Appendix 1
1.1 S.N.D.T. University Department of Sociology
M.A. Part I & II • Some Core and Seminar Courses
'•« Reflections on Classical Sociologists - Marx, Durkhelm and Weber : Paper No,£ Ob.iectlves 1, . To acquaint the students with the soolal thought of the three classical thinl^ers against the background of the new social economic order inaugurated by the Industrial Revolution. 2, To assess the relevance of their thought to contenrporary times and to the Indian situation. 3, To acquaint thera with the near-perennial issue of structure versus agency or deterrslnisn with voluntarisn.
I. Industrial society in Qiglaiid, Germany and Frrnce in the Nineteenth Century t 1. Idea of Progress 2. Ideology of free competition and the operation of the Market Forces * 3. Ideology of Laissez-Faire state II. Karl Marx : 18I8-1883 A. Brief Biographical Sketch Influence of Saint Simon and Fuerbach B. Dialectical and Historical Materialism 1. Man-Nature Relationship 2, The production system and exploitation, nodes of production, slavery, fuedalism, capitrlisa, comciunism,. asiatic mode • 3. Classes, class conflict, class conscionsness, class ir itself, class for itself". W. Base and Superstructure 5. Alienation C. Marxist writings on Indian Society D. Religion and False Consciousness E. Theory of State 1. Ruling Class £Uid the State 2. Theoiy of Revolution 3. Withering Away of the state F. Marxist Method.
1.3 III. Einile Durkheim A. Brief Biographical 3cetch Influence of Saint Sinon and Coate B. Concerns with Social Solidarity and /jionie 1. Division of Labour - (a) iMechanlcal Solidaritiy (b) Organic Solidarity 2". Religion as an integrating force role of fanlly and moral education alternative to the state. C. Suicide: Egoistic, Altruistic and Anonic D. Rules of Sociological Method 1. Concepts of Social Facts and their objective existence ?. External Constraints of Social Facts, IV. Max Weber : 1858-1920 A. Brief Biographical Sketch : Influence of Dilthey and Rickert B. Social Action t. Types of Social Action (a) Rational Legal (b) Traditional (c) Affective 2. Econonic Action - Detemined, Relevant and Conditional C. Capitalist Society - Nationality and Efficiency 1. Spirit of Capitalism, Influence of Protestant Etiiics 2, Bureaucracy - legal rational action D. World Religions, China, India and Judaisn, Development and Non-Developraent of Capitalisn E. Notion of Power a, Leadership/Authority and its legitinacy (a) Rational Legal (b) Traditional (c) Charisma F. Methodological Issues 1. Interpretative Sociology: Verstehen 2. Values in Social Sciences 3. Ideal Types 7, Comparison and Evaluation i) Inpact on Indian thought ii) Differences in methodological approaches.
1 .4 Prescribed Texts :
Eottonore and Rubel, Selected -writings cf Karl Marx or. Sociology and occial Philosophy. Emile Durkhein Rules of Sociological Method Max \Veber, The Protestant Ethic and tho Spirit of Capitallsn. Steven Lucks, Ehlle Durkhein y Lefelve, The Sociology of Karl Marx V Lcfebre, The Sociology of Max Weber A. Giddens, Capitalism and Modern Social Theory - /ji /xialysls of Marx, Durkhein and Weber, Caabrldge, Canbridge University Press, 1971. R. Aron, Main Currents in Sociological Thought, Vol.1, Vol.2, Hamondswcrth, Penguin, I968. I. Zeltlin. Ideology and the Development of SociologioeJ Theories, Delhi Prentic Hall, 1958, H. Ckarth, md C. Wright Mills, From Maz Weber. ZistO's in Sociologj', New York ?ree Press, 1958. peter Hamilton (ed) Hnlle Durichein, Critical iisse.is.iants, Vcl.1 to Vol.V, 1990, London, Ibutiedge and Kegjj; Pa"ul Susan Heeknan Max Weber and Contemporary Social i:)v:iory, University of Notre Dane, 1983.
David HcGLellan, KBXI Marx Life and Thought, Haracndsworth, Penguin. Robert Jessop (ed) Karl Marx's Social and Political -bought. Critical Assessi-Tonts, Vol.1 to IV, London, Routledt,e and Kegan Paul.
1 .5 INDI.JJ 5QCIETY i SXRUCTURS ;JTO CIi/J-!GE PAPER r-9j, F
Introductlcn ;
1. Thi pc'.per 'Sociology of Indian Society' will be a seninar pap'^r. Wa have divided this paper into five broad thcues and evary stydent will write five papers on uho topics finalised fron each of these five ther.os, 2. The five thunes will introduce the students ts the varied ways in wliich Indian Society has been perceived by various sociologists ajid the different schools of thought. It will also draw their attention to th-3 specific ways in which certain social processes have becor.e significant in our country and l:ava and are now major issuts cf discussion and debate as well as tcnsior. and conflict.
3. This course will be tal^en by the entirti faculcy of z:v~ department. Teaching rf each of those thvj-.nes rnd sub-topics in each theme will be divided between the faculty mejubers. The goal is to iritrcducc the students to the thene, the various approaches' and the oontemporar/ thinking on this theme. The students will be asked to choose one of the topics to write a paper. As v.lll be noted below, these topics have been chosen in terns of conteir.-.orary interest and availability of reading materi?! in Gu^arati ond Marathi.' k. The first two papers will bo submitted at tliu end of th^; first term and the last three during the second tern. 5. The topics have been selected in terms of con temper ar:,' sigiiificanee not only in context to an vll India perspective but also in context to the trends in naharashtra rind Gu;iarat, IV. Tribes in India 1. Problem of Definition and distinction bet\,«9n Central and North Eastern Tribes 2. Tribal Political Economy 3. Tribal religion >+. Ecology, environment, and the tribes 5. Tribal raovenents V. Ethnicity and Religion in India A. Theories of Etlmicity 1. Ethnic groups in India 2. Language identities in India 3. Punjab, Assara, Kashnir, iUi Ethnic ProbJon? . 3. Religion in India .. Hinduisir. 2. Contemporary developments - Re\-lvalisri, Funda'nentalism and CctnnunalisLi 3. Religious novenents
Tories I'or various themes s Theme I To do a bibliography on each of the themes and give abstract of important books as specified by the teacher. Thene II 1. Dalit Libvement 2. Reservation and 3.C, Reservation and S.T. 3. The aebato on Kardal h. Politics of Sugar Cooperatives 5. Milk Co-operatives and the poor Theme m 1. Housing arid the urban poor - The probleu of land 2. Urban Lajid ceiling Act 3. Informal S'3ctor and Women ^. Agrarian Syndicalism : Snetkari Sanghatana or Tikalth's Striii^gle 5. Peasant r^ovenent, agrarian radicalism, Naxolites Theme IV 1. Jharkhand movsment 2. Forest produce and its movements e.g. tunclu leaves hcsci co-operatives 3. Displacement and Development - Narnada D-m or Indrai-uri. river dam controversy ^. Tribal protest ii-, the Dangs or th^.t in Chpx.drcpur, 1 .8 Thepe y 1, Bhiwandi riots or /ianedabad riots 2, The Ran Jarunabhooni Issue 3, Ihe Assam problon h. The Kashmir problem 5. The Punjab problem It is expected that fllnS'on, those topics will also bo shown. Prescribed Texts : 1. C.H. PhUlips : Unity jlnd Diversity 2. Rankrishna Mukherjeo : "Sociology of Indian Sociology" • iailvid Publisher 1979. 3. Yccndra Singh » "Indian Sociology" -Vistaar .Publication, Now Delhi 1986. W. Dlpcnkar Gupta '' s "Readings In SocialStratification" Oxford University Press. '5. /jidro Beteille I "Studios In i'igraricn Society" 6. P.C. Joshi I Land Reforms in India 7. L. Dumont J Hon» flierchicus 8. , C.V. Hoimijndarf :,.Ir;J.bo9 jjlji India 9. M.S.A. Rao' : Urbanization in India, Criont Longman, New Delhi 1979 1C. M.S.A, Rao : "Scae ccncoptual Issues in tho study of caste class rjid ethnicity and dominance" In Dominance and State Power in Modern India Vol.1 - Oxford University press 1989 11. T.K, Madan : Religion In India. 12. Economic and Politi- : "Caste and Class" cal Weekly Special Issue 1979.
Suggested Readings . 1. Iravati KaiT/'O : "Hindu Society" - an interprctatic" /v£j^rt~ H-r+vir ^C^QTJ Doccan Ctollego Poena 19°1. 2. Stephen Fuchs I "The Abasigional Tribvs in India" Mac!4illan India Delhi 1973. 3. G.R. Madan : India's Developing Villagv'S Print Ho'ose, Luckncw k, Rajani Kothari J "Caste and Indian Politics".
1 .9 Suggested Journal
1. Econor.ic arl Political Weekly 2. Contribution to Indian Sociology 3. Rur;J. inclia
^. Sociological Bulletin
Prescribed ReadlnjTs
1. Rankrishna Mukherjee : ."Sociology of Indian Sociology
Yosendra Singh : Allied Publisher Priva-oe Ltd.1979 Indian Sociology VistaaT Publication, New Dulhi 19B6
2, Dipanxar GuT)ta : "Readirgr. in Social Stratification" Oxford University Press 1991. C.H. Phillips s Unity and Diversity
^. Andre Eatefia : "Studies in Agrarlar. Society" 5. P.C. ^osb-i ! Land Reforrns in India 6. L. Dunount : Mono ''crarchleus . 7. C.V. Ifl.:.ier.dart : Tribes in India 8. M.S.A. Rao : Urbanization in India Orient Lonsmcn, i:ev; Dellii 197'+. 9. M.C.A. Rao : "SoEie conceptual Issuui in the Study of ee.cte Glass raid Ethnicicy ar. dominance" In "Doninance ai-.d Stat-a Power in Modem India" Vol.1 Oxford UniVbr:.itv Pross, Delhi 1969. 10. T.N. Madan : Religion in India
11. jicononic & Political' : ""Casto .>nd Class" special issue V.vt, W-.'. ekly
1.10 Paper No.11 Woraen, Society and Culture. I, Different Perspcictivcs on ufendt^rlriK of goclal Relations : A. Prevailing Iheories : liberal, Marxist, Radicsl, Socialist - Feminist B. Teols of j*jialysis (a) Sax and Gender (b) Gender division of Labour •(c) Production an-d Reproduction (Use value and exchange value; house wortj and wage wori^.) II, Farily. Kinship, Caste and Vtonen A. Principles of Kinship and fanily in Lndla 1. Patrilineal - patrilocal fanily 2. Matriiineal Fninily Systcn Nalrs, Khasi, changes t' „ _rds patriai'ctiy 3. Fanily types in India, joint and/or extended, nuclear h. Marriages in Ir^dia, traditional oodem, second marriages, contract narriages, 5. Single Vfoni-Jn, Wldov.-cdTrorce,-d^atitute-deserted, un::iarried, prostitute, III, Chrjiging India i State-'PIanninf^ and Gender A. Theories and Models of Development 3. Indian Planning Model'" C, 5 Year Blans j Critical Appraisal D, " Indicators of Dovelopnent. 1. House-hold as a unit of aJialysis; Honcgeneity and hetreogolnty in the household; coooperation and conflict; Access to (a) food (b) health • care* and mltrition (c) education (d) labour (e) housing, land and other assets; female headed households. 2. The Missing Gender Diaenslons • a. C-ender and statistical syotems (i) visibility of women, definition UT" -..'ork, census, NSS, Sex ratio (ii) culture, quality of life, process of anpowerinc and disenpowering.
