 5-6. They say worst wave circulation patterns. height for head waves would be 6 feet. Note Neu 1970, below. It describes weather conditions from February 26, 1970 to April 26, 1970 (ARROW Garrett, C. J. R., and R. H. Loucks. 1976. spill was on ~1arch 25, 1970). Oil reached Upwelling along the Yarmouth shore of Nova shore in about 5-11 h, from wind only. Scotia. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33: Wave heights at the time of the ARROW spill 116-117. were about 12-15 feet, low water~large waves on February 4 were the main factors Ingram, R. G. 1973. Winter surface currents that destroyed the ship. most of the oil around Cape Breton Island. J. Fish. Res. that initially escaped was contained in the Board Can. 30: 121-123. Bay, oi 1 lost 1ater escaped to sea. Currents around Cape Breton are located by Trites, R. W. 1979. Comments on residual mapping ice movement. Indicates counter current patterns in the inshore area south current off Fourchu, eastern Cape Breton of Cape Breton Island. In Canso Marine Island. Environ. Workshop, Part ~ Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. Lawrence , D. J. 1972. Oceanographic and water quality parameters in the Strait of Canso White, A. W., and H. Akagi. 1974. A 1968-1970. Bedford Inst. Oceanogr., Data compilation of total releases and Ser. BI-D-72-10. recoveries of drift bottles and seabed drifters in continental shelf water-s of the 1979. Flow patterns in Chedabucto Canadian Atlantic coast from 1960 through Bay. In Canso Marine Environ. Workshop, 1973. Fish. Res. Board Can. j·1S Rep. 1281, Part 4:- Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. 49 p.

Lawrence, D. J., L. A. Foster, and R. H. Loucks. 1973. Statistics of currents for navigation and dispersion in Canso Strait and Come by Chance Bay. Redford Inst. Oceanogr. MS BI-R-73-6. -43- OCEANOGRAPHY, ICE The Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory is carrying out a study involving modeling in the Canso Strait area. The steady state Black, W. A. 1960. Gulf of St. Lawrence ice model has been completed (reference - memo survey, winter 1960. Dept. Mines Tech. to file AOL 6325-5, July 10, 1973), and the Surv. Geogra. Pap. 25, 64 p. time dependent models are in progress. It is planned to apply the models to data Ice conditions in the Gulf and on the east collected by the Environmental Marine shore of Cape Breton during a mild winter. Geology Group, Atlantic Geoscience Center, Dept. Energy, Mines and Resources. 1962. Gulf of St. Lawrence ice survey, winter 1962. Dept. Mines Tech. Bidgood, D. 1968. Report on hydrosonic survey Surv. Geogra. Pap. 36, 56 p, in Canso Strait, Richmond Co., Cape Breton. Nova Scotia Res. Found. 4, 20 p. Ice conditions in the Gulf and on the east shore of Cape Breton during a harsh winter. Buckl ey, D. E. 1973. Environmental marine geology of the Strait of Canso and Chedabucto Bay, Port Hawksbury, N.S. Geol. 1973. The great Northumberland ice Surv. Can. Field Rep. 73-022, 32 p. barrier. Can. Geogr. J. 87: 30-39. Sumnary of field work in Canso region, Not seen: presumably discusses the late 1973. breakup of ice in the Northumberland Strait. Historically one of the last 1977. The effects of the Canso regions of the Gulf to open each year. Causeway on the marine environment of Canso and adjacent bays. Canso Marine Environ. Forward, C. N. 1954. Ice distribution in the Workshop 1. (Unpub1. MS). Gulf of St. Lawrence during the break-up season. Geogr. Bull. 6: 45-84. Buckley, D. E., E. H. Owens , C. T. Schafer, G. Vilks, R. E. Cranston, M. A. Rashid, Ice conditions in the Gulf and Cape Breton F. J. E. \'Jagner, and D. A. \~alker. 1974. Island area just prior to closure of Canso Canso Strait and Chedabucto Bay: A multi­ Strait • disciplinary study of the impact of man on the marine environment. Geol. Surv. Can. 1959. Sea ice conditions in Pap. 74-30: 133-160. Northumberland Strait area. Can. Dept. Mines Tech. Servo Geogr. Branch MS 21. Exce 11 ent summary paper on physi ca1 conditions in the Canso Strait 20 yr after Ingram, R. C. 1973. Winter surface currents closure. Covers oceanography, around Cape Breton Island. J. Fish. Res. sedimentology, industrial pollution, and Board Can. 30: 121-123. their effects on the present and past populations of foraminifera, ostracoda, and The winter surface cirulation around Cape mollusca. Invertebrate barren zones now Breton Island was studied by tracking ice occur around industrial outfalls. fields. The resulting stream-lines compare favorably with prior work, indicates a Cole, F. E., and C. Ferguson. 1975. An illus­ counter-current south of Fourchu, eastern trated catalogue of foraminifera and Cape Breton Island. ostracoda from Canso Strait and Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. Geol. Surv. Can ,, Lauzier, L. M. 1958. Some aspects of Bedford Inst. Oceanogr., Rep. Ser. oceanographic conditions in the Gulf of St. BI-R-75-5, 55 p. Lawrence from autumn 1956 to spring 1957. Fish. Res. Board Can. MS Rep. (Oceanogr. Cranston, R. E. 1974. Geochemical interactions and Limnol.) 9, 17 p, in the recently industrialized Strait of Canso. Proc. Int. Conf. on Transport of McKay, G. A., and A. A. Thompson. 1969. Persistant Chemicals in Aquatic Ecosystems, Estimating the hazard of ice accretion in Ottawa. Canada from climatological data. J. Appl. Meteorol. 8: 927-935. Cranston, R. E., R. A. Fitzgerald, and G. V. Winters. 1974. Geochemical data from the Strait of Canso and Chedabucto Bay, Nova OCEANOGRAPHY, SEDIMENTS Scotia. Geol. Surv. Can., Bedford Inst. Oceanogr., Data Ser. BI-D-74-3, 56 p,

Anon. 1973. The construction of a series of Hargrave, B. T. 1979. Suspended and sedimented water qual ity model S. Environ. Can., Mar. particulate matter in St. Georges Bay. In Servo Br., Bedford Inst., Dartmouth, N.S. Canso Marine Environ. Workshop, Part 4. I ncomp1ete MS. Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. -44- St. Georges Bay normally has high Biology of Axius serratus in areas near sedimentation rate. Movement of sediment pollution sources in Strait of Canso. Deep offshore to deep water, along the bottom. sediments penetrated to 3 m by shrimp burrows. Sediment characteristics changed King, L. H. 1967. On the sediments and by burrows, less clay and organic carbon, stratigraphy of the Scotian Shelf. more trace elements than surroundings. Contrib. Bedford Inst. Oceanogr. 80. Concentration of 91m 2• Almost only invertebrate in the region of the Kranck, K. 1971. Surficial geology of industrial outfall s, Northumberland Strait. Mar. Sci. Dept. Environ. Can. Pap. 5, 12 p. Prouse, N. J., and B. T. Hargrave. 1977. Chlorophyll, carbon and nitrogen in Description of sediment types and suspended and sedimented particulate matter subsurface structure. Floor of Strait in St. Georges Bay, Nova Scotia. Fish. consists mainly of unsorted till material. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 721, 69 p. 1972. Tidal current control of Similar to Hargrave above, contains basic sediment distribution in Northumberland data. Strait, Maritime Provinces. J. Sed. Petrology 42: 596-601. Schafer, C. To, F. J. E. Wagner, and C. Ferguson. 1975. Occurrence of Sediment facies related to average maximum foraminifera, molluscs, and ostracods speed of tidal streams. adjacent to the industrialized shoreline of Canso Strait, Nova Scotia. Water, Air, Loring, D. H., and D. J. G. Nota. 1973. Soil Pollut. 