CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND UTILISATlONUTILISATION OFOF PLANT GUMS, RESINSSINS ANDAND ESSENTIALESSENTIAL OILS.OILS.

Proceedings of a regional conference for Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya

AIDGUMAIDGU 9~

CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT ANIAND UTILIS1UTILISATION rThJN OFOF PLANTPLANT GUMS,_715MS, RESINS RESINS AND AND ESSENTIAL ESSENTIAL OILS.

Proceedings ofof aa regionalregional confei-enceconference forfor Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya::enya 6-10 OctoberOctober I9971997

edited by J. O.o. Mugah, B. N. Chikamai,Chikamai, S.S. S.S. MbiruMbiru andand E.E. Casadei 11

Foreword The Regional Conference for Africa on Conservation,Conservation, Management andand Utilisation ofof Plant Gums and Resins, hostedhosted by Kenya ForestryForestry ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute (KEFRI),(KEFRI), waswas heldheld in Nairobi, Kenya fromfrom 66 toto 1010 OctoberOctober 1997.1997.

Coordinated byby KEFRI,KEFRI, aa numbernumber ofof international international andand bilateralbilateral agencies,agencies, namely:namely: Association for International Development of Natural Gums (Aidgum), FAO, Promotion of Sustainable Forestry Management -- (GTZIKEFRIlFD)(GTZ/KEFRI/FD) andand Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) collaborated byby providingproviding funds,funds, sponsoring participants and/orand/or by direct attendance.

The outcome of the ConferenceConference was substantial, with clearclear recommendationsrecommendations for action.action. We have pleasure in sharing it with all interested persons and institutions. WeWe taketake thisthis opportunity to acknowledge withwith thanksthanks the contribution of all thosethose whowho attendedattended thethe Conference and their active participation in the discussions, which made this meetingmeeting aa remarkable success. WeWe thankthank allall thosethose whowho collaboratedcollaborated with,with, andand supportedsupported thethe effortsefforts of KEFRI in organising thisthis Conference.Conference. We are gratefulgrateful to allall thethe membersmembers ofof thethe secretariat for their devoted service. Finally, we fully appreciate the contribution of J.O.lO. Mugah, B.N. Chikamai,Chikamai, S.S. S.S. Mbiru, E.E. CasadeiCasadei forfor reviewing andand editingediting thethe ConferenceConference report.

No doubt,doubt, thethe perspectivesperspectives onon conservation,conservation, managementmanagement and utilisationutilisation ofof plantplant gumsgums and resins as theythey emergedemerged from the discussionsdiscussions at the ConferenceConference and the lightlight theythey threw on howhow toto addressaddress aspectsaspects of productionproduction and qualityquality control and the needneed forfor linkages will helphelp nationalnational andand internationalinternational agenciesagencies inin desig,ningdesigning andand implementingimplementing viable programmes. FFAO AO is committed to pursue the outcome of thethe ConferenceConference andand toto support the implementationimplementation of itsits recommendations,recommendations, inin collaborationcollaboration withwith partnerpartner agencies andand countries.countries.

Karl-Hermann Schmincke Director Forest Products Division Forestry Department, FAO iii111

FOREWORD FOREWORD II

PART I:I: BACKGROUNDBACKGROUND TO TO THE THE CONFERENCECONFERENCE AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 1

1.1 Overview 2

1.2 The need for a regional conferenceconference 2

1.3 Outcome/RecommendationsOutcomelRecommendations ofof the Conference 3 1.3.1 Gum Arabic 3 1.3.2 Resins: Myrrh and FrankincenseFrankincense 7

PART II: CONFERENCECONFERENCE PAPERS PAPERS 9

CONSERVATION AND MANGEMENT

Management and OrganisationOrganisation ofof Gum Gum Arabic Industry in SudanSudan 10 Abdel Nour / M. E. Osman

Production and Markets of Gum Gum ArabicArabic from French Speaking West African CountriesCountries 15 D. Muller / I.I. Wata

Recent Advances on Classification andand Status of the Main Gum- Resin Producing Species in the Family Burseraceae 18 F. N. Gachathi

Plant Gums, Resins and Essential OilOil Resources in Africa: Potentials for Domestication 23 D. Ladipo

Indigenous Knowledge and itsits ApplicationApplication in Resolving Conservation and Utilisation Problems 33 E. Barrow

Indigenous Knowledge and Utilisation Potentials of Selected Gum, Resin and Oil Plant Species of Tanzania 38 F. Makonda / R. Ishengoma

Some Experience on Adaptive ResearchResearch Input on Natural Resource Use: The Case of Gums and Resins in Mukogodo Rangelands,Rangelands, Laikipia District, Kenya 45 R. Ngethe / A. KariukiKariuki / C. Opondo

Experiences in Benzoin Resin ProductionProduction in Sumatra, Indonesia 56 E. Katz / M. Goloubinoff / M. R. PerezPerez // G.G. Michon iv

QUALITY AND REGULATORY ASPECTS

Production, Markets and Quality Control of Gum Arabic in Africa: Findings and Recommendations from an FAO Project 67 B. Chikamai

The Chemical Characterisation of Myrrh and Frankincense and Opportunities for Commercial Utilisation 75 A. KaramaUahKaramallah

Preliminary Report on Essential Oils from Frankincense, Myrrh and other Plants of Ethiopia 79 E. Dagne

International Regulations for Natural Products used as Food Additives 85 E. Casadei

Gum Arabic - Life in a Saturated Market 95 I. Holmes

Chemotaxonomic Aspects of Gum Exudates from some AcaciaAcacia SpeciesSpecies 97 G. Mhinzi

NETWORKS AND LINKAGES

FAO's Global Programme on the Development of Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP's) 102 P. Vantomme

The Role of IIGAD GAD in Promoting Collaboration Networks among Member Countries 107 R. Kigame

Role of Networks in Advancing Natural Products Research in Africa: The Example Of NAPRECA 111 E. Dagne

GARA and itsits InitiativesInitiatives in the DevelopmentDevelopment ofof PlantPlant GumsGums andand ResinsResins in Kenya 116 A. Hassan / V. Odipo

PART III:III: LISTLIST OFOF PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS 118 PART I:I: BACKGROUNDBACKGROLND TOTG THE THE CONFERENCE COI TERErCE ANDD RECOMMENDATIONS. 2

1.1 Overview

The role and value of plant gumsgums and resinsresins inin AfricaAfrica cannotcannot bebe over-emphasised.over-emphasised. The resources areare found in hot and dry regions, where they are valuable in various ways. In countries borderingbordering the Sahara, thethe plants have proved useful as windbreaks and shelter belts againstagainst desert encroachmentencroachment and hence desertification. Their canopies intercept rain drops while the rootroot systemssystems areare effectiveeffective inin reducingreducing soilsoil erosion,erosion, therebythereby stabilisingstabilising soils. SpeciesSpecies inin thethe genusgenus AcaciaAcacia improveimprove soilssoils due to their ability to fix nitrogen. The foliage and pods are valuable dry season fodder while the stemstern has widewide applicationapplication inin fencing, wood energyenergy andand construction.construction. The environmentalenvironmental benefitsbenefits ofof these plantplant resources in the region are therefore significant.