1.11 IV. Inpact of Devaloprient on Women Forces of (l) Urbanisation (2) Industrialisation and Technology A, In vori^ : displacenent, marginalisation oxploitaticn: niustrntions fron different sectors - agricu3.t-urc and allied activities; greei} revolution; wliito ra,volution; nanufacturing; services; 'wonen prone' industries and chi3.ci labour. B, Ehvlronniont ; Vtoaan's access to water, food, fuel wood and,fodder; environn^ntal degeneration - rural and urbazi - pollution problems; sanitation; ortvlronment and health, C, On Social Relations i IncT-. ling violence on woaan i) Forns of violence dowry deaths, wife beating, nolestation, rf>pe. sexual harassnent, child abuse, incest, sexual troXficking of WOL!On ' ii) Foi-ius of redress Legal'proviaions; enforceoent'nachlnery of the state • iii) perspectives on violence criminology vs. victimology; different appror.ches - liberal, Gandhian, radical, socialist feninist, V. DoDlnant Spci;:!. Sustitutions 4« gduc->.tion and Media 1. Perfomcxice of female students at different levels in the educational structure. 2. Sexlsin, in text books ?\nd class roons 3. State's Measures for reducing gender gap in education; a critique of non-formal education; total literacy programnes, \. Gender storoctyping jin print, a.v., t,v,, I'llnsand advertising;"indocGnt potrayal of women; pornography 5. Attenpted alternatives; posters, a.v. video, print, P.C. joshi CoriTiittee Reconm&ndations.
1.12 B, Health Care Systen > 1, Bias in Health Care system 2, Wonen's proneness to specific disseases, aiieaeia, aalnutrition diabetes, gynaecological problems, specific type of cancer (cervical and breast), excessive child bearlilB, 3, Bias in Family Planning progranmes, unsafe contracoptivci inadeq'uato follow up, forced abortions, C. Ihe Cultural and Religions Structures j 1. Interrelationship between ciilture and religion 2. Wonen as ropositariea of cultural practices and religious traditions, 3. Personal laws and civil code; Shahbano Oaso, Syrian CiXj-Stian law, Sdti, Hindu code bill. V. Customary law and tribal women 5. Religion for V\bmen;, religion against women D, The LeRal structure 1'. Conceptual Biases v/sdjperational Biases 2. Constitution of India - vu^^cle 1^, 1? v/s-.Personal Laws 3. Criminal Laws , ; h. Labour Laws 5. Gender sensitisation of judiciary 6. Limits of Law 7. .Public Interest Litigation, Judicial Activism 8. Legal Literacy E. The Political Institutions and processed .1. Political Participation . (a) Voter and Candidate (b) Mass movements, tracie union-, middle class(consumer movement), women's organisation union(SEr^A), Women's autonomous grov5)S, women's moveme^jt, ecological movements,' 2. Women in the administration - IAS, IPS, IPS, Judges, b\ireaucrats 3. Women in Elite groups U-. Gender and Decision-making 5. 30% Reservation of Seats
1.13 MtAt II Gontagporary Sociological Theories Structural Functlonalisni and its Critiques and the Legacy of Marx.
Course obnectives : This course would critically exctmine trfo do^"". ;art twBntleth century trends in sociological tradition the structural functionalist and the Marxist. Both these trends of thought -^11 be situated in its historical and sociological context and its philosophical and methodological biases will be highlignted, i.e. postlvisn in the case of the forner and hlstorlclsn econonlc deterninisn or structuralism In the case of the latter. The course will trace the debates in and within these crends of thought as well as developments occuring as,a result of changing social trends, I. A« »^ostivlsn and the structural functional school. The work of Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton Intellectual Antecedentsj weber,^*^^^^ ,, Spencer MarJ^-hein. B, Critiques of Structural Fimctionalioa C.Wright Mills and the nature of Sociological Imagination Levis Goser : fhe functions of social conflicts Anthony Giddens : The Structuratlon Theory ' Il.Ihoot^gacy of Marx in twentieth century, A. Gercian Social Democrats Borstein Luxemburg B. Tho Russian Marxists Trotsky, Lenin, Stalin C. European Marxists before 1950 a Gramsci D. Marxism in the South 1. Mao, Che Guevara, M.N. Roy
1.14 ;jithropolosy Course Qb.iectlves : This course will introduce the students to lu.: torj' =jid concemporary developments in /jithropological uhecrj' ar.d 3Vcil-.aO- the growth of anthropology in India. I, The Intellectual Traditions. A. i'Jithropologyjits imperialist moorings an:l th-: culoni-'j project. The nature, scope and distinction between sccl&l ind cultural ••nthropology, ethnography, ethnology, pnysictji. /jithropology, Theories of Ehvironmental DetemlnlSD, Evolutionism, Diffusion. B. Contemporary i'lnthropological Theorists. 1) From functionalisn to structuralism Levis iJtrauss and Edmond Leach. 2) Marx and Marxist -Jithropology, ii. Terr-y, M':;arlce Godelier and C.Mp-lsseux. 3) Cvatural ;jithropology to post modem ethnography - CLiffard Geertz and James Clifford. C. Methodological issues. 1) The problem of subjectivity and obiectivity 2) The Issues regairding inO Q^enous anthropolosist and indegenous catagbries. 3) l-Zritlng the enthnographlc text II. The i'jrithropology of Indian Society 1)- Civilisdtlonal approach Bashan Mandeibon. 2) Mosaic theory of Indian Society Risley:^vrns,Pritchord, Hutton, NKBose Vo¥ Furerdorf. 3) On the theory of tribes in India, Vidye.rthl.,Verrier El'rff---
5) The contribution of Veona Da^ps Oberoi 6) Makin, Marriott's Hindu Ltljio Scciolo,:;y III. /jithropology : A Cross Cultural Prospective 1) The j'jnthropology of ^J'ricaCKenya) 2) The .jithropology of &uth East. .'.sia( Inionosja)
1.15 Readings ;- Malr.^ Lucy: Introduction to Social /Jithi'opology Majundar D.C. & T.N. Madan 5 Introduction to Socicl yjithropology Beattiejs Other cultures Kessing F.M. ; Cultural ijrittoopology Sarana , Gopal - Sociology add /jithropology & other essays. Sarana Gopal : Introducing /oithropology Leach E.R. - Levi Strauss Radcliffe Brown ; A.R. Structure and Function in Frinitive Society Bose N.K. : Tribal India : National integration Bose U.K.: Tribal life in India KLwin V, : A Philosophy for YiWA Fuchs S. : The Aboriginal Tribes of India Mancria M.: Tribal Demography Royal ^\nthropolgical Institute: Notes and queries Murdock G.P. : Outlines of cultural oaterialism Cohn, Bernard : India: Social /inthropology of a 'Civilization Bashan A.L.: The Wonder that was India Saraswati, B.K.: Contributlonj to the -unders tan ding of Indlcin Civilization Singer, Milton : When a Great Civilization modernizes Kandei-tm D. : Society in India Vol.1 & II Clifford J. and Ilinton J. (ed): Writing Cultures Mckin Marriott : Indian Villages Majundar D.N. : Races & cultures of India Geerts C. : Interpreting cultures Karve, Irawati: Hindu Society:,^ An Intepretation Duraont, L.: Hone Hlerarchicus Leach, E. : Aspects of castes Srinlvas M.N. & Shah A : Hlndulsn in Intemationel Encyclopedia of Social Sciences. Contributions to Indian Sociology: For a Sociology ol India The Debate ; old Series and New Series Ghurye, G.S. : Caste & Race Srinlvas , M.N. : Village studies: Participant observation & Social Science Research in India, EPW 1975 Ghurye G.S. ; Schediied Tribes Vidyarthl L.P.: Tribal cultures Snnivas ill.N. : Social Change in India Madan T.N. and Srinlvas M.N. j Encounter anci E>rperience Srinivaa M.N. and Shah A.M. : The field and field vuik. 1.16 Methods and MethodoloRy of Research lii SocioloKyt Course Objectives i This course will introduce the students to different and differing philosophies within which the sociolocictl tradition has constructed itself. While progressing through r, critique of positivisia it introduces the students co new methodology and nethods of i-esearch. I. Positivism and Methods of research. A, The nature of Scientific nethod, Basic concepts; measurement, validity and reliability, hypothesis, testability, explanation laws, theories, ..icdels, B, Survey methods, sampling and techniques of data collection. C, Content analysis D, Values and empathy in Sociology. II. The Historical Method 1) The Weberian School 2) The Marxist School 3) The iinnals School \) oral Hlsticgraphy III. The Anthropological Method. Participant observation and the field wori: nethod. Subjectivity and objectivity in research Post-nodem anthropology. IV. statistics Measurement of Central Tendency and Dispersion. Variability and Skewness Correlation and time series Tabulation coding and Computer ApplicatioJi T Test, Chi Square Test, Sign Test, Grafliic representation. Recommended Readlng:s : S. /»nderski, Social Science as Sorcer^ M.S. Becker, Sociological Woiic ; Method and Substance. M. Brodback, Headings in the Philosophy of Social Science. M.N. Cohn & E. Nagel, An Introduction to Logic of Scientific Method R.W.Fredricks, The Sociology of Sociology. 1.17 A. Giddens, Positivism and Sociology T.S. Kuhn, Ihe Structure of Scientific Revolutions. I Lakatos & S. Musgrave (ed) Criticlsn and Growth of Knowledge, K. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery. P> Vilnch, The Idea of Social Science Lev;ic J,, Value Free Sociology} A Marxist Critip.ue. To Skochpol, Historical Sociology. G. McCLellan, Marxisa and its methodologies. P.C. Joshl, Reflections on Social Science Resc?irch in iiidia (Sociological Bulletin, 2h, 1975). A Beteille and T,M. Madan (ed.) Ehcounter and Sxi:)erlence: Personal Accounts of Field Vtork. M«N. Srinivas and A.M. Shah (ed.) The Field and ffhe Field Vbrker. T.N. Madan, Research Metl^dologys A Trend Report - ICSSP. Volunus R. Mukherjee: Trends in Indian Sociology Current Sociology Winter Vol. "'.5(3) 1977. Y. Singh : Indian Sociology M.N. Srinivas, Village Studies : Participant observation and Social Science Research in India (Bcononic arid Politic?! Weekly, 1975). Jahoda & M.Deutsch, Research Methods in Social Ralations. Yo-ong, Scientific Social Surveys and Research, n. Walker & J.Lev Statistical Inference.
1 .18 Goa University Department of Sociology
M.A. Part I & II • Core Courses • Some Elective Courses
1.19 GJA_ JJN.iytRSI.TY DEP.i^MEHJ„OZ..SOCipLOGY M.A. PART I &_ 11 _CpyRSE S SYLLA_B.I
CORE^pOURSuS 3C " 1 : jn,Ep_HI_E5 0F_ SOCIETY J. PROGRE^^^^ Scope : This course introduces the major classical theories which accompanied the industrialization of society. The course concentrates on two tasks : to what problems and changes were these theories a response and an elaboration of their central arguments. Covering methodological and substantive issues the course will examine both the possibilities and fj^obleins of industrialized societies envisioned by these theorists. I_ntrodu_ctiop : The idea of Progress - an overview ; Themes ; 01 : Vne^^ideplpgy of Pr_ogres^ : The hierarchy of science, social evolution and the laws of human progress (Comte). Evolutionary Organicism and Functionalism (Spencer). 02 ; Karl Marx : Dialectical Materialism, Alienation, Historical Materialism, The Asiatic mode of Production, Ideology and Consciousness, The Theory of Capitalist Development and its contradictions. 03 : Emilo Durkheim ; The Rules of Sociological Method - externality and constraint, normality and pathology. The Division of Labour in Society - Anomie, Suicide, Religion, and the possibility of a sociology of knowledge.
