Bangkok Economy in 1937/38

The Bangkok Economy in 1937/38

Porphant Ouyyanont

School of Economics Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University Nonthaburi, 11120 Thailand Email address: [email protected]

This paper attempts to sketch the main features of Bangkok (and Thonburi) economy. The year 1937/38 is a major focus period, with a population census of 1937/38 will be consulted. Despite existing published Population Census of 1937/38, surprisingly, none or very few scholars rarely used this source. Through this source, it will shed light the economic basis of Bangkok in the 1930s.

Following the introduction with which the background and its reliability of the Census of 1937 is discussed, the paper will provide a brief background of Bangkok’s development in the 1930s, findings of various aspects on economic basis from the Census will be presented, and finally major factors contributing the growth of service sector will be discussed.

The Population Census in 1937 as a major source

The first nation wide census of Thailand was undertaken in 1909/10, and was published after revisions in 1910/11 and 1911/12. Subsequent censuses were carried out in 1919/20 and 1929/30 before a more elaborate and painstaking exercise in 1937, conducted by the Ministry of Interior.

The 1937/38 population census is the first significant census for understanding 2

the economic basis of Greater Bangkok, namely Bangkok and Thonburi.1 It focuses on the exact administrative area of Bangkok and Thonburi rather than Monthon Krungthep (namely Bangkok and its surrounding provinces including Nonthaburi, Pathumthani, Thonburi, and Samut Prakan). Pre-1937 census surveys excluded Bangkok proper especially the inner amphoe (districts) which were under the Ministry of the Capital until 1922.

The 1937 Census provides information on age, sex, status in household, marital condition, birth place of self and each parent, nationality, race, religion, literacy, marital condition, educational standard, occupation, employment status, land holdings, livestock and physical defects of the population. The data were collected by appointed officers in every amphoe using western techniques including a standard questionnaire form filled out by every households for interview (Thesaphiban 1936/37).

The census probably undercounts the Chinese population, the largest minority group, because of the nationalist policies conducted since the reign of King Vajiravudh. The Nationality Act of 1913/14, which remained in effect until 1953, stated that any persons any person born in Thailand was to be considered a Thai national. In Bangkok, which had the main concentration of Chinese in Thailand, this law perhaps resulted in the census undercounting the Chinese by 20-25 percent lower, especially the Chinese population in Bangkok. Other factors that caused undercounting a narrow definition of ethnicity, the tendency of Chinese to avoid the census taker or to give false information – a reaction to the various Chinese legislation – and the Business Registration Act of 1936 which aimed to promote the role of ethnic Thai in business by restricting Chinese immigration and imposing literacy requirements to speed the assimilation of the Chinese community into the Thai community.2

1 The Bangkok Postal Census in 1883 is also useful to understand the economic basis of Bangkok in the latter half of the 19th Century, but was designed to facilitate the postal service, and does not cover a defined administrative (see Porphant 2001). 2 For more discussion, see, Wilson (1983: 26), Grabowski (1994: 49-85) 3

A memorandum on the registration of aliens by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on 12 January 1933 stated:

The old Siamese policy has been as a fact to consider Chinese immigrants in the same way as Siamese. They were not taken as aliens. They had all the rights of Siamese subjects. They were even admitted to acquire land when the non-Treaty powers' subjects had no such right under the Decree of the Fourth Reign. No use to justify that policy, which did favour the Chinese immigration at a time when Chinese labour was necessary. It is well known that the government's hope was that those immigrants would become assimilated to Siamese; and this indeed did happen for many years, when Chinese did marry Siamese women, had children educated in local schools and becoming more Siamese than Chinese as soon as from the generation borne in this country. Under this policy, there was no question to treat Chinese immigrants as aliens, and the interest of government was not to do it. (N.A.(3) Office of the Prime Minister 0201.76/1(1929-1953))

The Census classified the population by occupation into three broad economic sectors (agriculture, industry, and services), subdivided into occupations using a standard occupational classification: 1. agriculture and fishery, 2. forestry, 3. commerce, 4. manufacturing, 5. mining, 6. transport and communication, 7. public works, 8. professionals, 9. domestic and 10. clerical services. (Population Census of 1937/38)

Bangkok’s Development in the 1930s: Background

Since its founding in 1782, Bangkok has always been the kingdom’s leading city and during the second half of 19th century its primacy was consolidated and enhanced. Bangkok's development was strongly influenced by Siam's absorption into the international economy. Along with Rangoon and Saigon, Bangkok developed as one of the world's great rice ports. Port facilities, warehouses, ship-repairing yards, and rice mills developed along the river. Capital and labour were attracted to the city. Western influence increased. Foreign trading companies were established, and modern amenities began to make their appearance in the city. Labour flowed from China in increasing numbers at a time when the Siamese countryside was still underpopulated. Chinese migrants played an important role in Bangkok’s commercial development and comprised a substantial portion of its population.