However, the most valued commodities in economic terms are the gums and resins. The most important of these are gum arabic, myrrh and frankincense. Gum arabic is a product of AcaciaAcacia senegal,senegal, A.A. seyalseyal andand closelyclosely relatedrelated species.species. Virtually all the gum arabicarabic ofof commerce comescomes fromfrom AfricaAfrica with with SudanSudan accountingaccounting for for up up toto 80% of thethe worldworld production followedfollowed byby ChadChad andand Nigeria.Nigeria. About 12 otherother countriescountries in thethe Sahel,Sahel, stretching fromfrom SenegallMauritaniaSenegal/Mauritania inin WestWest AfricaAfrica toto SomaliaSomalia inin thethe HomHorn of Africa and southwards toto Tanzania areare alsoalso producers.producers. GumGum arabic has wide application in the food and pharmaceutical industries andand in miscellaneousmiscellaneous technical applications. InIn the foodfood industry (foods(foods and drinks),drinks), itit is usedused asas aa thickening, thickening, stabilising,stabilising, emulsifyingemulsifying and suspending agent.agent. InIn thethe pharmaceuticalpharmaceutical industry, it is used as a binding agent in tablets and as a suspending and emulsifying agentagent inin creamscreams andand lotions.lotions. SomeSome ofof the the technicaltechnical applications are in the printing and textile industries where advantage is taken ofof its its film-film­ formingfouning and sizingsizing properties respectively.

Myrrh is produced by speciesspecies in the genusgenus Commiphora.Commiphora. The mainmain sourcesource ofof true true myrrhmyrrh is C. myrrah found in Somalia, Ethiopia and Kenya. Myrrh,Myrrh, likelike resinresin isis alsoalso producedproduced by CommiphoraCommiphora habessinica,habessinica, C.C. confusa,confusa, C.C. africana and C.C. incisa.incisa. Additionally, Commiphora holtizianaholtiziana and C. pseudopseudopaolipaoli produce resins commercially referredreferred toto as opoponax ,, whichwhich are used as ticktick repellent.repellent. FrankincenseFrankincense on thethe otherother hand is producedproduced by speciesspecies in thethe genusgenus Boswellia.Boswellia. The mainmain sourcesource ofof frankincensefrankincense from AfricaAfrica is B.B. papyrifera foundfound inin Ethiopia,Ethiopia, SudanSudan andand Somalia.Somalia. BoswelliaBoswellia neglecta fromfrom EastEast andand thethe HomHorn ofof AfricaAfrica alsoalso produceproduce commercialcommercial incense.incense. The main uses ofof myrrhmyrrh andand frankincense are as sources of fragrances and pharmaceuticals.

1.2 The need for a regional conference

Over the years,years, and particularly inin thethe recentrecent past,past, therethere hashas beenbeen a decline in the use of the above-mentionedabove-mentioned naturalnatural productsproducts inin favourfavour ofof synthetics.synthetics. TheThe latterlatter are preferred because of their consistent quality andand generally lowerlower prices.prices. TheThe naturalnatural productsproducts are characterised by unreliability of supply accompanied by unpredictable pricesprices and variable quality. Nevertheless, gums and resins remain the products of choice if these constraintsconstraints are addressed.addressed. Gum arabic,arabic, forfor example,example, hashas functionalfunctional propertiesproperties whichwhich syntheticssynthetics 3 cannot match.match. Additionally, growinggrowing healthhealth consciousnessconSCIOusness among consumersconsumers isIS favouring increased use of natural products.

Africa has enonnousenormous resources with the potential of producing these natural commodities on a sustainable basis. IfIf properly properly developed,developed, thethe resourcesresources willwill provideprovide reliablereliable supply and stabilise stabilise thethe marketmarket prices.prices. What isis requiredrequired isis a aco-ordinated co-ordinated strategystrategy on conservation andand developmentdevelopment ofof thesethese resources.resources. ThisThis wouldwould bebe in line with thethe RioRio Convention on BiodiversityBiodiversity andand AgendaAgenda 21.21. ItIt w-aswas thethe recognitionrecognition ofof the opportunities and challenges facing most of the producing African countries that led to the organisation of this conference. TheThe mainmain objectivesobjectives ofof the the conferenceconference were:

.. To bring together various stake-holders in plant gums and resins including producers, consumers, representatives fromfrom thethe food industry,industry, relevantrelevant internationalinternational agencies,agencies, organisations and leading experts

., To exchangeexchange lcnowledgeknowledge and experienceexperience concerningconcerning conservation,conservation, managementmanagement andand utilisation of the above-mentioned resources and products

., To liaiseliaise withwith internationalinternational regulatoryregulatory authorities with with aa viewview toto identifying specification requirements

., To develop project ideas thatthat wouldwould improveimprove thethe productionproduction andand qualityquality ofof gums gums andand resins at ruralmral andand marketmarket levelslevels in orderorder toto improveimprove foodfood securitysecurity and standardsstandards of living at community level

1.3 Outcome/RecommendationsOutcomeiRecommendations ofof the Conference

The Conference hadhad two mainrnain sessionssessions focusingfocusing onon plantplant gumsgums andand resins.resins. A workshop was heldheld forfor eacheach sessionsession toto discussdiscuss pertinent pCliinent issues issues and and develop develop recommendations. recommendations. Major issues on plant gumsgums centredcentred on gumgum arabic,arabic, thethe mainmain productproduct ofof commerce commerce inin Africa.Africa, Similarly,Similarly, issuesissues onon resinsresins focusedfocused on myrrh and frankincense. TheThe outcomeoutcome of the ConferenceConference is thus based on thethe threethree commoditiescommodities with the last two being groupedgrouped under resins and is presentedpresented in thethe fontifonn ofof draft draft proposalsproposals withwith detailsdetails ofof working working groups under each session given asas annexes.annexes.

1.3.1 Gum Arabic

Gum arabic-producing countriescountlies are facing problems in relation toto commercialisationcommercialisation andand ensuring added value to thethe productproduct inin relationrelation toto internationalinternational markets.markets. Most of thethe countries ofof the Africa regionregion feelfeel isolatedisolated andand cannotcannot readilyreadily accessaccess thethe technology,technology, quality control and market opportunities available.available. TheseThese countriescountries needneed furtherfurther regionalregional cooperation to exchange information,infonnation, training, research and development opportunities. 4

Objective

To createcreate aa sub-regionalsub-regional networknetwork to enableenable countriescountries to developdevelop theirtheir systemsystem ofof sustainable production,production, marketingmarketing andand improvement of their productsproducts toto internationalinternational standards. TheThe network network shouldshould promotepromote thethe relationshiprelationship betweenbetween thethe primaryprimary producer, producer, the processor and thethe end-user.end-user.

Inputs

4& Identification ofof contact point(s) at nationalnational levellevel representedrepresented byby anan appropriateappropriate institution which is active in this sector

4& Definition of the coordinationcoordination mechanism by which the networknetwork shouldshould operateoperate andand requesting of supportsupport fromfrom appropriateappropriate internationalinternational organisations toto enableenable thethe network to operateoperate effectively

4& Drawing together:together: ~ English-speaking countries countries of of thethe region wishingwishing toto developdevelop theirtheir crumgum resources ~ French-speaking countries countries of of thethe region wishing to developdevelop theirtheir gumgum resources

4& Co-ordinating efforts in the collection, processing, documentation and dissemination of information

Activities

1. Set up the network initially by Kenya, as a follow-up toto thethe Regional ConferenceConference

2. Organise workshop to set out the protocol for operation and seekseek supportsupport fromfrom variousvarious donors (such as FAO, National Aid/DevelopmentAidJDevelopment Agencies, AIDGUMlAIPG,AIDGUM/AIPG, and the Private Sector to pursue the objectives defined).