'^'^ '• Max. V<'eber : Methodological Issues : Subjectivity and objectivity, facts and values. Ideal types. Interpretative Sociology and Social action. Substantive Issues. Rationalization, The Protestant Ethic and Capitalism. Types of authority and Bureaucracy, class and status groups. The sociology of world religions. Reading list : ... 1. Aron, R., Main Currents in Sociological Theory, Vol 1 8. 2, England, Pengu"in7~T$'7'$";' ' "" " ' '" 2. Cosor, L., Masters of Sociological Thouc]_ht, San Diego, Harcourt Bruce," 1977,' 3. GIDDENS, A., Cajpj^alism and Modern__Social Theor.^, London, Cambridge 1977. '" •• 4. Kumar, K. , P.rop_hency and J'/jogres^, England, Penguin, 1978. 5. Martindale, D., The Nature, and TyjDes_^f Sociological Theory, Bostpn, Houghton & MiffTi'n, l'981 . " 6. Ritzer, G., Sociological Thoo_r_y, New York, Alfred A. Knopf. 1983 7. Swingewood A., A Sh^ort History, of sociological Thou^gjrt, London Macmillan, 19ff4.'~ ' ' ' ' ~ "" 8. Turner J.H., The_ .Structur_e_ of Sociolo.gical Theory, Illinois, Dorsey, 1978. ' "•' ' ^ 1.20 SC 2 : THE0RI.i3 OF _SUCIETY •. 'pEVELOPMENT'
Intrj3d;jp.tipn : The ideal of 'Development' -• M Overview. Theme 1 ; Functionalism in Social anthropology - A.R. Radcliffe Brown and E.E. Evans-Fritchard. Theme 2 : The Structural functionalism of Talcott Parsons and nobeft Merton's codification of functional analysis. Theme 3 ; The phenomenological excurses of Alfred Schutz. Theme 4 ; Dissensions within the Parsonian Synthesis - Perspectives from George Homans (exchange theory), Herbert Blumer (symbolic interaction), Harold Garfinkel (ethnomethodology) and Half Dahrendorf (conflict theory). Theme 5 : The 'modernization' paradigm - S.N. Eisenstadt.
Bibliography : Alexander, J.C., Sociolo£ical_Jhe_ory since 1945 (London : Hutchinson, 1987). ' "" ••"• Cohen, P.S., fAodcrp Social^Jhpor;^ (London : Heineman, 1968) Douglas, M., Eyans-Pritchar^ (Glassgow : Fontana, 1980) Eisenstadt, S.N., Tradition, Chan_g_e__and_Mode^_rni_t_^ (New York : John Hiley, 1973. " Hamilton, P., J.^l.'^o,''^,"'^. P.3J1?^J?A (Sussex : Ellis Horwood, 1983) Meltzer, E. et al, SYm^l_icjn_ter_a5jyj3tiism _: _Ge_n^ Varieties and Criticism, (Boston ":" Sou'tledge" 8. Ke'gan Pauf, 198'S). Merton, R.K., Social Theory and Social Structure (New York : Free P_rj5_s_s, isKsJ ' ' Radcliffe " Brown, A.R., Structure and Function in primitive _So_ci_e_ty (London : Routledge~"8.'Tegah'Paul, "19t6T. ' Rex, J., Kej/__Problems_in Sociological^ Theory (London : Routledge and'^Regah "p-aul, 1'9'6'lT". "" Ritzer, G., S.o£iolociical,_The_ojry (New York : Alfred A. Knopf, 1983) Sharrock, W. and /Vnderson. B., The__Ethnonie_thodo^l03ist_£ (Sussed : Ellis Horwood, 1986). Swingewood, A., A Short History qi Soc_iolo3_ical Thought (London Macmillan, "i^M}. '" "' "
1.21 -SCjlA^LjHEqnj.ES.i^F. SOCIETY ''PEC0L0NIS.\TI0N" Introduction to the theoretical orientation of the course. Theme 1 : Levi Strauss : The concept of structure, the theory of anthropology. Theme 2 : Louis Althuser : Reanalysing Marx. Theme 3 : Dependency Theory and Beyond : Perspectives from Samir .\min, ,\.G. Frank, I. Wallerstein, Hanza Alavi. Theme 4 : Critical Theory : A broad overview of the Frankfurt school with a special reference to Hebermas. Theme 5 : Perspectives on Indian Sociology : A.R. Dessai, M.N. Srinivas S, L. Dumont.
Bib_l_iog_rao_h_y^ : 1. /U-thuser, L. ^ ,Fo_r Marx^, Allen Lane, London, 1968. 2. Cojrtribut^ion_s t_o_ .In.diaji_Sqcio_lo5y (Sfelected Nos), 2. 3aran, P. The Political Economy of Growth, N. Delhi, People's Publis"h"i?rg'',-1"9'6"2'. 4. Benton, T., : Philosophical Foundations of three sociologies, London, R.N.P., 1977. 5. Bottomore, T., : Th.e Frankfurt School, London Tavistock Publications, f9"S^'. 6. Desai A.R. Social Background of Indian NatlonalJ.sjTi, Bombay Popular, PrakasKarr,*'*f98T." ' " "" •"" 7. EXimont L. : Humo Hierarchicus. Delhi, Oxford, 1988. 8. Held, D., Introduction to_ Critical The.oryj Berkley, California UniverTfFy7T9'S'3V" ' " ' 9. Hindess B. Philo_spj)hy__ 8, Methodology in. the Social Sciences, Sussex, HarvestTer'"PVes's",""T$'77'"."" 10. Keat 8. Umey,, Social Theory as Science, London, London & R.W.D. 1962, 11. Levi-Strauss : Structural Anthropology, London, Allen Lane, 1968, 12. Oxaal, I. et al : Be_;^ond_the_Sociolo3y _o^ Deve_lopmervt, London R.K.P, 1975. • 13. Pusey, M., Jurqep_J\_ebermas_, London, Tavistock, 1984. 14. Ritzer G., Socio 1 ogic_a.l _ T.hep_ry. 15. SriniVas M.N., SqcjLa 1. ,Chaji_ge__in_ _Mpder;n_Indj.a , Berkeley, University of "CaTifVfnia, T9'6"6T 16. Taylor R,: From Modernization to Modes of Production.
1 .22 3C 4 : PlilU-jSOPHy, SCIEi'lCE, METHOD
P,%RT I : Introdu^tipnaj^d H^i^storic^al P£rsj3e^^ 1. The question of 'Science' :Some preliminaries in the philosophy of science. 2. Subjectivity and Objectivity in modern western philosophy : The project of episternology and its refiguration in Hegel and Marx.
P.\RT II : On t_h_e_ niethodolpciJ._c_a,l_ st^.us _^f. A9.c.iaA...sci^en^e^ 1. The 'positivistic' ideal of science •. Aguste Comte and Logical positivism. 2. Durkheim and the possibility of naturalism. 3. Confrontations with the 'positivistic' ideal : (i) E. Husserl's phenomenology, (ii) W. Dilthey's 'lebensphilosophic' (iii) The Frankfurt school's critique of positivism, 4. Post-positivistic philosophy of science : Introductory perspectives from Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend.
PART III : Towards a_rearticulation of method^ for the human sciences 1. Perspectives on sociological method from Anthony Giddens.
B^ 1 i o_g ra p h y BerTTn, I.'Ted).Xhe Age of Enlightenment : The 18th Century. Phllosopheg- (Oxford University'P'ress'," "igTgT "" ' ' Bryant, C.G.A., Positivism in__Social The_or_^_and Researc_h (London ; MacMillan," T98'5')". ~ ""• ' * Blaicher, J., The Hermeneut_i^c Imagination (London : Routledge and Kegan Paul"," Tge'^T Fay, B., So_cial _Theor;y and. P_qlitical Practice (London \ George Allen and' U'nwin',""l975T. ' "" ' Giddens, A. (eds), Posit_iyism anid ,Sociolo_gy (London : Helnemann, 1974) _ „ > New Rules of Sociological Method (New York : Basic Books, "• "TgySTT "" ,studies in_Social and Political Theory (London : Hutchinson, 19777. " "" ' Hawthorne, G., Epjj:3.htenm_en_t_ _and Despair (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press", 'l9T6'T. Hindess, B., Philosophy and Methodology in the Social Sciences (Sussex; Harvester, 1 ^tY). "- '""' Keat, R, and Urry, J., Social Th_e_ory_ as_Sci_en_ce (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul", T9"7'5T O'Connor, D.J. (ed), A Critical History of. '.Ve_stern Philosophy (New York Free Press, T96'4) "' Phillips, D.C., Pjlilosjspjiy, Sc__ijejT_c£ a_n_d_5qcia_l J_n_qui£y (Oxford : Pergamon "Press, 1987.
1.23 SC 5 : SYSTEy.S GF BELIEF^^ I0E_01^0GX_AfiD J^.EliI.GI_ON
Scope : This course attempts to describe the systems of belief - iut.>ologi».-s and religions - in their structure, origin and function in society as analysed by major sociological thinkers. It evaluates further the communal functions of religion at the interface of 'sacred and secular' in India today.
Jhemes : 01. Systems of belief and symbolic representation. Interrelationship between beliefs, idoologies and religions. Systems of belief had their societal functions. 02. Religion and societal integration : theories of totemism in tribal societies (Emile Durkheim). 03. Religion and societal alienation ; Theories of domination and exploitation (Karl Marx). 04. Religion and societal meaning ; theories of societal change (sects) and legitimation (Max Weber). 05. Secularization of 'invisible religion' : theories of societal construction of religious reality (Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann). 06. Communalism and nationalism in India today, Debate.
Bibliography : To be given at course beginning. Requirements : ,-\ctive participation in lectures and tutorials. Personal reading and library work, /\nd a term paper of 10-15 pages (typed, A4 size) prepared singly on any one of the above or allied themes and presented at a seminar.
1 .24 SC 6 : 5PC.r>L__STJV',T IF ICATION. I. Perspectives on_ Social Stratification : (a) Concept of Social Stratification; (Tumin), {>-) Class, Status and Power in Marx and Weber.
II. CastG in Indi_a : Ghurye, Srinivas and Dumont.
III. C_a_st_ej_ Cl_ass_ and Social__Ch_an_g£ : Emergent patterns of social stratification and mobility in India : (a) Sanskritization, Westernization and Modernization. (b) Education,-Occupation and Political Process. (c) Dissociation of Caste and Class.
^V* Beyond Hierarchy and Stratlficat.ipn. : A critical reexaminations of the categories 'Caste' and 'Class' in the context of understanding Indian Society.
References : 1. Bendix R, and Lipset S.M. (eds). Class, Status and Power ; A Reader in Social Stratification, Free Press, Illinois, 1968, 2. Tumin, M.M. (ed) Social Stratification : The Forms and Functions of Inequality, Prentice Hall, New Delhi, 1969. 3. Ghurye, G.S., Caste, Class and Occupation in India, Popular, Bombay, 1969. 4. Dumont, L., Homo-Hierarchicus, Oxford, London, 1971. 5. Contributions to Indian Sociology : Symposium of Homo-Hierarchicu3 Vol. V, 1971. 6. Srinivas, M.N. Social Change in Modern India, 1966. 7. Srinivas, M.N. India : Social Structure, 1979. 8. Singh Yogendra, Sociology of Social Stratification, ICSSR Trend Report, 1970 9. Kolenda, P., Caste in Contemporary India, 1975.
