Using the Media to Achieve Reproductive Health and Gender Equity © Population Media Center, 2011 Population Media Center (PMC) P.O. Box 547, Shelburne, Vermont 05482 USA Tel: 1-802-985-8156 Fax: 1-802-985-8119 Website: www.populationmedia.org

This publication may be freely reviewed, quoted, reproduced or translated, in part or in full, provided the source is acknowl- edged. The document may not be sold or used in conjunction with commercial purposes without prior written permission from Population Media Center.

The views expressed in this document are solely the responsibility of the authors. Using the Media to Achieve Reproductive Health and Gender Equity Preface by Werner Haug Director, Technical Division United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)

UNFPA, the United Nations Population Fund, is an international development “Because agency that promotes the right of every woman, man and child to enjoy a life of health and equal opportunity. UNFPA supports countries in using population data everyone for policies and programs to reduce poverty and to ensure that every pregnancy is wanted, every birth is safe, every young person is free of HIV, and every girl and counts” woman is treated with dignity and respect. For over 40 years, UNFPA has sought to improve reproductive health in the developing world, with a special emphasis on women’s empowerment, gender equality, and HIV prevention.

UNFPA works to help governments worldwide to develop evidence-based programs and policies, based on solid data and best practices in the field.

UNFPA’s work is guided by key principles, as documented in the landmark Cairo Programme of Action, which continues to guide governments and the international community and contribute to our work to achieve the Millennium Development Goals.

The Cairo Programme of Action calls for “…greater and more effective use of the entertainment media, including radio and television soaps operas and drama, folk theatre and other traditional media to encourage public discussion of important but sometimes sensitive topics related to the implementation of the present Programme of Action.” (ICPD Programme of Action, Article 11.23)

This publication is designed to aid UNFPA’s partners to more effectively use the media, especially entertainment programs, to help audience members achieve reproductive health and gender equity. The various chapters present best practices in the field of entertainment-education for social change.

We encourage media practitioners to make use of the wealth of knowledge presented in this compilation to build a better world for us all. Preface by William N. Ryerson President, Population Media Center

Every day, more than 225,000 people are added to the planet. Every day, “Acting for approximately 100 other species go extinct.

These figures, as terrifying as they are, mask the human suffering that is Change” at the heart of the global population crisis. All over the world, women suffer disproportionately from a lack of information about family planning, reproductive health services, and the prevention of HIV/AIDS.

Every year, 343,000 women die from pregnancy and childbirth – a figure equal to the number of the American soldiers killed in the Civil War, World War I, the Korean War and Vietnam combined. Most of the women who die are in their teens and early twenties, forced by their societies into bearing children too young and far too frequently. Data from demographic surveys worldwide make it clear that non-use of family planning often results from misinformation and male opposition – exactly the types of barriers that entertainment-education programs can most effectively overcome.

Population Media Center, Inc. (PMC) is a nonprofit international nongovernmental organization working worldwide to promote use of effective communication strategies for promoting behavior change to encourage family and reproductive health.

In 2005, UNFPA commissioned PMC to develop a training guide for journalists and media personnel in how to develop effective behavior change communication programs employing entertainment-education techniques.

As a companion piece to that training guide, this manual documents best practices from different communication strategies aimed at improving reproductive health, gender equity and mitigation of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. To develop the manual, PMC held a seminar of researchers, writers, producers, and program managers who are using entertainment-education in various contexts worldwide to compare obstacles and lessons learned and to share best practices in use of the approach. The papers that were presented during that seminar were compiled into the present document.

We encourage you to make use of the wealth of knowledge presented in this compilation to use mass media to promote positive social change.

Table of Contents

Preface

I. THE METHODOLOGY AND ITS HISTORY

Chapter 1: Sex, Soap, and Social Change: Theories Underlying the Sabido Methodology ...... 2 Kriss Barker

Chapter 2: Evolution of the Sabido Methodology of “Entertainment-Education” ...... 12 Miguel Sabido

Chapter 3: A Brief History of Entertainment-Education for Behavior Change ...... 20 David O. Poindexter

II. KEY PRINCIPLES

Chapter 4: Social Cognitive Theory and Media Production ...... 30 Albert Bandura

Chapter 5: The Use of Formative Research in Entertainment-Education ...... 39 Earl Babbie

Chapter 6: Monitoring Entertainment-Education Programs ...... 47 Peter W. Vaughan

Chapter 7: Studying Entertainment-Education Effects: ...... 62 Going Beyond the Usual Arvind Singhal

III. APPLICATIONS OF THE SABIDO METHODOLOGY

Chapter 8: The Effectiveness of Entertainment-Education: Case Studies from Around the World ...... 72 William N. Ryerson

Chapter 9: The Successful Application of a Comprehensive Behavior Change Communication Program in Ethiopia and Implications for Communication Projects Elsewhere ...... 81 Negussie Teffera

Chapter 10: Social Merchandising: Contributing to the Empowerment and Autonomy of Communities ...... 88 Marcio R. Schiavo

About the Authors ...... 99

1 CHAPTER 1

Sex, Soap, and Social Change: Theories Underlying the Sabido Methodology

Kriss Barker Population Media Center

Photo by Ephraim Okon 2 1. INTRODUCTION

The Sabido methodology is a proven approach to developing effective mass-media serial dramas. However, unlike typical “soap operas,” Sabido-style serial dramas are not used to sell sex or soap, but rather, social change.

In this chapter we explore the Sabido methodology and the reasons why this theory-based approach to behavior change communication has been so successful. How do Sabido-style serial dramas differ from “soaps” and how does the Sabido methodology differ from other entertainment-education approaches? Why do audiences from the Philippines to India, from Tanzania to Ethiopia, and from Mexico to Bolivia find these dramas irresistible – and much more than merely educating in an entertaining way? And what does the future hold for the application of the Sabido methodology to Miguel Sabido rethinking the very foundation of comprehensive behavior 2. RESULTS change communication programs? Mkwaju is a truck driver along the national routes in Tanzania. Miguel Sabido: Although Mkwaju is married, he has many ‘girlfriends’ along his “Entertainment With Proven Social Benefit” route – he is quite the sexual athlete. Tunu, Mkwaju’s subservient wife, stays at home to care for their children. She is becoming more Miguel Sabido was Vice President for Research at Televisa and more frustrated with her husband’s antics, especially the way he (Mexican television) during the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. squanders his earnings on women and alcohol. She finally decides to While at Televisa, Sabido developed a theoretical model take things into her own hands, and starts her own small business, for eliciting pro-social attitudinal, informational, selling vegetables in the market. The business does well, thus giving and behavioral change through commercial television Tunu the self-confidence to leave Mkwaju. Mkwaju contracts HIV as programming. He called this model “entertainment a result of his high-risk lifestyle, and eventually develops symptoms of with proven social benefit.” AIDS. In an act of compassion, Tunu cares for him until he dies. But, his legacy lives on through his son, Kibuyu, who is beginning to follow Between 1975 and 1981, Miguel Sabido produced six social in his father’s footsteps. He regularly smokes marijuana with his content serial dramas in Mexico. During the decade 1977 friends on the outskirts of the city, and steals money from unsuspecting to 1986, when many of these Mexican soap operas were passers-by. Will Kibuyu suffer the same fate as his father? Or, will he on the air, the country underwent a 34 percent decline learn from his mother how to succeed in life? (Haji, 2004) in its population growth rate. As a result, in May 1986, the United Nations Population Prize was presented to The above excerpt from Twende na Wakati (“Let’s Go With Mexico as the foremost population success story in the the Times”), a radio serial drama broadcast twice weekly world. over Radio Tanzania, demonstrates the power of the Sabido methodology. The program was evaluated using Thomas Donnelly, then with USAID in Mexico, wrote, an experimental design, pre- and post-intervention “Throughout Mexico, wherever one travels, when measurements of dependent variables, and measurement people are asked where they heard about family triangulation using an independent data source to provide planning, or what made them decide to practice family more definitive evidence of the effects of the strategy planning, the response is universally attributed to on behavior change (Rogers et al., 1999). It was the first one of the soap operas that Televisa has done. ... The evaluation of an entertainment-education program to apply Televisa family planning soap operas have made the all three of these evaluation components on a national level. single most powerful contribution to the Mexican population success story.”

3 2.1 Results of Twende na Wakati (Tanzania) style serial dramas achieve results because they are developed using an empirical and reproducible approach to behavior Beginning in July 1993, Radio Tanzania broadcast Twende change communication via mass media. In fact, every detail na Wakati twice weekly during prime time (at 6:30 p.m.) of a Sabido-style serial drama is developed according to a for 30 minutes. However, the radio station at Dodoma (in theoretical and empirical research-based formula in order to the central region of the country) did not broadcast this reinforce a coherent set of interrelated values that is tied program, and instead broadcast locally produced programs to specific pro-social behaviors. The Sabido methodology is at this time, thus serving as the comparison area in the field also a replicable methodology that, although formularized, experiment. The Dodoma area received all other elements is still adaptable to the individual values and cultures of of the national family planning program, including several each country where it is used (Singhal et al., 2004). The other radio programs. Then, in September 1995, after 2 years pioneering research of Dr. Ana Cristina Covarrubias in 1974 of broadcasts, Radio Tanzania began broadcasting Twende na was the foundation for a series of research studies which Wakati in the Dodoma area, starting with the first episode have further proven the effectiveness of this methodology (Haji, 2004). over a 30-year period.

By the end of 1993, Twende na Wakati was the most popular radio The Sabido methodology is based on theoretical and social program in Tanzania. An independent study of the impact research that is used to develop mass media serial dramas of the program showed significant impacts on attitudes based on the realities that people in the audience face daily. and behavior (Rogers et al., 1999). (For a more thorough These dramas communicate at the emotional level as well discussion of the findings of this program, see Chapter 8 of as the cognitive level, and further establish the conditions this manual). for social learning to take place. Sabido-style serial dramas portray role models who realistically learn to live more 2.2 Results of Yeken Kignit (Ethiopia) fulfilling personal and interpersonal lives (Singhal et al., 2004). More recently, Population Media Center (PMC) produced a radio serial drama in Ethiopia using the Sabido methodology for behavior change communication. The program, Yeken Kignit (“Looking Over One’s Daily Life”), was broadcast in the Amharic language over Radio Ethiopia in 257 episodes between June 2, 2002 and November 27, 2004.

An independent evaluation of the impact of the program was conducted through a baseline survey in May 2002 and a post-broadcast survey in December 2004. Findings from this study show significant results in terms of family planning and HIV/AIDS knowledge and practice. In most cases, there were significant differences in these knowledge and behavior Real-life fistula patient in Nigeria motivated by Population Media Center’s change measures between listeners and non-listeners of radio serial drama Gugar Goge to seek treatment. Yeken Kignit, showing that the program had a differential effect on knowledge and behavior between listeners and non- The Sabido methodology is a comprehensive approach for listeners. (For a more thorough discussion of the findings of reinforcing pro-social attitudes and for motivating behavior this program, see Chapter 8 of this manual). change using mass media channels. Sabido’s approach comprises a theoretical dimension as well as methodologies 3.0 THE SABIDO METHODOLOGY: AN EMPIRICAL AND for formative and summative evaluation research that REPRODUCIBLE APPROACH TO ENTERTAINMENT-EDUCATION are adaptable to varied commercial media and national infrastructures (Singhal et al., 2004). Twende na Wakati and Yeken Kignit produced impressive behavior change results because they were designed using the Sabido The major tenet of the Sabido methodology is that education methodology, which uses elements of communication and does not have to be boring – and that entertainment can behavioral theories to reinforce specific values, attitudes, be educational. Sabido originally termed his approach and behaviors (Nariman, 1993). The results from Tanzania “entertainment with proven social benefit.” Since then, and Ethiopia demonstrate that the design of the serial drama many communication professionals and scholars have is crucial to achieving successful behavior change. Sabido- applied the term “entertainment-education” to the Sabido

4 approach. However, the Sabido methodology is more effective Many of these entertainment-education programs have than other forms of entertainment-education. attracted large audiences and have brought about major audience effects in knowledge, attitudes, and behavior Let us begin by defining entertainment-education, and then (Singhal et al., 2004). However, although they certainly explain how the Sabido methodology differs from other produce results, these various entertainment-education entertainment-education strategies. programs have not demonstrated the same magnitude of effects or cost-effectiveness achieved by Sabido-style programs, such as Twende na Wakati and Yeken Kignit (Figueroa “Entertainment-education is defined as the process of purposely et al., 2002). designing and implementing a media message to both entertain and educate, in order to increase audience members’ knowledge about an 4. WHAT MAKES SABIDO-STYLE PROGRAMS SO DIFFERENT educational issue, create favorable attitudes, shift social norms, and FROM OTHER FORMS OF ENTERTAINMENT-EDUCATION? change overt behavior” (Singhal & Rogers, 2002; Singhal et al., 2004). Successful use of the Sabido methodology hinges on two key Singhal further defines entertainment-education as a factors: (1) use of the serial drama format, and (2) rigorous “performance which captures the interest or attention adherence to the theories underlying the methodology. of an individual, giving them pleasure, amusement, or Also, most entertainment-education programs are devoted gratification while simultaneously helping the individual to to sending messages, whereas the Sabido methodology uses develop a skill or to achieve a particular end by boosting his/ characters as vicarious role models to demonstrate the her mental, moral or physical powers” (Singhal & Rogers, desired behaviors. The use of these vicarious role models is a critical element of successful application of the Sabido 2002). A common goal of entertainment-education programs approach. is to entertain and educate audiences in order to catalyze social change in a socially desirable manner. 4.1 Use of the Serial Drama

Since the 1980s, the entertainment-education strategy has First and foremost, the Sabido methodology requires the use been used in over 200 health intervention programs in over of serial drama. Serial dramas continuing for several months 50 countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia, dealing or years are an extremely powerful form of entertainment- mainly with reproductive health issues such as HIV/AIDS education that can influence both specific health behaviors prevention, family planning, environmental health, teenage and related social norms. Why? pregnancy prevention, and gender equality (Singhal & Rogers, 2002). • Serial dramas capture the attention and the emotions of the audience on a continual basis. • Serial dramas provide repetition and continuity, allowing Entertainment-education comes in many different sizes and audiences to identify more and more closely over time shapes: with the fictional characters, their problems, and their • Single films and videos have been important in Asia and social environment. Africa where they are shown from video vans as well as • Serial dramas allow time for characters to develop a on national media. change in behavior slowly, with hesitations and setbacks • Variety shows are increasingly popular with youth in that occur in real life. developing countries – many of these programs engage • Serial dramas have various subplots that can introduce young people directly in content and production (Kiragu different issues in a logical and credible way through et al., 1998). different characters, a key characteristic of conventional • Television and radio spots often include entertainment- soap operas. education through short narratives or through use of • Serial dramas can build a realistic social context that will familiar characters (Kincaid et al., 1996; Underwood, mirror society and create multiple opportunities to 2001). present a social issue in various forms (Coleman & Meyer, 1990). • Locally, street theater, community radio, indigenous storytellers, drama contests, and community rallies By modeling the process of change gradually, serial dramas with local performers incorporate and/or adapt national are less likely to result in backlash or negative reactions by entertainment-education productions (Valente et al., 1996). the audience than programs that try to bring about behavior • Popular songs and music videos, which are inspired by the change too quickly. Ideally, Sabido-style serial dramas should role modeling techniques used in Sabido-style serial continue for at least 120-180 episodes (over the course of two dramas, have been developed in many countries. or more years).

5 Serial dramas can present different perspectives and Table 1. Theories Underlying the Sabido Methodology stimulate audience questioning and discussions that can lead Theory Function in Sabido-Style Soap Opera to both individual health behavior change and to a change in social norms (Singhal & Rogers, 2002; Singhal et al., 2004; Communication Model Provides a model for the communication Johns Hopkins University, 1997; Figueroa et al., 2002; Kincaid, (Shannon and Weaver) process through which distinct sources, 1993; Kincaid, 2002; Netherlands Entertainment Education messages, receivers, and responses are Foundation & Johns Hopkins University, 2001). As Phyllis linked. Piotrow, former director of the Center for Communication Dramatic Theory (Bentley) Provides a model for characters, their Programs at Johns Hopkins University states, “Of all the interrelationships, and plot construction. formats for entertainment-education programs which have been adapted, developed, tested, or contributed to, serial Archetypes and Stereotypes Provides a model for characters that (Jung) embody universal human physiological drama – on television where possible, or on radio when and psychological energies. access to television is limited – has proven to be a highly effective format to promote long-term changes in health Social Learning Theory Provides a model in which learning from behavior and to influence the social norms that can reinforce (Bandura) soap opera characters can take place. such change” (in Singhal & Rogers, 2004, page 43). Concept of the Triune Brain Provide a model for sending complete (MacLean) and Theory of messages that communicate with various the Tone (Sabido) centers of perception.

Source: Theories Underlying the Sabido Methodology (Source: Nariman H. Soap operas for social change. Westport, CT: Praeger; 1993.)

4.2.1 Communication Model: Shannon & Weaver, 1949

Shannon and Weaver’s Communication Model has five basic factors, arranged in a linear format. The components in this model are: Source, Transmitter, “Noise,” Receiver, and Destination (Shannon & Weaver, 1949).

Actors recording an episode of Yeken Kignit, a radio serial drama broadcast nationally throughout Ethiopia. Figure 1. Shannon and Weaver’s Model of Communication

Information 4.2 Theories Underlying the Methodology Source Transmitter Receiver Destination

Second, the Sabido methodology is based on various theories of communication and psychology, each of which plays an essential role in the development of a Sabido-style serial Message Signal Received Message drama (see Table 1). The application of these theories is Signal critical to the success of the Sabido methodology in achieving behavior change.

The different theories that guide the development of “Noise” Sabido-style serial dramas provide the methodology with Source: Shannon CE and W. Weaver, eds., The Mathematical Theory of Communica- a foundation for the structure and design of messages, tion. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1949. Cited in: Nariman H. Soap operas for social settings, characters, and plots – a foundation that is based on change. Westport, CT: Praeger; 1993. formative research. The theories also provide a framework for articulating hypotheses for summative (evaluation) research on the impact of the program.

6 Sabido adapted Shannon and Weaver’s linear diagram to 4.2.2 Dramatic Theory: Bentley, 1967 form a communication circuit that depicted the circular nature of the communication process (see Figure 2). He Bentley’s dramatic theory describes the structure and effects then applied this circuit to a serial drama. In the case of of five genres of theatre (tragedy, comedy, tragicomedy, a commercial soap opera on television, the communicator farce, and melodrama) (Bentley, 1967). Among these genres, is the manufacturer of a product, the message is “buy this melodrama presents reality in a slightly exaggerated sense product,” the medium is the soap opera, the receiver is the in which the moral universes of good and evil are in discord. consumer, and the response is the purchase of the product Sabido, originally a dramatic theoretician himself, employed and television ratings. Bentley’s structure of the melodrama genre as a basis from which to design characters and plots. “Good” characters in Sabido-style serial dramas accept the proposed social Figure 2. Sabido’s Circular Model of Communication behavior, and “evil” characters reject it.

Plots are then constructed around the relationships between good and evil characters as they move closer to or farther away from the proposed social behavior. Their actions encourage the audience to either champion or reject these characters accordingly.

The tension between the good and evil characters evoked by the melodrama places the audience between the forces of good and evil.

But, in a twist of the typical audience role in melodrama, where audience members simply watch or listen to the battle Source: Nariman H. Soap operas for social change. Westport, CT: Praeger; 1993. between good and evil, Sabido inserted the audience into the heart of the action – by representing audience members through a third group, one that is uncertain about the social In the design of a social content serial drama, Sabido left behavior in question. These “uncertain” characters are the communication circuit of a commercial serial drama intended to be those with which the target audience most intact; however, he added a second communicator, a second closely identifies. It is also these “transitional” characters message, a second receiver, and a second response. These who will guide the audience members through their own additions to the communication circuit did not impede the evolution toward adoption of desired behavior changes. function of the first communicator, which is still the product manufacturer, as shown in Figure 3. Although the three groups of characters in Sabido-style serial dramas are exaggerated as is the case in melodrama, they Figure 3. Additional Circuit for a Social Content Soap Opera are modeled on real people within the target audience and the perceptions these people might have regarding the social value and behavior being presented.

4.2.3 Archetypes and stereotypes – Theory of the Collective Unconscious: Jung, 1970

Jung’s theory states that there are certain scripts or stories with familiar patterns and characters that people play out throughout history. These universal scripts or stories appear in myths, legends, and folktales around the world. Jung posited that these universal scripts or stories are the “archetypes of a collective unconscious” and share common characters such as “Prince Charming,” “the mother,” and “the warrior.” Jung further suggests that these archetypes

Source: Nariman H. Soap operas for social change. Westport, CT: Praeger; 1993. are expressions of a primordial, collective unconscious shared by diverse cultures (Jung, 1970).

7 Sabido used the archetypes described in Jung’s theory as A key to the use of Social Learning Theory in Sabido-style a basis for developing characters that embody universal serial dramas is use of appropriate models that are visibly psychological and physiological characteristics to address rewarded (or punished) in front of the audience, in order themes within the serial drama. Through these characters, to convert the values that are being promoted by the serial the viewer finds an archetypical essence of him or herself that drama into behavior. Social Learning Theory postulates that interacts with the social message. Sabido portrayed these positive rewards have a vicarious effect upon the observer (in archetypes as positive or negative stereotypes, representing this case, the audience) and can motivate audience members the societal norms of the target audience. to practice similar behavior(s). Punishing a role model for practicing a socially undesirable behavior likewise provides Sabido-style serial dramas rely on extensive formative a vicarious experience for the observer and can inhibit his research to identify the culture- or country-specific versions or her practice of the same behavior. This adoption is called of these archetypes and to identify local archetypes that modeling because it is based on the role model’s conduct. represent the pro-social values (or the antithesis of these Through modeling it is possible to acquire new forms of values) that will be addressed in the serial drama. If the behavior and to strengthen or weaken certain behaviors. formative research upon which the serial drama is based In Sabido-style serial dramas, characters “teach” audience is done properly, the scriptwriters will be able to develop members via modeling so that they are able to make a archetypical characters with which audience members will recommended response. be able to identify. The formative research is used to develop a grid of positive and negative social values that these Sabido determined that three types of characters are positive and negative characters will embody. fundamental to successful modeling by audience members. The first two types of characters are positive and negative 4.2.4 Social Learning Theory: Bandura, 1977 and Social Cog- role models. They embody positive and negative behaviors nitive Theory: Bandura, 1986 concerning the social issues addressed in the serial drama (and are based on Jung’s theory of archetypes and stereotypes, Social Learning Theory, as articulated by Stanford University described above). These characters will not change during psychologist Professor Albert Bandura, explains how people the course of the serial drama, but are repeatedly rewarded learn new behaviors from vicariously experiencing the or punished for their behaviors. The consequences of these actions of others. Bandura postulates that there are two positive or negative behaviors must be directly linked to the basic modes of learning: people can either learn through the behavior in question. For example, a truck driver character direct experience of trial and error and the rewarding and that is practicing at-risk sexual behavior should suffer from punishing effects of actions, or through the power of social a sexually transmitted infection or even contract HIV, but modeling. Trial-and-error learning by direct experience is should not be the victim of a traffic accident. not only tedious but harmful when errors produce costly or injurious consequences. So, many people will short-cut The third type of character is the “transitional character.” this process by learning from the successes and mistakes These characters are neither positive nor negative but of others. This short-cut, called vicarious learning, or somewhere in the middle. These transitional characters modeling, is a key tenet of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory play the pivotal role in a Sabido-style serial drama, and (Bandura, 1977). are designed to represent members of the target audience. The transitional characters’ evolution toward the desired According to Social Learning Theory, people not only learn in behavior is that which the audience members will use to formal situations such as classrooms, but also by observing model their own behavior change. models. In fact, the largest portion of learning to adapt to society takes place through such observational learning. The For example, in Sabido’s first social content serial drama, Ven models used in this observational learning can be people in Conmigo (“Come With Me”) which dealt with adult literacy, real life or characters in mass media (such as television or transitional characters were specifically chosen from specific radio).

8 Research has shown that Sabido-style serial dramas can increase self-efficacy among audience members. According to Rogers, the Sabido-style serial drama Twende na Wakati produced a marked increased in listeners’ self-efficacy with regard to family size in Tanzania (Rogers et al., 1999). In fact, the series title, which means, “Let’s Go With the Times” was defined in several episodes as “taking charge of one’s life.” Positive and transitional role models in Twende na Wakati exemplified such self-efficacy and were rewarded in the story line for taking charge of their lives by adopting a family planning method, or by otherwise taking control of,

Silvia Derbez and Rosa Furman in Ven Conmigo produced by Miguel Sabido and responsibility for, their reproductive health and that of their partner(s). Negative role models like Mkwaju, who lacked such control, were punished by events. sub-groups (e.g., the elderly, young adults, housewives) who represented the key target audiences for the national The content of Twende na Wakati that dealt with self-efficacy literacy campaign in Mexico. One of the main transitional had a marked effect on listeners’ beliefs, and, indirectly, characters was a grandfather who struggled to read the on their family planning behavior. For example, married many letters he received from his favorite grand-daughter. women in the 1995 survey who believed they could determine In a cathartic episode, he graduates from literacy training, the size of their family were much more likely than others and is finally able to read his grand-daughter’s letters, albeit (51 percent vs. 16 percent) to use a family planning method with teary eyes. In the year preceding the broadcast of Ven (Rogers et al, 1999). Conmigo, the national literacy campaign had registered 99,000 students. Following the broadcast of this episode (and the 4.2.5 Triune Brain Theory: MacLean, 1973 and Theory of the epilogue which provided information about registration in Tone: Sabido, 2002 the literacy campaign), 250,000 people registered for literacy training. By the end of the serial drama, 840,000 people had The Sabido methodology is based on conveying a holistic registered for the literacy program – an increase of almost message that is perceived by audience members on several 750 percent from the preceding year. levels of awareness. Sabido began his career as a theater director and dramatic theoretician. In his work in the theater, Bandura also developed a related theory, Social Cognitive Sabido discovered that actors can have different effects on Theory, which explains that behavior change can only their audiences by channeling their energy through three occur when an individual feels sufficiently empowered different body zones. If actors focused their energy behind to change (Bandura, 1986). If an individual feels that the their eyes, the tone of the production would be conceptual. society, culture, religion, or his/her deity (or “Fate”) dictates If the actor focused energy in the base of the neck, the tone of individual behavior and its consequences, there is little the production would be emotive. If the actor focused energy that communication can do to impact behavior change. For in the pubic area, the tone of the production would be primal example, if a woman perceives that Fate has determined (Sabido, 2002). Sabido instinctively understood that in order the number of children she will ultimately bear during her to motivate or persuade, it is necessary to provide a complete childbearing years, even a well-conceived family planning message that speaks to these three levels of perception. communication campaign will have little effect in motivating her to plan or space her pregnancies – she feels that this Sabido’s “tonal theory” describes how the various tones decision is not hers to make. In this case, the woman’s that are perceived by humans can be used in drama. In perception of self-determination must be addressed first. this theory, the producer/director serves almost the same function as an orchestra conductor, who can evoke different Bandura termed this perception of self-determination “self- tones from each instrument in order to create various efficacy.” The more self-efficacy an individual perceives, the harmonies or tones within the body of the music and thereby more confident he or she will be to make decisions that affect his/her life and circumstances.

9 inspire different moods among the audience. Although the Thus, MacLean’s theory gave Sabido the scientific basis he theory is quite complex, it can be summarized by saying that needed for focusing on the emotional (second zone) and for Sabido, the “tone” is the human communication form instinctive/impulse (first zone) as the basis for his serial to which the receiver gives a tone according to his/her own dramas, with the third (cognitive zone) used primarily to genetic and acquired repertoire, thus making the “tone” the reinforce the first and second zones’ messages in the drama. foundation of human communication (Sabido, 2004). The theory has one main hypothesis: it is possible to change the 5. SUMMARY tone of communication by hierarchically ordering its flow elements in a specific manner. This general hypothesis is The world is facing unprecedented change, including the organized into twelve sub-hypotheses, which allow us to take interrelated concerns of global warming, deforestation this abstract idea and apply it to day-to-day communication. and species extinction, collapsing fisheries, fresh-water shortages, rising energy costs, rising food costs and food shortages, poverty, poor health, political unrest and instability, and inability of many of the poorer countries of the world to keep up with growing demand for schools and government services. An overriding element of many of these problems is the net growth in the world’s population by 80 million per year. Unplanned and often unwanted childbearing is a major factor in the growth of the world’s population by the equivalent of a new Egypt every year.

Changing social norms on issues as sensitive and personal as human reproduction is not easy. Human behaviors are often rooted in long traditions that may once have been adaptive but that no longer are. There is now, however, a great body of evidence, including the data given in this chapter, that The producer/director uses various non-verbal elements of communication, including facial expressions, body language, lighting, music, sound effects, change is possible. (Also see Chapters 8 and 9 in this manual and tone of voice, to evoke different responses from the audience. for a more thorough discussion of results.)

The Sabido methodology for development of mass-media At first, Sabido lacked a theoretical explanation for what entertainment-education serial dramas is unique in that it he was observing. He eventually discovered Paul MacLean’s is designed according to elements of communication and Concept of the Triune Brain, which presents a model of behavioral theories. These confirm specific values, attitudes, human brain structure with three levels of perception – and behaviors that viewers can use in their own personal cognitive, affective, and pre-dispositional (MacLean, 1973). advancement, and for the betterment of the world.

10 NOTES

1 Between 1975 and 1981, Miguel Sabido produced six social content serial dramas in Mexico. • Ven Conmigo (“Come with Me”) provided specific information about a study program offered by the Secretary of Public Education in 1975. Role models were used to motivate viewers to register for literacy classes. • Acompáñame (“Accompany Me”), Sabido’s second entertainment-education soap opera, contained a family planning message (broadcast from August 1977 through April 1978). Role models were used in this serial drama to motivate women to use contraceptive methods, and to show wives how to negotiate contraceptive use with their spouses. • Vamos Juntos (“Let’s Go Together”) promoted responsible parenthood and the active development and integration of children in the family and in society (July 1979 through March 1980). Role models were used in this program to teach parents about family integration behaviors and family life planning. • El Combate (“The Struggle”) promoted an adult education program launched in several communities outside of Mexico City (April through September 1980). Behavior models were used in this program to inform rural audiences how to dispel the myth that adults cannot go back to school. • Caminemos (“Going Forward Together”) tackled the theme of sex education for adolescents (September 1980 through April 1981). Role models in this program were used to model responsible sexual behavior for teenagers. • Nosotros las Mujeres (“We the Women”) ran from April to October 1981. Through the effective use of role modeling, this program was designed to counter traditions associated with machismo and to encourage women to become aware of their important role in the family and society. In 1997-98, Sabido produced one additional social-content serial drama before retiring from Televisa in 1998: • Los Hijos de Nadie (“Nobody’s Children”) addressed the issue of street children. This program used role models to change opinions among audience members about the “silent conspiracy” surrounding the problem of street children in Mexico.

REFERENCES

Bandura, A. 1977. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. MacLean, P.D. 1973. A triune concept of the brain and behavior, including psychology of memory, sleep and dreaming. In: Kral V.A. et al. (Eds.) Proceedings of the Ontario Bandura, A. 1986. Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Mental Health Foundation Meeting at Queen’s University. Toronto: University of Prentice-Hall. Toronto Press.

Bentley, E. 1967. The life of drama. New York: Atheneum. Nariman, H. 1993. Soap operas for social change. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Coleman, P.L. and R.C. Meyer (Eds.). 1990. Proceedings from the enter-educate Netherlands Entertainment Education Foundation (NEEF) and Johns Hopkins conference: Entertainment for social change. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, University, Center for Communication Programs. 2001. Think big, start small, Population Communication Services. act now. In: Proceedings of the Third International Entertainment-Education Conference for Social Change, Arnhem/Amsterdam. September 17-22, 2000. pp. Figueroa, M.E., Kincaid, D.L., Rani, M., and G. Lewis. 2002. Communication 23-24. for social change: A framework for measuring the process and its outcomes. New York: Rockefeller Foundation and Johns Hopkins University, Center for Rogers, E.M., Vaughan, P.W., Swalehe, R.M.A., Rao, N., Svenkerud, P., and Communication Programs. S. Sood. 1999. Effects of an entertainment-education soap opera on family planning in Tanzania. Studies in Family Planning. 30(3): 193-211. Haji, R. 2004. Personal communication. Sabido, M. 2002. The tone, theoretical occurrences, and potential adventures and Johns Hopkins University, Center for Communication Programs. 1997. Reaching entertainment with social benefit. Mexico City: National Autonomous University of men worldwide: Lessons learned from family planning and communication projects, 1986- Mexico Press. 1996. Working Paper No. 3. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Communication Programs. Sabido, M. 2004. Personal communication.

Jung, C.G. 1970. Archetypes and the collective unconscious. Buenos Aires: Editorial Shannon, C.E., and E. Weaver. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. Paidos. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Kincaid, D.L. 1993. Using television dramas to accelerate social change: The enter-educate Singhal, A., Rogers, E.M. 2002. A theoretical agenda for entertainment-education. approach to family planning promotion in Turkey, Pakistan, and Egypt. Paper presented Communication Theory. 12(2): 117-135. at the International Communication Association, Washington DC. Singhal, A., Cody, M.J., Rogers, E.M., and M. Sabido. 2004. Entertainment- Kincaid D.L., Merritt, A.P., Nickerson, L., Buffington de Castro, S.D. and B.M. education and social change: History, Research and Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence de Castro. 1996. Impact of a mass media vasectomy promotion campaign in Brazil. Erlbaum Associates. International Family Planning Perspectives. 12(4): 169-175. Underwood, C. 2001. Impact of the HEART campaign: Findings from the youth Kincaid, D.L. 2002. Drama, emotion and cultural convergence. Communication surveys in Zambia 1999 & 2000. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Theory. 12(2): 136-152. Center for Communication Programs.