3. Pursue priority objectives,objectives, namely:namely:

4& Improvement of production and distribution ofof gum gum arabicarabic

4& Establishment of a buffer stock of gum in producerproducer countries sufficient for 2-3 years

4& Introduction of appropriateappropriate technologytechnology forfor identification,identification, collection,collection, storagestorage and quality control

4& Development of researchresearch in gum modificationmodification andand improvementimprovement 1& Initiation of appropriate training

1& Establishment ofof aa marketing andand applicationapplication informationinformation systemsystem

4. Establish Information Systems

1& Prepare a basic manual which sets out the various primary functions performed by farmersfarmers andand extensionextension workersworkers inin gumgum arabicarabic productionproduction andand primaryprimary quality control

1& Establish a regular newsletter 5

Organise workshops and seminars to create awareness on productproduct development Undertake resource surveys andand createcreate databasesdatabases on nationalnational andand regionalregional resources detailing types, distribution and stock density

Expected Outputs

tit Improved quality and pool ofof production ofof gumgum withwith aa bufferbuffer stockstock thatthat givesgives assurance to consumers

tit Conformity with intemationalinternational standardsstandards

tit Improved exchange of information among gum arabic-producing countries

tit Simplified channel of commercialisedcommercialised gum, i.e.,i.e., fromfrom producerproducer toto end-userend-user inin terms of information exchange andand related issuesissues

tit Classification of gum on the basis of application to enhance marketability

Time FrameFrame tit Two years to establish network

Annexes toto thethe draftdraft proposal basedbased onon thethe outcomeoutcome of working groups

Annex 11 A BasicBasic TrainingTraining Manual

Objective

To prepare a basicbasic manualmanual whichwhich setssets outout inin anan illustrativeillustrative mannermanner thethe variousvarious primaryprimary functions performedperformed byby farmers and extensionextension workers in gumgum arabicarabic productionproduction andand primary quality control.control.

Inputs tit Elaboration of first draft manual, circulation and piloting in the field tit Preparation of manual in final forms and publication, in the appropriate languages

Annex 22 Education and Training Programme

Objective

To provide education and training for the person involved inin the chain ofof gumgum arabicarabic production fromfrom planting,planting, collecting,collecting, sorting, cleaning, storing,storing, processing,processing, qualityquality control and end-use marketing.

Inputs tit Collection and preparation of trainingtraining resourcesresources

tit Identification of the various levels at which training is required 6

Ell Organisation of a Training of Trainers workshop to ensure maximum multiplier effecteffect

Ell Facilitation of exchange of training experts among countries of the region

Ell Encouragement of the introduction of gum chemistry andand technologytechnology intointo thethe formalformal and higher education curriculum

Ell Identification of institutions in individual countries whichwhich can collaborate in training programmesprog,rammes

Annex 33 Quality Control

Objective

Develop national quality control systems for gumgum arabicarabic fromfrom productionproduction (primary(primary quality control) to end-productend-product (certification(certification of product).

Inputs

• Training in field testing and basic laboratory methods

• Establishment ofof a a StandardsStandards and Reference Laboratory in individual countriescountries

• Preparation of guidelines for inspection and sampling of product

Ell Development ofof practicalpractical chemometricchemometric systems for speciesspecies identificationidentification andand characterisation

Ell Facilitation of co-operation within the Region to achieve international standards

Annex 4 Resource Survey

Objective

To establishestablish the production of gum arabic in the region, and identifyidentify the futurefuture marketmarket production opportunities by surveyingsurveying thethe plant gum resources (resource(resource map).map).

Inputs

• Carrying outout the survey based on existing forestry recordsrecords

• Facilitating a wider survey, using new technologies, such as satellite images andand aero-aero­ photographic exploration

• Establishment of a data base for types, distribution and stock density 7

1.3.2 Resins:Resins: MyrrhMyrrh and Frankincense

Resins, justjust like gumgum arabic,arabic, areare availableavailable inin severalseveral AfricanAfrican countries,countries, and potentialpotential to utilise them as commodities of commerce exists. However,However, theirtheir utilisation is hampered by a number of factors relating to production, quality control and marketing.marketing. ForFor instance,instance, thethe resource type, their quantities and distribution are not clearly known.

Objectives

1. To identify ways of improving the production,production, marketingmarketing andand qualityquality of resins

2. To establish national/regional bodiesbodies which willwill co-ordinate resource surveys, production, marketingmarketing andand quality quality controlcontrol ofof resins

Inputs l1li Establishing contact points in each country (at national level) by identifying anan institutioninstitution which is active on the different aspects of interest l1li Collecting informationinformation at national and sub-regional level regarding resins andand ensuringensuring its dissemination to interested parties l1li Defining co-ordination mechanismsmechanisms whichwhich willwill assistassist in promoting the production andand marketing 0of f resins

Activities

1. Establish regional network centres

2. Establish information systems:- => to prepare a simple manual forfor rural communities => to establish a regular newsletter => to undertake resource surveyssurveys => to create databases

3. Organise workshop(s)workshop(s) toto setset outout thethe protocolprotocol forfor operationoperation andand seekseek financialfinancial supportsupport thatthat will focus on research andand development in:-in:- a) production l1li Improve production methodsmethods inin termsteims of extraction, handling of the product, cleaning, sorting andand grading of thethe product,product, storage, packaging and pricingpricing l1li Conduct research onon landland tentenuree andand propertyproperty rightsrights linkedlinked toto thethe production of resins resins

l1li Issue on sustainability should be explored 8

b) marketing • Conduct research on marketing inin termsterms of where the product goes, in what form and for what use • Determine the potential of the resin productproduct • Search for new markets • Secure the base and research on consumer acceptance

c) quality control • IdentifYIdentify simple methods whichwhich cancan bebe used toto characterisecharacterise resins in producer countries • Set up standards between producers and users andand establishestablish regulationsregulations on quality and purity

Outputs

1. FoilliationFormation of Regional Network CentresCentres

2. Improved exchange of informationinformation amongamong resin-producingresin-producing countriescountries throughthrough thethe foimationformation of aa database,database, establishmentestablishment ofof a a newsletternewsletter forfor thethe scientificscientific comminfitycommunity andand production of a a simplesimple manual forfor the rural communitiescommunities

3. Improvement and development of the resin industries, from the locallocal communities to thethe end user, through conformity with international standards

Time Frame

Approximately 2-3 years to establish network

Conference PapersPapers

The Conference comprisedcomprised essentiallyessentially threethree mainmain thematicthematic areasareas namelynamely

1& Conservation and management of the resources • Quality and regulatory aspects • Linkages and networks PART II:II: CONFERENCE PAPERSPAPERS 10

MANAGEMENTNAGEMENT ANDAND ORGANISATION OF GUMGUM AARABICii,BIC INDUSTRY ININ SUDANSUDAN

H.O. ABDELABDEL NOLTR1 NOUR] ANDAND M.E. OSMAN2OSMAN2 1 StateState Minister, Minister, MinistryMinistry ofof AgricultureAgriculture andand Forestry,Forestry, SudanSudan 2 GumGum ArabicArabic Company,Company, SudanSudan

Introduction Sudan isis the acknowledged world leader in gumgum arabicarabic production.production. It contributescontributes betweenbetween 70 andand 90%90% ofof the the total total world world production. production. In 19951995 alonealone itit producedproduced 51,56451,564 tonnestonnes comprising 45,564 tonnes of gum hashab (i.e., from A. senegal)senegal) and 6,000 tonnes fromfrom gumgum talha (i.e., fromfrom A.A. seyal).seyal). This was in excessexcess of thethe averageaverage worldworld demanddemand ofof 40,00040,000 tonnes. NotNot onlyonly doesdoes itit produceproduce farfar more gum than any other country but its gum is of the best quality and thus sets the standards byby whichwhich gumsgums fromfrom otherother sourcessources areare judged.judged. ThisThis success isis as a resultresult ofof two two mainmain factors:factors: idealideal environmental environmental conditionsconditions suitablesuitable forfor thethe growth ofof A.A. senegalsenegal andand aa longlong historyhistory ofof soundsound productionproduction practices. practices. This paper outlines aspects of managementmanagement and organisation of the gum arabic industry in the country.country.