By the 1920s, Bangkok was a modern commercial town, with world famous firms including Siamese English, American, Danish and Dutch operating rice mills and saw mills. Luxurious hotels sprang up such as the Oriental Hotel and Phya Thai Palace Hotel. Trams provided city transport. Bangkok was a centre of the kingdom’s rail transport and water transport. In the early 1930s, despite the existence of a railway network of 6,400 kilometres, more than 80 percent of rice destined for export was carried by water from the interior to the rice mills in Bangkok. In 1932, Bangkok was a still a city of relatively modest size and limited economic base with a population around 700,000 million. (The Population Census of 1929/30)

After the 1932 coup against the absolute monarchy, the government played a larger role in the economy, including founding state enterprises under a policy of economic nationalism. Bangkok became a more inward-looking metropolis. Government infrastructure projects included a new port, National Stadium, King Rama I Bridge, several roads, and Don Muang Airport. In 1937/38, Bangkok was constituted as a municipality which played a part in the development of infrastructure and the extension of the built-up and administrative area to accommodate the city growth.

Bangkok’s population had grown from around 365,000 at the time of the First World War to 702,500 in 1929/30. In the 1930s, the pace of the city’s growth slackened slightly due to political turmoil at home, the great depression in the world, and the restriction of Chinese in-migration. The population of Bangkok-Thonburi recorded in 1937 (Table 1) was 14.6 times the population of Chiang Mai, the 2nd ranked city, and 5 percent of the total urban population.

Table 1. The Population of Bangkok, 1855-1937 Year Population Average Annual Growth Rate (%) 1855 100,000 - 1883 169,300 1.90 1913/14 365,492 2.60 1929/30 702,544 3.92 1937/38 890,453 3.44 Source: N.A. R.6.M. of the Capital 27/3 (1909-14); Terwiel (1989:233) Sternstein (1982: 78); Population Census, 1929/30; Population Census, 1937/38.

After the completion of the King Rama I Bridge in 1932, Thonburi also began to develop. New roads built there including Prachatipok, Somdet Chaophraya, Thonburi, Lard Ya, Wang Lang, Wang Derm and Chiang Mai, helped Thonburi become more commercialised, especially by facilitating the transport of agricultural goods, including perishable fruits such as durian and oranges, destined for domestic consumption and export(Anonymous 1977: 383-389). The construction of roads helped facilitate. Between 1930 and 1937, Thonburi’s population increased from 176,651 to 205, 459 or 2 per cent a year (Population Census of 1937, Vol.1).

In terms of land use, Bagkok was thoroughly urban while Thonburi was still partially rural. Of the total land area of 316,506 rai on the Bangkok side in 1930, some 24,505 rai were devoted to residential, commercial, and industrial uses; 3,941 for government offices: 754 rai for the king’s residences; and 24,505 rai for wat, churches, and public ground. Of the total area of 241,768 rai in Thonburi, only 10,283 rai were residential and commercial land and most was devoted to agricultural production (N.A. M. of Finance 0301.1.1/13(1931). In 1937, the population density in Bangkok was 770.52 per km2, higher than of 521.47 per km2 in Thonburi. The most densely settled amphoe were the business centres of Phranakhon, Samphanthawong, Bang Rak, and Pomprab (Population census of 1937/38)

In the 1930s Bangkok expanded to the north following completion of a road linking Bangkok and Nonthaburi in 1931 (Bangkok Chronicle, 6 November, 1939). In the late 1930s, the city's area also expanded eastwards from the bank of the Padung Krungkasem Canal to Pathumwan, Phetchaburi and Ploenchit (Nangnoi 1991: 459). In addition, parts of other Bangkok districts such as Thung Mahamek, Yannawa, 6

Bang Khen, and Don Muang were also absorbed into the urban area.