1.25 SG 7 : SYSTEMS .AND THEORIES OF. KIKSHIP
Scope : A systematic and historicai,approach to fhe study of the systems of kinship in different societies (social formations) and their transformation. A brief outlin* of different theories in social and cultural anthropology and «thnQlogy» This course will also try to locate the tribes of India within their social formation and their transitioh;'in India today.
Themes : 01. Construction of the 'Other' in anthropology and ethnology. The state of the problem tpday. 02. Evolutionary theory and Kinship : L.Hi Morgan. 03. Functional theory of Kinship : B. Malinowskl, A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, E.E. Evans Pritchard, E.R, Leach. 04. Structural theory of Kinship : C. Levi-Strauss, L. Dumont, 05. Towards a theory of transition from Kinship to caste in India. 06. Tribes of India, and the 'State of the Nation'.
Bibliography : To be given at course beginning,'
Requirements : Active pc^rticipation in lectures and tutorials. Personal reading and library work. /\nd a term paper of 10-15 pages (typed, A4 size) jrepared singly on any one of the above or allied themes and presented at a seminar.
1.26 SC - 3 : SpC_IET.\L_]40y_EMENTS jUJD. SpCI,\L ja^MSFORf.UTION 1. 2?^^pAti-°n^ ^n?'. perspectives a) Societal Movements : Introduction b) Reform versus Revolution,
c) Theory and Practice.
2. Marxian Model of Transitions.
3. Variants of the Marxian Model : a) Russia b) Virasaiva Movement c) SNDP Yogam
d) Dalit Movement.
5. The Nationalist Movement in India.
6. Post - Independence, Agrarian and Trade Union Struggles.
Re_f e^ren_ce_s_ 1. Apter, David E. (ed). •'IdeolGgy and Discontent," New York : The Free Press, 1964. 2. Cameron, W.R., •'Modern Social Movepients" Now York : JRandom House, 1966. 3. Evans, R.R. (ed), "Social Movements" Chicago : Rand Mc Nally, 1973. . • 4. .Gurr, T.R., "Why Men Rebel'' Princeton, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1970. 5. Gusfield, J,R. (Ed), "Protest, Reform and Revolt : A reader in Social Movements," New York :'John Wiley & sons, 1971. 6. Mannheim, Karl, "Ideology and Utopia" New York : Harcourt, Brace and World, 1936. 7. Zaid, M.N. and Roberta Ash, "Social Movements Organizations : growth. Decay and Change" Social .^orc_es^, Vol ^4, pp .127-41 8. Dhanagare, D.N., "Peasant Movements in India, 1920-51" Unpublished D.Phil thesis, University of Sussex. 9. Gough, K., "Peasant Resistance and Rpvolt in South India, •'Pacific, Affairs.", Vol 16, No.4 (Winter) 10. •= Indian Peasant Uprisings, "E.P.W., Vol 9 (32-34), August. 11. Kriesberg, L. (ed), "Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change" Vol. Connecticut, Jai Press INC, 1978. 12. Kolinsky, M. and Paterson, W,E. (ed) ''Social and Political Movements in Western Europe", New York, St. Martin's Press, 1976. 13. Malih, S.C. (ed) "Distant, Protest and Reform in Indian Civilization'' Shimla, HAS, 1977. 14. Rao, M.S.A. (ed), "Social Movements in India", Vol, 1, New Delhi, Manohar, 1979. 15. , ''Social Movements and Social Transformations", New Delhi, Manohar, 1987.
1 .27 JH 13 : SOCIAL DEyiANCE
I. Meaninj and definitions of deviance and deviants. Parspectives on deviance - medical - psychiatric - psychoanalytic - sociological.
II Sociological approaches to Crime - anomie - differential association - social:oisorganization - labelling theory.
III Deviance and social control.
R&ferencos :
1. Clinard, M., Sociology of Deviant Behaviour.
2. Coleman, J. and Cressey, D., Social Problems. 3. Matza D. Becoming Deviant. 4. Elliot M. Merril, F., Social Disorganization. 5. Rubington, E. andfffLnberg M., The Study of Social Problems.
1.28 SE 16 : VI£;AE;4 ,JiD SOCIETY IN,INpL\
This course aims at a critical undertstanding of women in India from a comparative perspective. The course considers the following topics : 1. Visibility and invisibility of women - the women's question - different perspective on women's issues. 2. The Status of women in India. 3. '.Vomen -nd fTmily. 4. Women and education. 5. Women and development. 6. /iCtion for change.
Recomrnj_n_d_e_d_Rea_d_ipjgs_ : 1. Atlekar /i.S., The Position of Women in the Hindu Civilization. From Prehistory to the Present Day. Motilal Banarasida, New Delhi (3rd Ed) 1962. 2. Caplan Pat, (ed) The Cultural construction of sexuality London : Tavistock, 1987. 3. Desai, Neera & Maithreyi Krishnaraj. Women and Society in India, Delhi : Ajanta, 1987. 4. Dube, Ldela Eleanor Leacock 8, Shirley /ordener, (eds) Visibility and power .* essays on women in society and Development. Delhi : Oxford University Press, 1986. 5. Jacobson, D. S, Susan Wadley, Women in India •' two perspectives, South Asia Books, Columbia Univ, 1977. 6. Memefoe--Singh, .Andrea et Al., (eds), Invisiile hands. New Delhi, Sage, 1936. 7. Papanak, Hanna 8. Gail l.linault, (eds) Separate worlds, Delhi Chanakya, 1982, 8. Srinivas, M.N. The Changing Positions of Indian Women, Oxford University Press, Bombay, 1978. 9. Towards equality : Report of the Committee on the Status of Women, Govt, of India. 1975.
1 .29 5E 19 : CvPIT, .L_ ^>r,CL.;viUL,,JICi;j. A'0_MEN_j\ND _,\V J\HJ, .GE ,IN IMDI,. (Some reflections on '.Vomen, dowry and property)
Scope : Briefly explaining the context of bride-price and dowry in India - witdin the- framework of a theory of gift exchange - thi'-, cour':!-' tokos the recent events of dowry and death into cons i^d jra i icn .mo relateci debate on dowry and partihility of property. It cri'.£ ^.o axpx-:in ix in the general framework of 'arrested capital •,cc','".jlat ion ' in India.
inanes ; 01. .'/hat is brido--price and dowry? ,'ji Gthnosociological introduction,
02. From bride-price to dowry - recant EPvV debate. 03. From abolition to dowry to assertion of female right in partible pi'operty •• recent Manushi debate.
3ibl_i_ography ; Vols of E»W from IG (1983) to 20 (1985). Vols of Manushi from 1 to 10. Newspaper cuttings or references to dowry deaths and so on from 1970 onwards.
H.equirement^ : ,ifter initial lectures readiness to pour through above mentioned journals and newspapers to bring out the events and comment competently on the themes emerging on themes mentioned above in a common seminar, Commonts to be presented in a term paper of 6-10 pages (typed, /v4 size)
1 .30 Bombay University Department of Sociology
M.A. Part I & II • Some Core Courses
1 .31 M.A.(SYLLABUS AND BOOKS)
Part One; Paper I THEORETICAL SOCIOLOGY
1. Positivism and organicism (Conte, Spencer, etc.) 2. Structural—functional approach (Durkheim, Radcliffe- . Brown, Malinowski, Parsons, Merton, etc.) 3. Conflict approach ,(Slarx, Simmel, Dahrendorf, Coser, etc.) 4. Symbolic Interaction approach (Mead, Blumer, Turner, Goffman, etc.) 5. Exchange theory approach'(Levl-Strauss, Homans, Blau,etc.) 6. Phenomenological approach" (Vteber, Scheler, Schutz, etc.) 7. Ethnomethodological approach (Garfinkel and others). 8. Toward theoretical integration and Sociology of Sociology.
READINGS: 1, Aron, R.—Main Currents in Sociological Thoughts (2 vols.), 2. Black, M. (ed.)—Social Theories of Talcott Parsons. 3. B.lau, P.—Exchange and Power in Social Life. 4. Berger, P.—^"An Invitation 'to Sociology. 5. Botto- more, T. B. Si Rubin, M. —Karl Marx: Selected Writings on aociology and Social Philosophy. 6, Coser, L.A. —The Functions of Social Conflict. 7, Coser, I. A,—Masters of Sociological Thought. 8. Douglass, J,(ed.)—Understanding Everyday Life, 9. Firth, R.(ed).—Man-and-Culture. 10. Friddrichs, R. W.— A Sociology of Sociology, 11. Garfinkel, H.—Sttidies^tn-: Ethnomodology, •12. Goffman;31 ;—^he Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. 13. Gouldner, A.—The Coming Crisis of Vtestem Sr>clology. 14. Homans, G. C—Social Behaviour t Its Elementary Forms, 15. Hughes, H. S.—Consciousness and Society. 16. Lukes, S'.—E. Durkheim s His Life and Work. 17. Martindale, D.—The Nature^and Types of Sociological Theory. 18. Marx, K. & Engels, F.—Selected Vforks (2 Vols.). 19. McLellan, D.— Karl Marx: His Life and Thought. 20. Mead, G. H.—Minds, Self and Society. 21.' Merton, R. K.—Social Theory and Social Structure. 22. Mills, C. VJ.—The Sociological Imagination. 23. Natanson, M.(ed)—The Philosophy of the Social Sciences. 24, Parsotw, T.—The Structure of Social Action. 25. Parschs, T.—The Social System. 26. Parsons, T., Shils, E., Naegele, K. D., & Pitts, J. R. (eds.)7-^heories of Society (2 vols). 27. Radeliffe-Brown, A,.R.—Structure and Function in Primitive Society. 28. Rose, A.,(ed.)-Miuman Behaviour and Social Process. 29. Simmel, G.—Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliations. 30. Tiryakian,'E. A.—Sociologism'and Extentia- llsm. 31. Weber, M. —Theory of Social and Economic Organization.
1.32 Part One ; Paper II
Th^oretlcei Anthropology
The Problem of Man : Nature and Human Nature - Human freedca; Self-aware- ness-Symbols, meanings, Values, Norms.
The Culture Concept : Origins and Deyelojiaent - Values and Causes - Culture as Super-organic - Enculturation, Acculturation - Cultural Crises - Cultural Integration. Culture and Society - Their Interrelations - The aiins of Social Anthropolcgj-.
Culture and Language - Structural Anthropology.
Anthropolcgy end Psychology - Culture and Personality.
Anthropology and Education - Integral Anthropology - Anthropology of Religion.
Culture Chejige - The Concept of Evolution - Diffusionisn and the historical approach - Culture Change and Science.
Economic and Political Anthropology.
Urban Anthropology
Medical Anthropology.
The Stilly of Complex Cultures - Culture and Civilizaticn - Toynbee, Sorokin and others.