Management ofof the Gum Arabic Resources Gum arabicarabic fromfrom SudanSudan isis aa productproduct ofof A.A. senegal senegal and and A. A. seyal. seyal. ThereThere isis onlyonly oneone varietyvariety ofof A. senegalsenegal inin Sudan,Sudan, i.e.,i.e., var.var. senegalsenegal whichwhich is is the the source source ofhashab. of hashab. InIn the case of Acacia seyal, both varieties, i.e., var. seyaZseyal and fistulafistula are found in the country with var.var. seyalseyal beingbeing the main source of talha. ProductionProduction ofof gum gum arabicarabic isis concentrated in the gum belt between 2 latitudes 10° and 14° North spanning 1212 states with an estimated areaarea ofof 520,000 520,000 km2. 1an .

Management ofof the Acacia senegal for gum productionproduction falls into either of twotwo systems:systems: hashab owner or hashab renter. HashabHashab ownersowners areare eithereither small-small- oror large-holder large-holder farmers.farmers. The former ma1cemake up thethe majoritymajority ofof gt.un gum producers acrossacross thethe gumg,um belt. belt. They ownown smallsmall holding "gum orchards" which are part of the A. senegal rotation system and practisepractise gumgum production in one ofofthree three ways:

• Tap gum by themselves; this is the most dominant formfoiiii of production • Hire labourlabour toto carrycarry outout thethe production operationsoperations • Share-crop productionproduction withwith thethe gumgum workersworkers

Large-holder farmers include traditional hashab owners, sheiks, well-to-dowell-to-do familiesfamilies andand mechanised scheme owners.owners. They depend on hiring labour and onon share-croppingshare-cropping for production.

Collection ofof gumgum is carried out by daily payment or share-cropping ofof thethe produce.produce. TheThe latter is more prevalent inin thethe drydry areasareas andand DarfurDarfur region.region. It is an arrangementarrangement where two thirds ofof the produce goes toto the ownerowner and oneone thirdthird toto thethe collectorcollector ofof thethe gum. Sometimes a 50:5050:50 sharingsharing arrangementarrangement isis undertaken.undertaken. This appliesapplies whenwhen thethe hashabhashab plantations are remotely located or the owner is not providing food or water to thethe workers.workers. 11

The hashabhashab renterrenter systemsystem includesincludes thosethose rentingrenting forestforest administrationadministration plantations andand property owners,owners. TheThe twotwo prominentprominent groupsgroups of thethe firstfirst categorycategory are the residentresident locallocal entrepreneurs and financially capable migrants from Kordofan knownImown as "Kardafa"."Kardafa", ThereThere are also thethe individualindividual carnelcan1el ownersowners who associateassociate themselves with a handfulhandful ofof workers. workers. All threethree gjoupsgroups rentrent hashabhashab plantations,plantations, support the organisation organisation of thethe labourlabour groups (whom they usually draw from their places of origin) and act as g,uarantorsguarantors toto the improved labourers at the village shops. AA form[Olm ofof liability liability is demanded by local shops to extend the credit support.support. The locallocal entrepreneur,entrepreneur, when not a merchant,merchant, andand thethe migrantmigrant organisesorganises from Kordofan are often figuresfigures known to thethe shop-owners,shop-owners, whilstwhilst thethe camelcamel ownerovvner wouldwould be given credit against the value of the camel.

Organisation of the IndustryIndustry a) Overview

One of the greatestgreatest strengthsstrengths ofof thethe present Sudanese gum arabic industry is the consistencyconsistency it offers end-users inin tennstenns of both quality andand priceprice atat thethe pointpoint ofof export.export. This isis due,due, inin large rneastu-e,measure, to to thethe fact thatthat productionproduction of gumgum arabicarabic isis actively actively controlled controlled fromfrom beginning to end by a single body, the GumGlUn ArabicArab c Company (GAC).

The GAC'sGAC's activitiesactivities begin at thethe startstart ofof each each gumgum collectioncollection season,season, usuallyusually aroundaround September/October, when it announces the export price (FOB Port Sudan) to be setset forfor thethe coming year,year. TheThe levellevel atat whichwhich itit isis toto bebe setset isis decideddecided asas aa resultresult ofof market market intelligenceintelligence gained through a network of overseas agents and other sources, which enablesenables estimatesestimates to be made of likelylikely demanddemand forfor gurngllln arabic, and the anticipated availability ofof gum from the resource,resource. LikelyLikely productionproduction levelslevels cancan bebe predictedpredicted quitequite accuratelyaccurately fromfrom suchsuch factorsfactors asas rainfall (which is not only necessary for the trees but important for the farmer/collector and his family) and market prices forfor the farmersfarmer's otherother cropscrops (which(which willwill affectaffect hishis willingnesswillingness to collect gum).

Using the export price (in(in US$)US$) andarld thethe appropriateappropriate exchange rate as aa startingstarting point,point, thethe total estimated costscosts (at(at PortPort Sudan)Sudan) ofof cleaning, clearling, handlinghar1dling andand preparingpreparing the the g,um gum forfor exportexport are deducted to give a Port Sudan procurement price.price. From thisthis areare deducteddeducted the costscosts of up-country cleaning, handling and transport toto POltPort Sudar1Sudan to arrive at the basicbasic floorfloor priceprice which is set for the gurngum auctions at origin.origin. CostsCosts at Port SudanSudan include those incurred as a result of cleaning,cleaning, qualityquality control,control, storage,storage, weightweight losses,losses, fiunigation,fumigation, t-ransporttransport and loading, export duty, insurance and other financial charges,charges, andand GACGAC profits.profits. Those incurred before arrival at Port Sudan include various fees and commissions, cleaning, packing, handlinghar1dhng and transporttrar1sport costs,costs, thethe cost representedrepresented byby gum weight lossloss en routeroute toto PortPort Sudan,Sudan, andand merchants' profits.profits,