Findings

Population

The distribution of population in various areas in Bangkok-Thonburi in 1937/38 is given in Table 2. Unfortunately, there is no way to determine exactly what factors contributed to the population growth since 1929/30 (such as natural growth, migration, area annexation in the period). During the depression, Thai labour migrated in from the countryside around Bangkok. The population of the Bangkok municipality alone grew from 533,104 in 1937 to 556,655 in 1938 and 589,306 in 1939 . In the late 1930s, migration from the provinces increased Bangkok’s population by around 1.8 percent per year and natural growth by about 2.1 percent a year (Paiboon 1975: 236).

Table 3. Population classified by sex in Bangkok-Thonburi, 1937/38

Bangkok Numbers Male Female Nanglerng 38,519 19,456 18,963 Dusit 50,678 22,660 24,018 Bangrak 59,678 31,551 28,127 Yannawa 51,339 26,965 14,374 Pomprab 77,521 45,222 32,299 Patumwan 21,391 32,225 29,166 Samphantawong 36,960 42,200 27,760 Bangsue 61,529 34,060 27,469 Bwonangkhenwonngse 16,232 8,483 7,749 Bangkapi 21,523 11,089 10,434 Phrakanong 35,105 17,899 17,206 Minburi 17,897 9,411 8,486 Ladkrabang 18,492 9,552 8,940 Nongchok 22,272 11,270 10,702 Total 684,994 372,581 312,513

Thonburi Klongsarn 23,096 12,840 10,256 Bangkok noi 28,414 14,846 13,568 Bangkok yai 14,942 7,799 7,143 Bangpalad 10,389 5,448 4,941 Thonburi 26,455 13,639 12,816 Bukkalo 9,344 5,109 4,235 Talingchan 22,372 11,259 11,113 Bangkhuntien 27,238 13,695 13,543 Phasi Charoen 31,799 16,217 15,582 Ratchburana 11,410 6,105 5,305 Total 205,459 106,957 98,502 Source: Population census 1937/38 Vol. 2

Chinese Population

In 1937, the Chinese population of 285,000 was around a third of the total in Bangkok-Thonburi, and 54 percent of the entire Chinese population of Thailand.(Table 3) The figure of the Chinese were undercounted because of the economic nationalism policy. Skinner’s careful estimation for Bangkok-Thonburi in 1952 reckoned Chinese were 51 percent of the population (Skinner (1957).

Table 3 : The Population of Bangkok-Thonburi classified by ethnicity, 1937/38

Bangkok Thonburi Total

Thai 424,893 168269 593,162 Chinese 248,702 36,862 285,564 Khaek* 5,573 30 5,603 Other Asian 4,786 298 5,084 Westerner 1,040 - 1,040 Total 684,994 205,459 890,453 Source : Population Census 1937/38 Vol.1; Khaek* means Indian or Malay

Unfortunately, this Census does not have a breakdown of occupations by ethnicity. Probably the situation was the same as in the 1950s when the Thai 8

dominated, in many cases exclusively, occupations such as rice farmers, general gardeners, food makers and dealers, and sweet dealers, while the Chinese dominated commercial occupations from the highest to the lowest including general laborers, middlemen, traders, and businessmen (Skinner 1957). A population count from 1933/4 (Table 4) shows that the Chinese were found throughout Bangkok-Thonburi were especially concentrated in business districts such as Samphantawong, Bangrak, Phranakhon.