Applied Anthropology - Its Nature and limitations
Cognitive Anthropology. .
mmmySi l. Barnett, S. & Silverman, MiJ .-Ideology arxi Everyday Life : Anthropology, NeoMarxLst Thought and the Problem of Ideolcgy and the Social 2. Sidney, D.-Theoretical Anthropology. 3. Clifton, J.A.(ed.)- An Introduction to Cultural'Anthropology. L. Dolgin, J. I. Kemnitzer, D. S. & Schneider (eds.)- Symbolic Anthropology : A Reader in the study of Symbols and Meanings. 5. Douglas, M. & Ishon/TOod, B.-The World of Goods. 6. Forreira. J. V. Fuchs, S. L Klostermaier, K. -Essays in Ethnology. 7. Honigmann, J. J- (ods.)-Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology. 6. Holtkrantz, A.-General Ethnological Ccsicepts. 9. Hymes, D.- Language in Culture and Society. iS. Kaplan, B. - Studying Personality Croes-CulturalOy. H. Kardincr, A. & Prebble, E, - The Studied Man. 12. Gergen, K. J. - The Concept of Self. 13. Kroeber, A. I. - .. Anthropology Today. lA. Krutch, J. W. - The Measure of Man ; On Freodan, Human Values, Survival and the Modern Temper. '5. Kuper, A, - Anthropologists and Anthropology i The British School 1922-72. l6. Leal, H.J.- Man, Mind and Science: A History of Anthropology. 17. Lessa, W. A. & Vcgt, E. 2. (eds.) -Reader in Ccmparqtive Religion : An Anthropological Approach. 18. Levi-Strauss, C- Structural Anthropology. 19. Lewis, I. M. -History ?jid Social Anthropology. 20. Manners, R. A. & Kaplan, D. - Theory in Anthropology. 21. Murpiij', R. F.- The Dialectics of Social Life : Alarms and Excursions in Anthropological Theory. 22. Peacock, J. G. - Consciousness and Change : Symbolic Anthropology in Evolutionary Perspective. 23. Ranero, F,- Theory of Man. 24. Schneider, L, & Bonjean, CM.- The Idea of Cult'jre in the Social Sciences. 25. Sorokin, P.- Socir.l Philosophies in an Age of Crisis. 26. Stevenson, I. - Seven Theories of Human Nature.
1.33 PART ONE ! PAPER III
SOCIOIXEY OF CHAfGS AND DgTELOmSNT
1. Positivism ; Saint Simcn, auguste Cerate (Orgskiismic) Herbert Spoixer (Organismic individualism). ?.. Historical Materialism i Karl Marx; V. I. Lenin; Mao-Tso-Tung. 3. S'ocial Behaviouriism : Mrjc Weber (Social Action) i*.. Developmental Theorists t W. W. Rostow. 5. Structural Functionalist ; Neil Sraolser; Vftlbert Moore (Neo-Evolutionist); Cyril E. Black, David Lerner, S. W. Elsenstadt (Modernization Theorists). 6. Conflict School : Ralf Dahrenicrf; C, Vfrlght Mills; John Rex; Rarrial Collins. 7. Psychological Approach : Everett E. Hagen ; David C. McClelland.
6. World System ani Dependency Theorists: Paul-Baran : Andre Cunder, Frank ; Samir Amin; Inmanuel Wallerstein. 9. Frankfurt School '. Theodore Anricrno; J. Habermas. 10. French Noo-Structuralist : Henri Lefebvre; LucienGoldmann; Maurice Godelier; Louis Althusser; Barry Hindess and Paul Hirst. READIN}St 1. Aron, R. - Main Currents in Socidcgical Thought (2 vols), 2. Althusser, I,-Structuralist Analysis, in Conte;-porary Social Thlught, 3. Amin, S. - In^erialisra and Unequal Development. 4. Baran, P.A. - The Political Economy of Growth. 5. Black, C. E. (ed) Comparative Modemizaticn. 6. Coser, L. A. -Masters of Soclolcglcal Thought, 7. Frank, A. C. -Capitalism and Undeii^iovelopraont in Latin America. 8. Cennerton, P. .(ed.) - Critical Sociology. 9. Dahrendrof R. - Class a»i Class Conflict in Inlustrjai Society. ].0, Eisenstadt, S. N. - Tradition, Change and Modernity. 11. Gcieller, M. - Rationality and Irrationality in Econonlcs. 12. Certh, H. & Mills, C. W. - Fran Max Msber ; Essays in Sociology. 13. Habermas, J.- Theory and Practice. 1/^. Hagen, E. E. - On the Theory of Social Change. 15. Hindess, B. & Hirst, P. - Pre-Capltalist Modes of Production. Ij5. Kinloch, G. - Sociological Theory : Its Development and Major Paradigms. 17. Lefebvre, H. - Dialectical Magerialism. 18. Lerner D. - The Passing of Traditicnal Society. 19. Lenin, V. I, - Selected Works. ED. Mao-Tse-Tung - Selected Works. 21. Martinlale, D. - Nature and Types of Sociological Theory, 22. MaTx, K. & Ei^les, F.- Selected Works. 23. MacClelland, D. C. - The.Achieving Society. 7k. Moore, W. E. - Order and Charge 25. Rex; J. - Key Problems of Sociological Theory. 26. Rostow, W. W. - Politics and the Stages of Growth, 27. Smelser, N. J. (ed.) - Sociolcgy : An Introducticn. 28. Spencer, H.- On Social Evolution. 29. Wallerstein, I. - Social Change: Then Colonial Situation. 30. Zeitlin, 1. M. - Ideology and Developnont of Sociological Theory.
1.34 fart One t Paper IV
fl.-X:iQTffiY OF TM3IAN SOdgrY
L. Sociology fcr India t a) Rise of Socicicgy in Indiai the colcnial background. b) The post-Independence phaae. c) Thecretioal approaches to the study of Indian society ard culture. 2. The Indian Village: a) Rural Social Structure: Agrarian Relations and Stratification. b) Laixi Legislation and land refcmrtBasures during British and post-Independence periods. c) Socio-econoiiic change and the village camnmity. d) Peasant unrest e) Significance of village studies. _
3. The Saste System; a) Furdamental characteristics and categorios. b) Inter-Jati and intra-jati relations c) Mobility in the caste system d) Social change and the caste system in modern India e) Caste and Politics f) Caste among Muslinis, Jews, Parsis, Christians,
4. Family and Kinship : a) Family roles; family cycle; kinship ties b) Functions of the family c^ Social change and the fami^ in modern Indi& d) Position of women in modern India e) Family and kinship amot^ ^fu3llm3, Jews, Christians, Parsis. 4. Modernization of Indian Society : a^ The colonial backdrop ; British rule and modernization, bl Modernization and education c) Modernization of the politico-legal-adminiotrative struoture d) Urbanization and industrialization 1 pro-British, British and post-Independence phases. e) Modernizaticn, science and technology. f) Modernization and ccoinunicatlcn g) Modernization, nationalism and politicization. h) Modernization and the rise of new classes 1) Modernization and the rise of'reform movements, j) Continuities and dlscountinuities In the modernization process : the persistence of traditicnaO. structure. k) Approaches to the modernization of Indian society.
Readings: Ahmad, I.(ed.)-Caste and Social Stratification among Muslims in India, 2. Ahmad, I.(ed,)-Faraily,, Kinship and Marriage among Muslims iii India, 3. Bailey, FJG.-Caste and the Economic Frontier. 4. BeteiUe, A. Caste, Class and Power, 5. Desal, A.R. -Social Background of Indian Nationalism. 6. Desai, A. R. -Modernization of Underdeveloped Societies (2 Vols.). 7. Desal, I. P. -Sane Aspects of Family in India. 8. Dube, S.C- India's Villages. 9. Dumcnt, L. -Hone Hierarchicus: The Caste system and Its Implixjations. 10. Ghxjrye, G.S.-Caste and Race in India, n. Gore, M.S. & other-Sociology of education in India. 12, Kapp, K.W.- Hindu Culture, Bconcmic Development and Economic Planning in India, 13. Kapddia, K.M.-Marriage and Family in Inlia. l4. Karve, I,-Hindu Society: An Interpretation. 15. Kothari, R.-Caste in Iniia Politics. 16, Mandelbaum, D.G .-Society in India (2 Vols.). 17, Mishra, B.B.-The Rise of the Indian Middle Class. 18, Mukherjee, R,-SociQlcgy of Inilan Sociolcgy, 19. Myiidal, G.-Asian Drama (3 Vols.). 20. Rahman, A-Triveni: Science, Technology and Society, 21. Ross, A.-The Hindu Family in its Urban section. 22, Rvdclph, L. & Rudolph, S.-Modernity of Tradition. 23, Singh, Y .-Modernizaticn of Indian Tradition. 24. Singer, M. & Chhn, B.-Structure and Change in Indian Society. 25. Srinivas, M. h'.- Social Chsnge in Modern Irdia. 26, Shrinivas M.N.-Caste in Modern India and other Essays. 27, Srinivas M.N. (od.). -Irdia's Villr^ges. 28. Silverberg, J.-Social Mobility in the Caste system. 29, Vidyarthi I. P,- Rioe of Anthropology in India,
1 .35 Poona University Department of Sociology
M.A. Part I & II • Core Courses • Some Elective Courses
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O 1.54 3 '7 -^ a. :: £ ^ «« o 2 oc 'z: ~ u c •? 2 06 -^ 1 5|._ jjSS^- ,1 - ^ - 5 "-2^ "?• § • ° 3 o. E o H k- '•s _ o Q. O 1/5 1 .55 Appendix 2 Drain of Sexuality: The case of the Erotic Lavani and Tamasha in Maharashtra 2.1 Drain of Sexuality : The Case of Erotic Lavani and Tamasha in Maharashtra* Introduction Lavani; is popularly understood to be a kind of rural erotic song of the folk tradition in Maharashtra. While some scholars (Morje, 1974) trace its origins to the folk songs of the Lavani (showing) season, others (Dhond, 1988) see the origin of the word lavani in Lavne; (the sugges tive actions of bending and wriggling of the body, waist downwards) and therefore, see the roots of the lavani in the dance form that accompanies it. Thanks to the popular media, i\\t lavani has often been equated, rather erroneously,to the tamasha (folk theatre) of Maharashtra. Such a concep tion of the lavani, overlooks the fact that there is not just the 'lavani' but also ihe gan (a devotional offering to Lord Ganesh, praying for a smooth running of the show), a gavalan (a comical act performed by the male nachya an 'effeminate' man with exaggerated feminine gestures) and the vag (a spontaneous form of folk theatre with no pre-ordained script,to steer the performance, centering around legendary characters or con temporary issues). The lavani falls broadly into two categories, the Bhedik (spiritual) and the Shringarik (erotic). In the Shringarik songs of the gaha-satsai (a collection of shringarik versus in prakrit, dated between 1st and 7th C AD). The origins of what was later to be called the lavani may be traced from these gathas to the dombika and matangi geets of the 12th and 13th C. (Dhond, 1988). The available collection of lavanis is traced back to the maratha period, the powada (ballad) being the most popular form of lavani of this period. The Shringarik lavani emerged as the most dominant and pervasive form in the court of Peshwa Bajirao II (1796-1818) and the 'marathi shastrakosh' founded during this period defined the shringarik lavani; as a female form of expression, despite the fact that all these lavanis were in the male voice and may be seen as one of the important vehicles of constructing female sexuality. In this section , we attempt to trace women's voices in the deep past. The latter two sections of the paper focus on the « This has been presented at a seminar on 'State and Sexuality' at lEG, New Delhi in December 1993 and presently is being reworked for 'Contribution.s to Indian S()ciology'(Double volume) 2.2 accelerated processes of hegemonic appropriation of the sexuality of lower caste women of the lavani tamasha , drawing mainly from the kolhati women's experience of 'drain of their sexuality'. SECTION I Women's Voices in the Deep Past Early versions of what was later to be called the'Shringarik lavani' may be traced to the Prakrit verses collected in the Gaha-Satsai, (Joglekar, 1956). The Gaha-Satsai isacoUectionof gafhas or lyrical verses (dated at 1st to 7th century) describing the everyday life practices, a large section of which is devoted to the expressions and practices of the erotic kind. Bhuwanpal, a commentator of the 6th century (Joglekar, 1956:70, 88, 128, 176, 228,304,305,426,474,505,506,582,584,605,616,624, 894) attributed some of the verses to women composers. It seems as if Bhuwanpal has attributed expressions of 'virah'(separation from the beloved) and invitation to women while those referring to 'sexual plea sures have been attributed to male composers. The gathas (Joglekar, 1956 : 556, 970) which are dated around the 6th century make clear-cut reference to adulterous women as being immoral and to severe punish ments that were metted out to them by village officials. The 'gathas' dated earlier than the 6th century have also described the adulterous relationship of men and women (Joglekar, 1956 : 19, 44, 619, 762, 796, 103, 104, 159, 237, 328) and there are hardly any reference to patimahatmya. A gatha dated at 1st century (Joglekar, 1956 : 2) is in the female voice and compares the Prakrit gathas to the Sanskrit commen taries on the Kamashastra and ridicules the pandits who debate upon the principles and techniques of Kamasutra but look down upon the same when practiced by women and prakritjan (uncultured plebians). Though, it is difficult to draw any conclusion, it can be claimed the verses of the HalsatvahanGathasaptshati were Shringarik verses both in the male and female voices and could have been the beginning of the lavani. In Kalhan's Rajatrangini (12th century), Hemachandra's Kavyanushasana (12 C.) and in the Dynaneshwari (13th