Kiragu, K., Sienche, C., Obwaka, E., Odallo, D., and S. Barth. 1998. Adolescent Valente, T.W., Poppe, P.R., and A.P. Merritt. 1996. Mass-media generated reproductive health needs in Kenya: A communication response – Evaluation of the Kenya interpersonal communication as sources of information about family planning. Journal of youth initiative project. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Center Health Communication. 1, 247-265. for Communication Programs. Cited in: Singhal, A., Cody, M.J., Rogers, E.M., and M. Sabido. 2004. Entertainment-education and social change: History, Research and Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 11 CHAPTER 2

Evolution of the Sabido Methodology of “Entertainment- Education”

Miguel Sabido Annenberg School of Communications, University of Southern California

12 1. INTRODUCTION Benito Juarez’s character without losing ratings or causing a drop in sales. Benito Juarez is one of the most important What we know today as the Sabido methodology, or historical heroes in Mexico. “Entertainment-Education,” was not born miraculously one day. It started as a childhood dream, conceived almost 50 My Theory of the Tone (Sabido, 2002) came out of my work years ago, when I understood that the housekeepers at my in theatre. As a stage director, I discovered that actors and house in Mexico literally believed everything they saw in actresses “move” the energy within their bodies and by doing Mexican telenovelas (“soap operas”1). so, the “tone” of their performance changes the “tone” of the scene. For many years I tried to understand the phenomenon The methodology was further developed during my studies of the “tone” by observing the factors of the communication at the School of Philosophy at the National Autonomous flow from an organizational perspective. University of Mexico (UNAM), when my teacher Luisa Josefina Hernandez taught me that in order to direct a One day, I realized that the tone is given by the “receptor” theatrical play, I needed to establish a theoretical framework (in this case, the audience) according to the stimuli sent by that allowed me to formulate a hypothesis about the effect the “organizer of the emission-flow” (in this case, the actor). my directing would have on the public. Years later, at the first Communication Conference, I met Dr. Wilbur Schramm. We became friends immediately. He 2. THE EARLY YEARS told me that the receptor makes whatever he wants with the message sent by the transmitter – that the message received I was a young, elitist writer with a scholarship from the is ultimately determined by the receptor (the one receiving Mexican Writers’ Center, an institution as removed as the message) and not by the transmitter. This added it could be from the telenovelas industry, yet I decided to significantly to my own understanding of the “tone” and of introduce myself to Ernesto Alonso – the great producer of communication processes in general. Mexican telenovelas – and asked him to teach me how to La Tormenta was a great international success and indicated write telenovelas. He generously accepted, and with other that a commercial telenovela could be used to educate the colleagues from the Center, we wrote a series of short stories public about history and historical figures. The program titled “A Guide in the Shadows.” received all kinds of awards, books about Benito Juarez (the main character) rapidly sold out in book stores, and all of We discussed the scripts as if they were to be published Mexico recognized and praised Jose Carlos Ruiz, the actor in the Mexican Literature Journal. When the series was who played Juarez. broadcast, we noticed with surprise that Alonso had changed our “poetic” title to “The Mummies of Guanajuato.” As an I wrote two other historical telenovelas that also achieved explanation, he gently said: “Your title was not commercial great success,2 while showing that audience members were enough, and I need to keep my ratings.” identifying with characters in the programs. The success of these early programs indicated that we could maintain That experience taught me a lesson that shaped my career: commercial success while reinforcing a value in the if you want to reach large populations and show them how audience (in this case, national pride and shared cultural to take advance of a public infrastructure to solve a serious heritage). Thus, I called these first telenovelas “social values social problem, you have to do it in a “tone” that they enjoy. reinforcing” because they were designed to reinforce a value in society without promoting a specific behavior in the When Ernesto Alonso asked me in 1967 to write the script audience. However, the success of the programs did not offer of La Tormenta (“The Storm”), the first telenovela using any concrete proof that we had actually reinforced a value in characters from actual history to be produced in Latin the audience – perhaps we had merely rendered historical America and probably in the world, I used the opportunity characters more likeable and acceptable to audience members to begin developing a theoretical framework, based on through our programs. what Dr. Hernandez had taught me at UNAM. My original framework included various communication theories, By then I had decided to dedicate part of my professional life including Bentley’s Dramatic Theory (Bentley, 1967) and my to identify a social use of the commercial telenovela that I own Theory of the Tone (Sabido, 2002). The hypothesis was defined as “a commercial soap opera that achieves a social that it is possible to have audience members fall in love with benefit without sacrificing the rating and sales.”3

13 3. A RESEARCH COMPONENT Figure 1. Communication Model of Commercial Soap Opera

I still didn’t have any real proof of the “social benefit” effects of the programs. This need for evidence slowly led me towards the research field. I am not a researcher, but I knew that I needed research to prove the social change effects that I was seeking. I started to study research methodologies, and tried to learn all I could about surveys, Chi Square tests, and so on.

I was lucky that Emilio Azcarraga Milmo, President of Televisa in 1973, also wanted to know more about the effects that the telenovelas were having on the audience, and thus named me Research Director at Televisa. I didn’t understand at all when the researchers in my division would talk about things Source: Televisa’s Institute for Communication Research (1981). Toward the social use of soap operas. Paper presented at the International Institute of Communication, Stras- such as the “size of the sample” or “regression analysis” – bourg, France. these were all foreign concepts to me. I studied more just so I could do my job. The first step in the Sabido methodology is to introduce a second communicator (Figure 2), such as a government I gathered a team of young researchers led by Dr. Ana entity who provides the service we want to offer (e.g., adult Cristina Covarrubias. When I described my budding literacy classes, family planning services, adolescent sexual theoretical framework to her, she suggested we also include education, etc.). Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory in the framework. This was the missing link in the chain. With the addition of vicarious role modeling (a basic tenet of Social Learning Figure 2. Additional Circuit for a Social Content Soap Opera Theory) to the framework, we could corroborate if the value had been reinforced in the audience, and could confirm the hypothetical behavior change in the audience by numerically measuring an increase in demand for a service. In other words, we could model a behavior (such as enrollment in adult literacy classes) and confirm if audience members had modeled this behavior by tracking actual enrollment in adult literacy programs around the country.

At that point, the methodology had just two principles: 1. Telenovelas can reinforce a value in the audience. 2. Telenovelas can also provoke a specific social behavior.

The methodology proposed the use of the commercial Source: Nariman H. Soap operas for social change. Westport, CT: Praeger; 1993. telenovelas’s structure that has proven to be successful in reaching large audiences. In the case of a commercial telenovelas, the communicator is the manufacturer of a The second step is to request this government entity to product, the message is “buy this product,” the medium is the define the targeted populations for these messages, that telenovelas, the receiver is the consumer, and the response is is, the social group(s) we want to adopt a specific behavior. the purchase of the product and increased television ratings For example, in family planning, a primary target group is women of reproductive age, and a secondary target group (see Figure 1). is men (their sexual partners). A third target group might be mothers-in-law, aunts, neighbors, etc. – people who by talking about the topic and bringing it to the public agenda, help to break the “taboo” surrounding family planning.

14 Then we design the characters (based on formative research) provide the basis for the numerous “cliffhangers” needed to to represent these targeted populations/groups in the most maintain suspense and keep the audience coming back for realistic way, and write a regular commercial telenovelas more. around these characters. A Latin American telenovela normally runs for close to a year 4. THE LATIN AMERICAN TELENOVELA and is comprised of approximately 240 one-hour chapters (episodes). Each episode needs eight important cliffhangers It may be useful here to describe more in detail the structure and Friday’s cliffhanger has to be especially powerful to cause of a Latin American telenovela, and explain how the Sabido the audience to tune in the following Monday. So, telenovela methodology is applied within this structure. First of all, scriptwriters have to develop nearly 2,000 cliffhangers during it should be noted that a Latin American telenovela is very a normal season just to maintain ratings. different from an American soap opera. The main difference between an American soap opera and a Latin American The current status quo (the “present”) is threatened by the telenovela is that the latter has a beginning, a middle and secrets of the remote past. The current status quo is broken an end (see Figure 3), while the American soap opera is an in the first chapters by a trigger: a murder, an inheritance, endless river of stories that is only over when the ratings go an unwanted pregnancy, etc. In most Latin American down. telenovelas, this current order includes a main character, who leads the primary plot of the story. The trigger, which There is a remote past that happened 20 or 25 years ago. happens in the life of the main character, disrupts the current During this remote past, “secret” events happened to the status quo, and initiates a process of disorder in which the main characters, which influence their current actions, and protagonist will suffer one, two, or three changes of fortune.

Figure 3. Structure of the Latin American Telenovela

15 In most cases, parallel to this first plot, there will be a second doubt, to attempts to change the situation, to failure – but plot in which a second protagonist will undergo one, two, or ultimately, they change their behavior and are victorious in three important changes of fortune. resolving the problem that caused them so much suffering at the beginning of the story. It is precisely these audience Between the two plots, there are minor characters (such as groups that entertainment-education is trying to reach, and drivers, maids, gossipy neighbors, etc.). These characters, thus, these “transitional” characters become the role models who seem unimportant at the beginning of the telenovela, for our target audience. lead a third plot, which should ideally not constitute more than 30 percent of the air time. Figure 4 shows how these The first two plots are responsible for the ratings, and we characters pass through a process of five stages. discreetly use them to reinforce the positive and negative value we are addressing, while the third plot is used for the Figure 4. Stages of Transitional Characters vicarious education (modeling) of the target groups.

The transitional characters should represent the audience segments we are targeting in terms of: age, sex, socio- economic status, the way they dress, the way they speak, their fears, their aspirations, etc. They must be carefully designed through formative research to be as realistic as possible.

If these characters are designed properly, the target audience will develop para-social relationships with them, and the role modeling process described in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) can occur.

If the targeted groups identify themselves with the transitional characters, they will then copy the behaviors of these characters. These behavioral changes can be measured, such as an increased demand for services (family planning services, literacy classes, etc.).

A. At first they suffer a lot because they have a problem they 5. THE SOCIAL CONTENT TELENOVELA do not know how to resolve the problem. The problem can be related to illiteracy, family planning, domestic I presented Emilio Azcarraga Milmo with an idea to design, violence, fear of getting pregnant, etc. produce, and evaluate a telenovela that, in addition to B. In the second stage they hear about services reinforcing a value in the audience, promoted a positive (infrastructure) that can help them solve their problem. social behavior. He agreed, but warned me that if the ratings However, they doubt that the services will really be able dropped, the program would be taken off the air immediately. to help them resolve the problem (and doubt in their own ability to change the situation). In 1974, I produced the first social content telenovela,Ven C. In the third stage, they timidly seek these services and Conmigo (“Come With Me”)4, to promote adult literacy. The learn to use them, while greatly enjoying the process and program achieved extremely high ratings and motivated receiving positive rewards. almost one million adults to enroll in literacy classes. D. In the fourth stage, a terrible crisis appears and the characters are obliged to stop using the infrastructure. However, despite the success of the program, I realized that E. In the last stage, the characters again seek the services the impact of Ven Conmigo would disappear in a few years. In and ultimately achieve their objective, and in doing so order to really achieve sustainable social change, it would be they obtain a symbolic reward that has an important necessary to develop a strategy around which other media meaning for members of the target group (audience). would interact, using the telenovela as its axis. Ideally, this axis would involve not just one, but two or three telenovelas These characters are called “transitional” characters because as the cornerstone of the behavior/social change strategy. they follow this process of transitioning from suffering, to

16 The telenovelas form the cornerstone of a strategy that uses multiple media (or “communication types”), divided into nine categories as such:

COMMUNICATION TYPES

Intellectual Emotional Pulsional

Macro Network Newscasts Telenovelas, Radionovelas Olympic Games, Soccer World Cup

Medium-Sized Cable TV Comic Books Cheerleading and Dancing Contests

Micro Power Point Presentations, Alcoholics Anonymous Spelling Bees Classroom Lectures Meetings

The communication types fall into “intellectual,” Pulsional media are media with a mainly pulsional “emotional,” and “pulsional” categories. trend.5 At the micro-communication level, an example is a spelling bee, which represents healthy competition that Intellectual media are media with mainly an is also educational; examples of medium-size pulsional intellectual trend, and include examples such as communication include cheerleading and dancing classroom lectures (micro-communication), where the contests between high schools which promote respect emitter receives immediate and personal feedback for the body; and at the macro-communication level, the from the receptor; medium-size communication Olympic Games or World Cup soccer that promote healthy such as a cable program, where the receptor receives competition on an international scale. intellectual information that might prove useful, but does not interact directly with the emitter; and macro- The nine types of communication can then be classified communication, such as a network TV newscast. into two categories:

Emotional media are media with a mainly emotive 1. Strategies that reinforce a value in society: such as trend. At a micro-level, an example would be respect; acceptance and non-discrimination against an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting, where there persons with HIV/AIDS; and breaking the taboo of not is immediate feedback. At the medium-size speaking openly about sexuality – or to display before communication level, examples include romantic comic the eyes of society a problem they might not want to books or photo-novellas. At the macro-communication see, such as street children. level, examples include telenovelas and radionovelas, 2. Strategies that shape personal behavior: women who which are ideal vehicles to present identification learn how to use family planning, adults who go back characters to mass audiences. to school, diabetics who learn to respect their bodies through exercise and diet, etc.

Fortunately, Emilio Azcarraga Milmo authorized not only parenthood, adolescent sexuality, and sex education for the production of the telenovelas, but also other programs adolescents.6 During the decade 1977 to 1986, when these on radio and TV, and paid for the research that fully proved Mexican soap operas were on the air, the country underwent the results of the strategy. a 34 percent decline in its population growth rate. As a result, in May 1986, the United Nations Population Prize was Between 1973 and 1981, I produced six telenovelas addressing presented to Mexico as the foremost population success story themes of family planning, family harmony, responsible in the world.

17 6. THE WEBNOVELA to gather research from Mexico, India, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Kenya, the Netherlands, the Philippines, Zambia, St. Lucia, I left Televisa in 1999. Since then, I have been working on my Zimbabwe, the United States of America, and many, many own as a freelancer, aiming my attention at medium-sized other countries where entertainment-education has been communication through theatre for teens, street sketches used to put together a corpus of proof. and most particularly through a medium for which I foresee an enormous future: the Webnovela. At one- fifth the cost of a This corpus should then be provided to broadcasting regular production, a Webnovela can reach the same audience associations, such as the OTI (Ibero-American TV numbers as a telenovela over the Internet. The Webnovela Organization), the Commonwealth Broadcasting Association, can also be easily transformed into professional videotape to and the African and Asian Broadcasting Associations. be used in medium-sized communication channels, such as These associations can then share this information with through cable TV. the licensees of media, so that they will understand that this methodology will not lower their commercial ratings. This format is particularly useful in regions where there are Licensees (broadcasters) could then order their professional several languages, such as in Central America, where seven producers and scriptwriters to learn to use the third plot for varieties of Mayan are spoken, or in India or the Philippines positive social and individual change. Scriptwriters will where numerous languages are spoken. It could also be find the methodology very useful for they will have more very useful in African countries where physical archetypes material for their cliffhangers. are shared among diverse ethnic groups, but dialects and languages differ. This format could also be used to link into This corpus of proof should also be taught at schools of “chat rooms” where relevant information is provided on the communication, so that students can be champions of this subjects that are addressed. approach throughout their careers. 7. CONCLUSION UNFPA and other multilateral agencies could recommend In 1967, when I proposed the “social use of commercial that this methodology be used in their communication television,” many people laughed at me. Forty years later, programs worldwide to contribute to the solution of social and thanks to the efforts of many people around the world, problems. awareness that commercial media can be used for social benefit without harming ratings has been created. In other There is a need to create a new role in entertainment- words, we have proven that entertainment-education really education, the Liaison Advocate, who would serve as the works. liaison between government, the licensees (for macro communication), cable TV operators/owners (for medium- The meeting to develop this “best practices” manual ends sized communication), and civil society (for micro- the first 30-year stage of the use of entertainment-education. communication), using face-to-face methods. Research during these three decades has proven without a doubt that entertainment-education can lead to beneficial We are one step away from being able to change the world. change at the individual and societal levels. Now, it is time Let’s take it!

18 NOTES

1 For practical purposes, there is a structural difference between a telenovela and a soap opera. 2 Los Caudillos (“The Chieftains”) in 1969 and La Constitución (“The Constitution”) in 1970. These telenovelas were broadcast on Televisa. 3 When Patrick Coleman from Johns Hopkins University first heard this name, he said: “That sounds like Latin American verbiage, it should be called ‘entertainment-education.’” 4 Co-written with Celia Alcantara. 5 Pulsional: Term coined after the four drives studied by Nobel Prize winner Irineus Einsbenfeld – search for food, fighting, fleeing and mating. 6 Between 1973 and 1981, Sabido produced six social content serial dramas in Mexico: • Ven Conmigo (“Come with Me”) provided specific information about a study program offered by the Secretary of Public Education in 1975. Role models were used to motivate viewers to register for literacy classes. • Acompáñame (“Accompany Me”), Sabido’s second entertainment-education soap opera, contained a family planning message (broadcast from August 1977 through April 1978). Role models were used in this serial drama to motivate women to use contraceptive methods, and to show wives how to negotiate contraceptive use with their spouses. • Vamos Juntos (“Let’s Go Together”) promoted responsible parenthood and the active development and integration of children in the family and in society (July 1979 through March 1980). Role models were used in this program to teach parents about family integration behaviors and family life planning. • El Combate (“The Struggle”) promoted an adult education program launched in several communities outside of Mexico City (April through September 1980). Behavior models were used in this program to inform rural audiences how to dispel the myth that adults cannot go back to school. • Caminemos (“Going Forward Together”) tackled the theme of sex education for adolescents (September 1980 through April 1981). Role models in this program were used to model responsible sexual behavior for teenagers. • Nosotros las Mujeres (“We the Women”) ran from April to October 1981. Through the effective use of role modeling, this program was designed to counter traditions associated with machismo and to encourage women to become aware of their important role in the family and society. In 1997-98, Sabido produced one additional social-content serial drama before retiring from Televisa in 1998: • Los Hijos de Nadie (“Nobody’s Children”) addressed the issue of street children. This program used role models to change opinions among audience members about the “silent conspiracy” surrounding the problem of street children in Mexico.

REFERENCES

Bandura, A. 1977. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Sabido, M. 2002. The tone, theoretical occurrences, and potential adventures and entertainment with social benefit. Mexico City: National Autonomous University of Bentley, E. 1967. The life of drama. New York: Atheneum. Mexico Press.

Nariman, H. 1993. Soap operas for social change. Westport, CT: Praeger. Televisa’s Institute for Communication Research (1981). Toward the social use of soap operas. Paper presented at the International Institute of Communication, Strasbourg, France.

19 CHAPTER 3 A Brief History of Entertainment- Education for Behavior Change

David O. Poindexter

Photo by Katie Elmore 20 1. PRECURSORS TO ENTERTAINMENT-EDUCTION: children. Sesame Street has since been trans-created into other THE 1950s AND 1960s languages for broadcast in eleven countries. The formula for this program worked widely. However, the formula did not 1.1 In the United States provide a theoretical framework to enable it to be extended to other age levels. A number of attempts/experiments to use television and radio for entertainment and education in the United States At about the same time, Fred Rogers applied entertainment were made about 10 years after television had become a effectively to childhood education and emotional national mass medium. development when he created the widely heralded children’s program, Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood. However, absent Mr. In 1958, the Methodist Church produced a series titled Talk- Rogers, the formula would not travel. Back. Each episode consisted of a 13-minute drama, designed and written to focus on major problems faced by American Also during this period, the Lutheran Church developed Davey families. Following the drama, in each market where the and Goliath, a cartoon series intended to use entertainment to series ran, a panel of professionals and experts discussed the provide religious education to children. The series is still in problem of the day and offered various possible solutions. reruns in many places. The series was telecast during the Sunday morning “ghetto” time slot, the time allotted to religious programming. 1.2 On the International Scene Church groups throughout the viewing areas then continued the discussions for a second half hour after the program was In the mid-twentieth century, the British government, broadcast. Although this was not scientifically evaluated, faced with a serious agricultural situation, went to the BBC it was generally judged to be a successful application of with the plea: “Please teach the people how to grow food.” entertainment to help solve personal and group problems. The government wanted to promote improved agricultural practices for farmers and to enlist the rest of the country in a During this period, a widely acclaimed program, titled V.D. cooperative effort. Rather than do an agricultural education Blues with the theme song “Don’t Give a Dose to the One program which would have had a miniscule audience, the You Love Mos’” and hosted by Dick Cavett, was telecast on BBC instead launched a radio serial drama called The Archers: the Public Broadcast Network. Because it had been heavily An Everyday Story of Country Folk. It was launched January 1, promoted, it garnered a sizable audience, and there was 1951, airing every weekday evening with a Saturday morning anecdotal evidence that it made a significant impact, rebroadcast of the week’s programs. Its initial design called particularly among young Americans. The program was for 60 percent entertainment and 40 percent education. broadcast a number of times, and videos of the program were widely distributed to high schools. Although it was based more on intuition and less on a social science methodology, The Archers turned out to be an enduring CBS took another approach in the 1960s with the program The success. Now, 55 years after its premiere, and long after the National Driver’s Test, which was designed to educate Americans arrival of television, the British public is still addicted to The about highway safety. Materials for the test were widely Archers. distributed by gasoline service stations across America. The response dumbfounded programmers at the station. The Given that the serial was not based on a reproducible network was absolutely inundated with completed tests. In methodology, it was not possible to replicate the success of a day prior to computers, I personally saw the large room The Archers elsewhere. Two spin-offs of the show did work, where CBS had to set up a small army of typists to process the but only because of the professional talents of those who flood of tests received. Because of its success, it was followed energized them. by a number of other “tests” to educate Americans about health and other issues. None, however, was as successful Nigeria, previously a food exporter, found itself as The National Driver’s Test. Gradually the genre petered out. hemorrhaging money to import food. The problem stemmed from city-centric government policies (originating in the During this period, entertainment as a way to educate then capital city of Lagos) that incited rural people from children was being created. Most successful in this regard across the nation to abandon farming and migrate to the was The Children’s Television Workshop created by Joan cities. To counter this, Vincent Maduka, Director-General of Ganz Cooney. Its premier accomplishment is Sesame Street, the Nigerian Television Authority, created Cock Crow at Dawn, which is still being produced today. Characters from the a program to motivate people to leave the cities and return to program such as Kermit and Big Bird have become icons for the farms, thus restoring Nigeria’s agricultural base.

21 In Jamaica, Elaine Perkins created a family planning radio In the mid 1980s, Richard K. Manoff carried out some serial titled Naseberry Street. Although this program was not campaigns, mainly in the fields of agriculture and nutrition. extensively evaluated, research evidence indicates that the Although these were strictly advertising campaigns, they did serial made a positive contribution to encourage family include some entertaining elements (Manoff, 1985). planning use in Jamaica. 2.1 Communication Center of the Population Institute 2. COMMUNICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT In the United States in the 1970s and early 1980s, I worked During this period an attempt to marry media to development at the Communication Center of the Population Institute programs began to emerge. This began with what was (PI) using entertainment television to draw attention to the known as Project Support Communication. By and large various aspects of the population issue. This resulted in a Project Support Communication was seen as meeting the number of episodes addressing population issues in the top- need for augmenting a development project by providing rated prime time US television programs of the day, including informational materials to potential users of the project. • the character “Meathead’s” vasectomy on All in the Family; In general, this form of education was largely devoid of • an on-air editorial by Mary Richards on the Mary Tyler entertainment value. Moore show; • Maude’s abortion two-parter on the Maude series; Project Support Communication evolved into Development • a discussion of condoms on MASH at a time when the very Support Communication when it became clear that a “project” word was taboo; and was generally only one component of a national development • a made-for-television movie about women’s rights titled, I effort. With that understanding, communications started Love You: Goodbye. being designed to support a nation’s overall development effort. A center for this was the Development Support These are only indicative of a large volume of top-rated US Communication Center in Bangkok set up by Erskine television shows that focused attention on a spectrum of Childers. Again, entertainment was only a minor part of aspects of the population issue. what was primarily an informational, and to a lesser extent, a motivational strategy. It should be stated that in doing our work, the Communication Center of PI was not seeking in any way to play the role of the During this period, advertising was only a bit player. In the broadcaster. Instead, we were pioneering a totally different late 1960s, the U.S. Agency for International Development profession: that of energizing and providing support to (USAID) sent Emerson Foote, founding partner of the broadcasters to enable them to focus their professional advertising agency Foote, Cone and Belding, to India abilities on “slice of life” dramas and comedies designed to to explore possibilities and to make recommendations. reach and impact the behaviors of vast numbers of viewers. Unfortunately, his mission went nowhere: India at that point had no functional national television and only one radio 2.2 A Replicable Methodology is Born channel. Most significant was that India’s broadcasting at that time was run as a government service and carried no Worldwide, the major money for communications related advertising. to population and development programs was provided by USAID via contracts with implementing organizations. At In the late 1960s in Mexico, the commercial television that time, USAID’s contracts were only with universities. network, Televisa, hired a young theater director, Miguel However, many in the communication business wondered Sabido, to write the first of what became a series of wildly if any major corporation or other enterprise would go to a successful – both in audience impact and audience ratings – university to get its products or services sold. In fact, at a series of historical telenovelas designed to teach the Mexicans meeting to discuss implementation of a USAID-funded project about their cultural history. These telenovelas were the in India, those in attendance were dumbfounded when one precursors to Sabido’s social-content telenovelas, as well as scholar grandly announced that the solution to India’s of his social science-based communication methodology. population growth problem was direct mail advertising!

22 excitement was the positive impact that Acompáñame was having on family planning use in Mexico.

From that time on, I was a frequent visitor to Mexico. Miguel Sabido and I became fast friends and collaborators. My role was to help keep Televisa in the social content telenovela broadcasting business, as well as to serve as a support person for Sabido as he continued to expand and develop his methodology.

At the same time, I was searching for some kind of an international equivalent to the US broadcasting networks in order to apply the strategy that we at the Population Institute had so successfully employed with American television programming. For a time I thought that the Broadcasting Unions, such as the Asia Pacific Broadcasting Union, might hold promise. However, I soon abandoned that route. Two other organizations held promise and were of help: The Miguel Sabido (left) and David Poindexter International Institute of Communications, which was key to the work in Indian television; and the Commonwealth With that as background, the Population Institute, later Broadcasting Association, which helped to open doors in succeeded by Population Communications International, Kenya, Tanzania, Nigeria, Namibia, India, Pakistan, and St. and finally by Population Media Center, began to search for Lucia. a methodology that would deliver results in the developing world. After seeing video from the Sabido productions and spending a day with Miguel Sabido, the Communication Center’s We at the Communication Center of Population Institute Advisory Committee at Population Institute mandated us were confident that we could accomplish the necessary job to begin to explore using the Sabido methodology in other in the United States, based on our track record with US countries. television. At the same time, we had no confidence that what had worked in the United States would work overseas. 3. THE SABIDO METHODOLOGY: A WORLD TOUR What was needed was both an international equivalent of the US networks (to get the word out), and a strategy that would produce successful entertaining (but educational) programs.

We searched the world for answers. After a long search, we found what we were looking for right next door in Mexico: a methodology brimming with possibilities for application throughout the developing world. In fact, we not only found a methodology – we found the methodologist, Miguel Sabido.

We arrived in Mexico in September 1977 where we met Miguel David Poindexter and Miguel Sabido meet with Indira Ghandhi to bring Sabido, and were introduced to the world’s first family entertainment-education programs to India planning telenovela, Acompáñame (“Accompany Me”), which had initiated its nine-month run only one week earlier. 3.1 First Stop: India

We were also introduced to Sabido’s emerging social content The first application of the Sabido methodology outside of broadcasting methodology. Both the underlying social Mexico was in India. The resulting program, Hum Log (“We science-based methodology and the results it was achieving People”), resulted in a national television fever. Its ratings on the air stirred great excitement. However, the real were, on some evenings, as high as 90 percent.

23 In the words of Harish Khanna, then Director-General of were responsible for the two national television: “Hum Log created national television in programs that demographers India.” credit for having the greatest impact on changing The overwhelming success of this first use of the Sabido Kenyan fertility behavior. methodology outside of Mexico convinced those who doubted On radio, Tom Kazungu’s that it would work. For example, Sabido’s researcher at Ushikwapo Shikamana (“When Televisa had asserted categorically that “absent the genius Given Advice, Take It”) of Miguel Sabido, the methodology will not travel,” and that had a substantial impact it was “hopeless to expect it to do so.” Fortunately for the throughout rural Kenya. On world, he was wrong. television, Greg Adambo’s Tushauriane (“Let’s Discuss The success of the program also overturned J.T. Klapper’s It”) was arguably Kenya’s verdict that “mass media cannot modify human behavior; most popular TV program to all it can do is to reinforce existing behavior” (Klapper, 1960). Tom Kazungu, creator of Ushikwapo date. Shikamana The success of the program in India was also astonishing, Westoff (1995) and Hammerslough (1992) pinpointed the given that the Sabido methodology was being transferred radio programs in Kenya in the mid-1980s as the cause of the from high-tech Televisa, to impossibly antiquated Indian reduction in fertility. television. At the time of the transfer, the Indian television company, Doordarshan (a Hindi word meaning “vision from 3.3 China a distance”) was operating with one-inch, three-quarter- inch, half-inch, and quarter-inch video tape - all of it In 1985, I received an invitation to consult with authorities of incompatible. China’s State Family Planning Commission. However, I had just started a new organization, and did not have sufficient Perhaps the greatest impediment to successful application of funds to make the trip at that time. the Sabido methodology outside of Mexico was my insistence that we should abide by the judgment of the Indians as how Finally, by 1989 I had found sufficient funds to allow William best to proceed. What we learned was that the transfer of Ryerson and me to make an exploratory visit to China. What the methodology was a methodology in and of itself, and that followed was a mutual educational process on the part of the the recipients, no matter how great their grasp of their own westerners and of the Chinese. situation and culture, should not be expected to know how best to apply the Sabido methodology to their own situation. In 1994, we conducted a training workshop in Beijing for some of China’s outstandingly talented drama professionals. In fact, the only operative contact between Miguel Sabido Facilitators during the training included Virginia Carter of and the Indians so far as Hum Log was concerned was a the United States, Kimani Njogu of Kenya, Miguel Sabido of briefing in Mexico City conducted by Miguel Sabido for the Mexico, Bill Ryerson, and me. Secretary of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting of India. Much more important were two pamphlets Sabido A magical moment occurred during one of Miguel’s sessions and his associates had written: Towards the Social Use of Soap in the workshop. The head writer (one of China’s finest) – Operas and A Handbook for Reinforcing Social Values through Daytime in what was virtually an epiphany – suddenly completely T.V. Serials. A large part of the reason for Hum Log’s success understood the methodology that Miguel was describing. was the fact that its writer poured over these pamphlets so Right there and then, the top-quality serial drama, Jhanguo studiously that he actually reduced them to tatters. Baixing (“Ordinary People”), was born. The program has since run its course and appears to have made a solid contribution 3.2 Next Stop: Kenya to China’s national family planning program.

The second application of the Sabido methodology was in 3.4 Tanzania Kenya. In 1983, a team of four Kenyans traveled to Mexico for a week-long training workshop conducted by Miguel Sabido Beginning in 1993, Radio Tanzania went on the air with a and members of his staff at Televisa. With two of the Kenyans, twice weekly radio serial titled Twende na Wakati (“Let’s Tom Kazungu and Greg Adambo, the training “took.” They Go With the Times”). It was the result of an agreement

24 between the United Nations Population Fund, Population Although it was not possible to confirm the claims of Communications International and five ministries of the monogamous behavior, the team monitored the distribution Government of Tanzania. of condoms in the broadcast and comparison areas. The comparison area had received another family planning serial The serial was preceded by an intensive formative research drama using a different methodology, and like Twende na effort consisting of a 4,800-person quantitative survey (each Wakati, benefited from an “Ask the Doctor” program, as well interview of more than one hour in length), a series of 160 as all of the programs of the government’s National AIDS focus groups, and a literature review. Control Agency. The increase in condom distribution in the comparison area was 16 percent after 2 years, which is quite Training of Tanzanian artists was conducted in Kiswahili by laudable. However, in the treatment area, the increase in a two-person team consisting of Tom Kazungu and Kimani condom distribution was 153 percent – almost ten times the Njogu, both Kenyans. increase in the comparison area. Similar dramatic results accrued in terms of family planning use as well. In the run-up to Twende na Wakati, a great deal was learned about how to transfer the Sabido methodology to a new country, culture, and situation. Further, for the first time, a During the course of the broadcasts there were a number of sophisticated research design and effort was married to the other methods employed to secure evaluative data. Focus entire project. More money went into the research than was groups were convened almost continuously, thus providing used to produce and broadcast the program. not only evaluation data, but considerable material for serial writers. There was also clinic intake data, family Just before the program premiered in July 1993, a 2,750-person planning use, Demographic and Health Survey data, analysis quantitative study was carried out to provide a baseline of listeners’ letters, and more. against which behavior modifications could be charted. At the end of the country’s 4-year UNFPA contract, upon The research design blacked out the center section of the careful evaluation, the only program within the contract to country so that people in that section could not hear the be continued was the radio serial. The drama continued for program. While the serial was being broadcast, the central more than a decade. area listeners heard a music program on the same frequency, guaranteeing they would not hear the serial. This employment 3.5 India of a “comparison area” field design enabled researchers to isolate the effects of the serial drama. This appears to be a first in a national broadcasting research effort. This effort was under the direction of Professors Everett M. Rogers and Peter Vaughan of the University of New Mexico. The actual research was carried out by a group of young professionals from the Population Family Life Education Programme of the Government of Tanzania under the direction of Ramadhan Swalehe (Rogers et al., 1999; Vaughan et al., 2000).

One year into the broadcasts, a second 2,750-person quantitative survey was done. A third survey was done at the end of the second year. These surveys continued for 5 years. However, by the end of the second year there was adequate evaluation information to mark this entire effort as one of the most significant in social communication history.

Although a large spectrum of issues was targeted, the central focus of the broadcasts was on increasing the practice of family planning and reducing the incidence of HIV/AIDS.

By the end of the second year, 82 percent of the male listeners in the treatment area of the study self-reported that they had One page of poster-letter from Lutsaan, including the signatures and changed their sexual behavior because of the serial, either thumbprints of 184 community members, pledging not to give or by adopting monogamous behavior, or by using condoms. accept dowry.

25 Following a second training for a team from India in had come to understand the evils of dowry for the first time. December 1986 held in Mexico City, producer Roger Pereira The letter asserted that henceforth the signatories would of Bombay undertook the creation of a second Sabido- refuse to either accept or give dowry. The letter went on to style television soap opera. This program, Hum Raahi (“Co- state that for the first time, the villagers understood that Travelers”), went on the air in January 1992. It dealt with girls could learn just as well as boys. Further, the writers the status of women, with particular attention paid to age of asserted, they now believed that girls should be educated just marriage, age of first pregnancy, gender bias in childbearing as boys are and that henceforth in this village they would and child rearing, equal educational opportunity, and the be. Beyond that, the letter writers stated that they had now right of women to choose their own husbands. Within 4 come to understand the importance of small families, and months, Hum Raahi was the top-rated program on Indian that they believed husbands and wives should discuss this television. The estimated audience was 230 million viewers. together and agree upon it. In the series, a servant girl dies in childbirth at age 15 after being forced into an arranged marriage at age 14 by her These three new understandings are revolutionary for village parents. Following that key episode, the other characters India. Further, the assertion of the need for husbands and lament what is happening to the young women of India and wives to discuss matters together underlines one of the most the tragedy of early marriage and pregnancy. A Rockefeller important findings to come out of summative research on Foundation-funded study showed that viewers, contrasted Sabido methodology serials. A solid indicator of changed with non-viewers, changed significantly in their attitudes behavior is what results from spousal communication on regarding the ideal age of marriage and the acceptability of matters of vital, often sensitive, importance. That the serial women in the work place – two issues that were central to achieved this level of understanding was most heartening. the program’s story line. Subsequently, the serial was trans-created for play in four In the second half of the 1990s, Population Communications additional states. One of these spin-off serials, solidly linked International (PCI) and All India Radio developed a radio to a state-wide service delivery institution, was found to serial for the Hindi belt of India. As Mahatma Gandhi taught have made a positive contribution in India’s most benighted the world, India lives in its villages – more than 600,000 state of Bihar. of them. Although television had made sizable inroads in the country following the ragingly popular Hum Log, there 3.6 St. Lucia were vast village areas where television had yet to penetrate, but where the reach of All India Radio (the world’s largest On the Caribbean Island of St. Lucia, PCI partnered with national radio network) was solidly ensconced. That is why RARE Center for Tropical Conservation in a radio serial a serial drama designed for villages in India was targeted for designed to reinforce the concept of marriage and responsible radio. parenthood, and to undergird the island nation’s family planning programs. Titled in the island’s operative Creole At that time, in the four southern states of India the total language, Apwé Plezi (“After the Pleasure [Comes the Pain]”), fertility rate was below 2.5 children per woman. In the the serial was broadcast from February 1996 to September north of India in the Hindi-belt, the fertility rate was more 1998. than twice that rate. Gender equity issues were also woefully ignored in the north. PCI and All India Radio produced and Under the direction of Dr. Peter Vaughan, the program’s broadcast a radio serial drama focused on this large area with effects were assessed through analyses of data from the primary unmet need. The drama was called Tinka Tinka nationally representative pre-broadcast and post-broadcast Sukh (“Happiness Lies in Small Pleasures”). The program ran for one year and generated a flood of mail (approximately 180,000 letters) to the station and to the actors.