5: 79-96. Morphology and sediments of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Fish. Res. Board Can. Bull. 182, Details of mollusc and ostracod 147 p., 6 charts. disappearance in middle of Strait. General review paper on the Gulf, barely Vilks, G. 1967. Quantitative analysis of touches the Canso area or even St. Georges foraminifera in Bras d'Or Lakes. Bedford Bay. Summari zes wor k on sediments, Inst. Oceanogr. Rep. 67-1, 84 p. currents, chemistry, postglacial geology. Covers Magdalen Shelf extensively. 1974. The impact of industrial development on Canso Strait and Chedabucto MacLean, B. 1977. Occurrence and distribution Bay as reflected in the sedimentology, of surficial sediments in Chedabucto Bay paleoecology, and geochemistry of beach and and Canso Strait. Canso Marine Environ. bottom sediments. Int. Rep., Bedford Inst. Workshop I. Unpublished MS, Atlantic Oceanogr. (unpub1i shed) . Oceanogr. Lab., Dartmouth. Report investigates the changes in the Strait, Maritime Provinces. J. Sed. sediment from the construction of the Petrology 42: 596-601. Causeway; the changes caused by urban and industrial development; the recovery of the Sediment facies related to average maximum coast1i ne from the ARROW spi 11; and the speed of tidal streams. engineering propertles of the sediment (in situ tests). Most of these results are in Loring, D. H., and D. J. G. Nota. 1973. Buckleyet al. 1974. Morphology and sediments of the Gulf of St. l.awrence , Fish. Res. Board Can. Bull. 182, Vilks, G., C. T. Schafer, and W. A. Walker. 147 p., 6 charts. 1975. The influence of a causeway on oceanography and Foraminifera in the Strait General review paper on the Gulf, barely of Canso, Nova Scotia. Can. J. Earth Sci. touches the Canso area or even St. Georges 12: 2086-2102. Bay. Summarizes work on sediments, currents, chemistry, postglacial geology. Strait now functions oceanographically as a Covers Magdalen Shelf extensively. fjord. Warm water foraminifera fa una north of the Causeway due to warm Gulf of St. MacLean, B. 1977. Occurrence and distribution Lawrence water. of surficial sediments in Chedabucto Bay and Canso Strait. Canso Marine Environ. Workshop I. Unpublished MS, Atlantic OCEANOGRAPHY, TIDES Oceanogr. Lab., Dartmouth.

Pembarton, G. S., M. J. Risk, and D. E. Buckley. Anon. 1975. Strait of Canso, Natural 1976. Super-shrimp: Deep bioturbation in Environment Inventory: Water Resources. the Strait of Canso, Nova Scotia. Science Counc. Maritime Premiers, Maritime Resource 192: 790-791. Management Service, 26 p. -45- Good summary of tides, ice, winds, and exist. Maximum tide range at Port Hastings currents. Plus information on tanker sizes is 5.5-6.7 feet. Effect of weather on which use the Strait. tides is discussed, so are extreme tides (8.1 feet in 1955) and effects of waves. Barber, F. G., and J. Taylor. 1977. A note on free oscillations of Chedabucto Bay. MS Krauel, D. P. 1969. Tidal flushing of Pictou Rep. Ser. Mar. Sci. Direct. 47, 43 p. Harbour-Pictou Road, N.S. Fish. Res. Board Can. Tech. Rep. 146, 28 p, Tidal modeling for Tupper Point and Lennox Passage, during March. Good paper on the circulation in small coastal estuaries and lagoons of the Dudson, A. T. 1928. Analysis of current Northumberland Strait shore. Dye tracing observations Strait of Canso. Tidal Inst., studies. Liverpool University, 3 p. MacGregor, D. G. 1952. Water conditions in the Farquharson, W. I. 1957. Tidal changes in the Strait of Canso. Unpubl. MS, Atl. Strait of Canso region. Rep. Dept. Mines Oceanogr. Group, Fish , Res. Boa rd Can., 15 Tech. Surv. Ottawa, 7 p. p. 1962. Tides, tidal streams, and This paper gives some observations on tidal currents in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. movements before the Causeway was put in. Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Ottawa, Can. It gives tides, depths, density (increasing Hydro. Serv., 76 p. with depth as expected) temperature, and salinity gradients (higher salinity on Good summary data on the Gulf of St. south end). Time of observation, May to Lawrence. November 1952, thirteen runs through the Strait. Conditions are the same as the Fothergill, N. O. 1954. Tidal circulation in Gulf of St. Lawrence on the north, and the the Strait of Canso. In Rep. of Tidal and Scotian Shelf on the south. Water is well Current Survey, Can. Hydro. Servo Unpub l . mixed and tidally maintained as such. MS, 19 p, Lighter, less dense northern water flows over the denser southern layer. South Tidal currents were principally hydraulic flowing water is less saline. Considered arising from the different levels at each the net flow is about 0, but surface end of the Strait. Tidal variation is currents are net south. Complete body of analyzed and the effect of the Causeway water is displaced in the Strait. Oscilla­ discussed. Previous observations are tory tidal displacements of 3-10 miles. outlined as far back as 1915-1916, later Graphs of temperature and salinity and also in 1922,1924,1925, and 1926, net flow density in the report. (McLellan's (1954) analysis is made (north to south). The n paper is based on this work.) fjow through the Strait is about 4.3 x 103t m Is, about 1/2 the discharge from the McLellan, H. J. 1954. Water conditions in the St. Lawrence River. The effect of the Strait of Canso before closing. Fish. Res. Causeway is to reduce velocities throughout Board Can. Prog. Rep. Atl. Coast Sta. 59: the Strait. 7-11. 1954. Tidal circulation in the Strait Similar to above. Uses only August data of Canso. Can. Mines Tech. Surv. Dept. from rvlacGregor. Can. Hydro. Serv., N.S. Res. Found. Conf. of Oceanogr., 19 p. OCEANOGRAPHY, GENERAL Same as above. 1955. Tidal changes in the Strait of Ridgood, D. 1968. Report on hydrosonic survey Canso region. Can. Mines Tech. Res., Can. in Canso Strait, Richmond Co., Cape Breton. Hydro. Servo Unpubl. MS, 9 p. N.S. Res. Found. Rep. 4, 20 p, Reason for report, "higher tides in the Dawson, W. B. 1913. The currents in the Gulf St ra it since the Causeway was const ructed. " of St. Lawrence. Dept. Naval Serv., Report is to revise and update tide Ottawa. reports, tides gauges were established (1952) locations given. They traced the Old work on the Gulf currents. One of the effects of Causeway construction; tide few discussing conditions before closure. gauges have run continuously since 1952. Conditions before the Causeway are Drinkwater, K. F. 1975. Preliminary described, tide range 1.43-1.95 m, slight calculations on the possible effect of the slope southward in water plane. Tide Canso Causeway on the physical oceanography increased by 0.3 feet since Causeway was of the Northumberland Strait. Unpubl. MS, built, strong tidal currents no longer Mar. Ecol. l.ab , , Dartmouth, N.S., 3 p, -46- Before construction north-south flow Temperatures low in 1930's, higher than existed. Flow driven by relative sea level mean in early 1950's, normal in 1960's. differences. A net residual southerly flow calculated by Fothergill. Net transport 1967. Bottom residual drift on the for sQring tides was calculated as 6.3 x continental shelf area of the Canadian 108 mJ • Calculated average Atlantic coast. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. velocities through Northumberland Strait 24: 1845-1859. agree with this transport. Tides heights and temperatures in the Gulf have not Residual drift on bottom is predominantly changed appreciably since closure. onshore along southeast Cape Breton.