At thethe up-countryup-country marketsmarkets thethe collectorscollectors or small village traders to whomwhom theythey havehave soldsold gum, bringbfing sacks of gum for auction and sell to the highest bidder,bidder. TheThe biddersbidders areare other,other, larger traderstraders who,who, ifif successful,successful, clean clean and and sort sort the the gum gm and thenthen sellsell itit onon toto thethe GAC.GAC. The GAC, in tum, re-cleanre-clean and gradegrade the gum at their warehouses in Port SudanSudan andand prepareprepare itit for export.export. If the bidding at auctionauction does not reach the guaranteedguaranteed floor price (set by the GAC at the start ofofthe the season),season), then the GACGAC intervenes toto buy thethe gumgum themselves.themselves. 12

b) Production MethodsMethods

Hashab isis collected from A. senegal by tappingtapping while talha is fromfrom naturalnatural exudation.exudation. Tapping beginsbegins whenwhen the trees are justjust startingstarting toto shedshed theirtheir leaves,leaves, usuallyusually aboutabout thethe endend ofof October oror the beginningbeginning of NovemberNovember although thethe exact timing depends on the rains.rains. Older methodsmethods ofof tapping involvedinvolved making making small small incisions incisions into into the the tree tree with with an an axe. axe. To avoid the damage that this could do to thethe tree,tree, methodsmethods werewere developeddeveloped which use a specially designeddesigned tool,tool, a'sunki'.a 'sunki'. ThroughThrough promotion by the extension services the method has largely replacedreplaced thethe olderolder ones.ones. The sunki has a metalmetal head fixed to aa longlong woodenwooden handle. TheThe pointedpointed endend ofof the the headhead isis pushedpushed tangentiallytangentially into the stem or branch soso asas toto penetrate just just belowbelow the the bark,bark, and and then then pulled pulled up up so so asas toto strip a smallsmall length of barkbark longitudinally fromfrom thethe wood.wood. Damage to the wood should bebe minimal.minimal. SeveralSeveral branchesbranches are treated in a similar mmmermanner at one tapping and in the course of a day one person cancan taptap about 100100 trees.trees. In subsequentsubsequent years, other branches or the reverse side of thethe previouslypreviously treated branch are tapped.

For trees, which have been planted from seed, tapping startsstarts atat age 4-5 years;years; forfor thosethose planted as seedlings, tapping can start in the third year.year,

After tInsthis superficial injury,injury, earsears ofof gumgum fom1fonn over the exposed smJacessurfaces and m'eare left to dry and harden. AfterAfter 55 weeksweeks thethe firstfirst collectionscollections ofof gum gum areare made,made, withwith furtherfurther collectionscollections from the same trees at approximately 15-dayIS-day intervals until thethe end of February, making five or six collections in total. TheThe land land tenuretenure system system andand respectrespect forfor locallocal traditiontradition generallygenerally ensures that the people who carrycarry out thethe tappingtapping alsoalso reapreap thethe rewardsrewards ofof collecting collecting thethe g,iun.gum. However, after the bulk of the gum has beenbeen harvested, the odd tears of gum,gum, whichwhich continue to be produced by the tree, cancan bebe collected byby anyany otherother person.person. TreesTrees inin wadiswadis oror elsewhere, wherewhere thethe leaves had not been shedshed earlier,earlier, may bebe tappedtapped andand subsequentlysubsequently harvested at a later date than the others.

As far asas possible,possible, thethe tearstears areare pickedpicked byby handhand fromfrom thethe stemsstems andand branchesbranches wherewhere theythey have formed, mldand not by knocking to the groundground where they can pick upup dirt.dirt. They are placed in an open basket by the collector, the use of plastic sacks is discouraged since they have been found to increase the risk of moisture retention andand mouldmould formation.

At present, little cleaning or sorting is undertaken by the producer (collector) of the gum. Since he is paid at the auctionauction according to the weight of gum ratherrather thanthan on011 qualityquality criteriacriteria (within limits,limits, sincesince hishis gtungum would not be acceptedaccepted for auctionauction if itit werewere grosslygrossly contaminated), there is no greatgreat incentive forfor himhim to spendspend time cleaningcleaning andand sortingsorting it. it. Some degree of cleaning and sorting mayrnay bebe undertaken byby smallsmall village traderstraders to whom the producer sells him gum, but it is usually undertaken byby thethe largelarge traders after it has been sold at auction andand priorprior toto them sellingselling itit toto thethe GAC.GAC. IfIf the the GACGAC intervenesintervenes toto buybuy thethe gum at auction because it has not reached the floor price, then the company undertakes the cleaning and sorting at its own warehouses inin thethe regionalregional centres inin thethe gum belt. l313

Cleaning andand sorting is done by hand, usuallyusually by women, whowho sort it on thethe groundground intointo piles of whole tears andand smallersmaller pieces,pieces, separatingseparating any excessively dark gumgum andand removingremoving pieces of bark and other foreignforeign matter.matter. GumGum sorted in this way by the trader is sold on to the GACGAC andand baggedbagged andand transportedtransported to itsits warehouseswarehouses at Port SudanSudan asas 'Selected''Selected' and 'Cleaned' gum, distinctdistinct fromfrom 'Natural''Natural' gum. Unlike some other countries,countries, separationseparation of mixtures of gum fromfrom differentdifferent botanicalbotanical sources (such as A. senegalsenegal and A. seyal) is notnot necessary because it is kept quitequite separateseparate duringduring itsits collection.collection.

On arrival at the GAC dept atat PortPort Sudan,Sudan, every consignmentconsipment ofof gum gum hashab hashab isis re-cleaned,re-cleaned, sorted and gradedgraded inin preparationpreparation forfor export.export. Until 1991 this operation was carriedcarried out manually. SinceSince then,then, itit hashas beenbeen mechanised using a system ofof conveyor belts and shaking and sieving machines. TheThe traders'traders' bagsbags ofof cleaned cleaned gum are upturnedupturned ontoonto anan inclinedinclined moving belt, which takes the gum up toto thethe shakersshakers andand sieves;sieves; a person is presentpresent atat thethe start ofof the the beltbelt toto removeremove anyany lumpslumps thatthat areare veryvery large.large. AfterAfter separationseparation ofof the the dustdust andand under-sized piecespieces byby sieving, the remaining lumps of gum pass on a belt between lines of women who give them a final inspection - any remaining foreign matermater (such as stones) oror dark colouredcoloured pieces pieces are are removed byby hand.hand. AtAt thethe endend ofof thethe conveyor belt the gum isis bagged and weighed ready for export or it is transferred to the kibbling machine for further processing.

The outputs from the cleaning and sorting operations are graded and sold accordingaccording to thethe following mainmain designations; exportexport pricesprices forfor 1994/95 areare alsoalso indicatedindicated (per tonne, FOB Port Sudan):

Hand Picked Selected (HPS) US$4850 Cleaned US$4200 Siftings na Dust US$2760 Red na

HPS gum is inin thethe formform ofof clean, clean, wholewhole tearstears (but(but notnot thethe veryvery largest)largest) whichwhich havehave beenbeen carefully selected and which fetch aa premiumpremium price.price. Cleaned gumgum is the gumgum whichwhich isis bagged at the end of the conveyor belt, and may comprise wholewhole oror brokenbroken lumps. SiftingsSiftings are the smaller piecespieces of sieved gum, and dust is the finefine material which passespasses throughthrough hehe finest sieve.sieve. RedRed gumgum isis thethe darkdark gumgum removedremoved byby handhand fromfrom thethe otherother lumps.lumps. ExportedExported gum is packaged in new 50-kg jute bags. c) Monitoring and Quality Control

The intrinsically highhigh qualityquality of Sudanese gum arabic (hashab), combinedcombined with an efficient, long-established systemsystem ofof collectioncollection andand post-harvestpost-harvest handling,handling, means means thatthat thethe problemsproblems ofof quality controlcontrol are are not not asas greatgreat inin SudanSudan asas theythey areare forfor somesome otherother countries.countries. A well-well­ organised extension service ensures that the people who tap the trees and collect the gum do it in the correct manner (for example,example, no mixingmixing ofof gumgum fromfrom differentdifferent botanicalbotanical sources,sources, picldngpicking the gum fromfrom' the tree ratherrather than off the ground,ground, placing it in basketsbaskets ratherrather thanthan closed bags) and these aspects play an important part in determining the qualityquality ofof the the gumgum 14 which arrives at the market forfor auction. Traders who purchase the gum (or the GAC) will also do so only ifif it it matches matches theirtheir own own visualvisual criteriacriteria forfor cleanlinesscleanliness andand this,this, too,too, instilsinstils inin the producer a sensesense ofof qualityquality consciousnessconsciousness (although(although not,not, perhaps,perhaps, asas greatgreat asas if there were a financial incentive toto produceproduce highhigh qualityquality gum).gum). InIn turn,turn, thethe traderstraders whowho cleanclean andand sort the gum before selling it on to the GAC know that they will be penalised if, during the re-cleaning, the gum is found to be below the expected quality.