One letter in particular drew much attention. A multi- color, poster sized letter, master-minded by the tailor in the village of Lutsaan in Uttar Pradesh (India’s largest state), was signed by a sizable share of the village inhabitants. The letter declared that, because of Tinka Tinka Sukh, the villagers

Photo by James R. Reda 26 Photo by James R. Reda surveys, focus group discussions, and other qualitative 4. SOCIAL MERCHANDISING – ANOTHER EFFECTIVE and quantitative sources. Among 1,238 respondents to the METHODOLOGY post-broadcast survey, 35 percent had listened to Apwé Plezi, including 12 percent who listened at least once per week. In 1984, I made an exploratory trip to Brazil. I soon The results showed that the program made a contribution to discovered that, in Latin America, the rubric out of New York national programs and objectives. For example, 16 percent of that “Macy’s doesn’t tell Gimbel’s how to sell merchandise” post-broadcast respondents knew a slang term for condoms was all the more operative between Latin America’s two mass that was coined for the radio program, and the proportions giants, Televisa in Mexico and TV Globo in Brazil. No one in of respondents who considered it acceptable for husbands Brazil wanted to hear a single word about Televisa. What to have sex partners outside their marriage declined from they declared was, “We are the best there is, so if we decide 27 percent at the pre-broadcast survey to 14 percent at the to do something, we will use our own methods.” post-broadcast survey. Compared with non-listeners, regular listeners were more likely to trust family planning workers At the time I first traveled to Brazil, the average family (83 percent versus 72 percent) and considered a significantly size was about four children - a formula for economic, lower number of children the ideal (2.5 versus 2.9). Fourteen educational, ecologic, and civil disaster. TV Globo earned percent of listeners reported having adopted a family income with what it called “Commercial Merchandising.” planning method as a result of listening to the program For a substantial fee, marketers of products or services could (Vaughan, 1977; Vaughan, 1998; Vaughan & Rogers, 1996; have information about, and promotion of, their products Vaughan & Rogers, 1997a; Vaughan & Rogers, 1997b). or services written into the body of a serial drama script. The commercial writers at TV Globo were sufficiently skilled Apwé Plezi was produced by Rare Radio. Since 1996, Rare Radio and the writing was done seamlessly without the audience and its partners have produced more than 700 episodes of noting the insertion. radio serial dramas. Two of its longest running programs are Apwé Plezi and Changing Tides (in the Western Pacific). Rare When TV Globo made the decision to include population/ Radio also produced a regional radio serial drama, Coconut family planning themes and messages in their serials, they Bay, which was broadcast in Antigua, Dominica, Grenada, translated their “commercial merchandising” methodology and St. Vincent.

27 part of the 1980s in Mexico, PCS developed a pop song/video featuring two of Mexico’s extremely popular young stars – Tatiana and Johnny. The message of the song Cuando Estemos Juntos (“When We’re Together”) was to delay the onset of sexual relations among young people. Although the song was wildly popular with youth, researchers were able to identify only minimal behavior change results from this effort.

A second program in the Philippines made one young women into a star. PCS used Lea Salonga, who later starred in Miss Saigon on Broadway, to sing several pop songs about teenage sexuality and reproductive health. However, there Bill Ryerson, Marcio Schiavo, Dr. Helio Auinaga, and David Poindexter laying plans for the Brazil project is little evidence that these popular songs actually changed adolescent behavior. Today, the Philippines has one of the highest fertility rates in Southeast Asia. into “social merchandising.” Their first attempt was so successful, that they moved wholeheartedly into social 6. ADDITIONAL LESSONS LEARNED AND OBSERVATIONS merchandising.

A key reason for the success at TV Globo is the fact that a • Management and creative people must always be jointly highly-qualified Brazilian professional, Marcio Schiavo, involved in any project. Sometimes efforts have been developed a unique office and program to support the made to interact with one without the other. Inevitably creative people at TV Globo. failure will result. • Based on the principle that influence flows downward like Testimonial to the validity and impact of Brazil’s enormous water, it is essential in any initiative that one start at the success with the social merchandising strategy is the fact top. When you have the most senior decision-maker on that during the 16 years the strategy has been applied, the board, it is much more likely that the inevitable snarls and average family size in Brazil has fallen from approximately snafus that will arise will be easily and quickly resolved. 4 children per woman to the current 2.3 per woman. TV • Whenever one moves into a new area or arena, it is Globo’s serials have played a major role in this change as essential to know personally, or have persons available to evidenced by a research unit at the University of Sao Paolo. you, who intimately know the territory. Such “advisory” The unit, devoted to analyzing the serial dramas of TV Globo, individuals are a must. asserted that TV Globo’s social merchandising programs were • If at all possible, when energizing a project in a new a principle cause of the dramatic change in Brazil’s fertility territory, it is important to have control of the funding. On patterns. a number of occasions individuals serving in an advisory capacity, but without control over funding sources and It is worth noting that TV Globo is one of the largest disbursements, have seen projects descend into disaster or marketers of programs worldwide These programs, which worse. have so positively impacted Brazil, have doubtlessly made • Years of experience have made clear that projects work positive impacts when telecast in countries to which they best when all of the stakeholders have been identified have been sold. and involved. Semi-annual meetings of such persons have proven to be a useful adjunct. 5. OTHER FORMS OF ENTERTAINMENT-EDUCATION • In all cases, both formative and evaluative research must be married to a project. Absent such, projects can neither Johns Hopkins University’s Population Communication be adequately prepared nor adequately evaluated. Decades Services program (PCS) developed several sizable programs of experience have taught professionals in the field how using popular music and popular music stars. In the latter best such research can be designed and developed.

28 REFERENCES Vaughan, P.W. and Rogers, E.M. (1996). A communication model for the effects of an entertainment-education soap opera on the stages of family planning adoption. Unpublished Hammerslough, Charles R. 1992. Proximity to Contraceptive Services and Fertility manuscript, University of New Mexico, Department of Communication and Transition in Rural Kenya. International Family Planning Perspectives. Vol. 18, Journalism, Albuquerque. No. 2. pp. 54-58 Vaughan, P.W. and Rogers, E.M. (1997a, May). A model of media effects on the adoption Klapper, JT. 1960. The effects of mass communication. New York: Free Press. of family planning. Paper presented at the Second International Conference on Entertainment-Education and Social Change, Athens, Ohio. Manoff, Richard K. 1985. Social marketing: new imperative for public health. New York: Praeger. Vaughan, P.W. and Rogers, E.M. (1997b). A communication model for the effects of an entertainment-education soap opera on the stages of family planning adoption. Unpublished Rogers, E.M., Vaughan, P.W., Swalehe, R.M.A., Rao, N., Svenkerud, P., and S. manuscript, University of New Mexico, Department of Communication and Sood. 1999. Effects of an entertainment-education soap opera on family planning in Journalism, Albuquerque. Tanzania. Studies in Family Planning. 30(3): 193-211. Vaughan, P.W. (1998, March). Apwé Plezi: An entertainment-education radio soap opera Vaughan, P.W., Rogers, E.M., Singhal, A., and R.M.A. Swalehe. 2000. to promote family planning and HIV/AIDS prevention in St. Lucia. Paper presented at the Entertainment-education and HIV/AIDS prevention: A field experiment in Tanzania. Journal International Conference on the Social Use of Commercial Television, Mexico of Health Communication. 5 (Supplement): 81-100. City, Mexico.

Vaughan, P.W. (1977). “Apwé Plezi”: Memo. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Westhoff, C.FR. & G. Rodriguez. 1995. The mass media and family planning in Kenya. Mexico, Department of Communication and Journalism. International Family Planning Perspectives. 21:26-31 & 36.

29 CHAPTER 4

Social Cognitive Theory and Media Production

Albert Bandura

Photo by Kriss Barker 30 1. INTRODUCTION patterns. This format informs people, enables them with strategies and sustaining self-beliefs, and motivates them In this paper, I will briefly present the major principles of for personal and social change. social cognitive theory, and the guidelines they provide for constructing effective media productions.1 3. MOTIVATIONAL AND SELF-REGULATORY FUNCTIONS

2. ACQUISTIONAL FUNCTIONS (MODELS OF LEARNING) It is one thing to learn new styles of behavior. It is another to put them into practice. There are several motivators for There are two basic modes of learning. We learn through adopting new lifestyles. They include: direct experience, and through the power of example. Experience is a tough teacher. Trial-and-error learning • Beliefs of personal efficacy (self-efficacy) to exercise is tedious and hazardous when errors produce injurious control over events that affect one’s life consequences. • Outcome expectations of the costs and benefits of given styles of behavior Much of what we learn is through the power of modeling. • Aspirations about the future one seeks to achieve and the Smart people learn from their successes and mistakes. explicit plans and strategies for realizing that vision Smarter people learn from the successes and mistakes of • Perceived Impediments where perceived personal, social, others. We shortcut the tedious and sometimes hazardous and institutional barriers to success also have an impact trial-and-error learning by using social modeling. on self-motivation

A major advantage of modeling through the media is that 4. SELF-EFFICACY it can reach vast populations simultaneously in widely dispersed locales. New ideas, values, and styles of conduct Among the mechanisms of self-influence, none is more are now being rapidly spread worldwide via the media. central, or pervasive, than beliefs of personal efficacy. By After decades of experience with this, we now have a lot self-efficacy I mean people’s belief in their ability to influence of information on how to enhance the instructive and events that affect their lives. This core belief system is the motivating power of modeling through the media. foundation of human motivation and accomplishments.

Miguel Sabido creatively translated these modeling principles Belief in one’s personal efficacy is the foundation of action. into engrossing and influential serial drama formats to Unless people believe they can produce desired effects by produce society-wide changes in attitudes and behavioral their actions, they have little incentive to act, or to persevere

Diverse Functions of Modeling Social Prompting Functions. The behavior of others serves as social prompts that activate, channel, and Modeling influences serve diverse functions: support modeled styles of behavior. The fashion and food industries rely on this function. The types of models Instructive Functions. Models serve as transmitters who predominate within a social milieu determine of knowledge, values, cognitive skills, and new which human qualities are selectively promoted, from styles of behavior. Observers also develop emotional among many alternatives. predispositions towards persons, places, and things that have been associated with modeled emotional Social Construction Functions. Televised portrayals experiences. Observers learn to fear that which of human nature, social relations, and the norms and frightened models, to dislike what repulsed them, and structure of society shape the public consciousness. to like what gratified them. Debilitating fears and They do so at an early age. An example of this is an inhibitions are eliminated by modeling coping strategies overheard conversation by youngsters as they were and instilling a sense of coping efficacy. gazing as a reproduction of the Last Supper in an art Motivational Functions. Seeing others gain desired book. One child asked, “Why are they all eating on outcomes by their actions can create outcome the same side of the table?” Another replied, “Cause expectancies that serve as positive incentives. Observed they’re watching television.” Media representations punished outcomes can create negative outcome gain influence because people’s view of reality depends expectancies that serve as disincentives for similar heavily on what they see, hear, and read rather than courses of action. experience directly.

31 in the face of difficulties. Whatever other factors serve as guides and motivators, they are rooted in the core belief that Sources of Self-Efficacy one has the power to effect changes by one’s actions. People’s belief in their efficacy can be developed in four 4.1 Optimistic Efficacy ways:

The realities of everyday life are strewn with difficulties. Mastery Experiences. The most effective way They are full of disappointments, impediments, adversities, of instilling strong efficacy is through mastery failures, setbacks, frustrations, and inequities. People who experiences. Successes build a robust sense of efficacy. are successful, innovative, sociable, non-anxious, non- Failures undermine it, especially in early phases of despondent and tenacious social reformers take an optimistic efficacy development. If people experience only easy view of their efficacy to influence events that affect their successes, they come to expect quick results, and are lives. easily discouraged by failure. Resilient efficacy requires experience in overcoming obstacles through perseverant Human accomplishments and positive well-being require effort. Resilience is also built by training in how to an optimistic sense of personal efficacy to override the manage failure so it becomes informative, rather than numerous impediments to success. People must have strong demoralizing. belief in their efficacy to sustain the persevering effort needed to succeed. Social Modeling. The second way of developing efficacy is by social modeling. Models are a source of inspiration, This functional belief system combines realism about odds, competencies, and motivation. Seeing people similar to but optimism that one can beat those odds through self- oneself succeed by perseverant effort, raises observers’ development and perseverant effort. beliefs in their own abilities. The failures of others instill self-doubts about one’s own ability to master In his delightful book titled Rejection, John White identifies similar activities. two distinguishing characteristics of people who achieve success in what they do: Social Persuasion. Social persuasion is the third mode • An unshakable sense of efficacy of influence. Realistic boosts in efficacy can lead people • A firm belief in the worth of what they are doing to exert greater effort. This increases their chances of success. But effective efficacy builders do more than This internal resource enables them to withstand a lot of convey positive appraisals; they structure situations for adversity. You cannot afford to be a realist if you want to others in ways that bring success, and avoid placing them succeed. Given the usual negative social realities – realists prematurely in situations where they are likely to fail. forego the effort. Realists abort their efforts prematurely in They measure success by self-improvement, rather than the face of failure, or, they become cynics about the prospect by triumphs over others. Pep talks without enabling of producing change. guidance achieve little.

George Bernard Shaw said, “The reasonable man adapts Physical-Emotional States. People also rely on their himself to the world; the unreasonable one persists in physical and emotional states in judging their efficacy. trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore, all progress They read their emotional arousal and tension as signs of depends on the unreasonable man.” personal vulnerability. In activities involving strength and stamina, people interpret their fatigue, aches, and pains, as indicators of low physical efficacy. Mood also affects how people judge their efficacy. A positive mood enhances a sense of efficacy. A depressed mood diminishes it. The fourth way of modifying efficacy beliefs is to reduce people’s stress and depression, build their physical strength, and change misinterpretations of their physical states.

32 Efficacy beliefs affect human functioning in many ways. 4.2 Outcome Expectations

Weak Efficacy. People who have a low sense of efficacy in a People also motivate and regulate their behavior by the given domain outcomes they expect their actions to produce. These • shy away from difficult tasks, which they view as personal expected outcomes take three forms: threats; • The physical and material costs and benefits of given • have low aspirations and a weak commitment to their courses of action goals; • The social costs and benefits the behavior produces • turn inward on their self-doubts, instead of thinking how • Evaluative self-reactions to perform successfully under pressure; • dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles, and adverse After people adopt personal standards, they regulate their consequences of failure when faced with difficulties; behavior by evaluative self-reactions. They do things that • attribute failures to deficient capability; give them a sense of self-worth and pride, and refrain • slacken their efforts, or give up quickly in the face of from behaving in ways that bring self-censure. Evaluative difficulties; self-incentives operate as strong guides and motivators for • are slow to recover their sense of efficacy after failures or behavior. setbacks; • easily fall victim to stress and depression. Unless people see that their personal interests are served by adopting new patterns of behavior, they have little incentive Strong Efficacy. In contrast, people who have a strong sense to mount the effort needed to change their ways. Media of efficacy productions can highlight the personal and societal benefits • approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered, of the new ways. rather than as threats to be avoided; • set challenging goals, and sustain strong commitment to 4.3 Aspirations their goals; • concentrate on how to perform successfully, not on Aspirations serve as another motivating force. Once people themselves and disruptive personal concerns, when they commit themselves to valued goals, they enlist the effort encounter problems; needed to fulfill them. Thus, people motivate themselves, • attribute failures to insufficient effort, faulty strategies, and guide their behavior by the goals, aspirations, and or lack of knowledge or skill, all of which are correctable; challenges they set for themselves. This is an especially • redouble their efforts in the face of difficulties; robust form of self-motivation. • quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks; Goals motivate by enlisting self-investment in activities. • display low vulnerability to stress and depression. Once people commit themselves to certain goals, they seek self-satisfaction from fulfilling them. They intensify their Because of the centrality of perceived efficacy in people’s efforts by discontent with substandard performance. lives, media productions can be used to raise people’s beliefs that they have what it takes to succeed. But, most of the goals that people set neither motivate, nor guide behavior because There are several ways you can build resilience through • they are too general, so they are non-committing; modeling through the media: • they are too distant – there are too many attractions in • You can prepare people for the problems they will the present for future goals to control current behavior. encounter by enacting prototypic problem situations and modeling effective ways of overcoming them. Goals alone have little motivating value unless they are • You can model how to recover from failed attempts and translated into concrete steps that give substance to the setbacks – to help people to learn how to manage failure. vision. Future goals provide direction. But sub-goals • You can show people how to enlist social support for influence what one does in the here and now. Sub-goal personal change. attainments build a sense of efficacy and self-satisfaction with one’s progress. For example, before the broadcast of a Sabido-style radio serial drama in Tanzania, many women believed they had The media can model how to translate a vision of a desired no control over family size. They thought the number of future into a set of achievable sub-goals. children they had was predetermined divinely, by fate, or by forces beyond their control. Exposure to the program raised perceived efficacy to control one’s family size. 33 4.4 Impediments 5.1.3 Bureaucratic control

There are many impediments to personal and social The social machinery of society is no less challenging. change. Beliefs of personal efficacy affect how formidable Bureaucracies thwart effective social action. Long delays the obstacles appear. People who have a resilient sense of between action and results discourage efforts at change. efficacy figure out ways to overcome obstacles to change. Those who distrust their staying power (their “efficacy”) 5.1.4 Social fragmentation view impediments as insurmountable. They quickly abort their efforts when they run into difficulties. Social efforts to change lives for the better require merging diverse self-interests in support of common values and 5. COLLECTIVE EFFICACY goals. Disagreements among different constituencies create additional obstacles to successful collective action. It is Many of the challenges of life involve common problems getting harder to create unity within diversity. The recent that require people to work together with a collective voice years have witnessed growing social fragmentation into to change their lives for the better. The strength of families, separate interest groups, each exercising its own power. As a communities, organizations, social institutions, and even result, it is easier to get people to block courses of action, than nations lies partly in people’s sense of collective efficacy; to merge them as a unified force for social change. People are that they can solve the problems they face and improve their now exercising greater factional power, but immobilizing lives through unified effort. Social change requires a strong themselves collectively for social changes that can improve sense of collective efficacy. the quality of life in a society.

5.1 Underminers of Collective Efficacy 5.1.5 Global problems

The growing globalization and interdependence of social and The magnitude of human problems also undermines economic life requires effective collective action at local, perceived efficacy to find solutions for them. Profound national, and transnational levels. As the need for efficacious global changes in the form of burgeoning populations and collective effort grows, so does the feeling of collective mounting environmental devastation are destroying the powerlessness. Many of the contemporary conditions of life interdependent ecosystems that sustain life. Worldwide undermine the development of collective efficacy. problems of growing magnitude instill a sense of paralysis; that there is little people can do to reduce such problems. 5.1.1 Transnational interdependencies Global effects are the products of local actions. The strategy of “Think globally, act locally” is an effort to restore in people Life is now increasingly shaped by transnational a sense of efficacy so that they can make a difference. interdependencies. What happens economically and politically in one part of the world, can affect the welfare The psychological barriers created by beliefs of collective of vast populations elsewhere. Global market forces are powerlessness are more demoralizing and debilitating than restructuring national economies and shaping the social life are external impediments. People who have a sense of of societies. As nations wrestle with the loss of control, the collective efficacy will mobilize their efforts and resources public expresses disillusionment and cynicism over whether to surmount the obstacles to the changes they seek, but those their leaders and institutions can work for them to improve convinced of their collective powerlessness will cease trying their lives. even though changes are attainable through perseverant collective effort. 5.1.2 Technologies 6. USING PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR SOCIAL CHANGE Modern life is increasingly regulated by complex technologies that most people neither understand, nor believe they can Miguel Sabido adopted the generic modeling principles do much to influence. Paradoxically, the technologies we and creatively applied them to promote individual and create to control our life environment, come to control how society-wide change. His translation of theory into practice we think and behave. For example, the citizens in Eastern was remarkably inventive. The fields of psychology and Europe, who are dependent on deteriorating atomic plants communications provided some of the basic principles, and for their energy, feel powerless to remove this hazard from Miguel’s ingenuity converted this knowledge into engrossing their lives, even though they acknowledge the grave danger. serial dramas. The devastating consequences of mishaps do not respect national borders.

34 ELEMENTS OF DRAMATIC SERIALS Vicarious Motivators. The benefits of the favorable practices, and the costs of the detrimental ones, are The basic principles guiding the construction of the vividly depicted. Depicted outcomes provide incentives dramatic serials are: for change. • Prestigeful Modeling. Culturally admired television models exhibit the beneficial styles of Attentional Involvement. Melodramatic and other behavior. Social attraction increases the impact of emotional devices are used to sustain high involvement modeling influences. in the dramatic presentations. Continuing involvement increases the impact of serial dramas. • Similarity Modeling. Characters representing different segments of the viewing population are Symbolic Coding Aids. Epilogues and summarization shown adopting the beneficial attitudes and behavior of the modeled messages are used to underscore the patterns. Seeing people similar to oneself succeed importance of social practices that are enacted, and to enhances the power of modeling. enhance their recallability. • Transitional Modeling. The episodes include positive models exhibiting beneficial lifestyles, Environmental Supports. It is of limited value to negative models exhibiting detrimental lifestyles, motivate people for change if they do not have the and transitional models changing from detrimental to needed resources and environmental supports to realize beneficial styles of behavior. those changes. Environmental guides and supports are • Contrasting Modeling. Contrasting modeling provided to expand and sustain the changes promoted highlights the personal and social effects of different by the media. lifestyles. Viewers draw inspiration from seeing others change their lives for the better. Dual Path of Influence. In fostering large-scale changes, communications systems operate through Deep Involvement. People get deeply involved in the two pathways. In the direct pathway, communications lives of the models. In a serial in Tanzania, women media promote changes by informing, enabling, motivating, and guiding participants. In the socially- spotted a negative model at a market and drove him out mediated pathway, media influences are used to link under a rain of tomatoes. In India, 400,000 viewers participants to social networks and community settings. sent letters supporting, advising, or criticizing the These places provide continued personalized guidance, various models in the drama. In Peru, 10,000 people as well as natural incentives and social supports for showed up for a filming of a fictional marriage of two desired changes. The major share of behavior change is of the characters in the drama. promoted within these social milieus.

6.1 Enabling Storytelling Sabido-style serial dramas do not simply try to change attitudes. Attitudes often bear weak relation to behavior. Sabido-style serial dramas are not soap operas. In soap operas, When self-interest conflicts with attitudes, people readily characters are endlessly entangled in social conflicts and find excuses not to act on their attitudes. They justify moral predicaments, and the sleazy side of life. Both Sabido- exemptions to them. The enabling dramatizations further style serial dramas and soap operas involve storytelling, help people achieve changes by linking them to enabling and but each tells different types of stories, serving markedly supportive subcommunities and beneficial human services. different purposes. To call Sabido-style serial dramas “soap operas” trivializes their markedly different structure and 6.2 Sociocultural Applications function. Sabido-style serial dramas are also not superficial media campaigns marketing quick fixes to intractable social There are many illustrations of how dramatic serials have problems. been used to alleviate society-wide problems.

Rather, these serial dramas use the social cognitive model 6.2.1 Literacy enhancement to dramatize the everyday social problems people struggle with, model suitable solutions, and provide people with Miguel’s initial application was designed to improve literacy incentives, support, and strategies for bettering their lives. in Mexico. In an effort to reduce illiteracy, the government

35 had launched a national self-study program. People who • The rate of the enrollment in the national self-instruction were skilled at reading were urged to organize small self- program was 99,000 in the year preceding the televised study groups in which they would teach others how to read series and 840,000 the year of the series. with instructional material developed for this purpose. It • As people develop the competencies that improve their was a fine idea, but few people took advantage of it. lives, they serve as models, inspirations, and even tutors for others. This concomitant social influence can extend A prior study revealed three perceived impediments to the direct impact of televised modeling. In the year enrolling in the national program: following the series, another 400,000 people enrolled in • Critical period barrier. Some believed that reading skills the self-instruction program. could be acquired only when one is young. Since they passed the critical period, they could no longer learn to 6.2.2 Family planning read. • Low efficacy barrier. Many others believed that they Miguel Sabido’s second serial drama was developed to lacked the ability to master such a complex skill. promote family planning to reduce population growth. • Self-unworthiness barrier. Still others felt that an educated person would have little interest in devoting A creative format of contrast modeling portrayed the process time to them. and benefits of family planning. The story line centered on the lives of married sisters and their daughters. The positive A popular soap opera star played the role of the instructor. family life of a small family, whose wife worked in a family She persuades characters representing different segments planning clinic, was contrasted with that of a married of the population – adolescents, young adults, middle-aged, sister burdened by a huge family and the accompanying and the elderly – to join the self-study group. This diversity impoverishment and distress. builds in assumed similarity. The characters representing the different groups voice the dissuading beliefs, which the Much of the drama focused on the married daughter from instructor corrects as she persuades them that they have the the huge family, who herself, was beginning to experience ability to succeed. The programs included humor, conflict, severe marital conflicts and distress over a rapidly expanding and engrossing discussions of the subjects being read during family. In an emotional scene, the daughter voices her the literacy training sessions. The episodes showed the distress over the course her family life is taking. models struggling in the initial phases of learning and then gaining progressive mastery and self-pride in their Consultation with the aunt served as the vehicle for modeling accomplishments. a great deal of information on how to manage marital discord, • Melodramatic embellishments and emotive music machismo behavior, and male resistance to contraception and gave dramatic intensity to the episodes to ensure high family planning, as well as how to communicate openly in attentional involvement of the viewers. the family, and escape the many problems experienced by a • As vicarious motivators, the program depicted the benefits family overburdened with children. of literacy for personal development and national efficacy and pride. The young couple served as the transitional models. They • To facilitate a transfer of change, the series often used were shown gaining control over their family life with the real-life settings showing the actors obtaining the help of a family planning center, and experiencing the instructional material from an actual distribution center accompanying benefits. A priest occasionally appeared in and eventually graduating in an actual graduation the epilogues, emphasizing the need for responsible family ceremony. The epilogues informed the viewers of this planning. national self-education program and encouraged them to take advantage of it. At the end of some of the programs, viewers were informed about existing family planning services, to facilitate media- Results: promoted changes. • Millions of viewers watched this series faithfully. • Compared to non-viewers, viewers of the dramatic series Results: were much more informed about the national literacy • Family planning centers reported a 32 percent increase in program, and expressed more positive attitudes about new contraceptive users, over the number for the previous helping each other to learn. year.

36 • National sales of contraceptives rose, between 4 percent changing his risky ways. He refuses. His wife fears that she and 7 percent in the preceding 2 years. They increased by will get infected. The community pools its resources to assist 23 percent, in the year the program was aired. the wife to start a business. She splits from her husband, who eventually gets infected and dies of AIDS. 6.2.3 Family planning and reproductive health 6.2.4 Family size and land inheritance Tanzania provided a unique opportunity to test the effectiveness of serial dramas. The Sabido-style radio serial A Sabido-style radio serial drama in Kenya, Ushikwapo drama, Twende na Wakati (“Let’s Go With the Times”) was Shikamana (“If Assisted, Assist Yourself”) addressed issues of broadcast in all but one region of the country. The non- inheritance of land and the impoverishing effect of large broadcast region served as a control. families. The contrast modeling involves two brothers. One has a wife, a son, and several daughters. The other brother Results: has multiple wives, nine sons, and even more daughters. • The broadcast area had a substantial increase in the They squabble over how to pass on the inherited family farm. number of new families adopting family planning methods, compared to the control region. Adoption of In Kenya, only sons can inherit property. The monogamous family planning methods also increased when the serial brother argues that his lone male heir is entitled to half drama was later broadcast in the control area. the land; the polygamous brother insists on dividing the • There was a dose-response effect. The greater the exposure farm into ten small plots, which would keep them all and involvement in the dramatic series, the more the impoverished. This drama serves as a vehicle for modeling marital partners discussed the need to control family size the social and economic benefits of family planning. and the higher the rate of adoption of family planning methods. In another subplot, parents want their young daughter to • The fertility rate declined more in the 2-year period of the quit school, be circumcised, and be married off to an arranged serial drama than in the previous 30 years, without any partner. Her teacher pleads with the parents to allow her to change in socioeconomic conditions, and little change in continue her education, which she desperately desires. death rate. • Seventeen segments were included to prevent the spread Results: of HIV/AIDS. In Tanzania, HIV/AIDS is transmitted • Contraceptive use increased by 58 percent, and family size heterosexually, often by long-distance truckers, who have preference declined by 24 percent. sex with prostitutes in truck-stop hubs. About 60 percent • The more people listened to the program, the more they of these prostitutes are infected with HIV/AIDS. About a talked to their spouse about family planning, and the third of the truck drivers are also infected. The common higher the rate of adoption of contraceptive methods. belief in Tanzania was that HIV/AIDS is transmitted by • Charles Westhoff, a demographer at Princeton, conducted mosquitoes. So, to avoid HIV/AIDS, the truckers were the analyses. After he applied multiple controls for dousing themselves with insect repellent – while engaging ethnicity, religion, education, rural-urban residence, life- in risky sex. The radio serial drama quickly debunked the cycle status, and number of wives, his analysis showed false belief that mosquitoes transmit HIV/AIDS, or that that the serial drama remained as a major contributor to having sexual intercourse with a virgin cures AIDS. Kenya’s declining birthrate and reduction in the rate of • There was a substantial increase in condom use in the population growth. broadcast area. Listeners also reported a reduction on the number of sexual partners, and sharing of razors and 6.2.5 Women’s status and gender equity needles, as a result of exposure to the dramatic serial. A Sabido-style serial drama in China was developed to Contrast modeling was used in Twende na Wakati. The negative address discriminatory gender norms and societal practices. trucker model engages in risky sex with multiple partners. The serial drama showed how educated daughters can be A positive trucker model adopts safer sex practices, and providers for their parents. cuts back on the number of partners. A transitional model begins with risky practices, and adopts safer ones. The two The story line addressed arranged marriages, coerced models, using the safer practices, try to talk their friend into pregnancy, son preference, and women’s self-determination.

37 The drama graphically portrayed the tragedy and injustice Some of the actors personified positive role models for of social practices that force women into arranged marriages gender equality; others were proponents of the traditional they do not want, and preference for sons. subservient role for women. Still others were transitional models. A famous Indian actor reinforced the modeled In this serial drama, a father is desperate to receive a dowry messages in epilogues. payment so he can buy a bride for his son, his pride and joy. He demands that his daughter agree to an arranged marriage Results: to an arrogant man of means. She resists, because she is in • A random sample of viewers revealed that the televised love with a musician of modest means. But to spare her modeling promoted attitudes supportive of gender younger sister, whom the father targets next, she eventually equality and limiting family size. agrees to the arranged marriage. • Viewers reported that they had learned from the program that As the story unfolds, the daughter gives birth to a girl. Her o women should have equal opportunities and a say in husband demands she get pregnant again, to bear him a decisions that affect their lives; son. She leaves him, marries the musician, and pursues a o programs advancing the welfare of women should be successful career. She becomes an admired national model encouraged; for women’s personal development and self-determination. o cultural diversity should be respected; This serial drama won six awards, one of them equivalent to o family size should be limited. an Emmy award. • Interviews with village inhabitants revealed that the drama sparked serious public discussions about the 6.2.6 Dowry and forced marriage broadcast themes. These discussions went beyond talk to collective community action to remove inequitable A Sabido-style television serial drama in India addressed the dowry system and forced child marriages to arranged normative practices, and to improve their collective partners. A model family adopts family planning practices social future. One village sent a large poster letter to the and struggles against restrictive traditions to educate their broadcast center, signed by its inhabitants, stating that daughters. they will work to eradicate the practice of dowry and child marriages. The drama centered on three generations of a lower-middle • The enrollment of girls in elementary and junior high class family, who lived together in the same household. The schools rose from 10 percent to 38 percent. themes included: • In another village, young boys and girls created a self-help • Familial harmony, amidst differences among family action group to promote the changes modeled in the serial members drama. Some of the subplots centered on preserving the • Equal educational opportunities and career options for environment. The serial drama motivated viewers to take women collective action to improve sanitation, reduce potential • Gender bias in child rearing health hazards, adopt fuel conservation practices, reduce • The detriment of the dowry system pollution, and launch tree-planting campaigns. • Choice in spouse selection • Teenage marriage and parenthood These system-level effects illustrate how dramas that address • Family planning to limit family size the social problems that people face in enabling ways can • Community development build collective efficacy.

NOTES

1 This paper draws upon Bandura, A. 2004. Social cognitive theory for personal and social change by enabling media. In A. Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and Practice. (pp. 75-96). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

38 CHAPTER 5

The Use of Formative Research in Entertainment- Education

Earl Babbie Chapman University

Photo by Wendi Stein 39 1. INTRODUCTION TO FORMATIVE RESEARCH 2. TOPICS OF FORMATIVE RESEARCH

The Sabido method for entertainment-education differs from Heidi Noel Nariman, in reviewing the Sabido methodology more casual attempts to change public opinion or behavior and its implementation in a number of studies, identifies primarily through its carefully articulated methodology. these areas for formative research: (Nariman, 1993, pages 67 This deliberate process begins with a thorough process of – 69) formative research, which lays the groundwork for the • The Social Message entertainment-education program. • The Role of Television in Society • The Public Infrastructure Thomas W. Valente (Valente, 2002, page 57) defines formative • The Television Infrastructure research by saying it is “conducted before a program is • Format Characteristics designed in order to understand a population’s existing • The Target Audience knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, values, motivations, norms, expectations, and practices. It ensures that (1) a promotional Nariman’s categories, with slight modifications, provide a program is necessary, and (2) the messages created are useful beginning view of the topics that can be addressed in appropriate for the need identified.” He adds that it is formative research. usually qualitative, although it could be, and sometimes is, quantitative. 2.1 The Social Message

Similarly, Sood, Menard, and Witte (Sood et al., 2004, page The basic message(s) to be addressed by an entertainment- 133) speak of “a method of analyzing target audiences to education program is determined outside the research determine their needs, desires, behaviors, and media usage context. It is a policy matter. For example, most of Population in order to develop understandable, high-quality, culturally Media Center’s programs seek to promote three social goals: appropriate characters and storylines.” 1. Small families 2. Safe sex In designing the fourth series of the popular entertainment- 3. Raising the status of women education program in South Africa (Soul City), program planners conducted 18 months of formative research that Two of Miguel Sabido’s earliest entertainment-education “included (1) stakeholder consultations, (2) literature serial dramas focused on literacy and family planning. reviews, (3) case studies of abused women and abusers, (4) general audience research, and (5) workshops with the The decision to pursue a particular goal or to address a National Network on Violence against Women (NNVAW)” particular issue with an entertainment-education program (Usdin et al., 2004, page 156). may originate within governmental or nongovernmental agencies, or may be largely determined by the donor’s specific During Population Media Center’s development of two radio interests for issues. The initial identification of the social serial dramas in Ethiopia, the formative research focused on message or issue is only the beginning. Some of the initial “. . .(1) defining the target audiences, (2) understanding the formative research is directed at elaborating and specifying knowledge, attitudes and practices of the target audiences, the message, as well as locating it within the culture that and (3) ensuring that the issues were dealt with in a culturally will host the programs. relevant and appropriate manner” (Ryerson & Teffera, 2004, page 183). Meena is an animated story about a South Asian girl. The Meena cartoons were developed by UNICEF in 1990 to promote These introductory definitions and descriptions of formative girls’ rights and gender equity. In designing the Meena research identify a number of topics for study prior to the story lines, formative researchers found the status of young design of entertainment-education programming. We will girls had a number of dimensions, even when talking about explore those topics in the sections to follow. Then we will something as specific as discrimination in food distribution examine some of the tools commonly used in formative (McKee et al., 2004, page 340). research, some of the logistical issues involved in the practical implementation of formative research, and we will conclude by looking at the relationship between formative research and evaluation research.

40 Figure 1: Dividing the Mango family, a prevailing preference for male children (which contributes substantially to higher desired fertility and family size), dowry payments in some countries, property ownership and inheritance laws that deprive women of their own or family resources, lack of education, limited access to health care, and inadequate nutrition (Piotrow & de Fossard, 2004, page 46).

Excerpt from Aahat

Rabia: You are a selfish man, Amir. You care only for yourself. Amir: I don’t like to hear this rubbish. Rabia: This is not rubbish. It’s a matter of me and my children’s life. I won’t let them be ruined.... I still have enough strength to take my children and myself away from you.