Table 4 Population classified by ethnicity, Bangkok-Thonburi, 1933/34

Total Thai Chinese Westerner Khaek other Bangkok 634,485 400,674 210,999 1,491 20,036 1,285 Pranakorn 82,287 57,450 21,922 54 1,703 158 Nanglerng 35,029 28,988 5,739 17 269 16 Dusit 41,833 32,222 7,586 92 1,923 10 Pomprab 63,193 25,424 16,861 13 798 97 Samphanthawongse 77,839 20,328 56,784 5 496 226 Bangrak 55,531 28,436 23,465 856 2,343 431 Pathumwan 57,451 34,525 21,620 191 1,001 114 Banthawai 53,097 29,179 19,200 207 4,333 178 Bangkhen 13,720 13,068 616 - 36 - Bangsue 43,379 36,490 3,455 28 395 11 Bangkapi 19,638 18,657 907 - 72 2 Phrakanong 31,602 21,488 4,630 27 5,445 12 MinBuri 17,673 16,638 909 - 126 - Lard Krabang 18,052 16,702 1,339 - 11 - Nongchok 24,131 21,079 2,966 1 85 - Thonburi 211,128 171,512 35,408 51 3,851 306 klongsarn 27,200 16,383 9,884 27 665 241 Bangkok yai 16,461 13,017 2,981 2 441 20 Bangyi rue 20,828 14,296 5,332 10 1,166 24 Buggkkalo 11,491 7,644 3,780 3 56 8 pasrichaoen 34,572 30,277 4,288 - 7 - Bangkok noi 22,883 20,603 2,188 3 86 3 Bangplad 17,386 15,125 1,509 - 742 10 Bangkhun thain 28,303 26,016 2,139 - 148 - Talingchan 20,339 19,140 1,191 - 8 - Racthburana 11,665 9,011 2,116 6 532 - Total 845,613 572,186 14,640 1,542 23,887 1,591 Source: N.A. M. of Interior, 2.2.5/428 (2476)

Employment

In 1937, 30 percent of the employed population in Bangkok-Thonburi was 9

engaged in agriculture, 15.4 percent in industry, and 55.6 per cent in the service sector. The structure of employment in Bangkok-Thonbuti was in sharp contrast to that of the whole kingdom where agricultural production, mostly as rice farmers, provided nearly 90 percent of total employment, with only 2 percent in industry and 9 percent in the service sector. As much as 70 percent of the total employed persons were male and only 30 percent female (Table 5).

Table 5: Employment in Bangkok -Thonburi classified by economic sector, 1937/38 Sector Male Female Total Whole kingdom Agriculture and Fishery 54,723 49,123 103,846 6,028,795 Forestry 341 156 497 20,407 commerce 66,080 22,224 88,304 357,336 Manufacturing 41,859 10,538 52,397 129,954 Mining 33 2 35 15, 071 Transport and communication 25,983 661 26,644 58,857 Public works 20,117 348 20,465 62,876 Professional 10,209 3,419 13,628 49,474 Domestic 15,358 11,522 26,880 82,590 Clerical service 7,371 296 7,667 17,923 Total 242,074 98,289 340,363 6,808,212 Source : Population Census classified by Occupations, 1937. Vol.3; Note: includes population aged 10+.

Professions were only 4 percent of the total labour force, but this was beginning of a salaried class, output of the Chulalongkorn University, Thammasat University (at that time the University of Moral and Political Sciences), vocational schools, and various high schools, with a significant female component. In 1937, some 3,200 women graduated at university level (The Population Census of 1937/38.)

In Bangkok alone, around three-quarters of the population were engaged outside agriculture, with 40 percent in commerce and manufacturing, where almost three-quarters of the employees were male (Table 6)

Table 6: Bangkok population classified by economic sector, 1937/38 Sector Male Female Total

Agriculture and Fishery 34,615 30,357 64,972 Forestry 100 8 108 Commerce 58,417 17,058 75,475 Manufacturing 34,915 9,138 44,053 Mining 26 2 28 Communication and transport 22,042 454 22,496 Public sector 16,336 233 16,569 Professional 8,312 2,853 11,165 Domestic 13,467 10,142 23,609 Clerical services 5,731 239 5,970 Total 193,961 70,484 264,445 Source : Population Census 1937/38 Vol.3

In Thonburi, over half were employed in “agriculture and fishery and forestry”, while commerce and manufacturing combined provided 28 percent of total employment (Table 7).

Table 7: Thonburi population classified by economic sector, 1937/38

Sector Male Female Total Agriculture and Fishery 20,108 18,766 38,874 Forestry 241 148 389 commerce 7,663 5,166 12,829 Manufacturing 6,944 1,400 8,344 mining 7 - 7 communication and transport 3,941 207 4,148 public sector 3,781 115 3,896 professional 1,897 566 2,463 homework and personal service 1,891 1,380 3,271 clerk 1,640 57 1,697 Total 48,113 27,805 75,918 Source : Population Census 1937/38. Vol.3 11

Agriculture

A quarter of the Bangkok-Thonburi population were engaged in agriculture. Over four-fifths of them were rice farmers, and most of the others were orchard gardeners. Within Bangkok, there was still 743,345 rai of cultivated farm land of which 635,000 rai of land (88 percent) was devoted to rice cultivation, followed by orchards and gardens (Table 8)