During the course of the lastlast fewfew yearsyears aa moremore rigorousrigorous systemsystem forfor qualityquality controlcontrol andand certification hashas been putput in placeplace atat thethe GAC'sGAC's cleaningcleaning andand processingprocessing facilityfacility atat PortPort Sudan. AA purpose-built purpose-built laboratorylaboratory was establishedestablished in earlyearly 19921992 andand equippedequipped with newnew equipment. TheThe laboratory laboratory isis small,small, butbut cleanclean andand air-conditioned air-conditioned andand hashas aa well-stockedwell-stocked chemical store.store.

All gum isis sampled whenwhen itit arrivesarrives atat PortPort Sudan,Sudan, inin aa proper,proper, statisticalstatistical manner,manner, eacheach ofof2l 21 bags outout ofof every every 400400 areare emptied emptied andand sub-sampledsub-sampled byby quartering;quartering; thethe combinedcombined sub-sub­ samples are further sampled toto givegive aa representative I-kg1-kg sample. sample. Half of thisthis samplesample isis grotmdground to a powderpowder toto provideprovide thethe materialmaterial forfor analysis;analysis; i.e. lossloss onon dryingdrying andand opticaloptical rotation. TheThe latterlatter parameter parameter isis sufficientsufficient toto identifyidentify anyany gumgum talhatalha inin aa mixturemixture withwith gumgum hashab. TheThe bags bags of of up-country up-country gumgum areare eacheach labelledlabelled withwith aa numbernumber whichwhich identifiesidentifies thethe trader, so any problem brought to light by thethe quality control measures can be discussed and resolved with the trader concerned.

During mechanical cleaningcleaning aa samplesample ofof gumgum is takentaken everyevery hourhour forfor analysisanalysis (optical(optical rotation and acid-insoluble matter).matter). Finally,Finally, duringduring baggingbagging aa samplesample isis takentaken forfor analysis:analysis: loss on drying,drying, opticaloptical rotation, acid-insoluble mattermatter and totaltotal ash are determined and the details areare recordedrecorded onon aa CertificateCertificate ofof Analysis. Analysis. TIusThis is presented withwith each batch of kibbled, HIPSHPS or or cleanedcleaned gum gum that that is is exported. exported. A sample of each exportexport batch (identical to the sample analysed forfor certification) is kept for reference for one season. 15

PRODUCTION ANDAND MARKETS MA " k TS OFOF GUMGUM ARABIC ARA IC FROM FRENCH SPEAKING WESTWEST AFRICAN COUNTRIES

D. MULLER!MULLERI and ISSOUFOUISSOUFOUWATA WATA 22

!Applications'Applications Techniques Forestieres,Forestieres, FranceFrance 22MinistryMinistry ofof WaterWater andand Environment,Environment, NigerNiger

Introduction About 30% ofof the the worldworld productionproduction ofof gum gum arabicarabic comescomes fromfrom the the French-spealcing French-speaking west African countries (FSWACs). TheThe mainmain producersproducers areare Chad,Chad, Niger,Niger, BurkinaBurkina Faso,Faso, Mali,Mali, Senegal and Mauritania with some exports recorded for Cameroon and the Central African RepUblic.Republic. TheThe mainmain sourcessources ofof gum gum arabicarabic areare AcaciaAcacia senegalsenegal (hard(hard gum)gum) andand A.A. seyalseyal (flaky gum).gum). Commercial gum gum arabicarabic includesincludes somesome gum fromfrom AcaciaAcacia leata,leata, A. polyacantha andand A. A. dudgeoni.dudgeoni. EuropeEurope is is the the major major destination destination ofof exported exported gumgum arabicarabic fromfrom FSWFSWACsACs though USA has emerged as an important destination in the last 2-3 years.

Production Table 1 providesprovides 7-year7-year arumalannual average production data (1980-1994) of gumgum arabicarabic (by(by botanic source) from six FSWACs.FSWACs. Since very littlelittle ofof thethe gurngum producedproduced isis consumedconsumed domestically (except perhapsperhaps Senegal), exportexport levelslevels are also a good indicator of domesticdomestic production. TableTable 22 gives thethe export levelslevels ofof gumgum arabic fromfrom FSWFSWACs.ACs. There was an upward trendtrend inin the production ofof gum arabic over the 6-year period (1991-1996). TheThe production reached reached a a peakpeak levellevel ofof more than 94009400 tonstons (about(about 30%30% ofof thethe worldworld production) in 1996.1996. Chad is thethe mainmain producerproducer ofof gumgum arabicarabic andand inin 1995,1995, itit becamebecame thethe second most important producer afterafter Sudan.

Gum arabic of commercecommerce from Chad isis producedproduced fromfrom bothboth AcaciaAcacia senegalsenegal andand A.A. seyal.seyal. Over the last 2-32-3 years,years, increasingincreasing amountsamounts ofof gumgum arabicarabic fi-omfrom Chad have been comingcoming from A. seyal.seya!. CameroonCameroon and thethe RepublicRepublic ofof CentralCentral AfricaAfrica (RCA)(RCA) havehave recordedrecorded significant quantitiesquantities ofof exportedexported gumgum arabic.arabic. CameroonCameroon isis saidsaid toto export flaky gum, i.e., from Acacia seyal.seyaZ. It isis believedbelieved that mostmost ofof thethe gumgum fromfrom CameroonCameroon and thethe RCARCA originate from Chad and Sudan respectively.

Based on the 7-year annual averages (Table 1), production in the other FSWACs was in the following descending order: Senegal, Mali, Mauritania,Mauritania, NigerNiger andand BurkinaBurkina Faso.Faso. However,However, production data over the 6-year period (1991-1996)(1991-1996) have revealed lower annualannual averages.averages. Official records show thatthat most of the gumgum arabicarabic fromfrom SenegalSenegal andand MauritaniaMauritania is fromfrom Acacia senegal whilewhile MaliMali exportsexports bothboth A.A. senegal andand A.A. seyalseyal gurngum. It isis believedbelieved thatthat most of the gum arabicarabic fromfrom SenegalSenegal comprisescomprises re-exportsre-exports fromfrom MaliMali andand Mauritania. Mauritania. It is also said that about 200 tonnes/year of gum arabic in Senegal is used in the locallocal foodfood andand pharmaceutical industries. 16

Table 1: Summary ofof gumgum arabicarabic datadata forfor five five French-spealcingFrench-speaking West AfricanAfrican countries,countries, showingshowing botanical source,source, production, imports into the EC, and main European markets

CountryMainCountry Main botanical ArmualAnnual ArmualAnnual imports to ECEC. Source production and main European Markets Chad A. senegal 3,500 EC 3,500 A. seyal 1,500 France 2,800 UK 600