Climbing a forbidden tree, Meena picks a mango and brings it home to share with Raju. But after peeling the fruit, her While the central message to be promoted was reproductive mother gives the lion’s share to Raju. ‘Raju has got more health, the formative research made it clear this issue could than me!’ protests Meena. ‘He always gets more, that’s the not be discussed without addressing the overall context: in way it is,’ her mother replies. ‘He’s a growing boy’ agrees her this case, gender equality. For example, it would be necessary grandmother, ‘and he works hard.’ Stung at the implications to address the issue of the status of women in order to have that she doesn’t work hard, Meena challenges Raju to swap a serious impact on reproductive health. At the same time, chores - and meals - for one whole day. Raju boasts he can the formative research identified a dramatic avenue into the easily handle Meena’s workload. But when it comes to topic of reproductive health: the inferior status of women. getting up at dawn to light the fire and sweep the house, feed the chickens and collect the water, he’s soon worn out It is important to recognize that formative research, as it - and Meena makes her point. At the next meal, both Raju functions within entertainment-education programs, needs and Meena are given the same amount of food. (Bangladesh, to be formative, not confirmatory. As McKee, Aghi, Carnegie, India, Nepal, Pakistan, 13 minutes, 1993) and Shahzadi point out, “The formative research approach Produced by UNICEF, Fil-Cartoons and Ram Mohan Studios. in Meena is not regarded merely as a tool for pretesting preconceived concepts and images with the target audience. Key findings from formative research were that Before the materials are designed, the researchers go to discrimination in food distribution was based on both communities to determine their attitudes and perceptions quantity and quality. In poorer areas of South Asia, girls on each issue” (McKee et al., 2004, page 339). Formative were deprived on both accounts, whereas in richer areas research is very much a part of the creative process that girls received less “quality” food (meat, fish, eggs, and dairy results in entertainment-education programming. products). Both concepts were incorporated in the film. It was felt that boys “needed” more food because their work is 2.2 The Role of Media in Society outside and perceived as harder than girls’ domestic work. The story line therefore emphasized both the energy required Since entertainment-education functions through some for girls’ work and the fact that boys and girls, as growing form of mass media – radio, television, comics, etc. – it can children, have an equal need for, and right to, nutritious only be effective if the target population can be reached food (McKee et al., 2004, page 340). through the medium chosen. Another function of formative research is to determine which media are used by different In discussing the formative research for Aahat, a six-episode, target groups within the society. 60-minute television serial drama broadcast in Pakistan in 1991, Piotrow and de Fossard identified one particular Often this aspect of formative research will involve listener cultural element as central to entertainment-education or viewer studies. For example, what percentage of the aimed at addressing reproductive health concerns: target population watches television or listens to the radio. Going beyond overall numbers, formative research should The main social norm that affects reproductive health is also examine who the viewers or listeners are. Specifically, related to gender. The inferior status of women takes such is the target population (e.g., young mothers) reached by the forms as the lack of equal decision-making power in the medium in question?

41 The research typically goes even further. How does the 2.3 The Public Infrastructure audience use the medium? What do they want to get from it? For example, Vicki Beck reports on an analysis conducted by Typically, entertainment-education aims to change the the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of data beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors of individuals in a from two surveys (1999 and 2000) to better understand what society: increasing use of family planning, reducing spousal US audiences were learning about health from entertainment abuse, increasing literacy, etc. The target individuals, television shows: however, live their lives within particular social structures that may or may not support the intended changes. The vast majority of regular viewers (who watch daytime or prime-time shows two or more times a week) consider If the intention is to increase the use of family planning services, it is important to understand how many family television their main source of health information. Daytime planning service centers exist and where they are located. drama viewers (nearly one out of five respondents) reported What are the auspices under which those centers operate: television as their main source of health information more governmental, or private? Are services provided free, or for often than prime-time viewers (about one-half of all respon- a charge? To what extent will the centers cooperate with the entertainment-education producers? dents). Nearly half of all regular television viewers report- ed they learned about health from television shows. Up to If the aim is to increase literacy, what educational facilities one-half of the viewers took some action as a result, with are available to support that aim? There is little value in African-American women more likely than others to take ac- making people want to read if there is no one to teach them tion after they heard about a health topic on a television en- or if they cannot afford the classes. Formative research should determine whether the necessary physical and tertainment show. Interpersonal discussion is one important organizational infrastructures are present in the target outcome of viewing health information on television shows. society. Many Healthstyle respondents who were regular viewers said they discussed the health topics with others, and some The relevant infrastructure can also include the support of took action to prevent the problem, told someone else to do public officials and other leaders for a given topic or issue. Two aspects of formative research can come together in the something, called for further information, or visited a medi- interaction with public agencies and individuals. On the one cal doctor or health clinic (Beck, 2004, page 216). hand, such interactions can determine the level of support for the entertainment-education program goals. On the other hand, such interactions can also provide insights into In a similar vein, esteemed entertainment-education the different perspectives with which the program content researcher Everett Rogers reports on several studies will have to connect. McKee, Aghi, Carnegie, and Shahzadi indicating that large numbers of Americans today seek speak to this in their discussion of the formative research health information from the Internet. Several of these that was used in the development of the Meena cartoons (see studies went even further to specify what Internet users Figure 2). want to learn about (e.g., breast cancer) (Rogers, 2004 pages 288 – 289). The research process for Meena’s creation was one of the This type of information can help entertainment-education most extensive exercises in formative research in the history programmers to determine which medium to use for each of development communication. Over an 11-year period, target audience, for each specific issue to be addressed hundreds of focus groups and in-depth interviews were held by the program. Such detailed analyses can also guide with over 10,000 girls and boys, parents, and other com- entertainment-education programmers regarding what munity members. Parents can support girls to go to school, topics are most appropriately addressed by any specific medium – or what topics are not appropriate for that medium but school facilities and good teachers are needed to deliver – for each target audience. quality education. Broad involvement of different groups of respondents ensures that multiple perspectives are tak- en into account to build a consensus of views (McKee et al., 2004, page 339).

42 Figure 2: Meena

2.4 The Media Infrastructure and political pollsters should always resist sponsors’ requests to combine data gathering with sales pitches, the formative Since entertainment-education programs are broadcast over the mass media, it is vital that the producers understand the research typically associated with entertainment-education organization of these media in the target society. Sometimes, projects may reasonably blur that boundary. the media are fully-owned and operated by the government, and sometimes they are run by independent, nonprofit Often, the careful examination of how the media function organizations, and other times they function as part of a in a particular society will yield insights that can avoid market economy, supported financially through commercial unpleasant surprises later on. For example, the formative advertising. Sometimes the media in a given society may research should provide information relevant to the likely operate through more than one of these models. costs of cast members in radio or television dramas. This would be critical for budgeting purposes. A full examination Formative research will tell the program planners whose of the subject of salaries, however, may reveal that a support and/or approval will be needed if the programs successful show will result in the actors becoming celebrities, are to be presented to the public and how such support can able to command higher salaries in subsequent years. This be gained. Perhaps government approval will be needed, kind of insight would also be extremely useful for budgeting. or commercial sponsors may need to be enrolled in the project. Inevitably, the formative research will also lead to 2.5 Format Characteristics an element of selling the program and enlisting support. In case after case, formative researchers report conducting Although the mass media have played a powerful role in conferences and workshops with government officials and spreading Western culture into non-Western societies around community leaders, learning about who controls the media, the world, there is a risk of overestimating the homogeneity and simultaneously getting those influential people involved of media cultures. As Heidi Nariman cautions, “Each country in selling the project to others. While market researchers may have its own style of soap opera. An understanding of the

43 basics of this style allows for the subtle adaptation of its key For example, Meena’s creators came to realize they should not attributes in order to accommodate the social message. Such refer to the “tradition” of boys being given more food than attributes include cast, crew, props, emotional pacing, music, girls, because tradition was generally regarded as something costumes, director’s cuts, dialogue, and scheduling” (Nariman, to be revered and preserved. When Meena’s grandmother 1993, page 53). wanted to assert that something was traditional, she would simply say, “That’s the way it is” (McKee et al., 2004, page Formative research can be used to help create programming 340). content that appropriately reflects both of the E’s in entertainment-education. McKee, Aghi, Carnegie, and Alternatively, the results of formative research may indicate Shahzadi describe how formative research was used in a lack of conflict with the existing culture. Rasha Abdulla developing both the entertainment and educational elements reports on the results of an oral rehydration therapy of the Meena series: (ORT) campaign in Egypt: “There were no competing or contradicting messages to the medical and health information Formative research was used to ascertain that each episode provided in the television spots. Furthermore, the campaign did not contradict, in any way, with any religious or social of the Meena series maintains the delicate balance and dy- norms that could have impeded its reception” (Abdulla, 2004, namic tension between education and entertainment in pages 308 – 309). In this project, the formative research also stories that appeal to both children and adults. Particular determined which containers were available for use by the care was needed to prevent the film episodes from becom- rural, target population, and helped in the design of the ing overloaded with message content, or, alternatively, to sachets to be distributed, as well as in designing a logo for the product (a mother holding her baby) (Abdulla, 2004, ensure that a serious issue was not treated flippantly (McKee pages 308 – 309). et al., 2004, page 339). Formative research on the target audience provides 2.6 Target Audience information on what characters should look like, what they should wear, how they should talk and what their villages Many of the examples given above reflect on the target or cities look like. Some researchers have even recorded audience for a program, including the culture within which village sounds for use in radio programs, or used detailed they live – the cultural practices that the entertainment- descriptions of household furnishings to design sets for education program is intended to change. There are some recording of television drama. other, perhaps mundane, aspects of this area of formative research. What are the demographic characteristics of the 3. FORMATIVE RESEARCH TOOLS target audience, such as sex and age distributions? What are their educational levels, religious affiliations, languages Sood, Menard, and Witte identify several tools available spoken, typical family size, and so forth? The program for the purposes of formative research: “surveys, focus goals will determine many of the demographic dimensions group interviews, analyses of demographic/health data, relevant for measuring. This is only the beginning, however. collaborative workshops, field observations, and pilot testing with a sample of the target audience” (Sood et al., 2004, page Albert Bandura, whose social cognitive theory powerfully 133). influenced the Sabido method, suggests that media can influence behavior both directly and through elements in Formative research can utilize both qualitative and the social system within which the media consumers live quantitative methods. In 1988, the Turkish Family Health their lives. It is in this latter respect that it becomes essential and Planning Foundation (TFHPF) was the first organization for entertainment-educators to understand the beliefs, in Turkey to use mass media to educate people about the values, and norms of the pre-existing culture. Bandura then population problem. Qualitative formative research, describes the beginning stages of research. “In this formative including focus group interviews with men and women phase, focus groups, representing various constituencies in throughout Turkey, showed that many Turkish women want the society, identify problems of major concern to them and fewer children, but that lack of adequate family planning the obstacles they face. These data provide the culturally information and services, along with the husband’s opposition relevant information for developing realistic characters and to use of family planning, pose obstacles to family planning engrossing functional plot lines” (Bandura, 2004, page 87). practice (Yaser, 2004, pages 321 – 322).

44 Other results from TFHPF’s formative research in Turkey services are like (Ryerson & Teffera, 2004, pages 183 – 184). revealed that: 1. while 60-70 percent of women are literate, fewer than 30 The formative researchers also gathered Ethiopian proverbs percent read a newspaper daily; that reflect negative attitudes toward women and children, 2. about 85 percent of women listen to their own or someone which were used by scriptwriters as a source of material in else’s radio for an average of slightly more than one hour the entertainment-education dramas (Ryerson, page 184). daily; and At the outset of this section, I mentioned that both 3. nearly all women (93 percent) watch their own or someone quantitative and qualitative techniques can contribute to else’s television set for an average of more than three effective formative research. Within quantitative research hours daily (Yaser, 2004, page 323). methods, there is another distinction reflected in the previous examples that should be identified: hard and soft In developing the Meena series, both quantitative and data, corresponding roughly with behaviors and attitudes. qualitative methods were used to collect formative research There is a difference, for example, between the percentage of data on every aspect of the program. McKee, Aghi, Carnegie, women who are in favor of modern birth control techniques and Shahzadi report that “Meena was formulated through and the percentage who use them. This distinction is evident formative research over a two-year period – hundreds of when we look at the relationship between formative research focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were carried and evaluation research. out on the concepts, characters, images, names, themes, and draft storylines” (McKee et al., 2004, page 337). 4. RELATIONSHIP TO EVALUATION RESEARCH

In Ethiopia, Population Media Center used five different Another chapter in this volume will discuss evaluation formative research techniques (both qualitative and research, but it is worth noting here the need to coordinate quantitative) to create two radio serials aimed at supporting formative and evaluation research. small families, safe sex, and raising the status of women: Often, the formative research will help specify the likely or 1. Interviews were conducted with experts in the fields of desired impacts of the program. In the case of encouraging family planning, sexually transmitted diseases, status of family planning, for example, Population Media Center’s women, culture and environment. formative research in Ethiopia revealed that condoms were 2. A literature review of all relevant studies was done, not only provided in family planning centers but also in which led to a report that was understandable by the non- small shops. As a consequence, some of the radio programs technically trained creative team. involved the purchase of condoms in such corner shops. 3. Thirty-four focus group discussions were conducted In addition, the formative research indicated that simply by a local agency, Birhan Research. Excerpts from the monitoring the distribution of condoms by family planning discussions were useful in writing the scripts, and the centers would miss some of the potential impact of the radio audiotapes were useful for the writers and producers to get a sense of how individuals sound when they talk about programs. certain subjects. 4. A total of 1,020 personal interviews were conducted with a The formative research can help the evaluation researchers sample of people from different regions, urban and rural, (who may be the same people, of course) to determine the and men and women of different ages and marital status. most appropriate evaluation designs for the entertainment- This included issues related to the influence of the culture education program: experimental models, correlation on sexual and reproductive decision-making, feelings of studies, and/or the monitoring of longitudinal changes, self-efficacy with regard to these issues, insight into the for example. The formative research may also shed light interpersonal dynamics of married couples, and other on the need for additional hard (behavioral) data or soft issues. A research agency was commissioned to design (attitudinal) data. In some cases, it may be appropriate to the interview questionnaire, using examples from other evaluate process variables (e.g., audience size) or outcome countries as a starting point and adapting them to the variables (e.g., reduced birth rates). specific cultures of Ethiopia. 5. The producers and writers visited rural villages in order Formative research is an indispensable part of the Sabido to get a sense of what life is like in those settings, to record method for entertainment-education programming. It can village sounds, to learn what topics people discuss, and to mean the difference between making a valiant effort and obtain a sense of what the clinics and other health/social actually accomplishing something worthwhile.

45 REFERENCES

Abdulla, R.A. (2004). Entertainment-Education in the Middle East: Lessons Ryerson, W.N. & Teffera, N. (2004). Organizing a comprehensive national plan from the Egyptian oral rehydration therapy campaign. In A. Singhal, M.J. Cody, for entertainment-education in Ethiopia. In A. Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, and M. Sabido (Eds.) Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and Research, and Practice. (pp. 301-320). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Practice. (pp. 177-190). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory for personal and social change by Sabido, M. (2004). The origins of entertainment-education. In A. Singhal, enabling media. In A. Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) Entertainment-Education and Social Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and practice. (pp. 75-96). Change: History, Research, and Practice. (pp. 61-74). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Associates.

Beck, V. (2004). Working with daytime and prime-time television shows in the Singhal, A. & Rogers, E.M. (1999). Entertainment-education: A communication strategy United States to promote health. In A. Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. for social change. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sabido (Eds.) Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and practice. (pp. 207-224). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Singhal, A., M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) (2004). Entertainment- Education and Social Change: History, Research, and Practice., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence McKee, N., Aghi, M., Carnegie R. and Shahzadi, N. (2004). Cartoons and comic Erlbaum Associates. books for changing social norms: Meena, the South Asian girl. In A. Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) Entertainment-Education and Social Sood, S., Menard, T. & Witte, K. (2004). The theory behind entertainment- Change: History, Research, and Practice. (pp. 331-349). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence education. In A. Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) Erlbaum Associates. Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and Practice., (pp. 117-149). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Nariman, H.N. (1993). Soap Operas for Social Change, Westport, CT: Praeger. Usdin, S., Singhal, A., Shongwe, T., Goldstein, S., & Shabalala, A. (2004). No Piotrow, P.T. & de Fossard, E. (2004). Entertainment-education as a public short cuts in entertainment-education: Designing Soul City step-by-step. In A. health intervention. In A. Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) Entertainment-Education and Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and Practice. (pp. 39-60). Social Change: History, Research, and Practice., (pp. 153-175). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Erlbaum Associates.

Rogers, E.M. (2004). Delivering entertainment-education health messages Valente, T.W. (2002). Evaluating Health Promotion Programs, New York: Oxford through the Internet to hard-to-reach U.S. audiences in the Southwest. In A. University Press. Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and Practice. (pp. 281-298). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Yaser, Y. (2004). The Turkish Family Health and Planning Foundation’s Erlbaum Associates. entertainment-education campaign. In A. Singhal, M.J. Cody, E.M. Rogers and M. Sabido (Eds.) Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and Practice., (pp. 321-329). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

46 CHAPTER 6

Monitoring Entertainment- Education Programs

Peter W. Vaughan Rare Radio

Photo by Katie Elmore 47 1. INTRODUCTION Monitoring research is defined here as research that is conducted, analyzed and the results incorporated into Adaptive management (AM) is a strategy to learn how to feedback to refine the E-E program while the program is improve interventions, such as entertainment-education (E- being implemented. Monitoring research shares goals and E) programs, through the use of formative research, project some methods with both formative research and with impact monitoring, and impact evaluation (Salafsky et al., 2002). research. A key difference is that monitoring research is Organizations utilizing AM develop research systems as part conducted in “real time” while the E-E program is being of a learning strategy to develop insights into their work, broadcast. Therefore, the results of monitoring research continuously assess their assumptions and processes, and to can and should be used to guide programmatic decisions adapt their strategies to evolving circumstances (Senge, 2006, while the E-E program is being implemented. Because most Jenks et al., 2009). Figure 1 shows one version of AM that creative teams are not used to working with researchers, has been widely adopted by the biodiversity conservation great care must be taken by the researchers to present community (Conservation Measures Partnership, 2007). their monitoring findings in a way that the creative team Research is embedded throughout the five steps in AM and can understand and make use of the information, and not corresponds to the three types of research that E-E programs feel threatened by the results1. Many E-E programs are long have utilized since their inception (Nariman, 1993; Singhal running and in some cases they may be broadcast for many & Rogers, 1999). Earl Babbie addresses formative research years. The Tanzanian radio drama, Twende na Wakati (“Let’s Go (called situation analysis in Figure 1) in Chapter 5 of this With the Times”) began broadcasting in 1993 and was still on manual, and Arvind Singhal addresses impact research in the air some 15 years later in 2008 (Rogers, et al., 1999; Njogu, Chapter 7 of this manual. The focus of this chapter is on 2008). The long-running nature of these programs provides monitoring research. ample time for monitoring research to be used to drive program development and makes it especially important that researchers not wait until the conclusion of a program Figure 1: Schematic of the Conservation Measures Partner- to determine efficacy. ship (2007) version of Adaptive Management called the Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation 2. GOALS FOR MONITORING RESEARCH

There are four distinct goals for monitoring research: 1 Process Monitoring: To determine the timeliness and the quality of each of the planned activities of the E-E program as it is implemented. 2 Reach/Rating Monitoring: To measure reach (the number of people that are exposed to the E-E program) and to calculate a rating (the percent of the population that is exposed to the E-E program). It is also important to measure frequency of exposure to E-E programs. 3 Audience Perception Monitoring: To determine how audience members are reacting to the characters, the story lines, and to the educational content of the E-E program. 4 Preliminary Impact Monitoring: To gain preliminary measure(s) of the impact of the E-E program on audience members’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors (the so- called KAP variables).

48 2.1 Process Monitoring Process monitoring is a way to track each of these events in terms of their (1) timeliness of implementation and (2) Step 2 of the Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP) Open quality of execution. It is possible to create metrics and Standards (Figure 1) is to write monitoring and operational indicators for both timeliness and quality, and then score plans. These plans should establish a schedule for all of the them on a scale of 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest). These scores can major activities, including such things as: be tracked and updated either weakly or monthly to provide a process scorecard (Kaplan & Norton, 2001) that allows for a • Funding milestones simple and systematic reporting system. An example of such • Training workshops a scorecard is given in Figure 2. As is illustrated in Figure 2, • Research activities (including formative, monitoring and activities can be color-coded so that supervisors can easily see impact research activities) where programs are having trouble and require additional • Adoption of important documents, (e.g., memorandum of support. Adopting the color scheme of a traffic light, any understandings, values grids, characterizations, story score of 2 or lower is flagged in red (signaling to “stop and lines, scripts) correct”), a 3 is shown in yellow (signaling a warning), and • Broadcast milestones (e.g., first episodes produced, first any score of 4 or higher is displayed in green (signaling that date of broadcast), etc. the metric is “good to go”).

Figure 2: Example of a scorecard for an E-E radio program. It is filled in as if the date was January 31, 2009, so some activities have not yet been implemented.

Read and evaluated Excellent, only minor Literature review completed 1/1/09 ± 1 week 5 by Professor X at 4 9 omissions University Y Read and evaluated Experts chosen were 6 Expert interviews 1/15/09 ± 1 week 4 by Professor X at 2 6 not very knowledge- completed University Y able Not completed, be- Read and evaluated 10 focus groups conducted hind because of lack 1/30/09 ± 1 week 1 by Professor X at 0 1 and reports written of transportation to University Y get to field. Read and evaluated 4 episodes pretested, report 3/31/09 ± 2 weeks TBD by Professor X at TBD TBD written University Y Read and reviewed Monitoring plan written 1/1/09 ± 1 week 5 5 10 by team leader

Clinic intake questionnaire Read and reviewed Used model from 1/10/09 ± 1 week 5 5 10 developed by team leader prior program

Average score on Clinic personnel trained in ± 1 test by clinic person- administering clinic ques- 3/15/09 TBD TBD TBD month nel after they are tionnaire trained Read and evaluated ± 1 Trend survey #1 9/15/09 TBD by Professor X at TBD TBD month University Y Read and evaluated ± 1 Trend survey #2 3/15/10 TBD by Professor X at TBD TBD month University Y

49 Baseline survey Read and evaluated completed and 3/15/09 ± 1 month TBD by Professor X at TBD TBD analyzed University Y Post-program sur- Read and evaluated vey completed and 3/15/11 ± 1 month TBD by Professor X at TBD TBD analyzed University Y Read and reviewed Values grid finalized 2/15/09 ± 1 week TBD TBD TBD by team leader Character-ization Workshop partici- 2/20/09 ± 1 week TBD TBD TBD workshop pant evaluation Actors trained in Workshop partici- 3/15/09 ± 1 week TBD TBD TBD workshop pant evaluation Direct observation 1st 4 episodes 3/15/09 ± 1 week TBD using score-sheet by TBD TBD produced team leader 4 sponsors fund Amount of money 4/1/09 ± 1 month TBD TBD TBD raising $X donated Read and reviewed MOU signed 1/1/09 ± 1 month 5 5 10 by team leader Behind schedule, Contract signed Read and reviewed station balking at 1/15/09 ± 1 month 3 0 2 with radio station by team leader giving dedicated studio space Agreements final- Partner satisfaction ized with medical 3/15/09 ± 1 month TBD TBD TBD survey partners Contracts signed Read and reviewed 3/1/09 ± 1 month TBD TBD TBD with creative team by team leader

2.1.1 Participant evaluations projects. The main reason that partnerships fail is due to a lack of, or poor quality of, communication among Many of the activities done to implement an E-E program partners. The use of partner satisfaction surveys provides will be group activities, including such things as training a formal means for partners to communicate how they feel workshops, stakeholder meetings, and review meetings. the partnership is functioning. Questions in these surveys A standard way to measure the quality of such meetings is should provide a means for partners to assess the program, to utilize a participant evaluation at the conclusion of the the staff, the administration, the level of communication activity. Questions on the evaluation should assess how among partners, and the timeliness and quality of execution participants reacted to the content of the presentations of program activities. As always in AM, partners should be made during the meeting, and whether they felt their asked how the partnership might be improved. These surveys input was heard and valued. Participants should be given should be administered periodically, perhaps annually. It the opportunity to both rate and comment on all aspects of is usually impossible to guarantee anonymity in partner the meeting/workshop in which they participated. There surveys because of the limited number of people involved, should always be an opportunity for participants to suggest but this can be ameliorated by using a third party to conduct how the meeting/workshop might have been improved, the surveys. allowing a means to make the next one better. Participant evaluations should be done anonymously with the option for Both participant evaluations and partner satisfaction the participant to include their name if they desire. surveys can be conducted using online survey tools, such as SurveyMonkey (http://www.surveymonkey.com/). These 2.1.2 Partner satisfaction surveys online tools are easy to use, are inexpensive, provide for a greater degree of anonymity for respondents, and allow Partnerships are central to the success of most E-E programs respondents to participate wherever they can access the and partnership failures can threaten the success of E-E Internet. They also reduce the amount of time required and

50 Baseline survey Read and evaluated error rates associated with data input. Most online tools expensive, there are a number of alternatives to reduce the completed and 3/15/09 ± 1 month TBD by Professor X at TBD TBD have only minimal data analysis tools, but they are normally time and cost of conducting them. analyzed University Y adequate for analyzing and reporting on these sorts of Post-program sur- Read and evaluated evaluations. 2.2.1 Ratings data vey completed and 3/15/11 ± 1 month TBD by Professor X at TBD TBD analyzed University Y 2.1.3 Expert reviews Ratings data may be collected by either broadcast stations2 Read and reviewed or by independent research organizations. Ratings data Values grid finalized 2/15/09 ± 1 week TBD TBD TBD by team leader Some technical documents, such as research reports, may are collected through the use of diaries kept by potential Character-ization Workshop partici- require expert and/or peer reviews. The Program Director members of the target audience on their listening/ 2/20/09 ± 1 week TBD TBD TBD workshop pant evaluation may need to provide guidance for what constitutes quality in viewership habits over a period of time, typically a week. these reports, as it is likely that the experts may never have Great care must be taken in selection of the households to Actors trained in Workshop partici- 3/15/09 ± 1 week TBD TBD TBD workshop pant evaluation read reports developed for E-E programs before. The central ensure that they are representative of the total population feature of any report on an EE program is that it provides of potential audience members3. The selected households are Direct observation 1st 4 episodes useful feedback to the E-E program. asked to maintain a diary, using a structured format that 3/15/09 ± 1 week TBD using score-sheet by TBD TBD produced records the time, station, and duration of listening/viewing. team leader 2.1.4 Direct observation Because this method requires active and time-consuming 4 sponsors fund Amount of money 4/1/09 ± 1 month TBD TBD TBD participation by the respondents, remuneration of some sort raising $X donated Some activities will be best evaluated for quality by direct is often required to encourage full and accurate responses to Read and reviewed MOU signed 1/1/09 ± 1 month 5 5 10 observation of the activity by the researcher (Fisher et al., the diary. However, it is impossible to ensure the accuracy by team leader 1991), perhaps using a scorecard to assess particular aspects of the diaries or protect against people simply filling in Behind schedule, of it. An example of an activity that would be evaluated by the diaries at their convenience with false information4. It Contract signed Read and reviewed station balking at 1/15/09 ± 1 month 3 0 2 direct observation might include recording sessions. is possible to establish an audience ratings system specific with radio station by team leader giving dedicated to the E-E program, and this method will reduce the time studio space 2.2 Reach/Rating Monitoring and energy required of respondents to ask them to record Agreements final- Partner satisfaction their listenership/viewing habits only during the time of ized with medical 3/15/09 ± 1 month TBD TBD TBD survey broadcast of the E-E program. partners For a mass media E-E program to have an impact, it must have a large audience. Further, the audience must (1) be Contracts signed Read and reviewed 3/1/09 ± 1 month TBD TBD TBD comprised of the key people that the program is designed A major drawback of most ratings services is that they with creative team by team leader to reach (the so-called target audience), (2) attend to the only sample households that have a functioning radio or program often enough so that they can follow the story TV. Often, E-E programs are targeted to low socio-economic line and understand the roles that the characters play and status households, many of which may not have a radio/TV, observe the consequences of their actions, and (3) be large but whose occupants may listen to or watch the program at enough so that the impact of the program can be measured a public location or on a friend’s or family members’ set. at the population level. Thus, ratings data collected in a traditional way may under- represent the size of the audience for E-E programs. Reach is defined as the size of the audiences, in absolute numbers, who listen to, read, view or otherwise access the 2.2.2 Survey data5 E-E program in a given period of time. When reach is stated as a fraction of a given population (for example “25% of adults In many developing countries, there are no ratings living in the broadcast area that ever listen to radio”) it is called data collected either by broadcast organizations or by a rating (Davis, 1997). For any given viewer, they have been independent parties, or such information is only collected “reached” by the work if they have viewed it at all (for a in urban centers, whereas the target audiences for many E-E specified minimum amount of time) during a specified programs are rural. In such a circumstance, it is advisable to period. Multiple viewings by a single member of the use survey data to calculate reach/ratings and frequency of audience in the specified period does not increase reach, but exposure. may increase the likelihood of the program having an impact on the audience member (Rogers et al., 1999). Therefore, for There are many organizations that undertake surveys in E-E programs it is important to measure both reach and developing countries for a variety of purposes and reasons. It frequency of exposure. Typically, frequency is assessed as is often possible to obtain space in the survey questionnaire “the average number of episodes the respondent viewed/listened to in a to ask a few questions about exposure to and frequency of typical week during a specified period (e.g., the last 6 months).” listenership/viewership to the E-E program. Examples of Most methods to assess reach involve some form of surveying organizations that might offer such an opportunity include the population. Because surveys are time-consuming and omnibus marketing surveys conducted by marketing

51 companies, national surveys conducted by government example) during the interval between surveys. This allows agencies and/or other nongovernmental agencies (NGOs), the investigator to ask the individuals who have changed and even Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) in selected their behavior about the reason(s) for this change in behavior, countries. DHS surveys are conducted with a great deal of and may provide direct causal evidence of E-E program expertise and may include a few questions about the E-E impact. The main limitations of panel designs are that (1) program for free. The major drawback of all of these options it can be time consuming to relocate individuals, and there is that the E-E researcher will not have control over their may be a high dropout rate as people move or die, and (2) timing, and many such surveys will not be truly nationally the act of being interviewed may also educate a respondent, representative, but may be restricted to one or a few regions and they may begin listening to the E-E drama because of of the country, or to urban centers. However, even with the interview in which they were asked about the program, these limitations such survey data may provide some useful thereby biasing the reach/exposure data. information. 2.2.4 Trend studies It is also possible to conduct independent mini-surveys6. The advantage of conducting a mini-survey is that the E-E Tracking surveys that utilize independent samples of research team can control the timing, location, and content respondents in each survey are called trend studies. The of the questionnaire instrument. This means that the mini- main advantages of trend studies are that the researcher can survey can not only include questions to assess reach and maintain the same sample size in each survey and respondents frequency of exposure, but also to help to assess audience are not biased by having been interviewed previously. The perception of the program and preliminary impact of the main disadvantages of trend studies are the relatively high program. The primary disadvantages of conducting a mini- sampling error, especially if the sample sizes are small, and survey are the costs and time commitment of implementing that the researcher will only know that a certain percentage the survey. However, these constraints can be minimized by of people have changed their behavior, but he will not know (1) keeping the sample size small (100 to 200 respondents), which individuals have changed behavior. (2) restricting the geographic region of the survey, (3) using a convenience sampling method (rather than a more-rigorous A chronic problem of survey research is that respondents try probability sampling method), and (4) limiting the length to answer questions in a way that they think the interviewer of the questionnaire. All of these restrictions will place wants them to respond. This can lead to a bias to say “yes” in considerable constraints on the generalizability of the results, response to any question about listenership/viewership to a and will make the results incomparable with the larger program. One way to test for this bias is by asking both about pre/post impact surveys. However, if there are significant the E-E program and about a completely fictitious program. problems with the E-E program, these mini-surveys should In monitoring and impact research for an E-E radio program help to identify them before the post-campaign survey is in Palau, researchers asked both about the E-E program conducted at the conclusion of the program. (Changing Tides) and a fictitious radio program Moon( Rises at Dawn). In one tracking survey, listenership to Changing Tides The frequency with which these mini-surveys7 are was measured at 42 percent, while 8 percent9 of respondents implemented will be constrained by budget and manpower reported having listened to Moon Rises at Dawn, suggesting limitations; however, they can be done as time and money that a more conservative (and likely accurate) assessment of allow. Consider undertaking them quarterly or semi-annually listenership to Changing Tides was 36 percent (Vaughan, 2007). and conducting them in different regions each time. A consistent finding about E-E programs is that one of their 2.2.3 Panel studies main effects is to stimulate interpersonal communication about the program and its educational content, including There are two basic options for sampling strategies for these with non-listeners/viewers (Vaughan and Rogers, 2000). tracking surveys, panel studies, and trend studies (Singleton Even if respondents in a survey have never been directly et al., 1993). Panel studies re-interview the same individual exposed to the E-E program, they may have been exposed respondents in successive time periods. The main advantages indirectly through discussions with others. Vaughan of a panel design are that (1) it automatically controls for (Vaughan et al., 2000) found in an E-E radio drama Apwé Plezi demographic and socio-economic factors, so it reduces the (“After the Pleasure [Comes the Pain]”) in St. Lucia that 14 sampling error8 that is inherent in all surveys, especially percent of non-listeners knew that Catapult was a brand of surveys with small sample sizes, and most importantly (2) condom (a name that had been developed by the E-E creative it allows the investigator to know exactly which individuals team and the new Catapult condoms were not yet being have changed (adopted a family planning method, for distributed in St. Lucia); the only conceivable way these

52 non-listeners might have known the term Catapult was by names of characters that were in the drama?” The idea is to start talking with Apwé Plezi listeners. Surveys should try to assess the interview in a non-threatening and objective manner, whether non-listeners have been exposed to the E-E program and to make sure the respondent actually is a listener to the through interpersonal communication. E-E drama and paid enough attention to it so that they may have been impacted by it. 2.3 Audience Perception Monitoring Reflective: The second set of questions are intended to find A fundamental assumption of all E-E programs is that the out what the respondent’s immediate personal reaction was educational messages developed by the creative team will to the E-E drama, and most especially, to assess whether they be correctly interpreted and understood by the audience have had an emotional response to it. The interview guide members. Because E-E messaging is done using Social might ask questions such as “Was there anything in the E-E drama Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1994) in which characters provide that surprised you?” or “Did anything in the E-E drama make you feel role models of alternative behaviors and the consequences emotional in any way, such as being sad, angry, happy, or proud?” The of these behaviors10 , the opportunity for misinterpretation interviewer would probe for what emotions they felt, and by some portion of the audience may be greater than what in the E-E program made them feel that way. when messaging is more didactic. The misidentification of a negative character as being the positive role model that Interpretive: The purpose of this group of questions is to should be emulated by audience members was first identified understand how the respondent interprets the E-E drama. by Vidmar and Rokeach (1974) in a study of an American This is important because sometimes audience members situation comedy, All in the Family. The lead character, Archie will draw very different lessons from the E-E program than Bunker, was a bigoted reactionary, but some audience the creative team intended (see above). The interview guide members perceived Archie to be a hero for standing up for might include questions such as “What do you think the radio the rights of white people. This same phenomenon has been drama was trying to say to you?” or “Did you learn anything from found in E-E programs in Tanzania (Rogers et al., 1999) and listening to this radio drama?” “Tell me what you learned.” This St. Lucia (Vaughan et al., 2000) in which negative characters is also where the guide can assess listeners’ perceptions of were perceived by some portion of the audience as being the individual characters with questions such as “What do you positive role models. For example, in the St. Lucian E-E radio think about Tunu; did she do the right thing?” program Apwé Plezi, Tony, one of the key negative characters who had committed a date rape, led an irresponsible Decisional: The final section of questions is designed to sexual life and had become infected with HIV was initially assess whether being exposed to the E-E drama has helped perceived to be a “morally positive” character by many the listener make any decisions, or moved them at all along listeners11. Fortunately, early monitoring research was able the stages of the behavior change continuum13. This section to identify this problem, and by increasing the (1) severity of might include questions such as “What can we do about the fact Tony’s punishment and (2) the clarity of the link between his that Tunu doesn’t want to have a child right now?” or “Does seeing behavior and his punishment12, this misperception declined what happened to Mkwaju make you want to do something different in over time. the future?” (Questions should include probes to find out what and why audience members would want to change.) 2.3.1 In-depth interviews 2.3.2 Focus group discussions The best method for assessing audience members’ perceptions of an E-E program, its characters, story line An alternative to in-depth interviews is to utilize focus group and its educational content is through in-depth interviews discussions as a monitoring research tool. Focus groups have conducted with audience members using the ORID strategy the advantage of enabling a dialogue about the E-E program (Archie & Archie, 2007). ORID stands for Objective, Reflective, to be established, and information may emerge from this Interpretive, and Decisional, and it simply provides a way dialogue that the researcher may not have thought to ask to structure interview guides so that they are thorough and about in an in-depth interview. For example, mixed-gender have a logical progression. The ORID approach can be applied focus groups conducted in St. Lucia about the radio drama to intercept interviews with members of the target audience Apwé Plezi revealed that women and men had very different and/or audience members. perceptions of some of the characters and educational issues that emerged only from the dialogue between male and Objective: Begin the interview with factual information female participants. Focus groups are normally comprised questions, such as “What are some of the key ideas you understand of 6 to 10 individuals who are similar enough to each other from listening to the E-E radio drama?” or “Do you recall any specific in socio-economic status that no one person will dominate

53 the conversation or be inhibited from expressing their views by others. Often this means grouping people by sex, age, • Whether the audience understands the link between a religion, and other socio-demographic characteristics, but character’s actions and their fate in the program in some cultures it is possible to mix people more freely. A common tactic in focus groups is to play part or all of an In both focus groups and in-depth interviews, it is possible episode of the E-E program, and then to design the interview to employ a variety of techniques, in addition to asking ORID guide to explore the group’s reaction to that particular questions, to solicit feedback (Mytton, 1999). These include: episode. It is possible to structure focus group interview guides using the ORID approach, discussed above. • Role playing in which the respondents are asked to assume the role of a character and act out a certain scene, Focus groups are often used to pretest E-E programs. or to describe how they might react to a situation. Pretesting is vital to the success of any program to make sure that the program will be popular with local audiences. • Reaction to photos, in which the respondents are asked Typically, either a pilot episode14 is produced or a small to respond to photos that are shown to them, such as number (4 to 5) of full episodes are produced. These are photos of a family planning clinic, or photos of one of the then played in focus groups that represent various target scenes/characters in a television E-E program. audiences to solicit their reactions. Initially, in the pretest or in early focus groups used to monitor the program after it • Reaction to a recording of an episode of the E-E program. begins broadcasting, the questions may center primarily on production quality, for example questions would assess the: • Sentence completion, in which respondents are given part of a sentence and are asked to complete it. For example • Quality of the recording (sound clarity) “The character Tunu is going to ______her husband Mkwaju.” • Quality of the acting • Word association, where respondents are asked to say • Perceptions of the music the first word that comes to their mind when they hear the names of the characters, or the title of the program. • Appeal of the story line • Obituary writing, where the respondents are asked to • Whether the accents and language sound “local” write the obituary for one or more of the characters.