Table 8: Number of agricultural households and agricultural land in Bangkok- Thonburi in 1937/38

Total Agricultural Percent Cultivated percent household household area (rai) Bangkok 100,071 20,533 20.5 533,782 96.0 854(km2) Thonburi 31,897 14,229 44.6 189,563 76.9 303(km2) Bangkok- 131,968 34,762 26.3 743,345 97.1 Thonburi (648km2) Source : Population Census 1937/38 Vol.4

In 1937/38, rice production in Bangkok and Thonburi amounted to 124,679.9 tonnes of which 82 percent came from Bangkok. Bangkok-Thonburi’s rice production was estimated around 2.7 percent of national production (Siam Statistical yearbook, 1937/38).

Of the total farm land, 44 percent was owner-occupied, 42 percent rented, and the remainder mixed. Land utilization in Bangkok was shown that cultivated area was around 97 percent of planted area, while in Thonburi shows lower proportion. (Table 9)

Table 9: Agricultural households and agricultural land in Bangkok-Thonburi, 1937/38 Total Agricultural Percent Cultivated Percent number of household area (rai) household Bangkok 100,071 20,533 20.5 533,782 96.0 854(km2) Thonburi 31,897 14,229 44.6 189,563 76.9 303(km2) Bangkok- 131,968 34,762 26.3 743,345 97.1 Thonburi (648km2)

Source : Population Census 1937/38 Vol.4

Unfortunately, the 1937/38 population census does not classify agricultural households into owner-occupiers and tenants, but Zimmerman’s rural economic survey in 1930/31, Zimmerman’s rural economic survey found that some 78 percent of the agricultural households in Bangkok and 54 percent in Thonburi were landless. Land was clearly in the hands of a few big landlords, similar to the landholding situation in adjacent provinces such as Ayutthaya and Pathumthani.3

Table 10 : Farm land classified by ownership in Bangkok-Thonburi, 1937/38 (rai)

Paddy Upland Garden Orchards Other Total

Bangkok 515,634 404 3,793 13,338 2,940 536,109 Owner occupied 207,193 148 900 7,725 99 216,065 Rented 232,310 256 2868 5,185 511 241,130 Owned and rented 76,131 - 431 5,132 76,562 Thonburi 124,356 655 5,270 50,150 7,283 185,563 Owner Occupied 63,488 410 2,973 32,650 1,826 106,804 Rented 44,086 245 2,056 15,135 24 63,348 Owned and rented 16,782 - 240 2,365 8,072 19,411

Bangkok- Thonburi 639,990 1059 9,063 63,488 2940 721,672 Source : Population Census 1937/38, Vol 4

3 See, Zimmerman (1931) and Pasuk (1995) 13

Industry

In 1937/38 rice mills in Bangkok-Thonburi employed some 5,000 workers, most of them probably Chinese. The bulk of the industrial labour force worked in medium-scale establishments employing 100-600 workers, including factories to make matches, cement, beer, cigarettes, and tobacco (Table 11). A great many establishments employed 20-100 worker including soap, ice, printing establishments, paper, goldsmiths, silversmiths and jewelers, packaging. In addition there were many smaller businesses such as tailors shops, construction firms (and individuals), food and dessert making, and various crafts such as carpenters, cement mixers, boat makers, machinery and metal shops (Population Census, 1937/38, Vol. 3)

Table 11: Employed persons in major industries in Bangkok-Thonburi, 1937/38 Industries Bangkok Thonburi Total

Rice mills 2,700 2,340 5,040 Saw mills 1,760 675 2,435 Tanneries 243 86 329 Electricity power plant 823 - 823 Textile factories 862 190 1052 Food and desserts 1,299 214 1,513 Ice factories 322 26 348 Whisky distilleries 73 328 401 Match factories 748 23 771 Soap factories 233 115 348 Cigarette and tobacco factories 967 29 996 Brewery 307 13 320 Glazing works 75 4 79 Paper mill 100 13 113 Cement Plant and tile and container products 971 66 1037 Machinery and metal shops 288 35 323 Packaging factories 237 7 244 Printing houses 2,645 250 2,895 Pharmaceutical 130 7 137 Movies making 660 37 697 Building construction 1,811 83 1,894 Tailors 4,466 357 4,823 Artisan sewing embroidery 1,925 159 2,084 weavers 2,117 9 2126 Making yarn and woven fabric 862 418 1,280 Craftsman, independent professionals and other workers* 22,789 3,241 26,030 Source: Compiled from Population Census 1937/38, Vol.3