Mali A. senegal 500 EC 140 A. seyal France 45

Mauritania A. senegal 400 EC 180

Niger A. senegal 300 EC 150 A. seyal France 115

BurkinaBurlcina FasoFaso A. senegal 200-300 A seyal

Senegal A. senegal 700 EC 450 France 300 UK 130

Table 2: Export of gum arabic from FSWA countries (in tonnes) 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996*

Chad 2188 2450 3696 4662 7021 7315 R.c.A.R.C.A. 74 78 33 119 126 639 Senegal 262 261 459 362 662 213 Mauritania 32 48 55 166 258 256

Cameroon 95 647 841 1031 161 560 Niger 27 155 228 240 110 242 Mali 112 31 77 249 295 229

R.c.I.R.C.I. 0 0 26 50 15 20 TOTAL FSWACFSWAC 2790 3670 5415 6879 8648 9474 TOTAL World 37089 31764 27348 41789 38568 32590 %lWorld%/World 7.52 11.55 19.8 16.46 22.42 29.07 * Some datadata are missing

Production ofof gum arabic in Niger is far below the 1980s1980s level when itit was amongamong thethe five toptop producingproducing countriescountries inin thethe world.world. It produces both A. senegalsenegal and A. seyal gum.gum. A sig,nificantsignificant amountamount ofof gum arabicarabic - a a mixturemixture of hardhard andand flakyflaky gumsgums comescomes fromfrom Burkina Faso.Faso. OneOne significantsignificant developmentdevelopment in Niger is the productionproduction of a specialised 17

product under thethe trade name 'clean'clean siftedsifted NigerNiger gum'.gum'. The product is a mixture of 60% flaky gum and 40% hardhard gumgum destineddestined to satisfysatisfY the demand of a limited number of importers inin thethe industrialised countries.countries. BurkinaBurkina Faso has been excluded from the wide marketing circuit of gum arabic. ItIt hashas contributedcontributed though in a discontinuous andand indirectindirect ways (with border countries such as Mali andand Niger acting as gogo betweens)betweens) toto supplyingsupplying the world market.

Markets The EuropeanEuropean Community (EC)(EC) isis the mainmain regionalregional market forfor gum arabicarabic fromfrom FSWACs (Table 3).3). France isis the leadingleading importer withinwithin thethe EC which inin 19961996 accounted for 54% of the total imports fromfrom FSWACs.FSWACs. UK is the secondsecond largestlargest importerimporter though in 1996 the total amount imported fellfell belowbelow thethe 6-6-yearyear annualannual average.average. ImportsImports into Germany have shownshown a generalgeneral increaseincrease over thethe lastlast 44 years.years. Belgium-Lux andand Italy are other emerging markets in the EC.

Outside the EC, USAUSA isis thethe singlesingle mostmost important important tradingtrading partner.partner. In 19961996 alone,alone, itit accounted for 33% of the total imports from FSWACs.FSWACs. ChadChad isis thethe mainmain suppliersupplier ofof gum gum arabic toto USA. ItIt appears appears thatthat thisthis increaseincrease isis thethe resultresult ofof two two mainmain factorsfactors namelynamely thethe TCP project by FAOF AO which raised the awareness of the potential and value of gum arabicarabic in Chad.Chad. ThisThis was was followed followed byby improvements improvements inin thethe productionproduction andand qualityquality of locallylocally produced gum arabic. AtAt about about thethe samesame timetime aa workshopworkshop was held by USAID in 19941994 in N'Djanena which offered USA with opportunities of a ready source ofof goodgood qualityquality gumgum arabic. InIn additionaddition toto USA,USA, smallsmall quantitiesquantities ofof gumgum arabicarabic have been exported to SouthSouth Korea, Sweden, India andand PakistanPakistan though in a sporadic manner.

Table 3: Countries importing raw gum arabic from the FSWAC; figures are in tonnes 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 6-year annual average France 1739 2107 3505 4741 4483 5431 3668 U.S.A. 0 18 60 341 1415 2425 710 GermanyGeimany 37 49 827 432 1139 705 532 U.K. 1008 1476 894 1103 1396 880 1126 Belgium-Lux 0 0 0 39 49 66 26

Italy 0 0 3 0 0 38 18

RECENT ADVANCESADVANCES ON CLASSIFICATION ANDAND STATUSSTATUS OFOF THE MAIN GUM- RESINRESIN PRODUCINGPRODUCING SPECIESSPECIES ININ THETHE FAMILYFAMILY BURSERACEAEBURSE CEAE

FRANCIS N. GACHATHIGACHATHI Kenya Forestry Research Institute P.O. Box 20412 Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract Burseraceae isis a family ofof 17 genera with some 560 species,species, which are widespread in the tropics especially inin Africa, MalaysiaMalaysia andand SouthSouth America.America. These are treestrees oror shrubsshrubs characterised by aromatic resins from thethe barkbark usedused eveneven inin Biblical Biblical times times for for franlcincense, frankincense, myrrh and perfumes. TheThe mainmain resin-producingresin-producing speciesspecies areare foundfound inin thethe generagenera BoswelliaBoswellia and CommiphoraCommiphora whichwhich areare common in thethe hothot drylands.drylands. Despite early recognition,recopition, classification andand nomenclaturenomenclature of of membersmembers of of thethe twotwo genera, andand particularly thosethose of Commiphora have remainedremained unstable.unstable. They have beenbeen describeddescribed byby botanistsbotanists asas taxonomically difficult, frustratingfrustrating oror confusing.confusing. ThisThis isis largelylargely because of the nature ofof the the plants themselves, appearingappearing leaflessleafless andand inin aa drought-dormant conditioncondition for for muchmuch ofof thethe year. This has led to thethe practicepractice ofof describing describing speciesspecies fromfrom inadequateinadequate andand oftenoften sterilesterile material. As aa result,result, somesome speciesspecies havehave beenbeen describeddescribed byby differentdifferent botanistsbotanists under different names.names. Also,Also, sterilesterile plantsplants fromfrom otherother generagenera have been described as species of either Boswellia oror Commiphora. ForFor example,example, six plants described by Engler (the(the chiefchief worker on the genus Commiphora) as new species of Commiphora belonged in fact to other genera and inin otherother families.families. Several plantsplants withinwithin the two generagenera therefore have beenbeen known, simultaneously oror successively,successively, by by two two oror more more different different names. names. ThisThis instabilityinstability ofof plant names is aa realreal disadvantagedisadvantage as allall informationinformation about plants and their productsproducts is communicated by name.name. Recent taxonomic revisions of the familyfamily BurseraceaeBurseraceae havehave resulted in the union of twotwo oror moremore speciesspecies previouslypreviously consideredconsidered distinct,distinct, splittingsplitting whatwhat was considered previously to be one species into two or more species or outright rejection of wrong names broughtbrought aboutabout byby mis-identification.mis-identification. Most names of the membersmembers of thethe family BurseraceaeBurseraceae areare thereforetherefore marredmarred byby numerousnumerous synonyms,synonyms, subspecies,subspecies, varieties,varieties, longlong descriptions and additional notes.notes. TheThe aimaim ofof this this paperpaper isis to surveysurvey the recent advancesadvances onon classification and and looklook atat the statusstatus ofof thethe mainmain resin-producingresin-producing species in thethe familyfamily Burseraceae with particular reference to the region ofof Tropical Tropical EastEast Africa.Africa.