Once the creative team is sure that their programs are 2.3.3 Listener diaries connecting with audiences at this very basic level, the focus groups can be used to assess more important questions, such The main drawback of focus groups is that they are work as: intensive and can be time consuming and expensive to form, conduct, and analyze. An alternative is to recruit people to • Whether the audience members identify with the be dedicated listeners that agree to listen to every episode characters, or see any of the characters as friends or being and maintain a diary that contains their reactions to the like themselves program. The researcher should provide them with a guide with a standard set of questions for them to answer about each • Whether the audience is engaging in para-social episode. An example of such a guide is provided in Figure 3. interactions15 with the characters These diaries must be collected regularly (perhaps monthly) and analyzed so that the creative team can use the feedback • How they perceive the positive, transitional and negative in a timely manner. The main drawback of this methodology characters is that the creative team is receiving repeated information from a small set of the same people. These listener diaries • Whether the story line is appealing and interesting may be most useful at the start of an E-E program, and if they are used for very long, the research team may want to • Whether the audience perceives any educational lessons recruit a new set of listeners periodically so that they get in the program feedback from a variety of different people. Further, it may

54 be required to remunerate the listeners to make sure that feedback on characters, the story line, and the educational they are consistent in filling in the diaries. Over time, the issues as they are developed. research team can amend the diary questions to get specific

Figure 3: Example of a diary guide for listeners. Note, if each program has more than one scene, it may be necessary to ask these questions by scene rather than by episode.

Date of broadcast (month/day/year): ______

How many people listened to the program with you including yourself? _____

1a. Using a scale of 1 (low) to 10 (high), how would you rate the acting in this episode? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1b. Do you have any comments on the acting? Please indicate which actor your comment refers to.

2a. Using a scale of 1 (low) to 10 (high), how would you rate the entertainment value in this episode? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2b. Do you have any comments on the entertainment value? What did you like and/or dislike about the entertainment value of this episode?

3a. Using a scale of 1 (low) to 10 (high), how would you rate the educational value in this episode? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3b. Do you have any comments on the educational value? What did you like and/or dislike about the educational value of this episode?

3c. Did you feel you learned anything new from listening to this episode? If so, what did you learn?

4a. At the end of this episode, were you curious about what was going to happen next? Yes-a lot Yes-a bit No Not sure

4b. What do you hope will happen next?

5. How could this episode have been made better? Tell us anything you think the creative team might have done to improve this episode.

2.3.4 Tracking surveys • To determine how they rate the educational value of the program In the survey work used to assess audience listenership and/or ratings (discussed above), it may also be possible to • To determine which characters are most salient include a number of questions to gauge audience perceptions in the survey. Questions to consider asking in these surveys • To determine which educational themes are most salient include: 2.3.5 Soliciting audience feedback • To determine if they perceive the role models (positive, transitional, and negative) appropriately Audience members can be encouraged to respond to the program by writing letters, calling a phone hotline, sending • To determine how they rate the entertainment value of an e-mail, logging into a website, or otherwise responding the program to the E-E program. Entreaties to respond can be included

55 Photo by Katie Elmore in the E-E program epilogue with self-reflective questions decision to continue funding the program, liked to tell this such as “What would you do if you were faced with a situation story about why he continued funding Twende for so many such as Mkwaju faces now? Write to this address and let us know. years. One weekend, Bill went to a well-known wood carver We’ll read the best response in a future epilogue.” While these to look at his carvings. The carver was an old man who measures may be constrained in many developing countries had a very simple sales stand. Bill noticed that there was a by technological or cost limitations, they can also provide radio next to where the carver sat, and asked him why he a meaningful indication of the size of the audience that is had the radio there. The wood carver responded, “There is sufficiently involved with the program that they are willing a show that comes on later that I like to listen to”, to which to overcome such constraints. Further, rewards, such as Bill asked, “Which show?” The carver responded “Twende na reading the information on the air, or providing a T-shirt to Wakati.” So Bill asked the carver why he liked to listen to the winner of a random draw of letter-writers, can increase Twende na Wakati, and the wood carver responded “Because such responses. if there had been a show like that when I was a young man, I wouldn’t have had 10 children and I would be a rich man 2.4 Preliminary Impact Monitoring now” (Bill Musoke, 1996).

For many years in the 1990’s, the United Nations Population The power of this anecdote, and of preliminary impact Fund (UNFPA) funded the production of the E-E radio drama monitoring more generally, is that evidence of a positive Twende na Wakati. Twende na Wakati was the subject of one of the impact of the E-E program can have a powerful influence on most extensive and sophisticated impact evaluations ever program sustainability, even through substantive changes conducted of an E-E program (Rogers et al., 1999; Vaughan & in funders, government officials, and program staff. If an Rogers, 2000; Vaughan et al., 2000). Bill Musoke, the UNFPA E-E program is perceived as being impactful, that provides a Country Director in Tanzania who was responsible for the powerful reason to sustain it.

56 2.4.1 Point of service data 2.4.2 Trend data

Most E-E programs educate and motivate their audience(s) In all of these examples, the service provider can collaborate to utilize some form of service that is provided by a service in providing data that can be a powerful measure of campaign provider. Examples might include motivating people to: impact. Two different types of data can be obtained from service providers. The first is attendance trend data. Very • Get an HIV test at a testing center so that they know their often, service providers maintain attendance data over time status and can obtain counseling if needed. to document their own work, and so it may be possible to obtain long-term trend data that precedes the beginning • Visit a reproductive health clinic to obtain family of broadcasting by the E-E program, and then it should be planning methods. possible to track this data through the completion of the E-E program and beyond17. One would hypothesize that such • Go to a health provider for prenatal medical checkups. trend data would show an inflection, or an increased rate of visiting the service provider, once the E-E program begins broadcasting episodes that promote it. Figure 4 is an example from Tanzania of attendance at government-run family planning clinics during the broadcast of Twende na Wakati, which promoted the adoption of family planning methods.

Figure 4: Taken from Figure 3 in Rogers et al. (1999). This long term trend data on family planning adoption was collected from 43 clinics in the treatment area and 27 clinics in the comparison area of Tanzania, and clearly shows the increased rate of fam- ily planning adoption in the treatment area after Twende na Wakati began broadcasting in 1993. The rate increase was not observed in clinics in the comparison area.

57 2.4.3 Client interviews

Service providers can also collect a second type of information. to augment that information with a brief survey to gather In nearly all public health facilities, when clients arrive, they information from the client about the possible influence of the undergo an intake interview to collect basic information E-E program on their decision to attend the service provider. A about the client by the service provider. It is often possible brief survey can be appended to the regular intake form that asks questions such as: Figure 5. Example of a client interview questionnaire.

1a. What were the most important source(s) of information that brought you to the clinic today? Please tell me all sources that you can remember.

Clinic staff friends/relatives Newspaper RadioTV Internet Poster Other:______

1b. (Ask only if they mention radio in 1a): Which radio program? Do you recall the name? List of radio programs they might respond with Other:______

2a. In the past 6 months, have you ever listened to Name of E-E program? Yes No Not sure

2b. (If yes), About how often did you listen to Name of E-E program in the past 6 months? Never Less than 1 time/week 1/week 2/week More than 2/week

3. Did listening to Name of E-E program make you more or less likely to come to the clinic today? Much more More No difference Less Much less

The two types of service provider data given here (attendance caused by a contemporaneous confounding factor. For this trend data and source of referral data) are particularly reason, these surveys should also include questions to assess powerful because they capture individuals at the moment of the impact of any confounding sources on your audience. For behavior change, or when they are in the act of adopting the example, if there are other media programs or interventions promoted behavior. This provides extremely good evidence of other sorts that are contemporaneous with the E-E program that an E-E program has successfully motivated people to of study, then it is important to ask questions about them to adopt the new behavior. For example, in Tanzania, some 25 measure how much exposure respondents have had to these percent of new adopters of family planning methods cited other programs that may also have influenced them. These Twende na Wakati by name as their source of referral and an confounding sources can then be controlled statistically additional 12 percent mentioned radio without naming the using multi-variate statistics, enhancing the researcher’s program (Rogers et al., 1999). ability to assess causality.

2.4.4 Mini-surveys 2.4.5 Content analysis of scripts

Tracking surveys, discussed above, can also include questions The present author was once involved with an E-E radio designed to measure impact on the E-E program’s SMART program where the funders and research team thought objectives. Because of the relatively small sample sizes the program would promote reproductive health issues, and/or limited geographic coverage, such data may not including family planning promotion, as the primary be comparable with results obtained in the larger impact objective, but the creative team dealt much more with the surveys, but they should use the same question format and issue of dowry. This problem was not discovered until after a will be able to give preliminary indications of E-E program year of broadcasts because nobody was reviewing the scripts. efficacy. Demonstrating a causal linkage between an E-E In another program, the creative team wanted to find a cure program and a measured change in SMART objectives is for AIDS so that they would not need to kill off one of their problematic (Carleton-Hug and Hug, in press), in part lead characters, a popular actor who needed the work! These because there are always the possibility that the change was are just some examples of why it is important to have an

58 independent and regular review of the scripts or episodes. services sought at health centers to gauge the reaction to the Content analysis is normally done simply by creating a treatment of these issues by the audience. data sheet, and then reading the episode (or listening/ watching it) and scoring the episode for which educational 2.4.7 Monitoring meter issues are addressed in it, which characters appear, and how entertaining it is. These content analyses can also In many instances, E-E program staff is expected to maintain include questions about some of the dramatic elements in a high level of enthusiasm, productivity, and commitment the program, for example whether the episode includes a to their work over a long period of time, often through cliffhanger, an epilogue, any humor, any conflict and so on. stressful periods. It is possible to set up a routine evaluation While it is best to review the scripts prior to production, this to monitor these (or other) characteristics so that program is not always possible, but they should be reviewed regularly administrators can see if their staff is changing in any to make sure that the writers do not stray from the E-E important ways. Figure 5 is an example of such a meter methodology. conducted during an 11-week long intense training course in social marketing. Each week the 5 course participants were 2.4.6 Letter or other audience feedback content analysis asked to rate on a 5-point scale their (1) level of enthusiasm for the course, (2) their level of understanding of the material, As Arvind Singhal points Chapter 7 of this manual, audience and (3) how much benefit they felt they were receiving feedback from letters, phone hotlines, and other similar by participating in the course. The average responses are methods can provide powerful personal testimony of the then plotted as a function of time. In this example, while program’s impact on the listener/viewer, and can be content- the understanding and benefit metrics remained relatively analyzed to determine which characters and educational constant and high throughout the course, enthusiasm lagged themes are most influential with them. In addition, substantially in week 5, allowing course managers to take the issue content of episodes broadcast over time can be corrective action and reinvigorate the students. compared with the issue content of letters received and with

Figure 5. Monitoring meter constructed using 3 questions to assess students’ enthusiasm, understanding of course material, and perceived benefit of the course during an 11-week long training in social marketing.

59 There is no such thing as the “perfect” research method. All 3. CONCLUSION methods have inherent threats to their validity and can be impacted by exogenous events or by improper application Too often, monitoring research is limited to process of the methodology. Further, some methods are better monitoring, or an assessment of whether specific planned at answering quantitative questions, such as “How many activities took place, and does not include the more listened?” or “How many learned about family planning?” whereas demanding, yet more insightful analyses to assess the reach/ other qualitative methods are better at answering questions ratings of a program, how they are being perceived by the such as “Why did people listen?” or “How did listeners feel about audience, and to assess a preliminary impact of the program. what happened to certain characters?” For all of these reasons, Adaptive management is a self-reflective and evaluative it is important to utilize multiple methods to monitor E-E process that drives program refinement (Salafsky, Margoluis, programs, a process called “triangulation.” Triangulation and Redford, 2008). This chapter argues that the more allows researchers to better understand how listeners thorough monitoring implicit in AM is essential to document interacted with the E-E program and also to have greater the impacts of any E-E program, and also to provide ongoing confidence in the evidence that the E-E program had an feedback to the creative team so that mid-course changes impact on the listeners. can be made if the monitoring results indicate any problems with the program.

NOTES

1 A common response of creative people who are working with researchers for the first time is to feel that they are being evaluated or judged, rather than that the researchers are providing them with a tool with which to improve their work (Carleton-Hug and Hug, in press). 2 Ratings data that are collected by broadcast stations suffer from a lack of independence because stations utilize ratings data to set advertising rates, and therefore have a self-interest in obtaining high ratings. Further, advertisers may primarily be interested in urban audiences that are more likely to buy their products, so these data may under-represent rural areas, often the very areas EE programs are trying to reach. Such data should be treated with caution. 3 Typically, multistage probability sampling is used to select households for participation similar to the methods used to select samples for nationally- representative surveys. 4 Meters have been developed to collect television ratings. The meters are attached to the TV and record the station and times that the TV is on, but meters are relatively expensive and are not applicable to radio. 5 Because Arvind Singhal deals with large-scale impact surveys in Chapter 7 of this manual, impact surveys will not be discussed here. However, be sure to use the same questions to assess reach and frequency of exposure in both these monitoring surveys and in the impact surveys. 6 These mini-surveys do not substitute for the larger pre/post program surveys that are designed to measure EE program impact, although the basic principles of survey design are the same and the questions used in these mini-surveys may also be repeated in the larger surveys. 7 Surveys that are repeated periodically are also known as “tracking surveys.” 8 Sampling error is an artifact of studying a sample rather than the entire population. It does not mean that the researcher has made a mistake, it simply refers to the random deviations from the true mean caused by chance of who is chosen to be interviewed. The best way to reduce sampling error is by increasing the sample size. 9 These false-positive responses are more typically in the range of 3 to 5 percentage points. 10 Positive characters portray the promoted knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors (KAP) and are rewarded; negative characters portray anti-social KAP and are punished; while transitional characters are initially ambivalent, torn between the positive and negative KAP, but ultimately adopt the positive KAP and are rewarded. 11 Initially, 17 percent of listeners perceived Tony as being morally positive, and the rate was slightly higher among female than among male listeners. 12 A common E-E dramatic ploy that can help in this regard is to have the negative character come to understand his/her mistakes and articulate regret for them and the consequences they have wrought. 13 As part of their monitoring plan, researchers should establish SMART (Specific, Measurable, Action-oriented, Realistic, and Time-bound) objectives for their E-E program that relate to the stages-of-behavior change. The SMART objectives are normally measured in the pre/post impact surveys, but they can also be assessed during monitoring. 14 A pilot episode differs from a normal episode in that it will reflect the entire program by introducing all of the major characters and major story lines in a single episode. 15 Para-social interactions are similar to social interactions, except that because one of the dyad is a fictional character, the interaction is one-sided. Examples of para-social interaction might be talking back to the character to give advice, thinking of the character as a real person, writing to the character, or similar acts. 16 An independent research team from the University of New Mexico conducted a quasi-experimental field study over a 4-year period in which the radio drama was first broadcast in a treatment area and was not broadcast in a comparison area for the first 2 years. Subsequently, the program was re- broadcast in the former comparison area for 2 years. 17 Because all trend data from service providers will show variation over time, the longer the period pre-broadcast that researchers can document the trend the better to show the difference between natural fluctuation and change caused by the EE program. A period of at least 2 years is recommended if the data are aggregated at the level of months. 60 REFERENCES

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Fisher, A.A., J.E. Laing, J.E Stoeckel, and J.W. Townsend, 1991. Handbook for Singhal, A. and E.M. Rogers. 1999. Entertainment-Education: A Communication Strategy Family Planning Operations Research Design, 2nd Edition. New York, The for Social Change. London, Great Britain: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Population Council. Vaughan, P.W., A. Regis, E. St. Catherine, 2000. Effects of an entertainment- Jenks, B., P.W. Vaughan, P.J. Butler, 2009. The Evolution of Rare Pride: Using education radio soap opera on family planning and HIV prevention in St. Lucia. Evaluation to Drive Adaptive Management in a Biodiversity Conservation International Family Planning Perspectives, 26(4):149-157. Organization Journal of Evaluation and Program Planning, Special Edition on Environmental Education Evaluation (in press). Vaughan P.W., E.M. Rogers, 2000. A staged model of communication effects: Evidence from an entertainment-education radio drama in Tanzania. The Journal Kaplan, R.S., and D.P. Norton, 2001. The Strategy-Focused Corporation: How Balanced of Health Communication, 5(3):203-227. Scorecard Companies Thrive in the New Business Environment, Boston, Harvard Business School Press. Vaughan, P.W., E.M. Rogers, A. Singhal, and R.M. Swalehe, 2000. Entertainment- education and HIV/AIDS prevention: A field experiment in Tanzania.The Journal Musoke, B. 1996. Bill Musoke was the Country Director for UNFPA in Tanzania of Health Communication, 5(supplement):81-100. for several years in the mid-1990s. Personal communication with Peter Vaughan in Dar es Salam, Tanzania Vaughan, P.W., 2007. Final Report on Changing Tides: Impact Study on Rare’s Entertainment-Education Radio Drama in Micronesia, Unpublished report to Mytton, G., 1999. Handbook on Radio and Television Audience Research. Paris, BBC Rare, Arlington, VA. Worldservice Training Trust, UNESCO, and UNICEF. Vidmar, N., and M. Rokeach, 1974. Archie Bunker’s bigotry: A study in selective Nariman, H.N., 1993. Soap operas for social change: Toward a methodology for perception and exposure. Journal of Communication, 24(1):36-47. entertainment-education television, Westport, CT: Praeger.

61 CHAPTER 7

Studying Entertainment- Education Effects: Going Beyond the Usual

Arvind Singhal University of Texas, El Paso

Photo by Katie Elmore 62 1. INTRODUCTION1 Most of the commonly-employed research methodologies for assessing entertainment-education effects – especially to “Not all things countable count.” (Albert Einstein) discern individual level changes – include the following: (1) after-only survey of effects, (2) before and after measurement Over the past couple of decades, the proliferation in the of effects, (3) interrupted time-series designs, and (4) field practice of entertainment-education has been paralleled experiments. by improvements in the research tools utilized to evaluate the effects of entertainment-education projects (Singhal 2.1 After-Only Surveys of Effects & Rogers, 2002). During the 1980s and 1990s, the rigor of these research methodologies progressed from after-only The present author was involved in investigating the effects surveys of audience members, to field experiments using of Hum Log, a television soap opera about gender equality, multiple measurements of entertainment-education effects. family planning, and related issues in India that was In the late 1990s and early 2000s, scholars, in addition to broadcast in 1984-1985. Unfortunately, research funding to the aforementioned quantitative methods, also began using study the effects of this important entertainment-education more qualitative methods like analysis of audience letters, program (it was the first international transfer of Miguel semiotic analysis of content codes, and more participatory Sabido’s entertainment-education strategy) did not become methodologies – such as participatory photography, available until after its broadcasts were completed. Hence sketching, and theater – in order to better understand the we could only conduct an after-only survey of audience process through which entertainment-education has its members. From the post-exposure survey, we established effects. that the degree of exposure to Hum Log correlated with higher levels of knowledge and attitudes toward gender The purpose of the present paper is to provide an overview equality (the main educational issue in Hum Log). However, of (1) the commonly-employed quantitative research we could not eliminate the possibility that this exposure/ methodologies in monitoring and evaluating entertainment- effects relationship was because audience members already education programs, and (2) certain novel qualitative and had higher knowledge and more favorable attitudes towards participatory research methodologies that can provide gender equity and were thus more inclined to watch the rich insights about how audience members engage with television soap opera. The time-order of these independent entertainment-education. and dependent variables could not be determined with only post-exposure data. 2. COMMONLY USED QUANTITATIVE METHODS A post-exposure study cannot tell us much about the effects There are certain distinctive aspects of entertainment- of entertainment-education, other than the fact that levels education which influence the research methodologies of the effects variables are positively related to exposure. utilized by communication scholars to study the effects of The time-order of these exposure and effects variable cannot entertainment-education. As Douglas Storey (1998) of Johns be established by an after-only study, nor can alternative Hopkins University noted, “Entertainment-education is a explanations of the entertainment-education effects be ruled point of engagement, a site of discourse, not just another out. In comparison to alternatives, by itself, the post-exposure research message.” This perspective implies that exposure to design is a relatively weak means of investigating entertainment- entertainment-education may not only have direct effects education effects. on the immediate audience, but that entertainment- education, more importantly, causes indirect effects on 2.2 Before-After Measurements of Effects behavior change by stimulating the audience to talk with family members, peers, and community members – over a One important advantage of before-after measurements, such period of time – about the educational issues embedded in as by means of surveys, is that they allow the investigator to the entertainment message. These interpersonal discussions calculate change scores on the effects variables. In a before-after may lead to dialogue, decisions, and collective actions, survey, a sample of individuals exposed to an entertainment- perhaps influencing the audience’s external environment education program are personally interviewed at a benchmark to help create the necessary conditions for social change in the program, and again in a follow-up survey after program at the system level. Thus, trying to monitor and assess completion, concerning their knowledge, attitude, and the effects of entertainment-education programs – at the practice of, say, family planning methods. A change score for individual, collective, and system level – calls for different each of these effects variables for each individual can then be methodological choices. Each method has its strengths and calculated, in order to determine whether such change scores weaknesses; so when possible, mixed-method designs should are related to the degree of exposure to the entertainment- be employed. education intervention.

63 An example of a before-after evaluation research design is per week! Is the sharp increase in the number of adopters the Valente et al. (1994) study of the effects of Fakube Farra due to the entertainment-education broadcasts, or to greater (“Wise Man”), an entertainment-education radio drama clinic accessibility? We do not know. in The Gambia, an Islamic nation in West Africa. Prior to the daily broadcasting of 39 episodes of this radio show 2.4 Field Experiments in 1991, 19 percent of survey respondents were adopters of family planning methods. Nine months later, 35 percent of Few field experiments have been conducted to evaluate the listeners had adopted family planning methods, an increase effects of entertainment-education programs. One of the first of 16 percentage points. field experimental studies of entertainment-education at the national level was the investigation of the entertainment- Unfortunately, before-after measurements cannot eliminate education radio soap opera, Twende na Wakati, in Tanzania. the possibility that the measured effects result from Field experimental designs were also implemented to study contemporaneous changes, that is, from communication the effects of entertainment-education initiatives in China activities other than the entertainment-education (for the TV program Baixing) and India (for the radio program intervention of study. For example, some of the increased Tinka Tinka Sukh) by the present author and his colleagues. rate of adoption of family planning methods thought to be However, because of low numbers of listeners found in the due to Fakube Jarra may have occurred due to individuals’ treatment areas, not much could be said about the effect of exposure to other communication activities about family the intervention on individual knowledge, attitudes, and planning in The Gambia.2 The most appropriate means of practice (Singhal & Rogers, 1999). eliminating these contemporaneous changes is the field experiment, although the interrupted time-series can The Tanzania study was a quasi-experiment in that the help shed light on the unique changes that are due to an treatment and the control conditions were not randomly entertainment-education intervention. assigned to the eight radio broadcasting regions of Tanzania. The assignment of the Dodoma broadcasting area to control 2.3 Interrupted Time-Series was opportunistic, in that this region was cutting away from the national signal of Radio Tanzania for two hours of local An alternative to the field experimental design (discussed programs every evening at 5:00 p.m. By broadcasting Twende later) is the interrupted time-series, in which data about, na Wakati at 6:30 p.m. twice weekly, the Dodoma region say, the effects of an entertainment-education project on the became a “control,” or, more accurately, a “comparison” number of new adopters of family planning are gathered for (these terms are often used interchangeably, although some a number of time periods (typically months): (1) prior to the scholars prefer “comparison” in field experiments because intervention, (2) during the intervention, and (3) for some “control” might imply that no communication activities are time after the intervention. One would expect the effects underway there and that no contamination exists). indicator (such as the number of family planning adopters) to increase during the intervention and immediately Why is the random assignment of treatment and afterwards, and eventually to return to the original rate of comparison conditions important in removing the effects increase, as indeed occurred in the case of the broadcasts of of all extraneous variables in a true experiment? Random the entertainment-education television program In a Lighter assignment removes all such unwanted effects, whether Mood in Enugu, Nigeria (Piotrow et al., 1990). these variables are measured by the investigators or not. If the researchers do not have the power to randomly assign The weakness of the usual interrupted time-series design the treatment and comparison conditions, then they must is also one of its main advantages: There is no control determine whether or not the two areas are matched on group. This absence of a control solves the ethical problem the dependent (knowledge, attitudes, and practices or KAP) of withholding the possible benefits of the entertainment- variables, and perhaps on independent variables expected education intervention to individuals in the control area. to be related to the KAP variables. The Dodoma area was However, the effects of contemporaneous changes cannot approximately similar to the treatment area in Tanzania, be removed with the certainty that they are in a field although its population had somewhat higher initial levels experiment, as the interrupted time-series does not have of knowledge, attitudes, and practices. a comparison group that receives all other communication influences except the entertainment-education. For The unique advantage of a field experiment is that it can instance, at the same time that the broadcasts of In a Lighter remove the effects of all contemporaneous changes from the Mood began in eastern Nigeria, the health clinic in Enugu treatment effects. This advantage can be gained, of course, (that provided the monthly data on the number of family only if logistical and other problems can be anticipated planning adopters) increased its clinic hours from 3 to 6 days and their effects removed. For example, 2 percent of the

64 respondents in the Dodoma comparison area, who supposedly the government of Tanzania, as well as the University of New did not receive broadcasts of the radio soap opera from Mexico researchers, felt that such evidence was much needed. l993 to 1995, somehow managed to listen to the broadcasts, So the ultimate beneficiaries of the Tanzania experimental presumably on shortwave radio receivers (Rogers et al., 1999). design are policy-makers, and the populations that they lead, While this level of experimental contamination did not pose in other nations, that learn from the Tanzanian findings. a serious threat to the validity of the field experiment, it suggests that an investigator never has complete control Problems with the ethics of control and with gaining over the respondents’ behavior. A realistic goal for a field permission to conduct a field experiment are avoided in the experimenter is to minimize the contamination and other interrupted time-series, as explained previously, because logistical threats to experimental design. there is no control group in the usual sense. The treatment intervention (an entertainment-education program in the One important reason why there are not more field present case) is not withheld from anyone. experiments on the effects of entertainment-education on family planning adoption, HIV prevention, etc., is ethical 3. NOVEL QUALITATIVE AND considerations. For example, the broadcasts of Twende na PARTICIPATORY METHODOLOGIES Wakati were blocked for 2 years (1993-1995) from the 2.4 million people living in the Dodoma comparison area who were not Some exciting, novel, and low-cost qualitative and able to listen to the radio soap opera. Half of these people participatory research methodologies for assessing were adults, and half of the adults would have listened to the entertainment-education effects include the following: (1) radio soap opera, so about 600,000 people were denied access analysis of audience letters, (2) semiotic analysis of content to the broadcasts of Twende na Wakati. They were more likely codes, (3) participatory photography, and (4) participatory to have had unwanted children (because of not adopting sketching. family planning methods) and to have contracted HIV/AIDS (because of not adopting HIV prevention methods)3. After 3.1 Analysis of Letters the first 2 years, the original 208 episodes ofTwende na Wakati were broadcast over 24 months in the Dodoma region, while Entertainment-education radio and television programs simultaneously, the next 208 episodes were also broadcast in in India attracted a huge number of audience letters. An a different time slot. The program had similar (but lagged) estimated 400,000 letters were written in response to Hum effects in the Dodoma region, providing strong evidence Log, the television soap opera broadcast in 1984-1985, for of entertainment-education effects because they were example, and 150,000 in response to the 1996-1997 radio reproduced in the former control area (Rogers et al., 1999). soap opera Tinka Tinka Sukh. This outpouring of letters was encouraged in the epilogues of these two entertainment- A field experimental design requires that the researcher has education soap operas, by inviting audience members to a high degree of control over the communication treatment. write and by providing the address to which letters should Seldom is this the case, which is one reason why there are so be addressed. These audience letters did more than express few field experiments on entertainment-education, or, more admiration for the broadcasts (Singhal & Rogers, 1988; generally, on any type of communication program. In the 1989). Most of the letters (1) commented on the characters Tanzania Project, Radio Tanzania officials understandably and the story line of the program, often suggesting future wanted to broadcast Twende na Wakati, their most popular directions for the story line, and (2) provided examples program, from all of their stations, including Dodoma. of how entertainment-education has affected the letter- They agreed not to do so because they were convinced (in writers’ lives (Singhal & Rogers, 1988; 1989; Sood & Rogers, 1993) by the University of New Mexico communication 1996). For example, one letter-writer to Hum Log explained scholars of the scientific value of a field experiment with a that he had organized several hundred people in his small control area. Officials in Radio Tanzania and the Tanzania city to sign organ donation pledge cards in response to a Ministry of Health signed agreements about carrying out television episode in which a positive role-model received an the field experiment, which was a type of informed consent. eye transplant. Obtaining such consent from all of the individuals in the treatment and comparison areas was impossible. Although Letters from audience individuals can provide a rich type this research design carried disadvantages for the radio of data for analysis. For example, Singhal and Rogers system, and for the people residing in the control area, a (1989) obtained 20,000 of the viewers’ letters mailed to field experiment promised to provide relatively definitive Hum Log. The scholars selected a random sample of 500 of evidence of the effects of entertainment-education. At the these letters for content analysis. Further, a questionnaire time that the Tanzania Project was designed in 1993, officials mailed to these viewers by Singhal and Rogers (1989) secured in UNFPA, Population Communications International, and a 92 percent rate of response. The questionnaire results

65 Letters from audience members can provide low-cost and extremely valuable type of data for qualitative analysis of the effects of entertainment- education (Law & Singhal, 1999). suggested that respondents had a high degree of para-social The nature of entertainment-education seems to attract large interaction (or affective involvement) (1) with the Hum numbers of letters from audience members, perhaps because Log characters (to which about half of the 400,000 letters such programs are highly involving for many individuals. were addressed), and (2) with the famous Indian film actor But not all entertainment-education soap operas attract an (Ashok Kumar) who delivered the epilogues. The analysis outpouring of audience letters. For example, only several of the Hum Log letters was important, in that it represented hundred letters were received by Radio Tanzania over the 5 an early attempt by communication scholars to study para- years of broadcasts of Twende na Wakati, presumably because social interaction by highly-involved audience individuals the cost of postage (35 cents U.S.) was more than many people with an entertainment-education program. in Tanzania could afford.

Letters represent highly-detailed personalized narratives 3.2 Semiotic Analysis of Content Codes and are unbiased self-reports, as the letter-writers are usually not aware of the general research design. The letters Semiotic analysis is one type of qualitative content analysis. can also be rich in local idioms and metaphors and provide Anjali Ram (1993), a communication scholar from India then input for the program’s melodramatic plot. However, one studying at Ohio University, analyzed the text of selected should never forget that the individuals who send letters episodes of the Indian television soap opera Hum Raahi (“Co- to an entertainment-education program are highly atypical Travelers”) broadcast in 1992-1993. The purpose of Hum Raahi audience individuals. Analyses of letter-writers show that was to promote a more equal status for women through many are young (often teenagers), who are well-educated gaining formal education and economic independence (many are students), and very highly involved with the (Engineer, 1992). A more subtle purpose was to promote entertainment-education program. Nevertheless, their smaller family size norms through opposing child marriage, letters provide insight into the process through which female foeticide, and preference for male children. Hum individuals are influenced by entertainment-education, in Raahi commanded audience ratings of up to 78 percent in part because of the atypical characteristics of the writers. Hindi-speaking North India, which represented an audience of over 100 million people (Rogers et al., 1994).

66 Ram’s (1993) semiotic analysis included (1) an analysis of the Anjali Ram also conducted several in-depth interviews with garment, proxemic (spatial), and kinesic (body language) female viewers of Hum Raahi in India, in order to gauge their codes that positioned female characters’ status in Hum perceptions of gender portrayal in the soap opera. She found: Raahi, based on an analysis of the first 26 episodes of Hum Raahi, and (2) in-depth interviews with female viewers of • Respondents felt that Hum Raahi portrayed women as Hum Raahi, conducted in 1992 in Pune, India. The garment being against other women, especially by depicting the codes in Hum Raahi provide useful insights about how female anti-female stance of Devaki (Ram, 1993). characters in the soap opera were positioned. For instance, garment codes positioned Manorama and Prema as opposites • Respondents felt that Hum Raahi portrayed the in terms of gender equality (Ram, 1993). Manorama, the “manipulative woman versus the women’s liberationist” all-suffering mother, usually covered her head with her (Ram, 1993). While Devaki was viewed as someone who sari. In the presence of men, she pulled her sari even more had “men dance around her,” Prema was viewed as being closely around her head to cover her face. This garment code “always against men” (Ram, 1993). “reinforced her status as a passive, self-effacing, subjugated woman” (Ram, 1993, p. 58). On the other hand, Prema, • Respondents felt that Hum Raahi portrayed certain an independent career woman and a positive role model female characters as being too passive, especially for female equality, did not use her sari to cover her head Manorama and her daughter Kusum. Many respondents or shoulders. Instead, she pinned her sari across her left expressed impatience with these passive characters, shoulder, signifying that she rejected the “ritual of gender urging them to be more assertive. subordination” (Ram, 1993, p.58). • Interviewees felt that Hum Raahi highlighted the need Proxemics is another dimension of nonverbal communication, for women to have social support (Ram, 1993). This focusing on how space affects communication behavior (Hall, support should come not only from other women, but also 1966). Proxemic codes convey power, distance, hierarchy, from men. intimacy, and other factors (Ram, 1993). For instance, in the first episode of Hum Raahi, Manorama was shown cooking in Based on her semiotic analysis and in-depth interviews, Ram a smoke-filled kitchen, sighing and coughing in the absence (1993) argued that the Hum Raahi text did not really challenge of adequate ventilation. The proxemic codes in Manorama’s the “patrilineal, patrilocal, and patriarchal” structure of kitchen, which represented a “gendered space,” reinforced the Indian family, but instead worked “subtly to preserve it” her plight as the “all-suffering oppressed mother” (Ram, (Ram, 1993, p. 109). Ram commended the Hum Raahi text for 1993, p. 63). Men were only very rarely shown in the kitchen promoting women’s education and rights, and for opposing in Hum Raahi. The physical context of the entertainment- child marriage, female foeticide, and male child preference, education soap opera thus helped to reinforce the dominance but questioned the ideological underpinnings of the text of patriarchal social structures (Ram, 1993). that were steeped in patriarchy.