1979. Flow in the Strait of Canso and Lauzier, L. M., and J. H. Hull. 1969. Coastal SL Georges Bay, Nova Scotia. In Canso station data. Temperatures along the Marine Environ. Workshop, Part ~ Fish. Canadian Atlantic coast 1921-1969. Fish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. Res. Board Can. Tech. Rep. 150, 25 p. Farquharson, \4. r. 1959. Causeway Summary of temperature data in St. Andrews investigation Northumberland Strait. to 1969. Cooling trend began after 1956. Report on tidal survey 1958. Dept. of Mines and Tech. Surv. Rep., 137 p. Lawrence, D. J. 1972. Oceanographic and water quality parameters in the Strait of Canso This paper deals with the effect of a 1968-1970. Can. Environ. BIO, Mar. Sci. possible Northumberland Causeway on the Direct. Data Ser. BI-D-72-10, 115 p. tides of Northumberland Strait. Report contains data from 5 cruises in the Krauel, D. P. 1975. The physical oceanography Canso Strait south of the Causeway. One in of the Bras d'Or Lakes, 1972-1974. Fish. 1968 and two each in 1969 and 1970. Mar. Servo Res. Dev. Tech. Rep. 570, 357 p. Contains vertical profiles of temperature, salinity, oxygen, pH, alkalinity, and Lauzier, L. 1952. Recent temperatures along surface and bottom samples of oil, sulfite, the Canadian Atlantic coast. Fish. Res. sulphate, and phenol. Board Can., Prog. Rep. Atl. 53: 6-7. McLell an, H. J. 1954. Water conditions in the Summary of temperatures mainly from St. Strait of Canso before closing. Fish. Res. Andrews and Sambro Lightship Stations for Board Can., Prog. Rep. Atl. Coast Sta. 59: period 1936-1952 to show correlation 7-11. between these two stations and the general warming trend in progress at that time on A summary of work done in 1952 on the the Atlantic coast. Strait. Detailed description of tides and temperature and salinity vertical and 1954. Recent surface water longitudinal profi les for August. temperatures along the Canadian Atlantic coast. Cold years - warm years. Fish. Petrie, B., and K. Drinkwater. 1977a. Physical Res. Board Can., Prog. Rep. Atl. 58: 6-10. oceanographic measurements in St. Georges Bay, Nova Scotia. BIO Rep. Ser. BI-R-77-5, Summary of St. Andrews data 1910-1954. 78 p. Period 1920-1940 was a cold period, 1940-50 warming. Summary of temperature, salinity, and currents. 1957. Variation of temperature and salinity in shallow waters of southwest 1977b. The physical oceanography of Gulf of St. Lawrence. Bull. Fish. Res. St. Georges Bay, 1975. BIO Rep. Ser. Board Can. 111: 251-268. BI-R-77 (in press), 86 p. Not seen, may have data on St. Georges Bay 1978. Numerical model of the circu­ temperatures and salinity. lation in an open bay. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 12: 1631-1635. 1965a. Drift bottle observations in Northumberland Strait, Gulf of St. Prouse, N. J., and B. To Hargrave. 1977. Lawrence. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 22: Chlorophyll, carbon nitrogen in. suspended 353-368. and sedimented particulate matter in St. Georges Bay, Nova Scotia. Fish. Mar. Servo Drift bottle observations from west to east Tech. Rep. 721, 69 p. in different seasons. Major residual flow is 5.0-7.5 km/day to the east. Contains data summary for the factors indicated in title along two transects in 1965b. Long-term temperature the northwestern section of St. Georges variations in the Scotian Shelf area. Int. Bay. Data series for June-Sept. Concludes Comm. Northw. At], Fish., Spec. Publ. 6: 807-816. -47- distribution of suspended chlorophyll ..§. not Anon. 1973. For the ARROW, a sad epilogue. homogeneous in the Bay. Can. Petro. 14: 1~ Sheldon, R. W., and K. Kranck. 1970. A survey The final report, released on March 30, of suspended particulate matter in concerning the cleanup of Canada's Chedabucto Bay, March to May 1970. Unpubl. "prototype" oil spill, from grounding of Rep. Aug. 28, 1970, Mar. Ecol. Lab., the Liberian tanker ARROW in Nova Scotia's Dartmouth, N. S. Chedabucto Bay. It hi gh1i ghts the vast range of environmental concern that exists Work summarized in Kranck and Sheldon among organizations involved in the ocean (1979), Canso Marine Environ. Workshop, transport of crude oil and petroleum Part 4. Distribution of particle size products. When she ran aground on February indicates pollution in the southern part of 4, 1970, the 18,000-ton ARROW was, in the the Strait of Canso. words of the Director of~cleanup operations, the Science Council's Dr. P.O. Sutcliffe, W. H. 1970. Carbon, nitrogen, and McTaggart-Cowan, in "disgraceful adenosine triphosphate in particulate condition," with perished gaskets and material from Chedabucto Bay. Unpubl. Rep. corroded pipes that increased the volume of Mar. Ecol. Lab, , Dartmouth, N.S. oil ultimately released. Sutcliffe, W. H., Jr., R. H. Loucks, and K. F. Anon. Investigation of industrial discharges at Drinkwater. 1976. Coastal circulation and Canso Strait. Environmental Protection physical oceanography of the Scotian Shelf Service, Halifax, N.S. and the Gulf of Maine. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33: 98-115. This work was started in 1971, including chemical and biological studies and water Proposes that Gulf of St. Lawrence to the sampling for routine parameters. Scuba Gulf of Maine be considered one work was done in 1972, for a qualitative oceanographic system. Correlations between investi gat ion, as well as ana1yses for St. Lawrence River discharge and D.O., salinity, B.O.D., temperature, P04, temperature and salinity data occur as far N0 3, heavy metals, volative solids and south as Boston. sediment samples. In 1973, eight chemical and biological stations were established in Trites, R. W. 1979. Some physical the area for basic parameter measurements oceanographic features in relation to the and water quality modeling is in progress. Canso Causeway - an overview. In Canso Reports from this work are pending (see Marine Environ. Workshop, Part ~ Fish. Kumbhare 1973; Machell et al , 1977). Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. Baird, W., C. Glodowski, 1. Mulvihi 11, and D. Guertin. 1976. The Strait of Canso. A POLLUTION marine environmental report for the design and operation of port facilities. Transport Canada, Canadian Coast Guard Anon. 1970. Operation oil - the ARROW Terminal Facilities, Maritimes Region, Vol. incident. Report to the Task Force (Clean 1-3. Up of the ARROW Oi 1 Spi11 in Chedabucto Bay). Ministry of Transport, Information Bartlett, G. A. 1977. Ecology and the Canada, Ottawa, Vol. I, II, III, 187 p, concentration and effect of pollutants in nearshore marine environments. Proc. Int. Vol. I - Recommendations for international Symp , on Identification and Measurement of action, national action, recommenda­ Environmental Pollutants, Ottawa 1971: tions to Government, Ministry of 277-286. Transport, Department of National Defense, Industry, Public Works. Bigford, T. E. 1977 • Effects of oi 1 on behavioral responses to light, pressure and It has a summary of operations, costs, gravity in larvae in the rock crab, Cancer conclusions, and recommendations. i rroratus. Mar. Biol. 43: 137-148. ------