Industrialization in Bangkok in the 1930s was very limited, practically limited to the preparation of agricultural produce, the building trade, utilities, and a few 14

factories making consumer goods for local use. The exceptions were a few major factories making cement, beer, match and matches, while the remainder were light industries such as rice mills, saw mills, tanning leather, paper making, soap, nails, tobacco, water jars, and matches. Numerous small factories making handicrafts and essential household goods such as kitchenware and water jars, as well as various handicrafts of carpentry, furniture-making, boot and shoe-making, boat-building, and tailoring were mostly in Chinese hands. (Anonymous c.the early 1920s) 4

Service sector

The service sector provided the largest share of employment in Bangkok- Thonburi. The sector included commerce, transport and communications, public works, and professional, domestic, and clerical services, with a total employment of 183,588. Within this sector, commerce employed 48.1 percent, followed by domestic service and transport and communication with 14.5 percent each (Table 12).

Table 12: Employments in service sector in Bangkok-Thonburi classified by sub-sector in 1937/38

Service sector male female total percent

Commerce 66,080 22,224 88,304 48.1 Transport and Communication 25,983 661 26,644 14.5 Public works 20,117 348 20,465 11.1 Professional 10,209 3,419 13,628 7.4 Domestic 15,358 11,522 26,880 14.6 Clerical service 7,371 296 7,667 4.2 Total 145,118 38,470 183,588 100.0 Source : Population Census 1937/38, Vol.3

Among the small cadre of professionals, the largest categories were medical doctors including traditional doctors, movie stars, actors and actresses, engineers and electricians Although, there were a growing demand for tertiary education, universities and other institutes of higher education had rather low enrolments. The two universities, Chulalongkorn (established 1917) and Thammasat (established

4 The reasons why industrial development in the 1930s was not developed, and stagnated, please see Porphant (2012:43-60) 15

1934) primarily aimed to provide recruits for public administration. Chulalongkorn offered degrees in arts, sciences, engineering, architecture, medicine, pharmacy, nursing and veterinary, while Thammasat offered degrees in economics, political science, diplomacy and law, and general social sciences. In 1937/38, only some 5,056 students graduated at tertiary level, of which 4,000 were in Bangkok-Thonburi. These figures show that higher education was concentrated in the capital and relatively inaccessible elsewhere (Population Census 1937/38 , Vol 2).

Commerce absorbed a very large portion of workers both in formal and informal sectors. Selling food, fruits, and beverages, and miscellaneous goods at vending stalls employed 37,684 people, over two-fifths of the total employed in commence.

In the wholesale and retail trade, the major occupations were selling silk fabric and cloth (2,055 persons), shoes (1,210), silverware (1.646), building and construction equipment (1,222), and stationery (437) ( Table 13 based on Population Census 1937/38 , Vol 2).

The growth of a land-based city was reflected in the large numbers employed in land transport (trams, train, buses, hired cars). Rickshaws employed 7,900, and the railways 3,888 employed workers. Waterway transport employed 6,439 as motor boat drivers, shipping workers, and so on. (Table 3 and Population Census, 1937/38, Vol. 3)

Table 13: Major employment in service sector in Bangkok-Thonburi, 1937/38

Bangkok Thonburi Total COMMERCE Subtotal Food, fruits and beverages 23,547 3,879 27,426 Selling miscellaneous goods at stalls 21,741 4,243 25,984 Wholesale and retail trade* 11,702 18,23 11,702 Itinerate consumption goods 8,433 2,334 10,767 Banking, insurance, real estate, finance, 3,134 402 3,536 warehousing Pharmacy 2,009 164 2,173 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION 16

subtotal Water transport 3,982 2,457 6,439 Land transport 13,515 955 14,470 Other transport 2,848 403 3,251 Telegraph, radio, telephone 1,020 328 1,348 PROFESSIONAL subtotal Physician doctors (including traditional 1,653 328 1,981 doctors) Dentist 141 12 153 Nurse 506 76 582 Lawyer 242 25 267 Engineers 163 48 211 Electrician 113 29 142 mechanic 1013 165 1178 Movie star, actor, actress, musician 1,605 161 1,766 Architect 129 55 184 Arts and crafts 334 96 430 PUBLIC WORKS Subtotal Civil servants (not include military) 2,672 646 3,318 Unskilled Government employees 3,053 247 3,300 Other 10,856 2,603 13,459 CLERICAL SERVICES 5,090 1,697 6,787 DOMESTIC 13,609 3,271 16,880 Source: Population Census, 1937/38, Vol. 3

Note:* including contraction materials, repairing vehicles

Discussion

How can we explain the diversification of occupations in service sectors in Bangkok in 1937? Three factors are of particular significance.