Kinesics, or body language, is another type of nonverbal In essence, semiotic analyses of entertainment-education communication indicated by gestures and behaviors television programs can provide insights on the consistency (Birdwhistell, 1952). Ram (1993, p. 69-70) argued that in Hum between the main text (i.e., the key educational messages) Raahi the village gossip, Devaki, was characterized by kinesic and the accompanying subtext (signs and codes that codes that signified “manipulation and seduction:” She rolled undergird the main text). her eyes, tossed her head loosely, gyrated her shoulders, let her sari’s pallav (the part of the sari that covers the head) 3.3 Participatory Photography fall, chewed beetle leaves (which lends a deep red color to the teeth and mouth), and fluttered her eyelids. Further, Devaki In 1973, while conducting a literacy project in a barrio of was often depicted talking on a mobile telephone, which was Lima, Peru, a team led by the noted Brazilian educator, a status symbol at the time of the Hum Raahi broadcasts in the Paulo Freire (author of the seminal 1970 book Pedagogy of the early 1990s. Oppressed), asked people questions in Spanish, but requested the answers in photographs. When the question “What Manorama, on the other hand, exhibited kinesic behavior is exploitation?” was asked, some people took photos of that connoted “passivity and subjugation” (Ram, 1993, p.70): a landlord, grocer, or a policeman (Boal, 1979, p. 123). One Her head was bowed and her face was covered with her sari’s child took a photo of a nail on a wall. It made no sense to pallav. She walked in jerky, nervous steps, talked softly, and adults, but other children were in strong agreement. The avoided direct eye contact with others. Her body language ensuing discussions showed that many young boys of that conveyed subservience. neighborhood worked in the shoe-shine business. Their

67 clients were mainly in the city, not in the barrio where they For instance, Soni’s photo of an old woman who is trying to lived. As their shoe-shine boxes were too heavy for them to cover her head with her sari (Photo 1) captured the strong carry, these boys, rented a nail on a wall (usually in a shop), patriarchal undercurrents in rural Bihar. She noted: “This is where they could hang their boxes for the night. To them, a very old woman who always covers her head when any man that nail on the wall represented “exploitation.” The “nail passes her. I asked her why she covered her head and she on the wall” photograph spurred widespread discussions in said because the man who passed us is her brother-in law. the Peruvian barrio about other forms of institutionalized Even if he is younger than her, because he is from her in- exploitation, including ways to overcome them. law’s family, she covered her head. It’s to show respect.”

Inspired by this Freirean technique, disposable cameras Photo 1 were handed out by the present author in 2002 to 11 listeners (7 women and 4 men) of Taru, an entertainment-education radio program in India. Taru was a 52-episode entertainment- education radio soap opera, broadcast in India from February 2002 to February 2003. Its purpose was to promote gender equality, small family size, reproductive health, caste and communal harmony, and community development.

The purpose of our participatory photography exercise was to gauge the influence ofTaru on audience members in three villages of Bihar State, India – Abirpur, Kamtaul, Several photographs, and their accompanying narratives, and Madhopur. Several Taru listening groups were active in called for community discussion, mobilization, and action. these villages during 2002-2003, when Taru was broadcast in For instance, Vandana took a photo to advocate for rural India’s Bihar State. As opposed to asking subjects questions, communities to have small families, noting how large and thereby constraining the nature and scope of their word families contribute to poverty and malnutrition. Narrating responses, they were asked to capture Taru’s influence on the photo of a young mother with six children (Photo 2), them (or their community) through the language of images Vandana said: “Too much population! One woman has so (Singhal et al., 2004). Our invitation to Taru listeners – to many children. People from different castes and tribes “shoot back” (in images) the influence of the radio serial in come to the village. They have such large families. Even their lives – yielded some 145 photographs. After developing food is being cooked outside. Will they be able to provide these pictures, we took the pictures back to our participants for so many family members? They don’t have a home, they and asked the participants to narrate what each picture have a shelter, and they were sitting outside with their kids, was depicting, what it meant to them, why they took each so I took the picture. Some people have everything, some particular photograph, and so on. nothing; we should do something about it!”

The participants’ photos, we noticed, served several Photo 2 functions: They allowed participants to (a) co-share their lived reality, (b) raise certain social issues for community discussion and action, (c) develop a story that was previously marginalized, rejected, silenced, or overlooked, and (d) talk about Taru’s influence on them or their community (Singhal, Harter, Chitnis, & Sharma, in press).

Photographs that allowed the participants to co-share the reality of their lived experiences captured (a) the prevalent traditions and customs of Bihar’s patriarchal society, (b) the norm of large family sizes and the resulting low levels of maternal and child health, (c) how children, especially Several photographs provided an opportunity for our young girls, engage in hard manual labor at home and in the participants to develop a story that was previously fields, (d) how young girls are denied an education because marginalized, rejected, silenced, or overlooked. In some of responsibilities to attend to household chores, and (e) cases the participants, through their photos, spoke on behalf how women’s health is at risk because of poverty and other of “others,” including children, the elderly, and the dalits environmental factors. (people of the lowest caste in India’s social hierarchy).

68 In other cases, the participants gave voice to their own Village, a young woman invited a young man to stand beside previously-silenced stories. her and pose for a photograph. Interactions between young unmarried men and women are taboo in rural Bihar. Such Some photographs spoke on behalf of the dalits, especially a norm is understood; it is not debated, discussed, or voiced. highlighting the need for them to have opportunities for Vandana credited her listening to Taru as being the engine education. For instance, Kumkum’s photo of a teenage dalit for her to voice such hitherto “silenced” thoughts (Singhal girl (Photo 3) was accompanied by the following narrative: et al., 2004). “This is a lower caste girl. She does housework, as she is uneducated. Education is very important. Say if you need to Some photos, and their accompanying narratives, directly sign; you cannot sign unless you are educated or you cannot alluded to Taru’s influence on the participants. Mukesh’s read a letter unless you know how to read.” photo of two girls helping each other to ride a bicycle (Photo 5) emphasized the gender equality message of Taru, including Photo 3 certain changes in young women’s behaviors in his Abirpur Village. As he noted: “These girls are trying to learn to ride a bike. After listening to Taru, girls are changing. Listening to radio, these girls learn new ideas. It doesn’t have to be because of Taru, but they are influenced by something new.”

Photo 5

Several photographs gave voices to the participants own stories that were previously marginalized, silenced, overlooked, or rejected. Often these stories resonate with the stories depicted in the entertainment-education text. For instance, Vandana (who asked her cousin to take the picture) is standing next to a young man of her age (Photo 4). 3.4 Participatory Sketching

Photo 4 As with the case of participatory photography, researchers may employ participatory sketching as a method to obtain rich, nuanced narratives from audience members of entertainment-education programs.

The present author, for instance, employed the methodology of participatory sketching to gauge the effects of an on- going entertainment-education initiative in the Peruvian Amazon, spearheaded by Minga Perú, a nongovernmental When asked what the picture signified, she said: “This is my organization that promotes gender equality and reproductive friend. He is [attending] my school. People say that girls health. For over four years now, Minga Perú has broadcast shouldn’t talk to boys. Some people still think that way and a popular radio program called Bienvenida Salud (“Welcome say, ‘why did you take this picture?’ But I think I did the Health”) three times a week in the Amazonas. They right thing and it is okay.” When one of the present authors dovetailed the entertainment-education broadcasts with (Singhal) further debriefed her on this picture a few months several community-based empowerment activities for local later, she noted: “Yes, this boy studies in my high school women (Singhal & Rattine-Flaherty, in press). and we attend the same coaching class. I feel comfortable talking to him and sharing my thoughts with him. I am not Using plain paper and colored markers, some 30 avid women shy and timid like other girls of Village Kamtaul, who feel listeners of Bienvenida Salud were asked to sketch out their nervous talking to boys. If Taru and Shashikant [two of the perceptions of Minga Perú’s contributions to reproductive main characters in the radio soap opera] can be good friends, health, gender equality, and social change. For instance, one why can’t we?” In the picture, Vandana is wearing jeans, an of the questions posed was: “How has your life changed as a outfit that conservative villagers regard as inappropriate. consequence of listening to Bienvenida Salud and participating Also, perhaps for the first time in the history of Kamtaul in community-based activities of Minga Perú?” Participants

69 were asked to draw two pictures – one to sketch how their community members to further gauge the commonality and life was some 5 years ago (i.e., antes, in the past), and how differences of their meanings and interpretations. These their life is today (i.e., ahora, now). community discussions can then also serve as a catalyst for community decisions and actions. Let’s consider the antes and ahora sketches of Emira (see Drawing 1), a 21-year-old, including her narrative which What is interesting about participatory sketching and accompanied the sketches: photography is that they lie at the interface of theory, method, and praxis (see also Morphy & Banks, 1997). In taking stock of the sociology of visuals – whether in the form of sketches or photos – it is not difficult to discern the obvious conclusion: Almost all paintings, sketches, and photos are usually produced by “the powerful, the established, the male, the colonizer” to “portray the less powerful, less established, female, and colonized” (Harper, 1994, p. 408). Through participatory photography and sketching, entertainment-education researchers hand over the means of visual production to the oppressed, the silent, and the muted. While recognizing that visuals allow the “oppressed” to make statements that are not possible by words, entertainment-education researchers should remember that all sketches, paintings, and photographs are socially and technically constructed (Harper, 1994). Thus Drawing 1: This is my early life. I didn’t know how worthy I was; I was it is as important to foreground the absence of particular ashamed, I was sad. Now my personal life has changed, I feel myself as characters or scenes, as it is to explicate what is present. being capable of exerting a public function; I don’t feel ashamed any more, I don’t have fear. I am proud of my body - my femininity. Before I didn’t want to cut my hair but when I went to live in the city, I cut it. With the 4. CONCLUSIONS trousers it was the same. Now I feel capable to wear trousers, previously I wore loose clothes. The same with the shoes, now I wear high heels. The present paper provided an overview of the commonly- employed quantitative research methodologies in monitoring Emira’s sketch and its accompanying narrative provided a and evaluating entertainment-education programs (such as highly rich, highly poignant, and highly textured/nuanced after-only surveys, before-after measurements, interrupted insight on the long-term effects of entertainment-education time-series, and field experiments), and described certain initiatives on certain audience members. Such insights are novel, low-cost, and engaging qualitative and participatory difficult, if not impossible, to obtain through structured research methodologies (such as analysis of letters, semiotic personal interview surveys. analysis of visual codes, and participatory photography and sketching) that can provide rich insights about how audience Further, in privileging visual forms of expression, such members engage with entertainment-education texts. Each as participatory photography or participatory sketching, method has its own unique strengths and weaknesses; so, entertainment-education researchers position themselves when possible, mixed-method designs should be employed. to question the dominant hegemony of textocentrism that legitimizes the lettered, literate, and text-based ways of Monitoring and evaluation research methods for knowing (Conquergood, 2002). Participatory photography entertainment-education have evolved from (1) Miguel and sketching, on the other hand, validate other, nontextual Sabido’s early 1970s measures of television ratings and such ways of knowing by privileging the performative dimensions aggregate effects as the national rate of family planning of sketches and photographs. adoption, to (2) measuring such individual effects as the adoption of a behavior change in audience surveys and However, for visuals to become truly participatory, it is field experiments, to (3) investigating the complex process important that the participants not only make sketches and through which change may occur in a social system. The take photos and share their stories with the researcher (as main research questions revolve around what effects was the case in the present research), but also share their entertainment-education programs have, and how such stories with other community members, concerned citizens, effects take place. Future research should utilize more and policymakers. We recommend that for participatory qualitative and participatory research methods to probe the sketching and photography interventions, participants share process through which entertainment-education produces their sketches and photos and their narratives with other such effects.

70 NOTES

1 The present paper draws upon some of the previous writings of the present author: Papa, Singhal, and Papa (2006), Singhal and Rogers (1999), Singhal and Devi (2003), Singhal, Harter, Chitnis, and Sharma (in press); and Singhal, Sharma, Papa, and Witte (2004). A special thanks to all collaborators and co-authors on this entertainment-education research journey. This paper was presented at the workshop on Best Practices on Promoting Gender Equality through Media Programs, Population Media Center, Burlington, Vermont, November 17-19, 2005. 2 Actually, the Johns Hopkins University evaluation of the effects of Fakube Jarra had certain aspects of a field experiment when radio broadcasting in the northern region of the country was conveniently halted by the failure of an electrical power plant. The experimental results, however, were not reported by Valente and others (1994). 3 Ethical problems such as these are discussed by Brown and Singhal (1990; 1993). 4 Previous research on parasocial interaction focused on audience members’ perceived relationships with news broadcasters and others.

REFERENCES Rogers, E.M., Vaughan, P.W. , Swalehe, R.M.A., Rao, N., Svenkerud, P., & Sood, Birdwhistell, R. (1952). Introduction to kinesics. Louisville, KY: University of S. (1999). Effects of an entertainment-education radio soap opera on family Louisville Press. planning in Tanzania. Studies in Family Planning, 30(3): 193-211.

Boal, A. (1979). The theatre of the oppressed. New York: Urizen Books. Singhal, A., & Devi, K. (2003). Visual voices in participatory communication. Communicator, 37, 1-15. Brown, W.J., & Singhal, A. (1990). Ethical dilemmas of prosocial television. Communication Quarterly, 38(3), 268-280. Singhal, A., Harter, L.M., Chitnis, K., & Sharma, D. (in press). Shooting back: Participatory photography in entertainment-education. Black Praxis, pp. in press. Brown, W. J., & Singhal, A. (1993). Ethical considerations of promoting prosocial messages through the popular media. Journal of Popular Film and Television, 21, 92-99. Singhal, A., & Rattine-Flaherty, E. (2006). Pencils and photos as tools of communicative research and praxis: Analyzing Minga Perú’s quest for social Conquergood, D. (2002). Performance studies: Interventions and radical justice in the Amazon. Gazette, 68, pp. in press. research. The Drama Review: A Journal of Performance Studies, 46(2): 145-156. Singhal, A., & Rogers, E.M. (1988). Television soap operas for development in Engineer, S. (1992, February). “Hum Raahi: The long road home.” TV & Video India. Gazette, 41, 109-126. World, 4, 22-26. Singhal, A., & Rogers, E. M. (1989). Pro-social television for development in Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. NY: Continuum. India. In R.E. Rice & C. Atkin (Eds.), Public communication campaigns (pp. 331-350). Second Edition. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York: Random House. Singhal, A., & Rogers, E. M. (1999). Entertainment-education: A communication strategy Harper, D. (1994). On the authority of the image: Visual methods at the for social change. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. crossroads. In N. K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 403-412). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Singhal, A., & Rogers, E.M. (2002). A theoretical agenda for entertainment- education. Communication Theory, 12 (2): 117-135. Law, S., & Singhal, A. (1999). Efficacy in letter-writing to an entertainment- education radio serial. Gazette, 61, 355-372. Singhal, A., Sharma, D., Papa, M.J., & Witte, K. (2004). Air cover and ground mobilization: Integrating entertainment-education broadcasts with community Morphy, H., & Banks, M. (1997). Introduction: Rethinking visual anthropology. listening and service delivery in India. In A. Singhal, M. Cody, E.M. Rogers, & M. In H. Morphy & M. Banks (Eds.), Rethinking visual anthropology (pp. 1-35). New Sabido (Eds. ), Entertainment-education and social change: History, research and practice Haven and London: Yale University Press. (pp. 351-374). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Papa, M.J., Singhal, A., & Papa, W.H., (2006). Organizing for social change: A dialectic Sood, S., & Rogers, E. M. (1996, November). Parasocial interaction by letter-writers journey of theory and praxis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. to an entertainment-education soap opera in India. Paper presented at the Speech Communication Association. San Diego, CA. Piotrow, P.T., Rimon, H.J.G., Winnard, K., Kincaid, D.L., Huntington, D., & Convisser, J. (1990). Mass media family planning promotion in three Nigerian Storey, D. (1998). Discourse, popular culture and entertainment-education cities. Studies in Family Planning, 21(5), 265-273. for sustainable health communication: Lessons learned from Pakistan and Indonesia. In T. Jacobson & J. Servaes (Eds. ), Theoretical approaches to participatory Ram, A. (1993). Women as sign: A semiotic analysis of gender portrayal in Hum Raahi. MA communication. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. thesis. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University, School of Communication Studies. Valente, T.W., Kim, Y.M., Lettenmaier, C., Glass, W., & Dibba, Y. (1994). Radio Rogers, E.M., Hirata, T.M., Chandran, A.S., & Robinson, J.D. (1994). Television promotion of family planning in the Gambia. International Family Planning promotion of gender equality in societies. In P.S. Kalbfleisch & M.J. Cody (Eds. ), Perspectives, 20, 96-100. Gender, power and communication in human relationships. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

71 CHAPTER 8

The Effectiveness of Entertainment- Education: Case Studies from Around the World

William N. Ryerson Population Media Center

Photo by Kriss Barker 72 1. INTRODUCTION audience, audience members tend to accept these changes, even though they may challenge some cultural traditions. There is strong evidence that mass media, particularly Because they deal with issues that are as sensitive as sexual entertainment broadcast media, have played a significant relationships and reproduction, it is especially important role in a number of countries in bringing about changes that such programs are designed not to build opposition or in reproductive behavior and in promoting adoption of cause a backlash. other health measures. Radio and television soap operas in Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Mexico, St. Lucia, and Tanzania have 2. MEXICO been documented by independent research in their massive effects on audience attitudes and behavior with regard to In 1975, Miguel Sabido, then Vice-President of the big HIV/AIDS avoidance and use of family planning (Westoff & commercial Mexican network, Televisa, broadcast the first Bankole, 1997; Singhal et al., 2003; Singhal & Rogers, 1999; social-content telenovela (television novel), which included Rogers et al., 1999; Vaughan et al., 2000) a subplot that dealt with the issue of literacy. Telenovelas are similar to American soap operas in that they use melodrama, One of the advantages of using serial dramas, as opposed to but differ in that they are designed to come to an end after a documentaries or single-episode dramas, is that they allow few hundred episodes, like a novel. time for the audience to form bonds with the characters and allow characters to evolve in their thinking and behavior The Mexican Department of Public Education had been with regard to various issues at a gradual and believable pace carrying out a campaign to register people who lacked formal in response to problems that have been well illustrated in education in adult education classes. In the year before the story line. Just as important, entertainment programs Sabido’s literacy telenovela, they were successful in recruiting forge emotional ties to audience members that influence 99,000 people to register for adult education classes. Inspired values and behaviors more forcefully than the cognitive by the need to promote literacy in Mexico, and also by the information provided in documentaries. In addition, the Peruvian telenovela, Simplemente María (which caused viewers emotional context of a melodrama improves retention of to emulate the lead character’s success through becoming a lessons learned by the audience, in much the same way that seamstress), Sabido set about to apply various theories of we remember the details of where we were on September 11, communication and psychology to the design of a program 2001 much more clearly than on an ordinary day. to influence the audience to pursue adult education. This program, Ven Conmigo (“Come With Me”), was commercially As described in the social learning theory of Stanford sponsored and was very successful in achieving high ratings. University psychologist Albert Bandura, vicarious learning Not only did it contain sufficient dramatic quality to attract from others is a powerful teacher of attitudes and behavior a large viewership, it also reflected the lives of the illiterate (Bandura, 1986). Next to peer and parental role models, role television viewers of Mexico, which attracted them to the models from the mass media are of particular importance in program in record numbers. shaping cultural attitudes and behavior. In the 260-episode program, positive and negative characters Serial melodramas using the methodology developed by (with regard to the value of education) tried to convince the Miguel Sabido of Mexico for promoting reproductive health illiterate characters of their points of view. The positive (Nariman, 1993) have been remarkable in that they have characters would tell the illiterate characters of the existence attracted no serious opposition in any country. This stems, of an infrastructure for adult education and encourage them in part, from the thorough research that has been done prior to sign up for classes, while the negative characters would tell to the development of the programs to measure audience them they were too old or too stupid to learn anything and attitudes and norms with regard to these issues. Characters advise them to stay away from such programs. The illiterate for the serial dramas can then be developed that reflect the characters were torn between these points of view and were audience, so that the show is in harmony with the culture. not sure how to escape the poverty and unemployment that Through the gradual evolution of characters in response came with being illiterate. to problems that many in the audience also are facing, soap operas can show adoption of new, non-traditional Eventually, illiterate characters, one-by-one, would register behaviors in a way that generates no negative response for classes and would struggle through the program. As they from the audience. Because of the bonds that are formed learned to read and write and received their diplomas, their between audience members and characters, and because of lives improved. These changes were going on in the midst the commonality of problems between characters and the of many developments in the other sub-plots that kept the

73 audience glued to the program. In the process, the illiterate • Contraceptive sales increased 23 percent in one year, viewers saw the changes that literacy brought to those compared to a seven percent increase the preceding year. characters with whom they most closely identified. Many of them began to register for classes. • More than 560,000 women enrolled in family planning clinics, an increase of 33 percent (compared to a one Sabido decided to run an epilogue giving addresses of locations percent decrease the previous year). for registration for classes. He did this following the episode in which his most popular character graduated from school. In Mexico, to date, there have been five additional social- This character was a grandfather who broke down in tears at content soap operas, all developed by Miguel Sabido. They his graduation ceremony because he could finally read the were Vamos Juntos (“We Go Together”), Caminemos (“Let’s letters he had been receiving from his granddaughter. Before Walk”), Nosotros las Mujeres (“We the Women”), Por Amor (“For broadcasting this episode, Sabido warned the Department of Love”), and Los Hijos de Nadie (“Nobody’s Children”). Public Education that he might generate a crowd. They told him that they liked his program and that it was supporting During the decade 1977 to 1986, when many of these Mexican their own efforts to promote adult education, but said they soap operas were on the air, the country underwent a 34 were sure that they could handle any crowd that Sabido’s percent decline in its population growth rate. As a result, in program might generate, because they had registered 99,000 May 1986, the United Nations Population Prize was presented people in a year’s time. to Mexico as the foremost population success story in the world. Sabido broadcast the episode with the epilogue, and, the following day, 250,000 people tried to register for classes – in Thomas Donnelly, then with USAID in Mexico, wrote, a single day! He continued to run epilogues for the remaining “Throughout Mexico, wherever one travels, when people are weeks of the serial, and a total of 840,000 people registered asked where they heard about family planning, or what made for classes during this time. The model Sabido had created them decide to practice family planning, the response is was one that combined a commercially successful program universally attributed to one of the soap operas that Televisa with a very positive social impact. has done. ... The Televisa family planning soap operas have made the single most powerful contribution to the Mexican Sabido then decided to use a telenovela to promote family population success story.” planning as a solution to marital conflict. This program, named Acompáñame (“Accompany Me”) went on the air in Similar effects were noticed in other Latin American 1977. As with the earlier serial that dealt with literacy, the countries when Sabido’s programs played in those countries. program was designed to create characters who would evolve over time to become positive role models for the audience. 3. INDIA Acompáñame showed in dramatic terms over the course of the nine-month series, the personal benefits of planning one’s Following a meeting David Poindexter (now Honorary Chair family, by focusing on the issue of family harmony. of Population Media Center) and Miguel Sabido held with Indira Gandhi, and a training program they organized The results of Acompáñame, as reported by the Mexican for Doordarshan (Indian Television), the country began government’s National Population Council (CONAPO), were broadcasting India’s first social content soap opera,Hum Log (Sabido, 1981): (“We People”) in July 1984. The program included promotion of family planning and elevation of the status of women • Phone calls to the CONAPO requesting family planning through the words and actions of key characters. information increased from zero to an average of 500 a month. Many people calling mentioned that they were Over the 17 months of broadcast, the episodes of Hum Log encouraged to do so by the television soap opera. achieved ratings of 60 to 90 percent. Research conducted by Professor Everett M. Rogers and Arvind Singhal, then of the • More than 2,000 women registered as voluntary workers Annenberg School for Communication of the University of in the national program of family planning. This was an Southern California, found through a sample survey that 70 idea suggested in the television soap opera. percent of the viewers indicated they had learned from Hum

74 Log that women should have equal opportunities, 68 percent 5. TANZANIA had learned women should have the freedom to make their personal decisions in life, and 71 percent had learned that The most extensive evaluation of the effects of a social family size should be limited (Singhal & Rogers, 1989). content serial drama occurred from 1993 to 1997 in Tanzania. Among other things, the program stimulated over 400,000 There, Radio Tanzania broadcast a serial melodrama that people to write letters to the Indian Television Authority and attracted 58 percent of the population (age 15 to 45) in areas to various characters in the program, stating their views on of the broadcast. By design, in one region of the country – the issues being dealt with or asking for help and advice. the area surrounding the city of Dodoma – a music program was heard instead of the soap opera during the first two A second television serial drama, Hum Raahi (“Co-Travelers”), years of the project (1993-95). Then, from 1995-97, the soap produced by Roger Pereira of Bombay, went on the air opera was broadcast in the Dodoma comparison area. in January 1992. With an average estimated audience of 230 million viewers, Hum Raahi was the top-rated program Figure 1: Map of Tanzania Showing Broadcast and Non- on Indian television. A study funded by the Rockefeller Broadcast Areas for Twende na Wakati Foundation found viewers’ attitudes changed dramatically with regard to two issues addressed in the program: ideal age of marriage for women and acceptability of women in the workplace outside the home.

4. KENYA

In 1983, David Poindexter, then Director of the Population Institute’s Communication Center, began working in Kenya with the government-run Voice of Kenya, which later became the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC). After taking Kenyan television and radio personnel for training in Mexico, he helped in the development of two programs: a television series, Tushauriane (“Let’s Talk About It”) produced by Greg Adambo; and a radio series, Ushikwapo Shikamana (“When Given Advice, Take It”) produced by Tom Kazungu. Both programs went on the air in 1987. The programs were aimed at opening the minds of men to allowing their wives to seek family planning. The programs Source: Rogers E.M., Vaughan, P.W., Swalehe, R.M.A., Rao N., Svenkerud P., Sood S. Effects of an entertainment-education soap opera on family planning in Tanzania. also effectively linked family size with land inheritance Studies in Family Planning. 1999; 30(3): 193-211. and the resulting ability or inability of children to support their parents in their old age. Both programs were the most popular programs in their respective media ever produced by Independent research by the University of New Mexico and the Voice of Kenya. the Population Family Life Education Programme of the Government of Tanzania measured the effects caused by By the time the two series had ended, contraceptive use in the program with regard to such issues as AIDS prevention Kenya had increased 58 percent and desired family size had behavior, ideal age of marriage for women, and use of family fallen from 6.3 to 4.4 children per woman. While many planning (Rogers et al., 1999; Vaughan et al., 2000). While factors undoubtedly contributed to these changes, a study the population of the Dodoma comparison area was more conducted by the University of Nairobi School of Journalism urban than the rest of the country, a multiple regression at rural health centers gave evidence of women coming in for analysis eliminated the influence such differences might family planning saying that the radio program had caused have accounted for. Nationwide random sample surveys of their husbands to allow them to come for family planning. 2750 people each were conducted before, during and after the broadcast of the program. Data was also collected from the AIDS Control Programme of the government, the Ministry of Health, and the Demographic and Health Survey, all of which reinforced the findings of significant impacts on attitudes and behavior (Singhal et al., 2003; Singhal & Rogers, 1999; Vaughan & Rogers, 2000).

75 Among the findings were a significant increase in the The program also had a significant effect in raising the ideal percentage of the population who perceive that they may age of marriage for women and the ideal age of first birth for be at risk of HIV infection; an increase in people’s belief women (Singhal et al., 2003). that they can take effective action to prevent HIV/AIDS; an increase in interpersonal communication about HIV/ Because of its experimental design, the evaluation results AIDS; an increase in the belief that individuals, rather than were able to disaggregate the effects of the radio serial their deity or fate, can determine how many children they drama from other family planning promotion and HIV/ will have; an increase in the belief that children in small AIDS prevention programs being implemented throughout families have better lives than children in large families; Tanzania. In regions where Twende na Wakati was broadcast, and an increase in the percentage of respondents who the percentage of married women who were currently using approve of family planning (Singhal et al., 2003; Singhal & a family planning method increased 10 percentage points in Rogers, 1999). the first 2 years of the program, while that percentage stayed flat in the Dodoma non-broadcast area during the time the The study also provided evidence that the Tanzanian radio program was not broadcast there. Then, when the program serial stimulated important behavioral changes. Over half was broadcast in Dodoma, the contraceptive prevalence rate the population of the areas where the serial was broadcast there increased 16 percentage points. In a sample of 21 clinics identified themselves as listeners, with more men than in regions where the program was broadcast, the average women in the audience. One of the key characters in the number of new family planning adopters per clinic increased soap opera was a truck driver with many girl friends along by 32 percent from June 1993 (the month before the show the truck route. In the program he contracts AIDS. Of began airing) to December 1994. Over the same period, the the listeners surveyed, 82 percent said the program had average number of new adopters at clinics in the Dodoma area caused them to change their own behavior to avoid HIV remained essentially flat (see Figure 3) (Singhal et al., 2003). infection, through limiting the number of sexual partners and through condom use. Independent data from the AIDS Figure 3: Twende na Wakati (Tanzania): Control Programme of the government of Tanzania showed a Increases in Contraceptive Prevalence Rate and Increase in 153 percent increase in condom distribution in the broadcast Number of New Adopters of Family Planning in Broadcast areas during the first year of the soap opera, while condom and Non-Broadcast Areas distribution in the Dodoma non-broadcast area increased only 16 percent in the same time period (see Figure 2) (Singhal & Rogers, 1999).

Figure 2: Twende na Wakati (Tanzania) Increase in Condom Use in Broadcast and Non-Broadcast Areas

Vaughan P.W., Rogers E.M., Singhal A., Swalehe R.M.A. Entertainment-education and HIV/AIDS prevention: A field experiment in Tanzania. Journal of Health Communication. 2000; 5 (Supplement): 81-100.

Independent data from Ministry of Health clinics showed that 41 percent of new adopters of family planning methods were influenced by the serial drama to seek family planning. This percentage included 25 percent who cited the serial Rogers E.M., Vaughan, P.W., Swalehe, R.M.A., Rao N., Svenkerud P., Sood S. Effects of an drama by name when asked why they had come to the clinic, entertainment-education soap opera on family planning in Tanzania. Studies in Family Planning. 1999; 30(3): 193-211. and another 16 percent who cited “something on the radio” and then identified the serial drama when shown a list of The program was also effective in promoting family programs currently on the air. Another family planning planning. There was a strong positive relationship between serial drama using a different methodology that was listenership levels by district and the change in the broadcast nationwide by Radio Tanzania at the same time percentage of men and women who were currently using was cited by just 11 percent of new family planning adopters any family planning method. The research also showed an at the same Ministry of Health clinics (see Figure 4) (Singhal increase in the percentage of Tanzanians in the areas of the et al., 2003). These data point to the importance of the broadcast who discussed family planning with their spouses. methodology used in the design of the serial drama.

76 Figure 4: Twende na Wakati (Tanzania) was completed in April 2004. The third round was completed Percent of New Adopters of Family Planning and Reasons in November 2004, and included interviews with 3,649 Motivating Use clients.

Each succeeding assessment report showed an increase in the percentage of both male and female clients citing radio as the primary motivating factor in seeking health services: for example, only 6.3 percent of all clients in the first assessment (February 2003) cited radio as the primary motivation for seeking services; this proportion had grown to 18.8 percent by the third assessment in November 2004 (see Figure 5).

Figure 5: Yeken Kignit (Ethiopia)

Vaughan P.W., Rogers E.M., Singhal A., Swalehe R.M.A. Entertainment-education and Percent of Clients Citing Radio as Their Primary Motivation HIV/AIDS prevention: A field experiment in Tanzania. Journal of Health Communication. to Seek Services: Differences Between the First, Second and 2000; 5 (Supplement): 81-100. Third Assessments Counting all of the costs of the radio serial, the cost per new adopter of family planning was about 32 cents (U.S.). The cost per person who changed behavior to avoid HIV/AIDS was 8 cents (U.S.).

6. ETHIOPIA

In Ethiopia, Population Media Center (PMC) produced a radio serial drama, Yeken Kignit (“Looking Over One’s Daily Life”), which was broadcast over Radio Ethiopia in 257 episodes between June 2, 2002 and November 27, 2004. Yeken Kignit addressed issues of reproductive health and women’s status, including HIV/AIDS, family planning, marriage by Population Media Center – Ethiopia. Facility Assessment Report. November 2004. abduction, education of daughters, spousal communication and related issues. Among those who cited radio as the primary motivation to To monitor results of the program during broadcast, PMC seek services, there was an increase in the percentage of conducted three rounds of facility assessments (client exit clients who cited Yeken Kignit by name. By the time of the interviews) in 48 health clinics during 2003 and 2004. The third assessment, 84 percent cited Yeken Kignit, an increase first facility assessment was completed in February 2003 of 16 percentage points from the first assessment. There was and consisted of interviews with 4,084 clients. The second a concurrent decrease of 16 percentage points among those assessment, which included interviews with 4,858 clients, clients who named any other radio program on the air.

Figure 6: Yeken Kignit (Ethiopia) Percent of Radio-Motivated Clients Citing a Specific Radio Program: Differences Between the First, Second and Third Assessments

Population Media Center – Ethiopia. Facility Assessment Report. November 2004. 77 One reason for the decrease between the second and third Figure 7: Yeken Kignit (Ethiopia) assessments in the percentage of clients naming Yeken Kignit Current Use of FP (Any Method): Differences Between as their primary motivation to seek services was the increase Baseline and Post-Intervention for Listeners and Non- in the percentage citing a second PMC serial drama, Dhimbibba Listeners (“Getting the Most Out of Life”), which was in the Oromiffa language. Between the second and third assessments, the percentage naming Dhimbibba rose from 3.7 percent to 11.3 percent. Other than PMC’s programs, by the time of the third assessment, only 4.4 percent of clients named any of the other programs on Radio Ethiopia as a motivation for seeking services.

An independent research firm evaluated the impact of Yeken Kignit in December 2004. This study showed significant Population Media Center – Ethiopia. Facility Assessment Report. November 2004. results regarding family planning and HIV/AIDS knowledge. Current use of modern family planning methods also The results also showed evidence of behavior change: most increased significantly among listeners, compared to non- notably in terms of use of family planning methods, and in listeners (see Figure 8). For example, use of a modern method willingness to be tested for HIV. In most cases, there were of family planning by married women who were listeners significant differences in these knowledge and behavior to Yeken Kignit increased from 11.7 percent to 40.2 percent, change measures between listeners and non-listeners of the a 28.3 percentage point change. Among non-listeners, use program, showing that Yeken Kignit had a differential effect increased by only 18.2 percentage points (from 11.7 percent on knowledge and behavior between listeners and non- to 29.9 percent). Among married men who were listeners to listeners. Yeken Kignit, current use of modern methods increased from 15.6 percent to 41.3 percent, an increase of 25.7 percentage points. Among non-listeners, use increased by only 15.1 percentage points.