Vol. II - Gives physical environment Brown, R. G. B., D. 1. Gillespie, A. R. Lock, conditions, scientific coordinating P. A. Pearce, and G. H. Watson. 1973. team members. Distributions of oil, Bird mortality from oil slicks off eastern characteristics of Bunker Coil, Canada, February-April 1970. Can. Field­ emulsification effect and the Naturalist 87: 225-234. ecological effects of the oil on life, clean up, p, 71-74. Some recommen­ Oi 1 sl icks resulti ng from the "ARROW" and dations for future study, and future "IRVING WHALE" spills in February 1970, potential problems. resulted in the known deaths of 1,500 ducks and seabirds, and an estimated total kill of at least 12,000 birds. The species -48- principally affected were oldsquaws, are moved more vigourously by wave action. redbreasted mergansers, grebes, and murres Such beaches clean within 6 mo. Cobble and in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia; murres, boulder beaches take 1 yr to clean in dovekies, and fulmars between the Nova Chedabucto Bay. Bedrock outcrops are still Scotian coast and Sable Island, and common covered wit h a veneer of "dri ed" oi1 after eiders (subspecies borealis),murres and 20 mo of exposure to the surf. black guillemots off southeast Newfoundland. The breeding populations to (3) Hydrodynamics of the environment: Wave which some of these birds belonged are action is the dominant source of energy identified and the overall effect of this that reaches the seashores of Chedabucto mortality on the species as a whole is Bay, and the cleaning of beaches is assessed. Only the kill of the borealis directly related to the amount of wave eiders approached significance to the energy reaching different areas of the population of this subspecies. It is seashore. emphasized that the hazard presented by an oil spill depends on its position and Forrester, W. D. 1971. Distribution of timing as much as on its size. suspended oil particles following the grounding of the tanker "ARROW". J. Mar. Butler, J. N., and E. M. Levy. 1978. Session Res. 29: 151-170. -- I. Summary and overview: Long-term fate of petroleum hydrocarbons after spills ­ Oil particles from Bay carried offshore compositional changes and microbial over Canso Bank by drift, herring larvae degradation. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35: similar distribution (Sameoto 1971). 604-605. Gillfillan, E. S., and J. H. Vandermeulen. Conover, R. J. 1971. Some relations between 1978. Alterations in growth and physiology zoopl ankton and Bunker C oi 1 in Chedabucto in chronically oiled soft-shell clams, fl'lya Bay following the wreck of the tanker arenaria, chronically oiled with Bunker--C­ ARROW. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 28: from Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, 1970-76. 1327-1330. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35: 630-636. This report notes that zooplankton ingest Gordon, D. C., Jr., and P. A. Michalik. 1971. some oil (10% of the oil was associated Concentrati on of Bunker C fuel oil in the with the organisms, 7% with their faeces) waters of Chedabucto Bay, April 1971. J. and had no apparent effect. In addition, Fish. Res. Board Can. 28: 1912-1914. about 20% of the oil was sedimented to the bottom as zooplankton faeces. This report states that oil, 14 mo after the ARROW spill was in low concentrations Cundell, A. M., and R. W. Traxler. 1973. in the water (1. 5 ppb) and compares wi th Isolation and characterization of the levels in Atlantic waters, but much hydrocarbon-utilizing bacteria from still remains inshore and in the sediment. Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. Proc. Joint Conf, Prevo Contr , Oil Spills: 421-426. Gordon, D. D., .r-., J. Dale, and P. D. Keizer. 1978. Importance of sediment working by Drapeau, G. 1972. Natural cleaning of oil the deposit-feeding polychaete Arenicola poll uted beaches. Proc. 13th Coastal marina on the weathering rate of sediment­ Engineering Conf., Vancouver, B.C. Amer. bound-oil. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35: Soc. Civil Enq; , Library No. 37. 591-603. Field observations were carried out for a Johnston, H. D. Seine net for containing Bunker period of 20 mo on the seashores of C oil slicks. Indust. Dev. Br , , Fish. Chedabucto Bay, following the spillage of Servo 36, 13 p, 108,000 barrel s of Bunker C oi 1 in the Bay the tanker ARROW in February 1970. The Following a visit to Chedabucto Bay, Nova mai n factors that control the natural Scotia on March 3, 4, and 5, 1970, cleaning of seashores are as follows: experiments were initiated at the Marine Plants Experimental Station, Miminegash, (1) Physico-chemical characteristics of oil: P.E.I. to find means of cleansing seine The Bunker C type fuel oil carried by the nets that had become contaminated with tanker ARROW forms, when spilled at sea, a Bunker C from the sunken oil tanker, ARROW. very stable emulsion containing some 40% Samp1e pieces of netti ng were obta i nedu from sea water. The emulsion formed is 40 times the herring purse seiner uBLUE WATERS and as viscous as pure Bunker C (30,000 poises were cleaned with various distillates to at 32°F). determine thei r effecti veness in removing Bunker C. Results of these tests showed (2) Nature of polluted seashore: The natural Varsol to be the most effective and cleaning of seashores is essentially economical cleaning solvent. mechanical. Abrasion of oil is most rapid on sand beaches because sand-size sediments -49- Kei zer, P. D., T. P. Ahern, J. Dale, and J. H. MacKay, K. 1970. Thermal pollution. Pollution Vandermeulen. 1978. Residues of Bunker C Seminar Abstracts, Inst , Oceanogr., oil in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, 6 years Dalhousie Univ.: 14-15. after the "ARROW spill. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. ~28-535. This paper looks at the effects of thermal pollution (growth and feeding interference, Kranck, K., and R. W. Sheldon. 1979. slower oxygen uptake, toxic acceleration). Observations on particle distributions in The situation at the Strait of Canso from the Strait of Canso and vicinity. In Canso the heat from the heavy water plant and an Marine Environ. Workshop, Part 4. Flsh. oil refinery is examined. It is noted that Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. the emission is higher than British standards and that no controls exist. Kumbhare, A. R. 1973. Strait of Canso water Heated effluents could be used for quality model. Environ. Protection Servo aquaculture. Atl . Div. Rep. EPS-8-AR-74-1, 181 p, Maclean, K. S., and W. M. Langill e. 1973. A model of biological oxygen demand for the Heavy metal studies of crops and soils in Strait of Canso. BOD and DO distribution. Nova Scoti a. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 02 always above 6 mg/L. 4(6): 495-505.