First, the sheer size and importance of the city, approaching a million people, growing at over 3 percent a year, and monopolizing the wealth, power and urban activity of the kingdom. The market was large, providing opportunities for economies of scope in both the input-supply side (production services, credit services and skills), and the output side (the multiplicity of transport, marketing and communication services to reach consumers and markets elsewhere). This was reflected in the geography of the city, with areas developing specializations, such as Thai and modern medicines and import businesses on Chaoreonkrung Road, printing businesses and the sale of daily consumption goods for monks on Bamrung Muang Road, cloth and 17

clothing on Phahurat road, and alms-bowls on Boriphat road (Ministry of Commerce, 1939; Tud, 1931).

Second, the impact of the world depression of the 1930s on Bangkok and the Thai economy in general was relatively modest. In the depth of the depression, the flow of migrants from China was reduced, and in the worst years, there was a net outflow, reducing the extent of employment caused by lower production at the rice mills and other factories. The outstanding feature of Thailand’s foreign trade during the 1930s was the maintenance of a favourable trade balance, despite falling prices, intensified competition from other rice exporters, and efforts by importing nations to boost domestic production. Although the trade balance fell sharply between 1929 and 1932, there was significant recovery thereafter, and during the second half of the decade the balance equaled the levels of 1925-29. The quantity of rice exports remained well above their 1925-29 average for most of the 1930s. At constant 1913 prices, the value of rice exports was 38 percent higher in 1938 than it had been in 1929, while the quantity of total exports rose even higher, increasing by nearly 70 percent (Sompop (1989: 252). Thailand thus survived the 1930s rather well. Peasants growing rice, fruit, and vegetables enjoyed a higher income than Chinese unskilled labourers in Bangkok. (Ingram 1964)

Third, rice export brought an increase in foreign income earnings, injecting more demand into the Bangkok economy for goods and services. From the 1880s to the 1970s, rice was the country’s major export, growing from around 10,000 tons annually in the 1860s to around 500,000 tons in the 1890s and to over 1 million tons by the 1920s. Rice milling, brokerage, export finance, insurance, shipping, canal- building and land development all stemmed from the income of this trade, creating demand for investment in urban infrastructure of roads, ports, bridges, electricity generation, water works, and transport facilities to accommodate the growing non- agricultural sector, especially services.

Reference

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N.A. R.6.M. of the Capital 27/3 (1909-14) N.A.R.6 M. of the Capital 31.3/48 (1919) N.A. M. of Finance 0301.1.1/13 (1931) N.A. M. of Interior, 2.2.5/428 (1933) (N.A.(3) Office of the Prime Minister 0201.76/1(1929-1953))

Publications in Thai and English

Anonymous c. 1920s. Siam Resources. Anonymous 1977. Phra at ratwat lae phra ratch kor Raneeyakhit nai phra bat somdet Phra paramin prachathipok prapok klao chao yoo hua พระราชประวัติและพระ ราชกรณียกิจในพระบาทสมเด็จพระปรมินทรมหาประชาธิปก พระปกเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว [Biography and Royal Duties of King Prachatipok], Bangkok: RuangSilp Publishing Office. Baker, C 2005. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Nangnoi Swasssri et.al แน่งน้อย ศักดิ์ศรี และคณะ 1991. Ong prakob thang kaiyaparb krung rattanakosin องค์ประกอบทางกายภาพกรุง รัตนโกสินทร์ ฯ [The Composition of Physical Growth]. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. Donner, W 1982. The Five Faces of Thailand: An Economic Geography, Queensland: University of Queensland Press. Grabowski,V 1996. The Thai Census of 1904: Translation and Analysis, Journal of The Siam Society, Vol.84, Part 1 pp. 49-85 Hewison, K 1988. Industry prior to industrialisation: Thailand, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 18 (4), pp. 389-411 Ingram, J. C. 1964. "Thailand's Rice and the Allocation of Resources", in Cowan, C.D (ed) the Economic Development of South-East Asia, London: George Allen and Urwin, pp. 102-126. Ingram, J. C. 1971. Economic Change in Thailand,1850-1970. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Paiboon Changrien ไพบูลย์ ช่างเรียน 1976. การปกครองมหานคร karn pok krong mahanakhon [The Public Administration of Metropolis], Bangkok: Thai Wattana Panich. Pasuk Phongpaichai, Baker, C. 1995. Thailand : Economy and Politics. Kula Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Porphant Ouyyanont 1999. Physical and Economic Change in Bangkok, 1851-1925, Southeast Asian Studies, 36 (4), pp. 437-474. Porphant Ouyyanont and Tsubouchi Yoshihiro, 2001. Aspects of the Place and Role 19