Figure 8: Yeken Kignit (Ethiopia) Current Use of FP (Modern Methods): Differences Between Baseline and Post-Intervention for Listeners and Non-Listeners

The outpouring of emotion in Ethiopia, in response to PMC’s programs, was overwhelming. From all over the country – and even beyond the borders of Ethiopia – 15,000 letters poured in to PMC’s office in Addis Ababa. Ethiopia’s news media ran almost a hundred stories on the soap opera phenomenon PMC created. Population Media Center – Ethiopia. Facility Assessment Report. November 2004. Figure 7 demonstrates the differences among listeners and Figure 9 shows the differences measured in ever use of non-listeners regarding current use of family planning. family planning among listeners and non-listeners. Among Among married women who were listeners to Yeken Kignit, listeners, ever use among married women increased from current use of any family planning method increased from 23.9 percent at baseline to 79 percent (an increase of 55.1 12.3 percent to 43.5 percent (a 31.2 percentage point increase). percentage points). Among non-listeners, ever use increased Among non-listeners, use increased from 12.3 percent to 31.1 by only 23.5 percentage points, from 23.9 percent to 47.4 percent, an increase of only 18.8 percentage points. Among percent. Among married men who are listeners to Yeken married men who were listeners to Yeken Kignit, current use Kignit, ever use increased from 28.3 percent to 69.6 percent, of any method increased from 18.1 percent to 42.4 percent, an an increase of 41.3 percentage points. Among non-listeners, increase of 24.3 percentage points. Among non-listeners, use ever use increased by only 16.1 percentage points. increased by only 14.6 percentage points.

78 Figure 9: Yeken Kignit (Ethiopia) Figure 11: Yeken Kignit (Ethiopia) Ever Use of FP: Differences Between Baseline and Post- Percentage of Respondents Who Had Taken a Blood Test for HIV Intervention for Listeners and Non-Listeners

Population Media Center – Ethiopia. Facility Assessment Report. November 2004.

Population Media Center – Ethiopia. Facility Assessment Report. November 2004. PMC’s program in Ethiopia produced significant knowledge and behavioral change results. In addition to the above, the The percentage of respondents who know how to determine evaluation research also determined the following: HIV sero-status increased considerably after listening to • 45 percent of women and 47 percent of men identified Yeken Kignit (see Figures 10 and 11). The proportion of those themselves as regular listeners to the program. who said that there is “no way to determine” one’s HIV status • The fertility rate fell from 5.4 to 4.3 children per woman. declined from 37.3 percent among women and 34.1 percent • Demand for contraceptives increased 157 percent. among men to 9.8 percent and 8.6 percent, respectively, after • Listeners to Yeken Kignit were 5 times more likely than listening to Yeken Kignit. non-listeners to know 3 or more family planning methods. • Spousal communication about family planning issues Figure 10: Yeken Kignit (Ethiopia) among currently married women climbed from 33 percent Percentage of Respondents Who Do Not Know of Any Means to 68 percent. to Determine HIV Status • There was a corresponding decrease of 70 percent in the proportion of respondents to the surveys who said that the decision to use family planning should be made solely by the husband. • There was a 50 percent increase in communication between mothers and their children about sexuality issues. • There was a 52 percentage point increase among men and 21 percentage point increase among women in recognition of the importance of girls’ education. • There was a 35 percentage point increase among men and 13 percentage point increase among women in the belief Population Media Center – Ethiopia. Facility Assessment Report. November 2004. that women are fit to hold public office.

The percentage of people who had taken a blood test for HIV An excerpt from one listener’s letter shows the impact PMC’s after listening to Yeken Kignit more than tripled for women, programs are having on people’s lives across Ethiopia: and more than quadrupled for men (see Figure 11). “I am the mother of many children. Nobody cares about the desperate situation I am in. Instead, what I hear from the women around me is that a woman gets respect when she is a mother. It was while your radio program was discussing programs like family planning and spaced childbirth that I learned about things that affect me very much, including the value of small families.”

79 A letter from another listener discusses how the program has For this reason, PMC works to develop comprehensive media made her daughter safer from abduction: campaigns in the countries where it is carrying out projects. The strategy uses the best of what has been done in the past, “The story of Wubalem reflects clearly the harmful traditional practices and builds on it in each country with intensive broadcast and in our country such as abduction and sexual violence. These practices print coverage of issues related to sexual risk behavior. In this have prevented us from sending our girls to school. We were afraid that way, PMC intends to contribute to rapid change in the health- they would be abducted. Our first child was married at the age of 14 related behavior of people worldwide. after she was abducted. We were worrying for years as we thought that our second child would face a similar fate. The radio drama focusing on abduction and sexual violence that you have presented and the In each country in which it works, PMC tries to build a discussions conducted on these topics have aroused considerable popular collaborative process with radio and/or television broadcasters, indignation. The people have now strongly condemned such inhuman appropriate government ministries, and nongovernmental traditional practices. Unlike in the past, special punitive measures have organizations to design and implement a comprehensive been taken by community people against offenders involved in such media strategy for addressing family and reproductive health crimes. As a result, we have no worry in sending our girls to school. issues. This involves identifying the various cultural issues Our children go to school safely and return unharmed. Please keep the and prevailing attitudes affecting decision making about program on the air.” sexual risk behaviors within the country, analyzing barriers and opportunities for effective use of the mass media for 7. CONCLUSION promoting reproductive health, and developing an action plan that incorporates as much of the broadcast media as possible Because entertainment programming (radio or television, in a concerted campaign designed to promote sexual and depending on the coverage of each medium in any country) reproductive health. The focus of this work is on reaching attracts the largest audiences, it is particularly important to producers and writers of prime-time entertainment programs utilize entertainment media for disseminating information with information that will help them enhance the ratings about reproductive health issues. Along with that, many of their programs through incorporating information about communications experts state that the most effective way family life that audience members want. In most cases, of bringing about changes in attitudes and behavior with use of specially designed social-content serial dramas is the regard to any social issue is to utilize as many channels of centerpiece of the strategy, because of the known effectiveness communication simultaneously as possible, including print of this approach in changing attitudes and behaviors. and broadcast, news and information, various formats of entertainment programs, and the communication activities of PMC provides people with entertainment and information governmental and nongovernmental organizations. Examples to help them make informed decisions without telling of successful media campaigns that have utilized this strategy them what to do. PMC’s approach emphasizes non-coercive, include the designated driver campaign of Harvard University informed decision-making, tailored in each case to local needs and the smoking prevention campaign carried out by a and circumstances. Programs are designed to promote human coalition of organizations in the United States. It is logical health and dignity by providing education and examples of to infer that people learn and change behaviors more quickly various alternatives and their consequences. when they are hearing consistent information from a variety of sources.

REFERENCES Singhal, A. & E.M. Rogers. 1989. India’s Information Revolution. New Delhi/Newbury Park/London, Sage Publications.

Bandura, A. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social-Cognitive Theory. Singhal, A. & E.M. Rogers. 1999. Entertainment-Education: A Communication Strategy for Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, Inc. Social Change. Mahwah, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Nariman, H.N. 1993. Soap Operas for Social Change: Toward a Methodology for Entertainment- Singhal, A., M. Cody, E.M. Rogers, and M. Sabido. 2003. Entertainment-Education and Education Television. Connecticut, Praeger. Social Change: History, Research and Practice. Mahwah, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Rogers E.M., P. Vaughan, R.M.A. Swalehe, N. Rao, P. Svenkerud, and S. Sood. 1999. Effects of an entertainment-education radio soap opera on family planning Vaughan, P.W. and E.M. Rogers. 2000. A staged model of communication effects: behavior in Tanzania. Studies in Family Planning 30(3): 193-211. Evidence from an entertainment-education radio soap opera in Tanzania. Journal of Health Communication. 5(2): 203-227. Sabido, Miguel. 1981. Towards the social use of commercial television: Mexico’s experience with the reinforcement of social values through TV soap operas. Vaughan, P., E.M. Rogers, et al. 2000. Entertainment education and HIV/AIDS Paper presented at the annual conference of the International Institute of prevention: a field experiment in Tanzania.Journal of Health Communication 5. Communications (Strasbourg, France). Institute for Communications Research, A.C. (Mexico City, Mexico). Westoff, C. & A. Bankole. 1997. Mass media and reproductive behavior in Africa. Demographic and Health Surveys Analytical Reports No.2. Calverton, Maryland, Macro International Inc. 80 CHAPTER 9

The Successful Application of a Comprehensive Behavior Change Communication Program in Ethiopia and Implications for Communication Projects Elsewhere

Negussie Teffera Population Media Center, Ethiopia

Photo by Katie Elmore

81 1. INTRODUCTION indicate that the CPR in Ethiopia increased to about 18 percent by 2004, which is a significant improvement; but which is still Radio is changing lives in Ethiopia. Since the beginning of very low compared to other countries in Eastern and Southern its operation in Ethiopia in 2000, PMC has made significant Africa (Central Statistical Agency, 2005). contributions to the improvement of reproductive and sexual health and family planning, including HIV/AIDS, in the Ethiopia is the third most-affected African country with regard country. to HIV/AIDS, following South Africa and Nigeria. Results from the 2005 EDHS indicate that 1.4 percent of Ethiopian adults This chapter describes the steps that PMC followed in age 15-19 are infected with HIV. Among children less than developing and implementing its comprehensive behavior 15 years of age, 2 percent are HIV positive. HIV prevalence change communication program in Ethiopia. The paper will among women is nearly 2 percent, while for men 15-49, it is show how the strategy was successfully applied, and will just under 1 percent. In addition, 1.1 percent of pregnancies provide implications of this experience for communication are HIV positive. projects elsewhere. According to the National HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control 2. BACKGROUND Office sixth report in 2006, there were an estimated 1,319,795 Ethiopians living with HIV/AIDS. Of these 30,338 were Ethiopia has a population of 77 million – the second largest on children, and 128,922 were newly infected. There were also the continent of Africa (after Nigeria). Ethiopia’s growth rate 134,450 annual AIDS deaths in the adult population, 300,330 of 2.4 percent translates to a doubling time of 29 years. The HIV positive births and a total of 744,088 orphans in Ethiopia country was the 20th most populous country in the world in caused by AIDS (Ministry of Health, 2006). 1998, but by 2050, if current trends continue, it will be the 9th most populous country in the world with a population of 169 3. NEED FOR A NEW BEHAVIOR CHANGE million (Central Statistical Agency, 2006). COMMUNICATION PARADIGM

Ethiopia is one of the least developed countries in the world In spite of the effort made by the Ethiopian government and with GDP in purchasing power parity per capita of USD 810. various nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), cultural Close to half of the population lives below the international barriers towards using family planning and changing sexual poverty line, and close to half (47 percent) of Ethiopia’s behavior to prevent HIV/AIDS are still prevalent. children are stunted. There are complex and interrelated factors which account for this state of affairs. Among the most One of the reasons for the lack of success in bringing about important is the imbalance between population growth and behavior change with regard to family planning and HIV/ the development and utilization of life-sustaining resources AIDS prevention is the lack of preparation in the design and (Central Statistical Agency, 2006). dissemination of information, education, and communication (IEC) materials. For example, a literature review conducted According to various sources, the status of women and girls in in 2001 on IEC activities in Ethiopia indicated that these IEC Ethiopia is among the lowest in the world. Marriage by rape materials and programs were not prepared on the basis of and abduction of adolescent girls is common in Ethiopia (10.8 research findings (Population Media Center – Ethiopia, 2005). percent of marriages are by abduction in the Oromia Region), and childbearing often starts before adulthood (Central Armed with this information, Population Media Center-Ethiopia Statistical Agency, 2006). (PMC-Ethiopia) started activities in the country with the overall objective of promoting reproductive health, including STIs/ Although Ethiopia has made tremendous progress in recent HIV/AIDS prevention activities, through research-based media years to advance economic and social development, to communication projects that are believed to be instrumental in alleviate poverty, and to improve the lives of its people, the bringing about behavior and attitude change. combined forces of adverse climatic conditions, a low level of technological development and a rapidly growing population One of the major reasons for the success of PMC media are working against these positive efforts (Office of the Prime communication projects in general, and the radio serial dramas Minister, 1993). in particular, is the extensive use of formative research, sophisticated audience research methods, pretesting, use of Because of inadequate family planning services and prevailing multiple media to target the message, and monitoring and socio-cultural beliefs and practices that inhibit contraceptive evaluation. use, fertility has remained high, at about 5.4 children per woman, which is among the highest rates in Africa. Although 4. PMC’S SERIAL DRAMAS IN ETHIOPIA there have been efforts to increase access to family planning services since 1993, the contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) PMC broadcast two radio serial dramas from June 2002 was still only 8 percent in 2000. However, recent estimates through November 2004. Yeken Kignit (“Looking Over One’s 82 Daily Life”) was broadcast in Amharic, the country’s most In 2004, 14,400 client interviews were conducted in 48 clinics prevalent (official) language, and Dhimbibba (“Getting the Best within the listening area to determine motivation of new Out of Life”) was written and produced in Oromiffa, reaching clients seeking services. These surveys found that among another large language group in Ethiopia. new clients seeking reproductive health services, 63 percent had listened to one of the two programs, and 26 percent The serial dramas were developed using the Sabido methodology indicated that PMC’s programs were the primary reason they for behavior change communication using mass media, in were seeking care. Of all clients citing radio as a source of which characters in long-running serial dramas are designed information about reproductive health, 96 percent specifically to evolve over time into positive role models for the audience. named one of PMC’s two radio dramas. The methodology is based on various communication and social science theories, including the Social Learning/Social During the 30 months of broadcasting, program staff received Cognitive Theory of Stanford psychologist Albert Bandura, 15,000 letters from listeners, who shared the personal impact which posits that people acquire attitudes, values, and styles the program had on them. of behavior primarily through vicarious role modeling. Ethiopia’s news media ran almost a hundred stories on the The issues covered in the radio programs were identified soap opera phenomenon PMC had created. through formative research, which highlighted a need for According to comments by participants in the first PMC- behavior change in various areas, including reproductive Ethiopia annual program review meeting in 2003, “the high health, family planning, HIV/AIDS, elevation of women’s caliber studies undertaken by PMC have really addressed the status, early marriage, marriage by abduction, education of needs of the people.” girls, and spousal communication. Post-broadcast research, completed in 2005, showed significant The formative research consisted of a literature review, a results in terms of family planning and HIV/AIDS knowledge; media analysis, and a health services situation analysis. and more importantly, in terms of behavior change. Most The literature review revealed that numerous beliefs, notable were increases in the use of family planning methods misconceptions, attitudes, and practices surround and in seeking tests for HIV. In most cases, there were reproductive health and related issues in Ethiopia. The review significant differences in these knowledge and behavior also indicated that Ethiopian women are discriminated against change measures between listeners and non-listeners to Yeken in many aspects of social and economic life, even though Kignit and Dhimbibba, showing that the project had a differential the 1994 constitution grants gender equality. The review effect on knowledge and behavior change between listeners further showed that IEC activities significantly contributed and non-listeners. to high levels of awareness about family planning and other Below are findings from an end-of-project evaluation reproductive health issues, but that a considerable gap between conducted to assess the impact of the radio serial dramas; that knowledge and changes in behavior still existed. The review is, to determine the extent to which each of the issues were concluded that in order to improve the reproductive health addressed effectively, to measure the achievements of the status of the population, PMC should utilize new strategies programs, and to draw the lessons learned therein. According that are aimed at bringing about changes in beliefs, attitudes, to the report, some of the changes that occurred include and behavior. (Population Media Center – Ethiopia, 2005): Following the literature review, qualitative and quantitative • Demand for contraceptives increased 157 percent during research was conducted to identify reproductive health the period of broadcast. issues of concern and to assess potential audience members’ attitudes toward these issues. Based on the findings of the • Communication between mothers and their children formative research, PMC worked with a team of producers and about sexuality issues increased 50 percent. scriptwriters to write and produce the two serial dramas. • Spousal communication about family planning issues In total, 257 episodes of Yeken Kignit and 140 episodes of among married women climbed from 33 percent to 68 Dhimbibba were broadcast over the two and a half year period. percent. Of a nationwide population of 78 million people, no less than 40 million people listened to one of PMC’s programs. • The 2005 Demographic and Health Survey found independently that, since 2000, contraceptive The radio serial dramas were closely monitored through 50 prevalence in Ethiopia had increased 133 percent. strategically established listeners’ groups, quarterly organized focus group discussions, 48 facility assessment centers (client • The belief that female circumcision should be discontinued exit interviews) and analysis of listeners’ letters. increased from 59 percent to 77 percent among men and from 53 percent to 79 percent among women. 83 • 98 percent of listeners recognized that having more children than they could financially support would lead HOW PMC APPLIED THE SABIDO to an economic and social crisis. METHODOLOGY IN ETHIOPIA • 97 percent of listeners could identify three ways that HIV 1. Organized two consensus building and experience is transmitted. sharing workshops: one with partner agencies (such as governmental and nongovernmental organizations, • There was an increase in the belief that a woman can including media agencies) and one with playwrights, negotiate condom use of 15 percentage points among radio drama program producers, media and theatre arts women and 26 percentage points among men. practitioners to • introduce the PMC program objectives and the importance • There was a reduction among listeners in the stigma of research-based entertainment-education in changing against people affected by HIV/AIDS. behavior; • share experiences, avoid duplication and reach a consensus on issues and approaches/intervention • Listeners were 5 times more likely than non-listeners to strategies; and know 3 or more family planning methods. • establish partnerships and generate support for the PMC project. • Among married women in the Amhara region who were listeners, there was a 55 percentage point increase in 2. Conducted a literature review of over 200 research those who had ever used family planning methods, while documents, evaluation reports, policies, guidelines on among non-listeners the change was only 24 percentage population, reproductive health, information, education points. A similar increase occurred among male listeners and communication (IEC) and HIV/AIDS prevention in the Amhara region. communication activities. The purposes of the literature review were to • examine the full range of issues and identify gaps; • Male listeners sought HIV tests at 4 times the rate of non- • identify issues on which information is still missing; listeners, and female listeners sought tests at 3 times the • identify intervention gaps; rate of non-listeners. • identify gaps in current knowledge, attitudes and practices; • The fertility rate in Amhara (the most populous region) • identify stakeholders; fell from 5.4 to 4.3 children per woman. • identify barriers to the elimination of harmful practices; • There was a 52 percentage point increase among men and • assess the status of IEC/behavior change a 21 percentage point increase among women in communication (BCC) activities in Ethiopia including recognizing the importance of girls’ education. the capacity of implementing agencies; • identify research and information gaps; and • analyze the effectiveness of IEC/BCC programs. • There was a 35 percentage point increase among men and a 13 percentage point increase among women in the belief 3. Conducted a media assessment to that women are fit to hold public office. • explore the strengths and weaknesses of social-content radio and television programs; A multiple regression analysis was done to eliminate any • evaluate their impact on the audience; and effects that such factors as income, educational level, age, • learn lessons from the past and design research-based, marital status, urban or rural place of residence, ethnic group, social-content radio serial dramas. or language may have had on family planning use or HIV testing, and the results continued to show significant effects 4. Conducted formative research to of the serial drama. • assess the current status of knowledge, attitudes and behavior regarding reproductive health and family planning, HIV/AIDS and other social issues among the PMC’s first serial drama project in Ethiopia was supported target audience; by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the HIV/AIDS • provide Information for the design of culturally Prevention and Control Office of the Government of Ethiopia sensitive, appropriate and acceptable radio serial (HAPCO), the Hughes Memorial Foundation, the Flora L. dramas; Thornton Foundation, CARE-Ethiopia, and 35 individual • generate audience focused qualitative information for contributors. creative writers;

84 5. PMC’S WHOLE SOCIETY STRATEGY: A COMPREHENSIVE • furnish representative information for the development APPROACH TO COMMUNICATION of a national policy framework, an issues list, and a value grid on which educational themes on a radio PMC’s comprehensive media communication approach serial drama are to be based; in Ethiopia includes radio serial dramas, audiocassette • fill gaps identified by the literature review; and programs, video documentaries, poems and short stories, a • establish benchmark data for evaluation. comprehensive plan for the training of journalists, and even a staged theatrical production. The formative research was also used to identify the primary and secondary audiences for the radio serial dramas, and it further identified 105 socio-economic and cultural issues to PMC produced and distributed a third serial drama on be addressed by the radio serial dramas. audiocassettes. Maleda (“Dawn”) was initially designed in collaboration with Save the Children, USA, for high-risk 5. Collected over 200 popular sayings (proverbs) in mobile workers along the truck routes between Addis Ababa Amharic and Oromiffa relating to the social issues in the and Djibouti. The program was originally recorded on audio dramas. cassette and distributed to members of these high-risk groups. The evaluation of impact showed that the program was very 6. Selected competent and experienced scriptwriters, radio popular among truck drivers and sex workers, but also among program producers and actors/actresses. the general population, who made copies of the program tapes and listened faithfully to every episode. The evaluation also 7. Organized a 5-week training workshop on the Sabido showed that the program had very positive effects on the methodology for the scriptwriters and radio program producers. behavior of listeners. The program was so successful that PMC received funding from the HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control 8. Established a technical advisory committee composed Office of the government of Ethiopia to extend the program of scriptwriters, radio program producers, a creative arts and broadcast it on Radio Ethiopia and FM Addis. Maleda was advisor, the PMC senior research officer, a gender expert, a broadcast from May 2005 to September 2006. communication expert, a representative from Addis Ababa University, representatives from the Ministry of Health, PMC also received support from the Packard Foundation representatives from Ethiopia Radio, and a representative for two additional projects in Ethiopia, designed to involve from the Women’s Affairs Office of the government of the creative community in addressing population and Ethiopia. The technical committee was established to check reproductive health issues. These projects included: the content and to refine the scripts of the drama programs, as necessary. • a Media Arts project that created traveling stage plays 9. Conducted pre-testing of the pilot episodes in the to address reproductive health issues; developed two target areas. video documentaries on population and HIV/AIDS issues in Ethiopia; and held contests for the best short stories 10. Conducted a baseline survey as a benchmark prior to the and poems that address reproductive health issues; and launching of the radio serial dramas. 11. Began broadcasting the two radio serial dramas • a Journalists’ Capacity Building project that trained (June 2002). journalists, playwrights and theatre art experts to better cover reproductive health issues. 12. Monitored the program impact during broadcast using listeners’ letters analysis, listeners’ groups diaries, Under the Media Arts project, PMC published a collection of qualitative research (focus group discussions), and the national prize-winning short stories and poems focusing on health facility assessment via client exit interviews in 48 HIV/AIDS and related social issues in 2003 under the title health centers. Yehiwot Tebitawoch (“Drops of Life”). The creative pieces were selected from among 146 short stories and 176 poems submitted 13. Conducted a final evaluation of the programs at the end of the broadcast period. in response to a national competition for the best poems and short stories that address reproductive health and HIV/ 14. Conducted a dissemination workshop on the findings of AIDS issues. Ten thousand copies of this book were published the post intervention survey. and distributed throughout Ethiopia. A second volume of short stories was published in 2004 as a result of a second 15. Published the findings of the evaluation study. nationwide competition. The book, Kinfam Hilmoch (“Winged Dreams”), was also widely distributed. A third book, Wenzoch Eskimolu (“Waiting for the Rivers to Rise”), was published and

85 distributed in 2006. PMC also produced a full-length stage play • Listeners were 2.5 times more likely to discuss issues entitled Yesak Jember (“Laughter at Dusk”), focusing on HIV/ relating to HIV/AIDS than non-listeners; AIDS prevention. The stage play was launched in September 2003, and was attended by former president of Ethiopia Dr. • Listeners were 1.8 times more likely to take measures Negasso Gidada. The play was staged in the capital for 5 to protect themselves from HIV/AIDS infection than non- months, followed by performances in 14 other cities around listeners; Ethiopia. The script was then given to local drama groups for adaptation (Population Media Center – Ethiopia, 2006). • Listeners were 3.2 times more likely to know about voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) than non- The emphasis of the Journalists’ Capacity Building project listeners; and was to enhance the ability of journalists, playwrights and theatre art experts to accurately portray reproductive health • Listeners were 1.4 times more likely to be tested for HIV/ issues. The project had many facets, including a rapid needs AIDS than non-listeners. assessment, a training manual, workshops, a forum on media for development, a resource center for information and This same project involved production of a talk radio program documentation, and a fund to support students and scholars aimed at youth. The program, Alegnta (“Security”), has been who undertake research in the field of reproductive and on the air since October 2005, with phone-ins from audience population communications. members and youth-led panel discussions with experts. The Alegnta project also involves production of print materials for As part of this project, PMC held four training workshops youth on reproductive and sexual health issues. A total of attended by 149 journalists and took nine journalists on a five booklets have been published, with 32,000 copies of each study trip to South Africa. PMC established an information distributed, along with four leaflets of which 40,000 copies of resource center for journalists in Addis Ababa and held two each were distributed. national symposia on news coverage of reproductive health issues, which were attended by over 100 journalists. The Today, many Ethiopians crowd around a single radio set when results from the symposia included 70 print news stories in the PMC radio program starts. It has even been observed major papers and magazines in Ethiopia documenting the that small shopkeepers take time out of their dealings with problems of population, reproductive health, and HIV/AIDS. customers when the episodes are on the air. What better proof In addition, there were 80 radio and television interviews than this is there of the people’s deep interest in the social and panel discussion programs on reproductive health issues problems affecting their communities? The more involvement broadcast throughout the country. PMC presented five and participation there is in such matters, the better is the journalists with awards for their excellent coverage of these future of the Ethiopian society likely to be. issues. 6. IMPLICATIONS OF THE PMC EXPERIENCE FOR In 2005 and 2006, PMC received support from UNICEF, COMMUNICATION PROJECTS ELSEWHERE HAPCO and the Flora L. Thornton Foundation to develop and broadcast a youth-focused radio serialized melodrama to The Sabido methodology could also be used in development motivate young people to adopt positive behaviors regarding communication projects in thematic areas other than HIV/AIDS, reproductive health, and related social issues. reproductive health, family planning, and HIV/AIDS. For The program, Menta Menged (“Crossroads”), was broadcast on example: Radio Ethiopia and FM Addis from March 2005 to March 2007. The evaluation of Menta Menged demonstrated that it had • The prevention and control of malaria using insecticide- significant behavioral effects among listeners. These included treated mosquito nets (ITNs). Millions of people in Africa, the following: Asia and Latin America die from malaria every year. ITNs have been proven to be an effective means of preventing • Listeners were 3.2 times more likely to know about STIs the bites from mosquitoes that cause malaria. Behavior than non-listeners; change communication programs using the Sabido methodology could be very effective in motivating people to use ITNs.

86 • The eradication of harmful traditional practices, such Letters and Real-Life Stories as female genital mutilation (FGM). It is estimated that over 130 million girls and women have undergone the practice, and at least 2 million girls each year are at risk of “Sir, Your drama has demonstrated to me the interdependence of social this practice. It has a devastating effect on the health of problems in our society. These problems are, of course, well known – HIV/ young girls and women, and it affects the physical, mental AIDS, population and lack of family planning. Your drama has made me and social lives of women and girl children. Radio serial feel more determined to work for the well-being of HIV/AIDS patients in my dramas using the Sabido methodology can help to eradicate locality. I have decided to dedicate my efforts in this direction in order to this practice. show the gravity of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Most important of all, I have realized that HIV/AIDS patients require the utmost understanding from • Prevention of violence against women. This is also health personnel. I thank you very much for making me aware of this.” common in many countries. A large number of women Engidayehu Dekeba suffer from gender-based violence. Communication Pharmacy Technician programs can be designed to protect women from all forms Bale, Ethiopia of violence and in particular from gender-based violence. “I admire your drama. I appreciate its educational role. Its messages are • Promotion of oral rehydration salts (ORS). Diarrheal very valuable…I have learned many things from it and have changed my diseases are common causes of morbidity and mortality attitude.” among children in many developing countries. Behavior change communication programs using role modeling Yenegata Alehegne can show mothers and other care givers how to prepare Wukro, Ethiopia and use this life-saving treatment to save the lives of children with diarrheal diseases. “As for HIV/AIDS, the people here believe that it is a problem limited to urban centers, and that it has no relevance to rural areas. Your drama is telling • Promotion of safe motherhood. Maternal morbidity them that this is wrong. I have undergone a change of behavior because of and mortality can be reduced significantly through safe the drama…I encourage you to keep up the good work.” motherhood practices. Communication programs can Lema Tesfaye be effective in promoting safe motherhood and in Arssi, Ethiopia reducing maternal and child morbidity.

REFERENCES

Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia) & ORC Macro (2006). Ethiopian Demographic and Population Media Center – Ethiopia (2001). Assessment of Social Content Radio and TV Health Survey 2005. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Calverton, MD. Programmes in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Ministry of Health (MOH) and National HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Office Population Media Center – Ethiopia (2005). The Effect of Radio Serial Dramas on (2006). AIDS in Ethiopia Sixth Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Reproductive Health Behavior: Key Findings from the Evaluation. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Office of the Prime Minister (1993). National Population Policy of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Population Media Center – Ethiopia (2006). Media and Communication for Social Ethiopia. Development – “Special Issue.” Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

87 CHAPTER 10

Social Merchandising: Contributing to the Empowerment and Autonomy of Communities

Márcio R. Schiavo Comunicarte

88 1. INTRODUCTION Between 1984 and 1985, David Poindexter took the first step in exporting the methodology and organized a training In 1967, Miguel Sabido, then Vice-President of Communications workshop in India taught by Sabido. This led to the production Research of Televisa, the most important television station in and broadcast of the first social-content serial drama in Mexico, proposed the idea that commercial television could be that country. Hum Log (“We People”), addressed themes of used to propagate educational messages, with the of goal of family planning and the promotion of equal rights between stimulating social development. His proposal was based on the the sexes. It was an immediate success, with more than 90 assumption that it is possible to promote social causes on a large percent of Indian families watching. In the second half of scale, without compromising sales potential or the audience the 1980s, the methodology was being promoted in several size expected of a commercial television station. After some countries, namely Kenya, Nigeria, Jamaica, China, Indonesia experimentation, he developed an efficient methodology to and the Philippines. In Brazil, the success of entertainment- transmit teachings and information to the public; including education gave rise to a new strategy: social merchandising, information about the use of the infrastructure, services, which is the focus of this paper. Previously, in the field of and equipment available to the public. The first serial education-entertainment, few productions in Brazil were drama produced by Sabido using the specific aforementioned known. The series O Sitio do Pica-Pau Amarelo (“The Small Farm methodology was Ven Conmigo (“Come With Me”), the success of of the Yellow Woodpecker”) and the soap opera Joãozinho e o Pé which was cemented when thousands of people enrolled into de Feijão (“Little John and the Bean’s Foot”) stand out as shows the Sistema Nacional de Educação de Adultos, (SNEA) or National intended to promote supplementary adult education. System of Education for Adults, as a result of watching the serial drama. 1.2 The Socio-Educational Use of Serial Dramas

In order to optimize the benefits of his methodology, Sabido The use of entertainment in education is not a new idea. A successfully developed a process of production and evaluation playful component to education can be found in practically all for serial dramas with social content. His second work pedagogical methods – and, particularly, in adult education. was called Acompáñame (“Accompany Me”), and had family This playful aspect extends to activities in rural areas, planning as the central theme. Family planning was, at this programs for professional development or literacy, as well as time, an issue surrounded by taboos and misinformation. in “high-tech” courses for executives; in all areas, play and The evaluation of this serial drama demonstrated important entertainment facilitates learning. In mass communication, changes in the sexual and reproductive behavior of the viewers. educational uses are commonly associated with communication There was a particularly noticeable development in the use of campaigns. With the Sabido methodology as a base, combined the family planning services and, consequently, methods of with Sabido’s experiences in producing telenovelas in the contraception. In 1979 two other serial dramas approached this 1970s, the concepts and practices of entertainment-education theme. Vamos Juntos (“Let’s Go Together”) centered on principles were systematized. Entertainment-education was defined as of responsible paternity, demonstrating that married couples “the process through which one inserts educational messages have the right to decide if they want to have children, how in the context of entertainment, with the explicit objective of many children they will have and when they will have them. increasing knowledge about a determined issue, constructing Caminemos (“Let’s Walk”), in turn, approached questions related favorable attitudes, and provoking changes in behavior with to frequent pregnancies, and defended sexual education for regard to the issues or topics addressed (Singhal, 1988). teens and adolescents. The diverse applications of entertainment-education have In 1981, at the International Institute of Communication clearly demonstrated the efficacy of using television and Conference (IICC) in Strasbourg, France, Sabido presented an serial dramas to support communication of socio-educational essay called Theory of Entertainment-Education, which created messages. In essence, due to its broad acceptance and large repercussions among the specialists present. People’s wide coverage, television constitutes the ideal medium for perspectives were opened, and there was demand created implementation of this methodology. for the methodology to be brought to other countries also searching for ways to promote social issues on a grand scale Serial dramas on Latin American television are defined (Sabido, 1981). Research conducted by Rubén Jara, of the by their continuity, frequency of programming on large Mexican Institute of Communication; Lawrence Kincaid, of television networks, and by the process of identification or John Hopkins University; and Arvind Singhal and Maisha distancing from the viewer. The nature of serial dramas, Hazzard, of Ohio University, scientifically demonstrated the therefore, provides excellent opportunities for discussion of efficacy of the methodology developed by Miguel Sabido. At a sensitive issues, as well as permitting the conscious adoption of later point, studies by Everett Rogers, of the Annenberg School behaviors that contribute to bettering quality of life. In Brazil, of Communication of the University of Southern California, this is still true, as high caliber serial dramas (telenovelas) reached similar conclusions (Rogers et al., 1986).