C.) reference to the shringarik songs are found but these are now claimed to be only in the female voice and sung by women of the lower castes. The Rajatrangini describes the court of Raja Chakravarma and the beauty and melody of the dombika geet singers of his time. (Dhond, 1988,261). Thesedomb 2.3 singers are described as singing shameless songs about perverted sex and experiments with body and desires. The account goes on to describe how all those who sought favours from the king had to please the domb girls by eating their faeces and by draping around themselves the cloths soiled by their menstrual blood. Such descriptions suggest that the erotic songs of the domb girls may be linked to the tantric cults of the 10th and llthC. In the Kavyanushasana of Hemachandra, there are reference to the dombika geet as erotic songs sung by lower caste women and through which they sought favour from the king (Dhond, 1988) In the Dynaneshwari', theerotic form of song and dance by women is described in the Tamas Daan. The description goes ; "On barren lands, in the evenings or at nights the dancers prostitutes and gamblers set up their show, the women sing erotic songs and dance, until the men provoked by their scent, handover all wealth to them." (Dhond, 1988 : 262) In all the three references, the erotic songs, are sung and performed by lower caste women and it is apparent that what comes across as celebration of sexuality in the gathas and which in a sense implied that sexuality could be performed - now enters the realm of exchange. If we view the dombika geets in the context of the Mahanubhava^ cults of the period, then in the Leelachahtra , Puja Vasar' for instance, there are clear-cut references to transvestism and homosexual relations between guru and shishya and to the breakdown however partial of restrictions on caste and women. Mahanubhav can be located in the contradiction of its aims, the emancipation from the extremities of the practitioneers of the Vamatantra'* and the puritanism of Varkaris\ The dombika and matangi geets may be seen as product of these contradictions. As the brahmin orthodoxy which faced a threat from the Mahanubhava began to contain them, the references to the dombika and matangi geets became rare. (Shenolikar and Deshpande, 1972). The Lavani in its powada or ballad form became a part of the Maratha period. N.C. Kelkar (Kelkar, 1974) argues that in this period, the lavani was not easily separable from the religious verse or abhangs and the powada; or ballads. It is in the Peshwa period that the powada emerged as the male both in its style and expression of VirRas (ethos of courage and bravery) and the lavani as female, the expression of Komal (gentle) Ras. (Kelkar, 1974). The lavani of the Shringarik variety emerged in the period of Peshwa 2.4 Bajirao II (1775-1818) whose valour was known to have been matched by his passion for wine and women. The voice in these shrin^^arik lavanis is a distinctly male voice, though it is the women who perform the lavani (combining it with dance) The composers are all male. The 'shringarik lavani' as a male expression of female sexuality (sponsored and patronised by the last Peshwa) is one of the ways in which the bodies of women are constructed as normal only in their constant requirements of either arousing desire or satiating male desire, depending on where they were placed in the slave girl / wife dichotomy, which in turn was decided by their location in the caste hierarchy. Analyses of some of these erotic 'lavanis' taken up in the next section. Section II Hegemonic Appropriation of Sexuality of Low Caste Women Lavani Va Bai Chya Nadane Peshwaee Budalee (the downfall of the Peshwa rule was brought by the indulgence in women and lavani ) is a popular saying in Marathi and is very much linked to the colonial ideology of moral decline of the orientals. The lavani of the erotic kind were constructions of lower caste women's sexuality by a decadent feudal, brahmnical patriarchy which appropriated the sexual and produc tive labour of lower caste women through the institution of slavery. The reign of Peshwa Bajirao II (1796-1818) saw one of the worst famines, the famine of 1803. The last Peshwa had widely adopted revenue farming by 1803. The officer of the mamlatdar was auctioned and the purchaser would let it out to the revenue farmers. The revenue farmers extracted so much from the peasants that the peasants gave up cultivation when they could. The indebtedness of the peasant to the vaani (the trader) and the Sahukar (the money lender) was on the rise. (Kumar, 1982,182). Describing the indebtedness and famines Bajirao writes 'Mothers sold their children and themselves to escape perishing, young women gave themselves upto prostitution, lived as mistresses with strangers, abandoned themselves to the guidance of procurers, who considered them as their property, although possessed of no legal right" (Gavli, 1981 : 20). Indebtedness and famines had led to an increase in the sale of women of the lower castes. A prominent feature of slavery of the later Peshwa period was the pre-dominance of female slaves. Out of 2.5 ninety records available only six refer to the male slaves. (Fukazawa, 1991 : 114). The Peshwa state under Bajirao II with its life style of indulgence and conspicuous consumption required the levying of differ ent kind of taxes on peasnt producers. In the period 1805-1809, an amount of thirteen thousand rupees were spent on Bada Khana (feasts). Bajirao's fourth marriage had been so grand that twenty six thousand rupee had been distributed in charity and the diaries of Bajirao II reveal that thousands of rupee had been noted under the head of Vilas (merry making), (Valimbe, 1962 : 28). The much required revenue to the state treasury came from the government's involvement in the trade of female slaves under normal circumstances.Given the extravagances of the last Peshwa, it can be surmised that under conditions of famines when the state finds revenue recovery difficult, much of the required revenue was raised by state's involvement in the trade of female slaves. Female adulterreses were arrested as slaves of government, these were mainly from the lower castes as brahmin adulterreses were punished by ex communicating them from the caste. The Peshwa government levied a purchase tax from private buyers of slaves. Absconding slaves were arrested and forced into becoming government slaves. In the absence of a slave market, in all probability the dealings were mainly through the Peshwa government (Gavli, 1981 :21). Two major means of procuring slaves were abduction in wars and charging lower caste women of adultery and then enslaving them. Since Bajirao II did not wage even a single war, charging lower caste women of adultery was the major way of enslaving them. The female slaves were employed in the courts, 'natakshala' and other departments of the Peshwa State. They were employed in homes, stables, granaries, cattle houses, dancing houses, stores, communication and construction work. The government often gave some of the these women to officials in lieu of their salary. There is evidence to believe that the English, French and Portuguese too bought female slaves at prices ranging from rupee sixty five to rupee two hundred and fifty. (Bhave, 1976 : 242). That the sale of women of the lower castes was necessary for the later Peshwa state both for the revenue in terms of taxes levied and for the labour of these women in the different Karkhanas of the Peshwa government. 2.6 Within this context then we analyse Andharatlya Lavanya (lavanis for the darkness, a collection of the erotic / shringarik lavanis all composed during the period of 1774-1850. It is particularly noteworthy that three of the major composers, Prabhakar, Ram Joshi, AnantPhandi were brahmins while Honaji Bala (Amar Bhupali fame whose compositions are sung in many of the homes in Maharashtra every morning, even today ) and Parsharam were from the gavli (cowherd) and Shimpi (tailor) castes respectively. The erotic lavanis composed during this period fall into two broad categories; those that depict the 'shringar' of the other - worldly kind that of (Radha-Krishna and Copies) and those that are woven around the 'Shringar of the this - worldly kind (that of men and women). These lavanis could give the unsuspecting reader an impres sion of an overtly expressed female sexuality. But further analysis would reveal that these lavanis subscribed to the dichotomy of the bateek (whore) / Soubhagyavati (wife). The lavanis that express overtly the insatiable desires of women are composed in the voice of the lower caste whore while those that express virah (the pain of separation) are composed in the voice of the wife. The bateek in the lavani literature expresses her intense need for bodily fulfillment, asking the man to take her as his right, just as he would his wife. She plead to the man to come to her regularly and give her pleasures as she would give him. She even expresses her desire to watch the asanas (postures) of intercourses in the mirror (Kelkar, 1956 : 18). On the other hand, the wife in he lavani literature prides in the manhood of the husband, his virility, excessive desires, sometimes 'perverted'. Her desire is expressed only through virah (pain of separation) which may be due to her menstrual seggregation, presence of the elders in the family or the husband being away at war or business. There is a predominance of pleas to the husbands to take them in their fertile period, on the fifth day of menstruation. The virility of the husband is glorified and described as being such that only a 'whore' could satisfy him. The wife's expressions of displeasure at the husband's demand for intercourse at several times in a night and her useof pregancy or menstruation as an excuse are yet another way of glorifying the husband's virility. (Kelkar, 1956:41, 177, 165, 189, 141,249, 178, 155). A few lavanis even ventilate complaints against a small impotent husband,such compositions being wife's expression of woe at not attain ing motherhood (Kelkar, 1956 : 102, 104) while a few lavanis are 2.7 potrayals of adulterous wives who invite their lovers and promise them pleasures only if they will be careful in intercourse, so as to avoid conception (Kelkar, 1956 : 112). The constructs of the virile and potent male, caught between the insatiable whore and the wife who seeks his satisfaction seems to have come up as a justification by the brahmin hegemony on the ascendance of Peshwa Bajirao II to the gaddi (throne) with assistance from the British. The female slaves of the Peshwa state seem to fall into two catego ries, Kunhinis (bought for domestic and agricultural labour), hateek (bought for their sexual labour either by individuals or for the natakshala or dancing houses of the state). The kunbinis who performed domestic labour could not have been from theati-shudra castes. While the bateek came from both the shudra and ati-shudra castes. The sites of road building and ammunition work required labour, there are letters of the Peshwa Dafftar (Records of the Peshwas, now at an archive in Pune) which imply that Kunbinis who had illicit relations outside of caste were to be banished for these works. (Gavli, 1981 : 37). All this goes to imply that adultery was the major grounds on which the sexual and productive labor of lower caste women was appropriated. To construct the lower caste woman through the lavanis as having an insatiable desire and being inherently adulterous was the ideological justification of her enslave ment in the late medevial Maratha history. The bateeks,tht^ovc\tVioitht natakshalas must have come from the kolhati, dombari, mahar and mang castes (all ati-shudra) for it is these women who began to first sing and dance to the lavani composed during this period. These 'lavanis' came to be called 'baithakichi lavani' (lavanis sung at the natakshala) which were erotic expressions, upper caste constructs of lower caste women's sexuality in a caste based patriarchy. None of the 'lavanis' make reference to the bateeks. The bateek of Yeshwantrao Holkar, Tulsabai, the bateek of one the Peshwa ministers Tai Telin waged wars against the Peshwa sardars for their rightful share in property and power of their masters (Dhond, 1988:44). Lavani moved from the private performance in natakshalas to publish performance at the court of Bajirao II, these public performances came to be called the