Lac, R. S., R. S. Thomas, and J. L. Monkman. McNeil, J. R., et al. 1972. Ecological 1972. Analysis of environmental samples by monitoring reports Strait of Canso, Nova mass spectrometry. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Scotia. Water Surveillance Unit, Water Chern. 1: 187 -203. Pollut. Control Div., EPS, Halifax, N.S., Library No. 30. r~ass spectral analysi s was carried out on shellfish samples taken in the vicinity of This report describes the monitoring done the ARROW oil spi 11 at Chedabucto Bay, Nova in the Strait area in 1972. It describes Scot~Oil samples were also analyzed, the results of the four transects done in samples being obtained from the tanker and the Strait area giving the results of also from the beach. sediment samples and noting the wood waste on the bottom. The four transects are Lakshminarayana, J. S. S., and H. Bourque. located on a map (N.S. Pulp, No.1; Cow 1979. Changes in the water quality of the Cove, No.2: Madden Cove, No.3; Sharp Northumberland Strait, N.B. In Canso Point, No.4) and a list of organisms found Marine Environ. Workshop, Par~4. Fish. on the bottom is given. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. McTaggart-Cowan, I., et al. 1972. Task Force ­ Levy, E. M. 1971. The presence of petroleum "Operation Oi 1" Cl ean-up of the ARROW oil residues off the east coast of Nova Scotia, spill in Chedabucto Bay. r~inistry of in the Gul f of St. Lawrence, and the St. Transport, Ottawa, Canada. Lawrence River. Water Res. 5: 723-733. It was the fi nalone ina series of four, A study of petrol eum residues, 10\1, but the first three having dealt with the significant residues in the Atlantic near actual clean-up operation, in detail. In Nova Scotia. Higher concentration in particular, the report recommends much Chedabucto Bay. Generally, one million greater R&D activity related to oil metric tons of oil are spilled annually pollution prevention, containment and into the ocean. clean-up. 1972. Evi dence for the recovery of On the operat iona1 si de, the report the waters off the east coast of Nova reconmended that Marine Safety Regulations Scotia from the effects of a major oil and procedures be greatly improved, and spill. Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 1: that the law be provided with both teeth 144-148. and muscle. (It is noteworthy that tanker routing has become a major activity since Machell, J. R., C. J. Spencer, and W. G. Pelly. that time, coupled with the construction of 1977. Enviromental Protection Service, marine traffic control centres at Eddy receiving water surveillance, Point Tupper­ Point, and in the Bay of Fundy approaches.) Strait of Canso, 1972 and 1973. Canso Marine Environ. Workshop I, Dartmouth, N.S. Myrick, J. B. 1970. Operation of net laundry (available from Environmental Protection for oil contaminated fishing gear~ Indust. Service). Dev. Br., Fish. Servo 36, 30 p, Faunal lists for selected transects in the Equipment designed by the Scientific Strait south of the Causeway. Sediment and Co-ordination Staff, Clean-up Technology physicochemical data provided for each Group, Project Oil, and manufactured by station. Ferguson Industries Limited, was used to -50­ successfully cleanse purse seine nets which sediment. In Sources effects and sinks of had been contaminated with Bunker C spilled hydrocarbonS-in the aquatic environment. from the oil tanker ARROW in Chedabucto Am. Inst. Biol. Sci.: 407-422. Bay. This report discusses the design and operation of the equipment as it was Rashid, M. A. 1974. Degradation of Bunker C installed at Point Tupper, Nova Scotia. oil under different coastal environments of Suggestions are made for improving the Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. Estuarine efficiency of the unit. Coastal Mar. Sci. 2: 137-144. Owens, E. H. 1971a. A reconnaissance of the Scarratt, D. J. 1970. Subl ittoral biological coastline of Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. survey team summary report ~lay 13, 1970. Environ. Can. Mar. Sci. Pap. 4, 24 p. Unpubl. Rep. Fish. Res. Board Can. Gives effects of oil spills on the beaches Scarratt, D. J., and V. Zitko. 1972. Bunker C in relation to the coastline of Chedabucto. oil in sediments and benthic animals from Geomorphological formations characteristic shallow depths in Chedabucto Bay, N.S. J. of submerging coastline with high energy Fish. Res. Board Can. 29: 1347-1350. environment. Soft ssd iments showed fl uctuat ions of oi 1 1971b. Restoration of beaches content, but little evidence of diminution cont am i nated by oi 1 in Chedabucto Bay, Nova in the 26 1;10 f'o l l ow inq the spill. ~1aximum Scotia. Information Can. 19, 75 p. amounts were found 1 yr after the wreck, There is evidence that some soecies can Fol l owi nq the wreck of the "ARROW" in acc umu 1ate the oi 1 and that it I'las not Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, more than 150 being concentrated in the food chain. miles of shoreline were polluted with Bunker C oi 1 and a beach restorat i on Schafer, C. T. 1970. Survey of south shore, program was established which involved 30 Chedabucto Bay, March 4, 1970. Atl. miles of coastline. The beaches of this Oceanogr. Lab., Dartmouth, N.S. Unpubl. region vary from low-energy marsh Rep. envi ronments to compl ex shi ngle-spit systems, as we l l as many areas of eroding Work done in conjunction with Owens. See rock and till deposits. Only a few miles above. of beach are made up of sand-size material. The contaminated sand beaches were cleaned Sprague, J. B., and W. G. Carson. 1970. relatively easily. Although various manual Toxicity tests with oil dispersants in and mechanical methods were implemented, no connection with oil spi 11 at Chedabucto effective or efficient method of removing Bay, Nova Scotia. Fish. ~es. Board Can. oil from shingle beaches was found. Oil on Tech. Rep. 201, 30 p, active shingle beaches was often buried up to a depth of 5 feet with clean and The report describes the result of the contaminated sediments having been screening of 10 oil dispersants for acute thoroughly mixed by wave action. Where oil toxicity with Atlantic salmon. Lobster remained as a surface layer on the beach a were very resistant to the dispersants. frontend loader proved to be effective in removing the contaminated layer. Stewart , J. E., and L. ,J. ~larks. 1978. Distri­ bution and abundance of hydrocarbon­ 1978. Mechanical dispersal of oil utilizing bacteria in sediments of stranded in the littoral zone. J. Fish. Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, in 1976. J. Res. Board Can. 35: 563-572. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35: 581-584.