89 are produced and successfully exported to dozens of countries. the characters become agents for expression of opinion and Brazil’s telenovelas are recognized throughout the world. These values. serial dramas often attain viewership of 70 to 80 percent of the total television audience during the times they are on the air. Telenovelas and mini-series are utilized to support the dissemination of socio-cultural innovations to a large The influence that serial dramas exert, or can exert, on the contingent population, maximizing the huge reach and attitudes and behaviors of the typical Brazilian viewer has influence of these dramatic works on the behaviors, been the object of many studies. Maria Tereza Monteiro is the attitudes, and practices of the population and, in particular, director of the Retrato Consultoria, a company which, since of adolescents and youth. The social issues addressed are 1987, has carried out qualitative research on the Brazilian serial relayed to the viewer as an integral part of the plot of the dramas, primarily those produced by the television station TV telenovela or mini-series, appearing linked, in an educational Globo. Monteiro revealed that “watching telenovelas has become and positive format, with the characters and present conflicts a habit that is extremely valued by the female population in in the story. As such, the characters become spokespeople for particular, providing a break in their normal routine, which is the concepts and attitudes that are promoted. The audience afflicted by practically no leisure time. Through this, women associates with the pleasantness, empathy and charisma develop a deep and visceral connection with the serial drama, evoked by the messages, as well as with the fame and the which offers them entertainment, realization of their fantasies, credibility of the actors and actresses that represent them. and up-to-date information and culture.” Social merchandising, therefore, is an excellent strategy for approaching and discussing social themes, with the objective It is unarguable that serial dramas, and television in general, of informing and educating viewers. Whether indicators are excellent media for the diffusion of educational and cultural of impact are the number of people reached, or audience messages to people devoid of informative and educational members’ ability to recall the messages – social merchandising resources. Anthropologist Esther Hamburger defended a theory is a far superior strategy to the traditional strategies of at the University of Chicago, contradicting the old image that information, education, and communication (IEC). Brazilian telenovelas would be instruments that alienate the public. She says that, actually, the telenovelas function like But, social merchandising is not limited to simply raising a chronicle of the nation, propagating the image of a more awareness of social problems. In addition, it emphasizes modern country, and amplifying advanced values for the the options for reaching a solution, indicates strategies for viewers that part from traditionalism. For example, in general, efficient and simple actions to be taken, and illustrates the female characters are strong, financially independent women easy application of the demonstrated actions to the viewers. that have their own sex lives. They have few children and, Another qualitative indicator is the range and nature of the frequently, constitute the head of the nuclear family. issues addressed. Since the beginning of the application of social merchandising, the priority issues have been about 1.3 Telenovelas and Social Merchandising sexuality, reproductive and sexual health, gender relations, paternity and/or responsible maternity. In recent years, It is certain that this modern image does not portray the however, the approach is also being used to raise questions universe of the feminine experience in Brazilian society, still regarding more sensitive issues – issues that society is marked by machismo and sexist preconceptions. However, it becoming more active about – such as the rights of women points to the transformations that have been occurring over and children, child abuse and sexual exploitation, domestic the last decade – valuing the social role of women and, in violence, the quality of life of the elderly, unemployment, many aspects, raising women to a position of equality with and underpaid work, among others. This thematic evolution men. This direct connection with a present or possible reality can be explained by two motives; the first is an intrinsic is one of the basic characteristics of entertainment-education characteristic of social merchandising – its contemporary in Brazil, systemized under the name social merchandising. nature. In order to be effective in the proposed purposes of Social merchandising is also a strategy of directed social generating and maintaining change, social merchandising education with large audiences. Social merchandising consists should be in direct connection with the current realities and of intentional and systematic insertion of educational experiences of the viewers. Secondly, the effectiveness of messages in a telenovela or mini-series; messages addressing social merchandising depends on the degree of acceptance of questions of sexual and reproductive health, family planning, the serial drama; thus, the experiences of the viewers need sexual relations, abortion, drug abuse prevention, and STIs/ to be taken into account. This is accomplished by developing HIV/AIDS, and themes related to biodiversity and sustainable elaborate scenes and/or situations that are close to real-life development. These messages can be inserted into the main situations experienced by the viewers, and by forming scenes plot, or in one of the parallel sub-plots. Thus, the themes can about the issues of most concern to the viewers. interact with numerous stories, compounding moments in the lives of the characters, and doing so in such a way that

90 2. SOCIAL MERCHANDISING: METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS 2.1 Synopsis Analysis

Latin American telenovelas are open dramatic works. When The process begins with the prospective analysis of the serial they begin the broadcast season, only about 20 or 30 episodes drama synopsis – that is, what is the main story, and what are recorded, of a total of 180 or 200. The subsequent episodes are the parallel story lines? There should be a thorough are written and recorded as the drama is being broadcast, in analysis of all aspects of the psychological, socioeconomic, and response to the reactions of the viewers. Because of this, the cultural profiles of the central characters, their occupations public can be considered as a sort of co-author of the story. and primary concerns, the characteristics of the environment Indeed, avid viewers do not watch the telenovelas passively: (urban or rural) in which the story will develop, the settings, they react, suggest potential future paths, change attitudes and and any relevant facts integrated by the writers. demand answers. The broadcasters and the sponsors are always aware of these reactions, as they define the nature of the drama’s 2.2 Study of the Cast, the Characters, the Writers, and Directors reception by the audience. The social merchandising scenes and situations to be inserted therefore cannot be presented as From studying the cast selected for a telenovela or mini-series, predetermined and complete, determined at the beginning of it is possible to foresee some implications for the parallel the work. The social merchandising scenes and situations are story lines. Even though telenovelas present some surprising often pivotal turning points in the story to be told. It is in this situations – mainly in the periods of climax and conclusion characteristic, precisely, that the force of persuasion resides. – the profiles of the actors and main actresses, in general, fit with determined characteristics and/or situations. Therefore, Social merchandising, therefore, must be planned, created and a prudent analysis of the cast is important for the identification developed while the story is unfolding, perfectly integrated of characters who will be appropriate bearers of the socio- into the central plot and the parallel story lines of the serial educational messages to be disseminated. In addition to this, drama. In this way, the unforeseen reactions, situations, it is important to avoid possible incompatibilities between the and opportunities that develop after broadcast of the initial diverse characters, the actors or actresses that will represent episodes of the serial drama can be utilized, and the writers can them, and the messages that will be transmitted by them. continue creating the story – always based in the indicators and Undoubtedly, it is necessary to recognize and take into account reception from the viewers. that each character, each actor or actress, has their own public image, which should be respected in the social merchandising Mini-series follow the same formal structure of the telenovelas, actions. If this is not observed, one runs an elevated risk of but the number of chapters is much smaller (in general, around failure; or (what is worse still) the intended positive insertions 20 episodes). In addition to this difference, when a mini-series could have negative consequences. is initiated, all of the chapters are written and recorded prior to broadcast. Thus, the eventual changes that can occur during Also, one needs to give ample consideration to the writer or the production process do not have as significant a meaning in writers and their history (experience) of writing about the terms of new content development. Therefore, any action of issue(s) to be addressed. social merchandising in mini-series must be determined well before the beginning of production. A mini-series is usually The directors are “second” writers of the drama, and are thus able to about 22.5 hours long, a schedule that is conducive to exhibiting exert tremendous influence over the development of a telenovela scenes with major impact and/or with more sensitive subjects. or mini-series. In some cases, directors are highly motivated Important to note is that when a telenovela or mini-series is and already properly informed regarding the importance of about a particularly notable event or story from history, it is their role as social director, and they assume the position as usually not possible to insert scenes of merchandising (be they main promoter of the socio-educational messages. When such a commercial or social). An example of that is the Brazilian circumstance occurs (which is always very desirable), it creates telenovela, A Escrava Isaur (“The Slave Isaura”), which portrayed a strong synergistic movement that will, in the end, contribute the socio-cultural reality of Brazil in the 19th century, and thus greatly to the final outcomes of the social merchandising efforts. did not include any contemporary situations. In conclusion, it is fundamental to establish partnerships and/or alliances with the writer(s), and the director(s) of the telenovela However, when the telenovela or mini-series treats or mini-series, in order to create conditions conducive to contemporary issues and situations, the inclusion of social obtaining the best results possible. The writers and the directors merchandising scenes, dialogue, or situations follows the same are integral to success, especially if they are truly convinced of methodological structure and phases of execution utilized in the relevance of the social issues in question, and of the resulting commercial merchandising. As such, social merchandising benefits of the social merchandising insertions. This alliance is applied following these major steps outlined in sections 2.1 should be developed through a continuous stream of adequate through 2.4. and appropriate information.

91 2.3 Survey of Opportunities care for water sources through proper trash disposal, and planting cover vegetation on hills and slopes; and The diverse opportunities that the telenovelas or mini-series present by way of inclusion of socio-educational messages have • Adequate accessibility to public spaces for persons with already been identified through the study of the synopsis, physical disabilities. the analysis of the cast and of the characters, and, when possible, through interviews and contact with the writers But, this character would not be a relevant vehicle for messages and directors of the serial drama. Considering the intended about reproductive health. target audience, suggestions should be made concerning the social topics and issues that will be addressed in the drama. If the plot of a soap opera has a boy or girl whose family has In addition, suggestions should be made as to the specific abandoned them, it would be possible to work in the issue of conversations, scenes and situations in which the messages responsible parenting, prevention of unplanned pregnancies, could be relayed in a natural, seamless way, without forcing the rights of infants and adolescents, and the risks of life in a strange situation into the story. Any obtrusive insertions the streets. If a drama has an elderly character, it is possible to would not be well-received by the viewers, rendering useless address the psychological and physical issues associated with any social merchandising actions. As an example, a character aging, the need for elevated self-esteem among the elderly, the who is a gynecologist would be a good spokesperson for problems associated with retirement and having excessive free educational messages associated with the following subjects: time, the respect that should be paid to elderly people, and the need for the elderly to receive care and affection, among other • Reproductive and sexual health, women’s hygiene, onset prominent issues. of sexual activity, the importance of a woman knowing her body; 2.4 Elaboration of Briefings

• The importance of prenatal care and exams, having a At this point, the opportunities for insertion of educational birth attendance present during labor, the value of messages have been defined. As stated above, it is important exclusive breast-feeding; to evaluate thematic as well as situational opportunities, and how to insert issues into the dialogue. It is with this foundation • Prevention of unplanned pregnancies, family planning, that the writer(s) create an opportunity for inserting the social appropriate and continued use of modern contraceptives; merchandising message, recommending ways to introduce the educational messages into the story, including in the dialogues • Prevention of adolescent pregnancy and miscarriage; and in specific scenes. Messages can also appear on the set in physical, psychological and social consequences of teen the background of a scene, such as on a large poster (or other pregnancy, and the possible complications of induced appropriate visual aid). During the briefing it is important to abortion; make sure that all of the information being incorporated is correct and up-to-date, and to ensure that the messages will • The importance of adequate education about sexual not cause any negative reaction among the audience. The orientation within the family and in schools; the values codes of ethics of TV broadcasters and advertisers must also and feelings often associated with sexuality; the be respected. differences between gender and sexuality; and 2.5 Social Merchandising Proposal • Attitudes, behaviors, and protective practices regarding sexual health; and the prevention of sexually transmitted The social merchandising proposal is the response that the infections (STIs), including HIV/AIDS. writer(s) of the serial drama present from the suggestions of actions and scenes that they previously directed. In this But, this same character would not be a credible spokesperson phase, all of the details of the insertions should be verified, as for fighting alcohol or drug addiction. this is the last opportunity for possible alterations, additions, and/or corrections to adapt the scenes or situations to meet As another example, a character who is an architect would the intended socio-educational goals. Following the approval be able to create opportunities to approach issues such as: of the social merchandising proposal, the scenes, situations and dialogues, as well as any other forms of insertion of the • The beautification of urban spaces and improvement of educational messages, will be directed and produced. From the quality of life in cities; that moment on, the promoters of social merchandising do not have any participation in the production; the message is • Appropriate use of public service and urban equipment; delivered exclusively by the technical and creative teams, and the broadcasters. 92 2.6 Actions of Social Merchandising 5) Visual Stimulus Example: In a scene in which a couple is caressing each other, This is the final phase of the construction of social the camera scans the scene and shows a box of condoms on top merchandising, when the actions are actually produced and of the bed-side table. Or, in a street scene, the camera shows a inserted into the serial drama, and the socio-educational street cleaner emptying the garbage cans. messages are recorded and ready to be transmitted. In this phase, as was said, the promoters of social merchandising 6) An Event Inside the Serial Drama are not be able to influence the drama. The actions taken Example: A group of characters from the same neighborhood in this phase, then, are watching and monitoring the serial make a joint effort to clean the streets and plazas. Or, drama to verify that the social merchandising messages have characters living near a factory create a campaign to ensure been incorporated, and to determine if there have been any that the factory does not hire children, and oppose buying negative reactions to these messages among the viewers. To products that were made by child-labor. achieve the desired results and social impact, the messages need to be accepted by the audience – are audience members In general, the combination of several kinds of insertions going to eventually adopt the new behaviors? Are the desired provides the best results. If the same content is transmitted attitudes and practices being disseminated? in two or three different forms, the message is strengthened by reinforcement. Ideally, the time elasped from the approval of the social merchandising proposal to the effective transmission of the 3. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESULTS scenes and messages should be a maximum of 30 days. Since its creation in 1991, Comunicarte has continuously The social merchandising actions or scenes can be incorporated monitoried the serial dramas produced by TV Globo. In into the telenovela or mini-series in multiple ways: the beginning, this work was conducted in partnership with Population Communications International (PCI), then 1) Conceptually driven by David Poindexter, a pioneer in the promotion Example: A young couple talks about their reproductive and of entertainment-education at the international level. At sexual life, analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of using present, Comunicarte is partnering with Population Media the male condom to prevent a possible undesired pregnancy, Center (PMC) to continue the work of monitoring social and arrives at the conclusion that the male condom is a merchandising insertions in TV Globo’s serial dramas. dependable and efficient method, without contraindications and negative side effects, justifying its utilization. From 1991 to 1994, there was relatively little use of social merchandising by TV Globo (an average of 200 to 250 insertions 2) Mentioned in Text yearly), with small variation from year for year. In 1995, Example: One character appears reading an article about drug there was a systematization of the procedures for inserting abuse in a newspaper or magazine. Or, a character attends social merchandising into serial dramas, and a relationship a conference about environmental preservation and the developed between Comunicarte and the directors and other sustainable use of natural resources, highlighting the grave professionals at TV Globo. This led to a substantial increase in future consequences of environmental degradation. the number of social merchandising scenes inserted into TV Globo’s programs, as well as improvement in the quality of the 3) Dialogue insertions. This period marked the intensification and scale- Example: A character appears advising a friend or up of much of the work involved in successfully implementing acquaintance of the importance of women doing self-breast- the method. exams and medical exams for prevention of cervical cancer. Or, two adolescent characters are talking, and one advises the From 1991 to 2007, Comunicarte has contributed input to 72 other to always use the male condom in his sexual relations in of TV Globo’s serial dramas, totalling more than 9,300 hours order to prevent unplanned pregnancies, as well as STIs and of programming. It is estimated that, directly or indirectly, HIV/AIDS. Comunicarte has influenced the insertion of around 6,500 socio-educational scenes or situations, adressing issues as 4) Use fundamental as human rights and the rights of citizens, Example: A worker appears putting on a helmet and protective sexuality, reproductive and sexual health, gender relations, eyeglasses before starting his or her workday. Or, a road the rights of children and adolescents, the rights of the elderly sweeper puts on appropriate pants, gloves, and boots. Or, in and people with disabilities, drug abuse, environmental every scene in which a character is driving a car, they use a preservation, and other issues relating to sustainable safety belt. development. It should be noted that these scenes were not

93 simply limited to raising awareness of problems; but their The chart below illsutrates the number and types of social aim was to offer various solutions, solutions that could be merchandising insertions in TV Globo’s serial dramas from implemented in the everyday lives of people and communities. 1995-2002: Social Merchandising in TV Globo’s Serial Dramas (1995-2002)

Thematic Groups Year Total

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Sexual and Reproductive Health 234 515 513 355 258 47 77 84 2,083 Sexuality 145 196 148 145 80 96 67 116 993 Drug Abuse 30 37 119 143 28 51 29 244 681 Gender Relations* ------47 304 286 42 42 127 848 Social Issues 64 323 232 510 240 344 268 567 2,548

*Until 1996, the thematic group “Gender Relations” was included in the category Social Issues. Included in this group are issues related to fundamental human rights and rights to citizens, especially those that belong to social segments which are excluded or at risk of exclusion from society, such as infants, adolescents and youth; women in all the phases of life; people with some form of physical and/or mental disability; and the elderly. There is emphasis on the following thematic areas: primary and secondary education; literacy; professional development; underpaid work and unemployment; nutrition and nutritional education; public health; environmental sanitation; personal hygiene and hygiene within the home; community, family, and personal relations; environment; quality of life; healthy development; and a culture of peace.

On average, the number of insertions of social merchandising A significant factor in the numberand quality of the insertions during he period from 1995-2002 (894 insertions annually) is the level of awareness of the writer(s) and director(s) of the almost quadrupled compared to the number of annual telenovela or mini-series regarding their social role. Through insertions observed during the period from 1991 to 1995 (200 their positions as social editors, the writer(s) and director(s) to 250 insertions annually). The thematic group of greatest become multiplying agents for the new attitudes, behaviors, and prevalence is “social issues.” However, if “sexuality” and practices to be disseminated. Given the undeniable relevance of “reproductive health” are combined into one category, this the telenovelas and mini-series in the Brazilian socio-cultural category would have the greatest number of insertions (3,076 setting, these professionals act as disseminators of social insertions – or 43 percent of the total of inserted scenes). This innovations to the public. The majority, undoubtably, recognize shows that there is a high level of acceptance of these subjects their position as social editor and assumes the responsibility among the audience. This conjecture would make sense, as in of directing the educational content and delivering it to Brazilian society there is a lot of discussion about issues such the viewers. It is this conscienciousness that produces such as unintended pregnancy, miscarriage, adolescent pregnancy, impressive results. use of contraceptive methods among adolescents, and the complications of induced abortions. The chart below present the number of social merchandising insertions by thematic group into TV Globo’s programs from 2003 to 2006: Social Merchandising in TV Globo’s Serial Dramas (2003 – 2006)

Thematic Groups Year Total

2003 2004 2005 2006

Sexual and Reproductive Health 208 73 277 131 689

Sexuality 159 91 544 394 1.188

Drug Abuse 129 28 63 84 304

Gender Relations 257 199 135 75 666

Social Issues 601 617 532 464 2,214

Total 1,354 1,008 1,551 1,148 5,061

94 In more recent years, the most prevalent thematic group evaluation of reality, one that is different than that commonly continues to be “social issues.” “Sexuality” and “sexual and referenced by viewers. This re-evaluation is followed by reproductive health” also continue to have high numbers. the identification of alternative paths of social action. One surprise during this period is that the total number of Social merchandising is, therefore, a strategy for replacing insertions about “gender relations” was higher than ever misconceptions, and using communications as an instrument before observed in 2003, when the topic was the second most for articulating social arguments and popular demands. Below prominent subject (with 257 insertions). This was a result are some of particurlarly poignant real examples of how social of the broadcast of serial dramas that offered countless merchandising has been used in this way: opportunities to address gender relations – an opportunity that was seized by the social merchandising promoters and the • A campaign for prevention of cervical and breast cancer professionals at TV Globo. was developed in the drama História de Amor (“History of Love”) (Manoel Carlos, 1995). In the drama, the main In 2007, the thematic groups were changed slightly to reflect character is a woman who develops breast cancer. It starts differing topical concerns. The number of insertions per with the discovery of a small lump in her breast. Then thematic group for 2007 is presented in the table below: she receives the diagnosis and follows initial treatment. Finally, she undergoes surgery to remove the tumor, and Social Merchandising in TV Globo’s Serial Dramas (2007) eventually recovers. The program highlights the physical and psychological recovery, and the need for support Thematic Groups 2007 from family and friends. The drama emphasized the importance of self-breast examinations and regular and Citizenship and Human Rights 87 frequent visits to a gynecologist as preventive measures against breast cancer. Culture and Identity 6 • In the same program in 1995, the Minister of Sports at Sustainable Development and the Environment 28 the time, Edson Arantes do Nascimento, fought against Education, Science and Human Development 85 the judgment and exclusion experienced by people with disabilities in Brazil. In the program, the Minister also Health Care and Quality of Life 175 announced measures to improve the quality of life for people with disabilities, including involving people with Sexuality and Affective Relationships 75 disabilties in sports activities.

Values, Principles and Human Relationships 343 • One of the sub-plots in Explode Coração (“Exploding Heart”) (Gloria Peres, 1996) addressed the issue of missing children. Total 799 In this story line, the social merchandising scenes led to the printing of photographs of missing children on Beginning in 2008, Comunicarte’s scope of work with TV Globo thousands of cigarette packs, shoe boxes, gas bottles, was limited to tracking and monitoring the inclusion of social match boxes and many other common items. This real- health themes in their telenovelas. life social mobilization resulted in numerous reunions between parents and their children, many of whom had 4. REMAINING FACTS been missing for years. This result was heralded by TIME Magazine (February 2, 1997) as being incredibly effective: Social merchandising is a product of mass culture, as seen “By the end of the program, more than 75 children were through the documentation of TV Globo’s use of social returned to their parents as a result of this effective insertions in their serial dramas. Social merchandising campaign.” capitalizes on the huge potential for television serial dramas to be used to mobilize large audiences, captivating them for long • The appearance in a scene of O Rei do Gado (“King of the periods. Thus, social merchandising is a methodology that Cattle”) (Benedict Ruy Barbosa, 1997) of real-life Senators maximizes the impact of television and its most important Eduardo Suplicy and Benedita Da Silva (affiliated with the cultural product, the serial drama. As such, an aspect of Workers Party, which at the time was the main opposition social merchandising is inserting reality into fantasy, leading party and which today is the ruling party) as themselves the viewers in a state of “realisia,” that motivates them to at the burial of the soap opera character Senator Caxias, reconsider their routine reality, without abandoning their (Senator Caxias’ character was a defender of agrarian dreams. Social merchandising constitutes a departure from reform, and the presence of the real senators, also the normal structure of television as fiction. It provides a re- promoters of the cause, strengthened this message.

95 • The insertion of content against sexual exploitation of chil- daily life. The success of social merchandising illustrates that dren and youth was developed in the telenovela A Indomada the public wants to see the media, and television in particular, (“The Untamed”) (Aguinaldo Silva and Ricardo Linhares, articulating some of the demands of the public, spreading 1997-98). This telenovela denounced the mistreatment of socio-cultural innovations, and provoking executive action poor people and blacks, as well as critiquing machismo and within the government. In addition to addressing various corruption in Brazil. The critical point in the drama oc- social problems, social merchandising allows brainstorming curred when an adolescent girl was being initiated into about solutions to the problems experienced by disempowered prostitution. There was a competition to choose who would and empoverished communities. Through increasing have the luxury of being the girl’s first “customer.” The in- empowerment and mobilization of communities, action will clusion of this scene prompted immediate briefings regard- inevitably follow. ing the sexual exploitation of children and adolescents. The briefings that resulted from this socio-educational message 5. IMPACT ON KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, AND PRACTICES were a decisive development, so the writers took the plot along another route, completely divergent from the intend- There is evidence that serial dramas are indeed capable of ed one. The adolescent character, about to be initiated in modifying – or even creating – new habits among viewers. For prostitution, was instead adopted by a wealthy family from example, the use of selected linguistic expressions, sales of the the region and immediately registered in school. This excit- sound tracks from the serial dramas, and the popularity of the ing shift in the plot received formal recognition from the actors’ hair cuts, among others, indicate that serial dramas National Campaign For the End of Violence, Sexual Tour- are efficient and effective instruments to create new habits ism and Exploitation Against Children and Adolescents. and generate product sales. The drama also received praise from various other organi- zations defending children’s rights, both nationally and in- It is observed that there are numerous similarities between the ternationally. current sexual and reproductive attitudes and behaviors of the majority of the population, and those attitudes and behaviors • On another occasion, the target of action was child labor. that have been promoted in TV Globo’s serial dramas over the In the agricultural areas of Brazil, the exploitation of child last two decades. Because of this, the Nucleus of Population labor is endemic. To eradicate this practice is, without a Studies at the University of Campinas (UNICAMP), one of the doubt, a main challenge for all concerned about the rights most highly respected universities in the country, considers of Brazilian children and adolescents. Thus, in a scene serial dramas to be the main factor behind declining birth of the reopening of a plantation, the protagonist in the rates in Brazil. In fact, in less than 20 years, the total fertility telenovela makes a statement against the exploitation of rate in Brazil fell from 6.4 children per woman to less than 2.7 children, committing “not to grind the sugarcane that was children per woman, a reduction unparalleled in the world. harvested by children.” It attempted, in this way, to give an This phenomenon is more surprising still because Brazil has example for the other plantation owners of the region to never had a national family planning program. According follow, creating real-life change. This important work was to many specialists, the Brazilian serial dramas modeled formally recognized by the Coordinator of the Program for the benefits of a small family, stimulating couples to use Eradication of Child Work (PETI) and by the the Ministry of contraceptives; thus reducing the fertility rate nationwide. the Providence and Social Assistance (MPAS) of Brazil. From September 2006 to March 2007 TV Globo broadcast the • The question of the child labor was also present in Meu Bem highly popular program Paginas da Vida (“Pages of Life”). The Querer (“My Greatest Desire”) (Ricardo Linhares, 1998). The plot of Paginas da Vida was designed around several intersecting writer identified simple and viable solutions to address story lines and addressed various issues such as family the problem, specfically through a program that provides planning and Down syndrome. families with a basket full of basic staples monthly, keeps children in school, and monitors workplaces to ensure The story begins with a young student named Nanda who that children are not working as employees. The writer becomes pregnant at a young age by an irresponsible man who also showed that, through education, children can be eventually disappears. Unfortunately, Nanda dies during the instrumental in bettering their futures, get better jobs, and birth of her twin daughters and her mother refuses to take break the vicious cycle of poverty. the girl who is diagnosed with Down syndrome. Longing to be a mother, Nanda’s obstetrician, Dr. Helena, adopts Clara, These, and other similar situations, are becoming ever more the child with Down syndrome. She treats Clara well, and recurrent in Brazilian serial dramas. They transform fiction through their encounters with others who stigmatize people and fantasy into socially productive actions. In this way, with Down syndrome, they raise an ongoing debate on the social merchandising ssues are translated into real actions in treatment of those with disabilities.

96 At the conclusion of this particular program, multiple It cannot be denied, however, that many of the motivations quantitative and qualitative studies assessed the impact of and changes in behavior that we see today, and have been Paginas da Vida. seeing for two decades, were first disseminated to the more than 55 million viewers (most of them women) of the serial Some highlights of these results include: dramas produced by TV Globo, each episode supporting the • 60% of women interviewed watched Paginas da Vida on a diffusion of sociocultural innovations. regular basis. Because of their format and seductive language, as well • 65.4% of female viewers interviewed said they would be as the degree to which the content reflects modern life, “more careful” to prevent unwanted pregnancy. the telenovelas constitute an excellent vehicle for the dissemination of model behaviors, attitudes and positive • Among viewers interviewed at BEMFAM family planning practices, particularly to people lacking information and clinics, 60% of clients age 18-24 said that scenes in educational resources. In Brazil, many population groups Paginas da Vida served as a stimulus for them to seek a live in agricultural areas or at the peripheries of urban health service. centers. Comunicarte/PMC-Brazil recognizes its contribution to the social modernization of the Brazilian population, • There was more than a 50% increase in knowledge among particularly among groups and communities that have been women interviewed with regard to various reproductive excluded, or are at risk of exclusion. João Robert Marinho, health issues such as: contraceptive methods, family Vice-President of TV Globo, recently affirmed, “If we are planning, maternal health, maternity/paternity, able to integrate the information and emotion brought by unwanted pregnancy, adolescent pregnancy, and HIV/ the media, with the educational content demanded by our AIDS. population, we would be capable of constructing, from who we are, who we want to be.” The Brazilian government has formally acknowledged the power of social merchandising, stating, “The telenovela is the Social merchandising has been demonstrated to be an strongest audiovisual tool of the country and can be used as a weapon efficient and effective strategy to accelerate such integration to educate the current population. It is a source of information and because entertainment.” • it makes the diffusion of informative, educational, and 6. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS motivational messages possible, reaching a large audience simultaneously, accomplishing a broad reach unequaled It is widely accepted that a decline in fertility rates is the by any other medium; interaction of various factors, such as: • it reaches viewers during moments of privacy, leisure, • Increase in life expectancy; and concentration, encouraging the absorption of new educational messages, without losing the enjoyable aspects • Reduction of infant and neonatal mortality; of their preferred programming;

• Urbanization; • it legitimizes pertinent issues and social matters, as they are an integral part of the plot and the themes of the • Widespread education of women; telenovelas and mini-series;

• Increasing numbers of women becoming professionals • it causes the viewing public to reflect on the issue at hand, and entering the work force (a factor that, in turn, tends and facilitates introspection regarding the concepts, to delay marriage and, consequently, delays first attitudes, and behaviors; pregnancy and lowers the total fertility rate); • it is capable of creating social movements and community • Increase in family income; and mobilization in defense of human rights, or in search of common objectives that are of public interest, involving • Access to family planning services and consistent use of the participation of different social actors; effective contraceptive methods.

97 • it promotes a socio-educational message of national pride. the quality of life and well-being of populations throughout In many other countries where TV Globo’s serial dramas the world. Through social merchandising, educational are shown, there is involvement of writers, directors, messages can be seen daily by millions and millions of people. theatrical designers, actors, and technicians, in addition Social merchandising is not a model that can only be used in to the directors of the broadcasting house. Brazil or in serial dramas produced by TV Globo. In contrast, the social merchandising methodology can be used by any All these factors represent important achievements that will, broadcaster in any country that can make use of its structure without a doubt, affect the future productions of television for the production of telenovelas or mini-series. broadcasters. The inclusion of social issues and educational messages in the plots of serial dramas also provokes attention The social merchandising techniques employed in TV Globo’s in news articles, periodicals, and magazines. This multiplies serial dramas can be used to spread socio-cultural innovations the messages received by the public, extending the reach among other nations with similar levels of development globally, and stimulating similar initiatives, with similar and similar social problems to the ones Brazil faces. Social educational and preventive objectives. Since 1997, the issues merchandising represents, therefore, a unique strategy addressed through social merchandising have garnered to implement - with efficiency and effectiveness –one of national and international attention. It is thus not by chance the recommendations of the International Conference on that the Brazilian serial dramas have been exported for Population and Development in Cairo in 1994, using the media broadcast in 55 countries around the world. for education and social transformation. The Cairo Plan of Action states that “Governments, NGOs, and the private The work of Comunicarte/PMC-Brazil is clearly having an sector should make greater and more effective use of the impact in many countries beyond Brazil. In fact, some affirm entertainment media, including radio and television soap that social merchandising may actually be the most efficient operas and drama, folk theatre and other traditional media current application of entertainment-education. It is a toe encourage public discussion of important but sometimes powerful instrument for social education, and for improving sensitive topics related to the present programme of action” (UN Population Information Network, 1994).

REFERENCES

Rogers, E.M., et al. (1986). Soap Operas for Development. Singhal, A. (1988). Entertainment Telenovelas for Development. Journal of Communication. 35: 24-35. Newbury Park: Sage.

Sabido, Miguel. 1981. Towards the social use of commercial television: Mexico’s United Nations Population Information Network (1994). UN Population Division, experience with the reinforcement of social values through TV soap operas. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, with support from the UN Population Paper presented at the annual conference of the International Institute of Fund. 30 September 1994. Report of the International Confernence on Population and Communications (Strasbourg, France). Institute for Communications Research, Development, Cairo, September 1994. Section 11.23. A.C. (Mexico City, Mexico).

98 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Kriss Barker is Vice President for International Programs Albert Bandura is David Starr Jordan Professor of Social at Population Media Center (PMC). She has over 25 years Science in Psychology at Stanford University. Dr. Bandura of experience in health development, specifically in developed Social Learning Theory, which postulates that information, education and communication (IEC), behavior people acquire attitudes, values, and styles of behavior change communication (BCC), operations research (OR), through social modeling. This theory emphasizes people’s and monitoring and evaluation. In her nine years at potential to influence the course their lives take and to PMC, Ms. Barker has trained numerous media and health change it for the better. He also developed Social Cognitive communication professionals in the Sabido methodology for Theory, which stipulates that people need self-efficacy in behavior change communication using the mass media. She order to change behavior. His book, Self Efficacy: The Exercise of oversees management of PMC programs worldwide. Ms. Barker Control, provides the principles of how to enable people for has authored several papers on the Sabido methodology, personal and social change. He was elected to the presidency including manuscripts, journal articles and chapters in edited of the American Psychological Association and the Western textbooks. She is considered an expert on application of the Psychological Association, honorary presidency of the Sabido methodology for behavior change. She holds a B.A. in Canadian Psychological Association, and to membership in Human Biology with Honors from Stanford University, and an the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Institute M.P.H. from the Tulane School of Public Health and Tropical of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences. He is the Medicine, with a specialization in International Health and recipient of 17 honorary degrees. Family Planning. Earl Babbie graduated from Harvard University, and received Miguel Sabido is known as the “father of entertainment- his Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley. He began education.” He is a professional director, playwright, producer teaching shortly thereafter. Credited with defining research and at the same time a communication theoretician. He is methods for the social sciences, Dr. Babbie has written several the creator and writer of the Theory of the Tone in Human texts, including The Practice of Social Research, which has been Communications. He was Vice President of Evaluation and the best-selling textbook for social research methods since Research for Televisa Network for over 20 years. Presently he 1975. His books have been translated into several languages, is an international consultant for entertainment-education and when he addressed the first conference of the Chinese projects around the world. He is the CEO of a production Survey Research Association in Shanghai in 2010, his hosts company for entertainment-education projects. He is in the proclaimed, “In mainland China, all the teachers engaged in process of developing and producing an entertainment- research methods field in colleges and universities are your education telenovela for the Hispanic community of the students.” United States. He has published several papers and books. He graduated from the National Autonomous University of Peter Vaughan is a research consultant who since 1995 has Mexico (UNAM), and holds an honorary doctorate from the worked extensively with Rare, a biodiversity conservation University of Monterrey, Mexico. Sabido was awarded the nongovernmental organization based in Arlington, VA. Rare 2006 Everett Rogers Award from the Annenberg School for uses entertainment-education and social marketing programs Communication at the University of Southern California. to motivate behavioral changes that promote biodiversity conservation throughout the developing world. Dr. Vaughan David Poindexter is Honorary Chair of Population Media graduated with an A.B. in biology from Dartmouth College, and Center. He founded Population Communications International then spent two years as a Peace Corps volunteer in the Solomon in 1985 and served as its President and Chief Executive until Islands, where he helped to establish a nesting sanctuary his retirement in 1998. From 1970 to 1984 he directed the for the endangered hawksbill turtle. He completed his Ph.D. Communication Center of the Population Institute. His B.A. at the University of Minnesota in Ecology and Behavioral is from Willamette University. He holds two graduate degrees Biology. Following graduate school, he has combined his dual from Boston University. Currently, he undertakes overseas interests in conservation and human population growth assignments in population mass media from time to time. with experience in both academic and applied institutions. Poindexter was honored as the 2008 recipient of the Everett He taught for ten years at Macalester College, where he had Rogers Award from the Norman Lear Center at the University a joint appointment in Biology and Environmental Studies, of Southern California, Annenberg School of Communication. and has been a research associate at the University of New

99 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Mexico. His other consultancies have included Population before founding Population Media Center. As a graduate Communications International, an NGO based in New student, he was Founder and first Chairperson of the Yale York, and Ohio University, for whom he has designed and Chapter of Zero Population Growth (ZPG). He also served on implemented research on entertainment-education radio and the Executive Committee of ZPG, as Eastern Vice President and television programs in both Africa and Asia that have dealt Secretary of the national organization. Mr. Ryerson is listed in with family planning promotion, HIV/AIDS prevention, and several editions of Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America biodiversity conservation. and Who’s Who in the East. In 2006, he was awarded the Nafis Sadik Prize for Courage from the Rotarian Action Group on Arvind Singhal is the Samuel Shirley and Edna Holt Marston Population and Development. Endowed Professor, and Director, Social Justice Initiative, Department of Communication, University of Texas at El Negussie Teffera is Population Media Center’s Country Paso. Singhal is also appointed as the William J. Clinton Representative in Ethiopia. A former Director of the National Distinguished Fellow in the Clinton School of Public Service, Office of Population, he wrote the country’s population policy Little Rock, Arkansas. Dr. Singhal is a noted researcher on the and oversaw its adoption and implementation. Dr. Teffera effects of entertainment-education programs. He is co-author holds a Ph.D. in communication from the University of Wales, of Entertainment-Education: A Communication Strategy for Social Cardiff, and has extensive experience in radio production. He Change (Routledge, 1999), Combating AIDS: Communication Strategies is author of Communication for Social Development: An Overview and in Action (Sage, 2003), and co-editor of Entertainment Education: the Ethiopian Experience. History, Research, and Practice (Routledge, 2004). Marcio Schiavo is a Professor in Social Communication at William Ryerson is founder and President of Population Media Universidade Gama Filho (UGF), Rio de Janeiro. He is also Center (PMC). Mr. Ryerson has four decades of experience coordinator of the MBA program at the University for Social working in the field of reproductive health, including two and Cultural Management (UCAM), which is dedicated to the decades adapting the Sabido methodology for behavior change field of communication for sustainable human development. communications to various cultural settings worldwide. He He has over 30 years of national and international experience has also been involved in the design of research to measure the in social programs. His professional experience encompasses effects of such projects in a number of countries, one of which the design, planning and coordination of social projects; led to a series of publications regarding a serialized radio information, education, and communication; human resource drama in Tanzania and its effects on HIV/AIDS avoidance and training; strategic management; and the supervision and family planning use. He received a B.A. in Biology (Magna evaluation of social projects. He currently serves as Chief Cum Laude) from Amherst College and an M.Phil. in Biology Executive Officer and Director of Comunicarte (Cultural and from Yale University (with specialization in Ecology and Social Marketing) and is Population Media Center’s country Evolution). He served as Director of the Population Institute’s representative to Brazil. He is also president of Genera - Youth and Student Division, Development Director of Planned Social Intelligence, the director of ANDI and a counselor at Parenthood Southeastern Pennsylvania, Associate Director of ABRINQ. He is a specialist in social marketing holds a Ph.D. in Planned Parenthood of Northern New England and Executive Communication for Development. Vice President of Population Communications International

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