of the Chinese in Late Nineteenth Century Bangkok, Southeast Asian Studies, Vol.39.No.3, December, pp.384-397 Porphant Ouyyanont 2012. Underdevelopment and Industrialisation in Pre-War Thailand. Australian Economic History Review, Vol.52 Number 1 March, pp. 43-60. Skinner, G.W. 1957. Chinese Society in Thailand : An Analytical History. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Sompop Manarungsan 1989. Economic Development of Thailand 1850-1950, Response to the Challenge of the World Economy. Bangkok: Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalaongkorn University. Sternstein, L. 1982. Portrait of Bangkok. Bangkok : Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. Suehiro, A. 1996. Capital Accumulation in Thailand, 1855-1855. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books Terwiel, B.J. 1989. Through Travellers's Eyes : An Approach to Early Nineteenth Century Thai History. Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol.

Thailand. กรมการปกครอง.2484 Department of Government การส ารวจส ามะโนครัวทั่วราชอาณาจักรทั่วราชอาณาจักร พ.ศ .2480 ประชากรแห่งท้องที่ต่างๆเล่ม 1 kan samruad sammanokrua tour ratarnachak por sor 2480 [Population Census of 1937/38, Vol.1 classified by various area], Ministry of Interior Thailand. กรมการปกครอง. 2484 การส ารวจส ามะโนครัวทั่วราชอาณาจักรทั่วราชอาณาจักร พ.ศ. 2480 kan samruad sammanokrua tour ratarnachak por sor 2480 ประชากรจ าแนกตาม ลักษณะต่างๆ เล่ม 2 [Population Census of 1937/38 Vol.2.classified by various characteristics], Ministry of Interior Thailand. กรมการปกครอง. 2484 การส ารวจส ามะโนครัวทั่วราชอาณาจักรทั่วราชอาณาจักร พ.ศ. 2480 : อาชีพเล่ม 3 kan samruad sammanokrua tour ratarnachak por sor 2480 [Population Census of 1937/38 Vol.3classified by occupations], Ministry of Interior Thailand. กรมการปกครอง 2484 การส ารวจส ามะโนครัวทั่วราชอาณาจักรทั่วราชอาณาจักร พ.ศ. 2480 เล่ม 4. kan samruad sammanokrua tour ratarnachak por sor 2480 [Population Census of 1937/38 Vol.4 Agriculture.] Ministry of Interior Thailand. Department of Railways 1931. The Record 1930. Ministry of Commerce and Communication Thailand. Department of Commerce. 1939. Thai Kha ไทยค้า [The Directory of Thai Commerce] Ministry of Commerce Thailand. Varied Departments, Statistical Yearbook of the Kingdom of Siam. Various Ministries Thailand. Department of Interior 1936/37. Thesaphiban เทศาภิบาล Vol.36 Part, 10. Ministry of Interior,pp.1647-1662. Tud Prommanob ถัด พรหมมาณพ 1931.. Phumisat Monthon krung thep ภูมิศาสตร์มณฑลกรุงเทพฯ [The Geography of Bangkok], Bangkok: Thammapitayakarn Publishing Office. Thesaphiban เทศาภิบาล 1936/37 Vol. 36, Part 10, pp. 1641-1661 20

Wilson, C. M. 1983. Thailand: A Handbook of Historical Statistics, Boston: G.K. hall & Co. Zimmerman .C. 1931. Siam: Rural Economic Survey, 1930/31. Bangkok: Bangkok Times Press.