Owens , E. H., and G. Drapeau. 1973. Changes in Thomas, M. L. H. 1973. Effects of Bunker C oi 1 beach profiles at Chedabucto Bay, Nova on intertidal and lagoonal biota in Scotia, f ol l owi nq large-scale removal of Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. J. Fish. Res. sediments. Can. ,J. Earth Sci. 10: Board Can. 30: 83-90. 1226-1232. The report describes the effects of oil on Beach profiles retreated to new equilibrium biota in Chedabucto Bay (interest because: points after removal of material. This (a) no other large spills of Bunker C; (b) cleanup method not reco~nended in future. cold temperature; (c) nonuse of detergents in cleanup). Fauna was smothered and algae Owens, E. H., and M. A. Rashid. 1976. Coastal Ilere torn loose. Some high mortality to environments and oil spill residues in certain species in lagoons and shores. Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. Can. J. Earth Sci. 13: 908-928. 1978. Comparison of oiled and unoiled intertidal comnuni t t es in Chedabucto Bay, Prouse, N. ,J., and D. C. Gordon, ,Jr. 1976. Nova Scotia. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35: Interactions between the deposit feeding 707-716. polychaete Arenicola marina and oiled -51- Thomson, K. P. B., and vi. D. McColl. 1972. A McLeese, D. W. 1970. Behavior of lobsters remote .sensing survey of the Chedabucto Bay exposed to b1 eached kraft mi 11 eff1 uent. oil spill. Can. Center Inland Waters. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27: 731-736. Environ. Can. Inland vJaters Direct., Sci. Ser. 26. 1976. Toxicity studies with lobster larvae and adults and a freshwater crayfish The report describes the effectiveness of in 1975. Fish. Res. Board Can. MS Rep. the infrared line scanner as a tool for 1384, 15 p. detecti ng oi 1 spi 11 s (usefu1 on1y where there is a temperature difference between Lobster larvae are tough. the oil and water-) , Photographic imagery is better for surveillance, but both cannot Ogden, J. G. 1972. Oxygen demand of effluent positively identify oil. fr-om a bleached kraft pulp mill, Nova Scot i a. Water, Ai r , So il Poll ut , 1: Trites, R. W. 1972. The Gu1 f of St. Lawrence 365-374. from a pollution viewpoint. In Marine poll ution and sea 1i f e, FAO 1972: 59-72. This article describes the various effects of the effl uent from a pul p mill, with Vandermeulen, d. H., and D. C. Gordon, .Jr, respect to the oxygen demand of the 1976. Re-entry of 5-year-old stranded effl uent. [3unker C fuel oil fr-om a low-ener qy beach into the water, sediments and biota of Scarratt, D. J. 1969. Lobster larvae off Chedabucto Gay, N.S. d. Fish. Res. Board Pictou, Nova Scotia not affected by Can. 33: 2002-2010. bleached kraft mill effluent. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 26: 1931-1934. Vandermeu1 en, d. H., and l~. R. Penrose. 1978. Absence of aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase Sprague, J. B., and D. vI. McLeese. 1968a. (AHH) in three marine hiva1ves. d. Fish. Toxicity of kraft pulp mill effluent for Res. Board Can. 35: 643-647. larval and adult lobsters, and juvenile salmon. In Water Res., Pergamon Press Wallace, d. C. 1970. Net cleaning experiment 1963, 2: 753-760. of Bunker C oil in Chedabucto Bay. Indus. Dev. Br., Fish. Servo Proj. Rep. 36, 14 p. Lobsters are more resistant than salmon. Lobster larvae can survive at 27% As a result of the grounding of the concentration of neutralized kraft pulp Liberian oil tanker ARROW on Cerberus Rock, mi l l effluent, salmon only 12-15%. Lobster Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, in February adults even more resistant. 1970, the task force, appointed to deal with the problem requested that the 1963b. Different toxic mechanisms in Fisheries Service of Canada investigate the kraft pulp mill effluent for two aquatic possibility of using a net to contain such animals. In Water Res., Pergamon Press 2: oil slicks. This was done and the net 761-765. 1ater used. vJe11 s , P. G. 1972. Infl uence of Venezuel an Wilson, R. 1979. Influence of pollution in the crude oil on lobster larvae. Mar. Pollut. Canso Strait - a summary. In Canso Marine Bull. 3: 105-106. Environ. Workshop, Part 4. -rish. Mar. Servo Tech. Rep. 834. 1975a. The toxicity of environmental contaminants to lobsters, Homarus americanus. A summary from the literature. POLLUTION, TOXICITY ICES Aquaculture Workshop, April 1975, 15 p. (available from author).