Tamasha.. The lavani Tamasha it is claimed had an all male audience, though there are some stray references to women watching from behind the purdah. The lavani Tamasha performed on the eve of holi, had 2.8 strictly an all male audience and the most erotic of the lavanis were rendered and performed on this day. (Kelkar, 1974). The lavani Tamasha would open with the ^an followed by the gavalan and end with performance of the erotic lavani .This tamasha reached the peaks of popularity during this period. But as the Peshwa rule came to an end with Peshwa Bajirao's surrender to the British at Vasai, the tamasha remained in a confused state, seeking new patronage. By 1840's the lavani tamasha shifted to the rural areas and the composers of the lavani were now predominantly from the lower castes -especially mahar and mang castes. As the British rule established itself in Western India, the erotic lavani of the Peshwa period came under censure for obscenity under the colonial state. Section III Changing Character of Lavani - Tamasha (Folk theatre) Many of the 'lavani' composers and their troupes moved towards the princely state of Baroda in search of patronage. The troupes that stayed back in Maharashtra were at the mercy of the Zamindars, Inamdars and Jagirdars, (Vhatkar, 1970:29). By the mid - eighteenth century, market forces had been entrenched in Indian agriculture. There was substantial increase in the acreage of cotton, poppy and sugarcane. By 1850's sub stantial land alienation had already occurred; the Deccan Riots of 1875, stand evidence to this. (Dhanagare, 1980). Traditional crafts were facing a decline as paper and silk and textile industries of Poona, Yeola and Sashti faced setbacks. By the middle of the eighteenth century, British goods had appeared in the markets (Kumar, 1982). These major changes in the Deccan and Western India had led to the emergence of two new categories; the middlemen and the middle classes, both of whom affected the face of the lavani tamasha and the sexuality of the women as constructed in the lavani . The first play in Marathi was written and presented by Vishnudas Bhawe at the court of the Raja of Sangli. This play came to be popular among the audiences of Bombay and Pune. (Bhagwat, 1977 ; 260). In its very emergence, the middle class, upper caste theatre was placed in opposition to the folk tamasha . "Bhawe's plays are of nativeorigin, from the early classic dramas of Hindoosthan. They are void of everything approaching licentiousness and indecourum and are images of the moralities in which the Christian Church in older times used to rejoice" (emphasis mine) (Bombay Times,Tuesday March 8,1853) 2.9 The classical drama was put forth as moral as against the tamasha (folk theatre) with its lavani as licentiousand immoral. The female parts in the plays were performed by male dressed as females. The patrons of the theatre were the new middle class, western educated; imbibing the decent lifestyle of the British officers. Between 1860-80 several English and Sanskrit plays were translated into Marathi. Consequently Tamasha theatres in Pune and Bombay faced a decline. In a bid to win over the new theatre going class, the tamasha shifted its focus from the erotic lavani to the vag (folk theatre). The Nachya (dancing girl) Nartaki (dancer), Tanwsffir (performer)/ Kalakaar (artist) dichotomies intensified as the upper castes displaced the lower castes from their hereditary sphere of the performing arts. Hegemony of cultural spheres became significant in the process of homogenisation of the middle class in western India. In aperformanceof eight hours, the tamasha dedicated six hours to the vag - the spontaneous theatre centering around feudal themes. 1890- 1920 is known in the history of tamasha as the period of PattheBapurao's Vag. Patthe Bapurao was brahmin composer who became legendary for his association with the mahar dancer (nachee), Pavla. The old shahirs narrate stories about the meeting between Ambedkar and Patthe Bapurao wherein Ambedkar refused the financial contributions offered by Patthe Bapurao to the social fund, arguing that money earned by exhibiting lower caste women on stage was not acceptable to the cause. The tamasha form however had been adopted by the Satyashodhak Samaj from the 1890's and referred to as the Jalsas because of the low esteem in which tamashas were held by the elite - the jalsas were therefore instructory tamashas. Satyashodhak tamashas followed the traditional form but with a new content. (Omvedt, 1976:211). T\\ts,t jalsas praised modern science and education, while mocking the sacred bodies and religious traditions. The traditional gavlani, the dialogue between Krishna and milkmaids was transformed into an encounter of the hero with village Brahman women portraying through challenging language the Brahmin tyranny. The troupe members of these 7o/.yo.v were men of the lower castes. (Bagal, 1933 : 69). It is clear that these y^v/.vo.v which played a prominent role in forming and spreading a popular Maharashrtian culture of religious and caste revolt - did not include the women perform ers of the lower castes. Infact to a large extent the jalsas highlighted their difference from the tamashas through the exclusion of women 2.10 performers. Thispoints towards the continuity in the liberal, puritanical stand of both those in the Bombay awakening as well as those in the non- brahmin movement, this being true of both the Satyashodhak and the Ambedkarjalsas^. During this period it was mainly the mahar and mangs who formed the tamasha troupes and ever increasingly at the mercy of the Kantratdar or middlemen who now assumed the power to make artists perform at more than two to three places in a single evening. (Vhatkar, 1970: 173). The Shringarik lavani' had been marginalised in these 'tamashas' and a new group Sangeet Barees came up. The'sangeetbarees'center around four to five women tamasha dancers. The women who performed in these Sangeet Barees had had a relatively prestigious position in the family as breadwinners. They were known for their knowledge about herbal medicines to cure sexually transmitted diseases and impotency. (Atre, 1915 : 244). They probably developed these knowledge systems from their experience of sexual labour. Sangeet barees brought in the custom of ilaulatjadda , that is the rich among the audiences could bid the nachee to perform an erotic lavani of their choice. Other vag tamasha parties who had adapted their performances to match the emergent marathi theatre looked down upon these sangeet barees as immoral and obscene and malingning the true folk form. As the contractors began to pay the nachee of the sangeet barees Rs. ten to fifteen per day (while the artists of the vag get paid rupees thirty to thirty five per day) and commercialised the trade by defining the kinds of dances and erotic lavanis to be performed and controlling the clients through the daulatjadda. There is infact a chain, the Victorian theatre emerges as the epitome of civilised culture as against the licentious and immoral folk forms of the natives, the marathi theatre emerges by emulating the Victorian by labelling the folk theatre the tamasha as obscene and indecent, the tamasha in turn desexualised its nachees, turns to the vag form as a superior form as against the sangeet barees of the kolhati women who perform the erotic lavanis and whose sexual labour is sold to the highest bidder by the contractors. The upper caste urban theatre thus emerged as moral and decent through the Victorian pattern of desexualisation of women. In the process, Kolhati women are increasingly alienated from their creativity (dance form and knowledge of medicines), their sexual labour (the contractor now appropriates their sexual labour) and the 2.11 process of sexualisation (what is sexually desirable to the audience comes to be dictated by these contractors). This process is further accelerated with the coming of the Marathi talkies which coincides with the call for reforming the taniasha. With the establishment of Bombay University, the Marathi theatre took on a new turn - the classical English and Sanskrit drama became the major influ ence. The second phase of the Marathi theatre is of the natyasangeet, the era of Khadilkar and Bal Gandharva. But with the coming of the talkies- the urban Marathi theatre faced the threat of closure while the rural tamasha remained relatively unaffected. Section IV Commidification of Lavani Performers The Marathi talkies emerged in the 1930'safter theeraof the 'Golden Silence' of the movies ended and movie making with sound track became possible. Movies in Marathi focused in the early years on the genre of mythologicals and historical. But it was the genre of socials (issues like widow remarriage, age at marriage which concerned the upper caste, middle class audiences) that gained popularity. Tamasha theatres in cities and big towns had to be shut down as a result of the growing response to the talkies. By the 1940's however, these middle class urban audiences had been lured by the R.K. Films. The Marathi cinema in 1947, adopted the tamasha genre of films in order to win over the audiences in small towns. yo/Mfl//?flr and RamJoshi were the first films in this genre. These films owed their success tothelavanisof G.D. Madgulkar (Bhagwat, 1977 : 315). The Marathi cinema (dominated by Brahmins and Marathas) drew its raw material from the Mavani tamasha' of the Kolhatis, Mahars and Mangs converted it into salable good, and took it back to the audiences in the small towns at double the price. This process of selling involved the construction of the nachee as a Lavangee Mirchi (Red chilly) who would be tamed and reformed by the hero (invariable either the Patil's son or school master, i.e. always upper caste). Lavangee Mirchi literally means red chilly - too hot to handle. The nachee of the Marathi film tamasha who was projected as 'lavangee mirchi' invari ably came from outside the kolhati caste; only a handful of artist (Usha Chavan, Leela Gandhi, Sarla Yevlekar, Madhu Kambikar) women from the actual lavani tamashas could make it to the Marathi cinemas as 2.12 nachees. The lavangee mirchec was projected by the film makers as having a native rustic sexuality, in doing so they constructed the nachee of the lower caste as wild, to be tamed while the wives were invariably passive and comfortably manageable. This had serious consequences for the kolhati women in the sangeef barees who were called upon to perform, to be a lavangee mirchee and the contractors of the'sangeet barees' called upon the nachees to dance to the filmi lavanis, adding more erotically provocative dance steps^. Hence the raw material that went from the kolhati women to the films ironically comes back to them in a form that they can hardly recognise as theirs. Even today they are expected to project a sexuality, as defined by the Marathi film makers. These kolhati women thus experience a drain of their sexuality. Around the 1940's, the Bombay state passed an order, bringing a ban on'tamasha'of all types. The home minister explained that the lavanis were lewd and obscene and hence needed to be censored. Moreover the display of nachees outside the sangeet baree camps for the purposes of drawing crowds was seen as indecent and hidden form of prostitution (Jintikar, 1948 : 5). In 1948, the Tamasha Sudharna Samiri (acommittee for Tamasha reforms) was formed for reforming the tamasha, all scripts and lyrics had to be approved by this Samiti which was headed by Principal Datto Vaman Potdar ( a brahmin liberal writer,historian and Vice Chancellor of Poona University). During the same period when the tamasha artists under the banner of Tamasha Parishad were protesting these labels of obscenity and indecency, the Samyukta Maharashtra ,a mass movement that demanded theformation of united Maharashtra on a linguistic basisin the period 1955-60 as against the bilingual Bombay state formed in 1956.This movement was using both the powada, (ballad) and lavani as symbols of cultural unity arguing for formation of Maharashtra as a state. After the formation of the Maharashtra state, (1960) the state came to organise a tamasha competition every year at Bombay. The participants in these Mahotsavas in their bid to please the ruling Congress and the leaders of the Tamasha Parishad who owed allegiance to the Congress, performed vags centering around political themes, glorifying the ruling party'. The