Aterna , J., and L. S. Stein. 1974. Effects of Larval and adult lobsters are sensiti ve to crude oil on the feeding behavior of the organophosphates, insecticides and metals. lobster Homarus americanus. Environ. Less sensitive to pulp and paper effluent. Poll ut . 6: 77-86. 1975b. Lobster and other decapod Bigford, 1. E. 1977. Effects of oil on crustacean larvae as test organisms in behavioral responses to light, pressure, marine acute toxicity bioassays. Proc. and Gravitv in larvae of the rock crab, 1975 Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, Toronto: Cancer i rr-oratus , ~1ar. Biol. 43: 137-148. 266-290. Cobb, D. A. 1972. Effects of suspended solids on larval survival of the eastern lobster, Homarus americanus. In Nar, Tech. Soc. 8th An~nf. Expos.: 39~402. -52- GENERAL ENVIRONMENT Hughson, B. 1973. References and ongoing activities pertaining to the Canso region of Nova Scotia. Can. Wildl. Serv., Anon. 1967. Preliminary environmental study Sackville, N.B., Library No. 31. Point Tupper industrial complex. Phase I. Canadian Bechtel Ltd. 1972. Coastal zone It is a thorough listing of works and seminar. Vol. 1. Selected background references pertaining to the Strait area, papers, 205 p. Vol. 2 Discussion and and lists primarily the reports done by the workshop, 62 p, Federal Government agencies. Many of the reports are included in this bibliography. A series of papers dealing with the coastal Concentrates on birds. Good climatic zone of the Maritimes in general. references. 1973. Strait of Canso regional atlas. Lourmais, L. (no date). Account on the N.S. Dept. Munic. Aff. Commun. Planning situation in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Br., Halifax. on the arrangement of the Canso Causeway. Unpubl. Rep., 15 p. (available from Bateman, M. 1974. Observations in the Canso Biological Station, St. Andrews). region. I. A description of the Canso region with details of selected areas. Polegato, L. 1975. A bibliography of the Canso Can. Wildl. Servo Contract #WE-73-74-112, Strait region. N.S. Dept. Env i ron , , 16 p. Halifax. This study is in two volumes. It is a A cross-referenced bibliography with description of the region, lakes, marshes, abstracts for some titles which and fragile areas, and a detailed catagori­ concentrates on socio-economic aspects of zation of natural regions in the area. It the Strait. Very good for references to is very thorough and in depth with respect "ARROW" oi 1 spi 11 • to wetlands, water, fowl production and nesting areas. Extensive maps of the area covering the topography, land use, and deep SOC IO-ECONOMIC ranges, waterfowl and muskrat ranges, etc. are incl uded • Albany, Pullerits, Dickson and Associates Boulanger, V. 1974. Gulf lobster threatened Limited. Preliminary assessment of wharf with extinction. An interview with L. facilities at Bear Cove and Seacoal Bay. Lourmais. D. Scarratt has a copy in his Report of Consulting Engineers for Dept. of files in St. Andrews. This is a newspaper Development, Halifax, N.S. (available from report (unpubl.). Dept. of Development). Chenier, A. 1974. Louis Lourmais veut se This report was prepared for the Dept. of battre pour sauver le golfe Saint-Laurent. Development because they Foresaw the need La Presse, Montreal, Samedi, 9th Fevrier: of a deep-water harbour on the east coast 18. of North !\meri ca and other reasons. The consultants prepared a report to determine Translation available from Biological if the location sited is feasible for such Station, St. Andrews. Article discusses a terminal. They investigated the Mr. Lourmais' contention that the Causeway topography, hydrology, visibility is causing stagnation in the Gulf and (generally good), wind s , waves (this was related this to sedimentation and the supplemented and updated with new decrease in lobsters. information) and the location and layout of terminal facil ities incl uding si ze of Environment Canada. 1974. Summary of physical, ships, berths, etc. biological, socio-economic, and other factors rel evant to potenti al oi 1 spi 11 s in Anon. 1948. A permanent crossing of the Strait the Passamaquoddy Bay region of the Bay of of Canso. The Canso Crossing Assoc., Fundy. Fish. Res. Board Can. Tech. Rep. Sydney. 428, 229 p. The booklet, by a group in Sydney, Nova The reference on how to do a regional Scotia, is intended to urge government to environmental study. put in a permanent crossing at the Strait of Canso. It describes Cape Breton, the Geen, G. H. 1965. Primary production in Bras Strait area, the existing ferry service, d'Or Lake and other inland waters of Cape the potential a permanent crossing would Breton Island, Nova Scotia. Dal. Univ. bring into reality, and current federal Ph.D. Dissertation, Halifax, Nova Scotia, action on the Trans-Canada Highway. They 187 p. include Cape Breton's role in the world war and other factors. -53- 1960. Canal regul ations. Dept. Canso region declined with opening of new Transport, Ottawa, Queen's Printer. land in west and central industry. Cleared agriculture declined to 1/2. Unmanaged This set of regulations governs the use and cutting reduced forest value. Fishing management of canals by the Department of industry concentrated. Since 1954 Transport, Canada, and includes the Canso tremendous growth. 1971 agric. - 400 canal. people. 5% labour in forestry. 1972­ 1,244 fishermen, 165 full, 453 part (6-9 1965. County surveys of the four mol· counties bordering the Strait of Canso. Dept. Trade Indust., Halifax, N.S. 1976. Strait of Canso natural environment inventory. Natural environment Contains statistics on pre-1965 population development considerations. Counc. industry, economics, land use, occupations. Maritime Premiers, Maritime Resource Management Serv., 19 p. 1967. Report on freshwater supply in the Strait of Canso area in Nova Scotia. Natural environment parameters: Prepared for N.S. Water Authority. Montreal Engineering Co. Ltd., Fredericton, 1. affecting construction costs N.B. 2. hazards (flooding, et c, ) 3. useful resources 1969. Industrial development in the 4. special habitats Strait of Canso. The Chronicle Herald and Mail Star. Oct. 28, "C" Section, 8 p, 1977. Fisheries Assoc. says holes in Causeway would help but Reid disagrees. This is a newspaper section published in The Sou'wester, Yarmouth, N.S., Oct. 15, 1969, describing the changing development 1977: 7. in the Strait area and its potential for the future. It describes the existing A.R.D.A. Soil capability for agriculture, "boom" conditions, the role of government Canada Land Inventory, Canso F.G. &C. in the area, and the reactions from the Information Canada. community. A general overview of conditions to date. This is a standard general map sheet coveri ng the Strait of Canso area. It 1970. Development strategy for the covers an area of 2821 square miles, gives Strait of Canso area of N.S. Economic general features of the land, main Consultants Limited, 150 Richmond St., industries, forestry, tourism, fishing, and Charlottetown, P.E.I., for the Government a description of the climate (high of Nova Scotia. Cabinet Secretariat on humidity, mean temperature = 40°F, rainfall Planning and Programs. October, 1970. = 40-55 inches). It al so gives the main Project B/200/23. soil characteristics (glacial till, gypsum) and a description of agriculture in the This report was aimed at a practical area. The map is made up of soil survey analysis and assessment of the development reports contained in the Nova Scotia Soil potential and problems of the Canso Strait Survey. area of Nova Scotia. It assumes large-scale development in the future in A.R.D.A. Land capability for recreation, Canada the federally defined "special area." Land Inventory, Canso 11 F.G. &C. Information Canada. 1973. Interim development plan background study. N.S. Dept. Municipal This is a standard general map sheet of the Affairs, Special Area #1, Strait of Canso Strait of Canso area classifying seven region. Community Planning Div., 175 p. classes of land on the basis of recreational use. They are quantified on 1974. Proceedings of the Marine Law the basis of land use (number of visitors), Conference. Port Hawkesbury, N.S. Feb. and potential. Most of the land in the 23, 1974. St. Francis Xavier Univ., Strait of Canso area has low to moderate Antigonish. capability for recreation, except Judique, where it is rated as high. 1974. Municipal development background report. Island side planning Beanlands, G. E. 1973. Deep water port study, area, Strait of Canso region. N.S. Dept. Strait of Canso region. Q~ality of Municipal Affairs, Community Planning Div., Shoreline for Recreation. Lands 270 p. Directorate, Dept. Fish. Environ., Halifax. 1975. Socio-economic environment: This report attempts to describe the effect Strait of Canso Natural Environment of a deep-water port in the area from Inventory. Maritime Resource Management the point of view of the potential economic Serv., Counc. Maritime Premiers, 17 p. + and social hardships imposed on the people map. -54- as a result of marine pollution. There The water-fowl classification (4 groups) is would include not only oil contamination given and concludes that the area is but the degradation of the shoreline's generally severely limited for waterfowl recreational and economic value. production, but navigation regions are extensive (ducks and geese). Cameron, S. D. 1977. The education of Everett Ri chardson. /!lcClelland and Stewart, Forestel, H. Strait of Canso Regional Toronto. Development Plan, Nova Scotia. Community Planning Div., Nova Scotia Dept. ~lunicipal The 1970 Canso fishermen strike and how Affairs, Halifax. fishermen of the area deal with the government and their employers. The completion of the Strait of Canso Causeway in 1955 created a new deep-water, Cavey, J. H. W. 1972. Deep water ports and year-round, ice-free harbour capable of marine transportation. Coastal Zone accommodating very large supertankers. The Proceedings of a Seminar held at Bedford area's potential was quickly recognized and Inst. Oceanogr. Vol. 1 Selected Background a number of major industries moved in. The papers Water Management Serv., Environ. cormunt ty planni ng di visi on prepared a Can, : 19-32. regional development plan for consideration by the six municipalities bordering on the Day, J. K. 1979. A summary of industries Strait. The plan is accompanied by a located in communities bordering on the regional zoning bylaw. It foresees a Strait of Canso. In Canso Marine Environ. popul at ion growth in the area frol'l about Workshop, Part 4. -rish. Mar. Servo Tech. 2,000 to between 20,000 and 30,000 in the Rep. 834. 1980's. The Strait of Canso area is already one of the three main growth Doucett, L. J. 1955. The world's deepest centers in the province. Local government causeway. The Road to the Isles. Univ. change is essenti al for effecti ve manage­ Press of New Brunswick, Fredericton. ment of this region. A local government study is now under way by a consultant This book is a factual and interesting employed by a local steering group. The history of the Canso Causeway, the opening expenses of this group, on which the of the road to Cape Breton and province is represented, are shared between Newfoundland. It describes the building of the provinces and the Federal Dept. of the Causeway, and the factors that led to Regional Economic Expansion (25 and 75% its consideration. respect i vely).