sangeet barees to avoid the state censure and accusations of hidden prostitution seem to have found a way out via the Sanskritisation of the nachee. The sangeet barees now advertised and called themselves as sangeet barees of Soubhagyavatis 2.13 i.e., the nachee's name was preceded with the title of Soubhagyavati, implying her married (controls on sexuality) status. In reality however, the kolhati women revealed that business went on as usuaP. The kolhati women the nachees, were in public defined as the Soubhagyavads and in their dance and private baithaks as the lavangee mirchees . Once the Maharashtra state had been convinced of lack of lewdity and obscenity in the program, tax exemption and other facilities could be obtained. The post Maharashtra formation period saw an expansion in the Marathi cinema. Many of the tamasha parties were forced to go part time. Only ten parties could survive as full time tamasha parties. Many of the nachees had to perform seasonal agricultural labour in rural areas or domestic labour in towns and cities. The post- 1960's saw the emergence of the sugar lobby (Lele, 1989;Atwood 1992) and theembourgeoisement of the audience of the tamasha and sangeer barees. The sangeet barees were now in demand only during the Urs and Jarras (only 6 months in a year). All the sangeet barees and tamashas meet at Narayangaon in the month of June every year to accept Suparees (invitations from local leaders to perform at thier village fair). The prestige and credibility of the local leaders determines the amount attached to the suparee . The Marathi cinema,financers and producers were quick to catch on and acquired finances from the newly emergent Maratha capitalist forces in agriculture. Dada Kondke, became a legend as a hero of the popular classes, potraying the village simpleton, using in his films the lavani of double entendre. This lavani used metaphor of wells, pump sets, en gines, mangoes, grapes,coconuts and papayas . As the Kolhati women from the sangeet barees were called upon to perform to these numbers in {he double entendre as their bodies were now completely, objectified and fragmented into parts; as the well referred to the vagina, mangoes to the breasts and sugarcane to virginity. Demands for disco lights and nachees wearing trousers are now reported to be on the increase. The complete objectification of the kolhati women's bodies is now obvious in the popular tamasha. For most of these women their immediate concern is what after the age of thirtyfive ,when their sexual attactiveness would decline? The state government provides pension to these artists after the age of sixty while the maximum a nachee can perform in a sangeet baree is upto the age of thirtyfive. Most of them reveal that they are forced to push their daughters into the hidden form of flesh trade. The 2.14 state government does not provide any schooling or hostel facilities to the children of the tamasha artistes. Hence, learning the lavani ramasha in its commercialised form seems to be only option open to the daughters of the/7flc/7^^.v. The nachee.s complained of increasing ,^oorj(/fl/5/rj and use of force and a increasing sense of fear and vulnerability. While the elderly nachees mourned the loss of their traditional art the younger amongst them keep performing in the hope of being rescued by a man (Marathi film style) who will fulfill their dream of a happy home, a strong husband and healthy children.The myth of the ultimate solace in a married life under patriarchal umbrella is thus sustained but not without sacrificing the sexuality of kolhati women on its alter. As popular culture undergoes transformations through its appropria tion by mass medias in this case as the 'lavani tamasha' and 'sangeet barees' are appropriated by the Marathi Cinema, the women performers experience a drain of sexuality as mentioned earlier. At the same time the increasing popularity of the modern mass media pushes the popular folk forms into the margins, the women performers therefore perform in addition to the lavani, agricultural labour and domestic labour (in cities) to make ends meet. As the pressures on the troupes increase the number of assistants and helpers diminishes and the women performers become responsible for the upkeep and maintenance of the troupe members too. The women performers of the lavani or dholki tamasha (mainly of mahar, mang castes) often marry and seek to sanskritise their life styles while for the women of the sangeet haree, there is the never ending series of dealing with theatre managers, contractors, and organising shows and private baithaks. These women often organise poojas in the month of shravan, inviting their regular customers to the pooja, seeking a semi-permanent Malak (patron)'. The women of the sangeet harees explicitly express their wish to keep their children away from the trade and complain of the lack of alternative choices. This once again points to the progressively decreasing alternative opportunities; the revival of the lavani tradition is almost impossible while state reform programmes of making jams and jellies - presents a monotonous alterna tive to women performers used to a lifestyle of rigorous dance and exercise. The journey from the ;i;o//7fl5 io sangeet barees points to the progressive annihilation of popular folk and cultural forms as a vehicle of sexuality, the accelerated drain of sexuality that mass mediabrings in, 2.15 pointing sharply to the hegemonic appropriation of the sexuality of lower caste women performing artistes in the well-entrenched stratification system. Notes 1) Dynaneshwari is a very important text of the 13th century and a source for people's history. 2) Mahanuhhava refers to a Bhakti-path, a cult of the 11th and 12th century established by Chakradhar. The cult did not adhere to the Hindu principles of purity and pollution. 3) Leela Charitra Pujavasaar is a text that gives the a life sketch of Chakradhar.lt was composed by the later followers of the Mahanubhava cult. 4) Vamtantra , literally means the left or that which deviates from the mainstream. Itdenotesthosecults who practised 'tantra' and indulged in wine, meat and sex as means to transcendence. These cults prac tised rituals such as the ritual of f^hatachanchuki, wherein women and men of different castes had to experiment with different sexual prac tices. To the extent that castes are maintained through the defin - ition and management of gender, such rituals posed a threat to upper caste hegemony. But within these tantric practices, different defini tion of gender prevailed and women were subordinated and their bodies exploited. 5) Varkari refer tooneof the Bhakti cult of Maharashtra. Women saints of these cults did in their expression of relationship with God refer to the body and erotic but specifically with reference to the Lord. An analysis of this has been offered by Vidyut Bhagwat in Tharu & Lalita (eds), 1990. Women Writing in India Vol.I.pl66 6) Ambedkari jalsas refer to the different troupes that carried the message of the annihilation of castes through popular folk form of the vag. These troupes were also all male troupes. In the later period the troupes of the left parties in Maharashtra were also all male troupes. 7) Revealed in interviews with Kolhati women. 8) Even today at the Parishad, most vags centre around the matyrdom of Indira Gandhi and Rajeev Gandhi. 9) Ms. Sushama Deshpande who has been working with tamasha artists furnished these details. 2.16 Bibliography Books in Maralhi are Marke d (M) Atre, T. 1919. Gav-Gada. Pune : Varad Books (M) Attwood,D. 1993. Raisirif^ Cane : The Political Economy of Sugar in Western India. New Delhi : OUP. Advant, M.N. 1955. Lavanl Vagmayatil Hasyaras. Maharashtra. 20, 1 : 35-39.(M). Babbar, S. Chaitra 1900. MajyaOlkhitil Lavanya., Ekta. 30, 11 : 29-32 (M). Badhe, R. 1958. Andharatil Lavnya: EkRasgrahan. V(?c/?a., 5,4 : 51-52 (M). Bagaal, M. 1933. HirakMahotsav Granth. Kolhapur: 60th anninersary book of theSatyashodhak Samaj. (M). BhaleraoJ.C. 1962. Sangeet, Nritya, Natyaaani Lavani. Pratishthan. 9,7 : 23-28. (M). Bhave, V. 1976. Peshwekaleen Maharashtra. New Delhi : Njaratoua Otojaas Anusandhan Parishad. (M). Chavan R. 1989. Jati Aani Jamati. Pune : Mehta Publishing House. Crawford, A. 1857. History of Poona andDeccan in a Perspective. New Delhi : Gyan Publishing. Deshmukh,S. 1973. ShivkalatilVaPeshwaetilStreeJeevan. Pune:TMV(M). Dhanagare, D. 1986. Peasant Movement in India : OUP Dhere, R. 1971. Loksanskritichi Kshtije. Pune: Vishwa KarmaSahityalaya. (M). Dhond, M. 1988. Mharathi Lavani. Bombay : Mauj Prakashan. (M). Fandi, A. 1977. Lavanee VagmayatilShringar. Vasant. 35,6 : 41-42 Garge, S. 1955. Lavanichi Jatkuli. Pratishthan. 2,6: 31-32. Gautam, A. 1962. Marathi Lavani. Pratishthan. 9,12: 7-26. Gavli, P. 1981. PeshwekaleenGulamgirivaAsprushta. Kolhapur: Prachar Prakashan. Hastak, U. 1962. Ashlilta AurGramyata. Pratishthan. 9,10:22-29. Inamdar, N. (ed). 1940. LokhitvadinchiShatpatre. Pune : Continental Prakashan. Jintikar, B. 1948. Shaiv Samachar Tamasha Vishesh Aank. Pune: D.J. Ghorpadkar. Joglekar, S. 1956. Halsatvahanachi Gathasapaptshati. Pune: Prasad Prakashan. 2.17 Joshi, L. 1977. Marathi Vishvakosh , Vol.7 : Bombay : Maharashtra Rajya SahityaSanskrit! Mandal. Joshi, N. 1958. Marathi Lavnya. Satyakatha. 25, 11 : 38-41. (M). Kelkar, Y. 1954. Lavani Vagmayache Antrang. Sahyadri, 20, 7: 330-350. (M). Kelkar, Y. 1963. Lavni Vagmayatil Vinod.//o/j^o. 17,12: 112-18. (M). Kelkar, Y. 1956. AndhararilLavanya. Pune : Thokar Prakashan. (M). Kumar, R. 1982. The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volll (1757- 1970). Delhi : Cambridge University Press. Lele,J. 1981. Elite Pluralism and Class Rule : Political Development in Maharashtra, India. Toronto : University of Toronto Press. Lubale, V. Chaitra. 1900. Marathi Lavni-Powada, Samjaaani Bhed. Ekta.^^M : 41-42. (M). Lubale, Vithale. 1970, Sakhi Aani Lavani. Pratishthan. 20, 1 : 37-38. (M). Morje, G. KristhiMissonaryanchya Don Lavnya. Marathi Sahitya Patrika, 2-189. (M). Matekar, H. 1962. Lavani VagmayacheSwarup. Pratishthan. 16,18:31-35. (M), Oak, P. \9^5.Peshwe Gharanchaltihas. Pune: Continental Prakashan. (M). Omvedt, G. 1976. Cultural Revolt in a colonial Society. Bombay : Scientific Socialist Education Trust. Oturkar, R. 1950. Peshwekalcen Samajeekva Aartihik Patravyavahar. Pune : Mumbai Vidyapeeth (M). Ramphure, Bo. 1959. Lavani Vagmayatil MathurechyaGavlani. Rohini. 12,12:44-46. (M). Sahastrabhudhe, M. 1962. Lavanyatil Rengras. Manohar. 29, 339 : 72-75. (M). Shelke, S. 1968. Lavani. Asmitadarash. 1,3: 125-29.(M). Sheikh, A. 1951. Amargeet. Bombay : Abhinav Prakashan. (M). Shenolikar, H and P. Deshpande. Maharashtra Sanskrit Ghadanaani Vikas. Kolhapur: Moghe Prakashan. (M). Valimbe, R. 1962. MaharshtrachiSamajikPunarghatana 1800-1845. Pune: Valimbe Prakashan.(M) 2.18 Vhatkar.N. 1970. MarathicheLnknatya - Tamasha.Kala ani Sahitya. Kolhapur: Sewa Press. (M). ( HMV Cassettes and private collection of/flvfl/j/.v of shahirs have also been used extensively). Glossary Mamlatdar: Subdistrict official responsible for collecting taxes and administering justice Vaani: Trader Sahukar : Money lender Natakshalas : Dancing houses of the Peshwas Karkhanas : Workhouses of the Peshwas Gaddi: Throne Sardars : Knights HoU : The festival of colors heralding spring. Nachi : Dancing girl, more in the sense of nauich girl, Nartaki: Dancer, more in the sense of 'sanskritised' performer Tamasgir : Performing artist as against Kalakar or the sanskritised artist. Jalsas : The cultural troupesof the Ambedkarites. Sangeet Barees : Performances centering around the Lavani, most often from the Marathi films, Daulatjadda being an essential part of this performence. Daulatjadda : Bidding for the Nachee to perform to a number of ones choice. Generally the most powerful sections of the audiences bid for the most erotic lavani to be rendered. The bidder often makes claim to sexual favors too. Lavangee Mirchee : Literally refers to red chilies, is used to refer to the nachee as one who is too hot to handle. Urs I Jatras : The local village level fairs centering around local tradi tions, deities and Pirs. Suparee : Invitations from local leader to perform at their village fairs. Dholki Tamasha : Refers mainly to the Tamashas of the Mahars and Mangs, where in the vag (folk theatre) is the crucial component as against the sangeet barees where in lavanis and daulatjadda assume a central place. 2.19