Project Planning Associates, Halifax, N.S. Gallant, L. To, and 1. S. Spencer. 1977. A 1969. Point Tupper Urban Renewal Scheme. study to determine the feasibility of Courses of Action and Reco~endations establ ishing a community-based economic Ri chmond County, N.S. Rep. Nos. 2 and 3, development organization i~ the Guysborough Nova Scotia Dept. of Development, Halifax. area. The Management Services Centre of St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, This report offers courses of action and 67 p. recommendations for the Point Tupper area. It follows the survey and analyses of Jones, Bradelmeier, and Clements Associates. existing conditions in the area, and 1971. Liquid and dry bulk deepwater examines the various courses of action redistribution terminal study. Dept. Trade available. These are listed and generally &. Industry, Government of Canada, Ot t awa , indicate that the area should not be prejudiced against industrial devel opnent , The report summarizes the growth and and offers several plans for the area ­ development of bulk carriers (675 by 1974) total clearance, community development, and of over 100,000 tons B.D.W.T. It compares rehabilitation and phased abandonment. port sites in North America and concludes They reconmend the third option, phase out that the Strait of Canso is "far and away the community. the best site location." It gives the reason why this is so, forseeable services DREE. Land capability for wildlife - waterfowl. that can be offered and why it will be Canada Land Inventory, Canso. 11 F.G. &C. built in Canada rather than the United States (less land reclamation, dredging This is a standard map sheet showing in costs). It compares sites ever-ywher-a Tn color the waterfowl potent i a1 for the Ca nso North and South America, present sites, area. It gives general information on newspaper reports and generally a lot of terrain (rolling, soils are podzols, we l l information regarding terminal facilities to poorly drained), climate (humid tempera­ in this continent. ture), and ecology (forest districts - 3), plant species, waterfowl and wetlands Kent, M. J. 1973. A review of some points in cl assification. the study of the Strait of Canso deepwater -55- port. METRA Consulting, 23 Lower Belgrave 2 and 5, with the recommendations from St., London, Swiwons, England. their reports and his own recommendations. This report is a review of several points Included are the facts that, as he states, regarding the common user dock in the a need is apparent for planning by the Strait area, its feasibility, advantages, province before it is pre-planned by traffic, size distribution, berth industry and then becomes "fait accompli" occupancy, queuing wait time, number of without possible regard of consequences to berths and consideration. factors outside the industries sphere of influence (e.g. environment, community They conclude that a shared structure is planning etcetera). needed, not separate berths, four or five berths per two companies, cross connections Smith, P. 1973. Socio-economic study of the for crude transshipment and refining, Strait of Canso area. Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. navigation should be free for ships (free of Political Science, Queen's Univ., passage, not free fee), limit number of Kingston, Ont. docks on the Island side and modern tugs. St. Francis Xavier University. 1974. Kray, C. J. 1970. Supership effect on waterway Proceedings of the Marine Law Conference, depth and alignments. Amer. Soc. Civil Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia. February 23. Eng. Proc. May 1970, WW 2. The Conference was called to inform people Little, C. H. 1968. Giant bulk carriers. Can. on Marine Law and to make people aware of Geogra. 77: 196-203. long-term dangers to the local environment. The development of large bulk carriers has A talk given by Mr. D. Kerr, Dalhousie been pushed forward with the closure of the University, describes Marine Law, its Suez Canal. This article attempts to bring changes, the new navigation system in the together the impact of these bulk carriers Strait of Canso, and its benefits, a on port facilities in Canada. Point description of new laws, organizations Roberts, British Columbia, and Cape Breton (TOVALOP) and the new Federal regulations Industrial Park are two of the developments (p. 13). Liability is partially spelled stemming from the use of bulk carriers. out (cargo owner, probably an oil company) but it will be difficult to assess MacDonald, A. A., and W. B. Clare. 1966. ecological damage in dollars. Canada has Guysborough shore resources survey. not enacted a low forcing the ship owner to Extension Dept. St. Francis Xavier Univ., prove financial responsibility. Antigonish, N.S. The area ranged from Mulgrave to Ecum Secum. The population is all inshore fishermen. The format for data collection was questionnaires and key informants. Mulgrave, Canso and Guysborough were not included. The four major resource areas: natural, physical, institutional and human were studied. Low productivity reflects inadequacies in the quantity and quality resource inputs as compared to other regions. Again much statistical information is compiled and assessed. Rogers, G. 1972. A summary of the research on the Strait of Canso superport. St. Francis Xavier Univ., Antigonish, N.S. Father Rogers considers the results of six of the reports written for the area and summarizes the findings of three of them. The reports studied are: Jones-Bardelmeier­ Clements Report, the Kaiser Report, The C.N.R. Report, The Bechtel Report for Gulf Oi 1, The "Lang Report" (The Strait of Canso Regional Development Plan - December 1967). The Report of the Economic Consultants of Charlottetown. He includes summaries of 1,