Introduction Production ofof gum resins from membersmembers of thethe familyfamily BurseraceaeBurseraceae is ofof economic economic importance in somesome tropicaltropical countries.countries. Although substantial quantitiesquantities especiallyespecially of frankincense and myrrhmyrrh fromfrom thethe genera Boswellia and Commiphora are harvestedharvested annually for sale, littlelittle isis knownknown aboutabout thethe status ofof thethe main gum resin-producing speciesspecies withinwithin thethe family. RecentRecent classificationsclassifications placeplace thethe familyfamily BurseraceaeBurseraceae KunthKunth inin thethe OrderOrder SapindalesSapindales Bentham and Hooker. ThisThis isis aa natural natural groupgroup consistingconsisting ofof 15 15 familiesfamilies characterisedcharacterised byby their woody habit, compound or cleft leaves,leaves, twotwo whorlswhorls ofof stamens,stamens, a well-developedwell-developed 19 nectary-disk and a syncarpous ovary with a limited number (1-2) of ovules in eacheach loculelocule (Cronquest, 1981).1981).

The family BurseraceaeBurseraceae consistsconsists ofof 17 genera and about 600 species which are widespread in thethe tropicstropics butbut especiallyespecially wellwell representedrepresented inin tropicaltropical America,America, MalaysiaMalaysia andand north-north­ eastern Africa.Africa. The largest genera includeinclude Bursera, thethe typetype genusgenus confinedconfmed toto tropicaltropical America with a centrecentre ofof greatest greatest diversitydiversity inin MexicoMexico andand CommzphoraCommiphora which is widelywidely spread in the less humid parts of tropical Africa and Madagascar with fewer species in West Africa, Iran, Pakistan, India, SriSri LankaLanka andand BrazilBrazil (Gillett,(Gillett, 1991).1991).

Diagnostic featuresfeatures The family Burseraceae is composed of trees and shrubsshrubs withwith prominent verticalvertical resinresin ductsducts in the bark. TheThe leaves, leaves, whichwhich areare compound,compound, areare spirallyspirally arrangedarranged and crowded at twig-twig­ tips. The flowers are rather small andand areare eithereither solitarysolitary or inflorescencesinflorescences usually at the twig-ends, regularregular with parts in threes to fives,fives, bisexual oror moremore oftenoften unisexual,unisexual, thethe plantsplants often dioecious. TheThe sepalssepals areare fusedfused andand areare eithereither imbricateimbricate oror valvate,valvate, petalspetals free,free, alsoalso valvate oror imbricate.imbricate. TheThe stamensstamens areare equalequal to oror double the number of petals and usually in two whorls. TheThe ovaryovary isis superiorsuperior with three toto five carpels andand twotwo toto fivefive locules.locules. The fruit isis usuallyusually aa drupe,drupe, sometimessometimes aa capsule.capsule. Seeds are without endosperm.

Classification andand chief genera genera Burseraceae can be conveniently divided into three tribes as follows:

Protieae. DrupeDrupe with with two two to to five five free free or or adhering adhering but but not not fused fused parts:parts: sixsix genera,genera, includingincluding Protium and Tetragastris.

Burserae. Drupe with endocarpendocarp completelycompletely fused, exocarp dehiscing by valves:valves: fivefive genera, including Boswellia, BurseraBursera andand Commiphora.

Canariae.Cauariae. Drupe withwith completelycompletely fusedfused endocarp:endocarp: sixSIX genera,genera, includingincluding Canariurn,Canarium, Dacryodes, Haplolobus andand Santiria.

Of the three tribes, Burserae is of economic importance asas farfar asas gumgun resinsresins areare concerned.concerned. Frankincense comes from Boswellia, myrrh fromfrom Commiphora,Commiphora, while varnishvarnish isis obtainedobtained fi-omfrom Bursera.Bursera.

Burseraceae in tropical East AfricaAfrica The most recent work on BurseraceaeBurseraceae in East Africa is that ofof Gillett,Gillett, (1991)(1991) "Flora"Flora ofof Tropical EastEast AfricaAfrica (FTEA)(FTEA)". " . WithinWithin thethe floraflora area,area, thethe farnilyfamily isis representedrepresented by threethree genera: Canarium with 2 species,species, Boswellia withwith 4, and Commiphora withwith 66.66. CanariumCanarium schweinfurthii Engl.Engl. whichwhich isis a tall tree attaining 40 m with a straight cylindrical trunk and compound leavesleaves isis found inin UgandaUganda andand northernnorthern TanzaniaTanzania aroundaround LakeLake Victoria.Victoria. Canarium madagascariense Engl.Engl. ,which,which differsdiffers fromfrom C.C. schweifurthiischweifurthii in its fewerfewer leafletsleaflets seems to be approachingapproaching extinction.extinction. It has only been collectedcollected twice since 1949 in west Usambara, TanzaniaTanzania (Gillett,(Gillett, 1991). Boswellia and Commiphora,Commiphora, whichwhich produceproduce frankincense andand myrrhmyrrh respectively are well adapted to thethe hothot drylandsdrylands usually below 20

2000 m,m, becoming most munerousnumerous in north-eastern KenyaKenya and extending into Somalia and Ethiopia.

Problems associated with identificationidentification of BoswelliaBoswellia andand CommiphoraCommiphora species Despite their early recognition,recognition, classificationclassification andand nomenclaturenomenclature ofof membersmembers ofof the twotwo genera, BoswelliaBoswellia andand CommiphoraComnuphora inin tropicaltropical EastEast AfricaAfrica havehave remained unstable. TheyThey have been described by various botanists asas taxonomicallytaxonomically difficult, frustrating or simply confusing. ThisThis isis largelylargely becausebecause ofof the the naturenature of the plants themselves,themselves, appearing leafless and in drought-dolinantdrought-dormant conditioncondition for for muchmuch ofof the year andand the the difficultydifficulty ofof obtaining obtaining complete specimensspecimens showingshowing bothboth malemale and female flowers, leaves, fruits and bark,bark, thethe useful characters in identifying membersmembers ofof thesethese groups.groups. TheThe flowersflowers andand fruitsfruits areare seldomseldom produced withwith thethe leaves andand areare thereforetherefore difficultdifficult to to identify.identify. The situationsituation is worsened further byby the fact that Commiphora is a gregarious genus and where one speciesspecies is found,found, several othersothers areare likelylikely to to occuroccur as as well well (Beenje,(Beenje, 1994). 1994). ThisThis hashas ledled toto the practice ofof describing species from inadequateinadequate andand oftenoften sterilesterile material.material. As a result some species have been described byby different botanistsbotanists underunder differentdifferent names. names. Also, sterile plants from other genera have been described as species of either BoswelliaBoswellia oror Commiphora.Commip hora. ForFor example, six plants described byby Engler (the(the chiefchief workerworker on thethe genus Commiphora) as new species of Commiphora belonged in fact to other genera and were in other families:families: two toto LanneaLannea andand two toto SclerocaryaSclerocarya (Anacardiaceae),(Anacardiaceae), one toto PlatycelyphiurnPlatycelyphium (papilionaceae)(Papilionaceae) andand oneone to Combretum (Gillett, 1973).1973).

Even today sterile plants ofof LanneaLannea continue toto bebe mistaken for Commiphora. InIn Lannea,Lannea, the bark isis toughtough like string andand nearlynearly alwaysalways somesome oftheof the hairshairs areare stellate.stellate. Such bark does not occur in CornmiphoraCommiphora and neither do such hairs. Also,Also, sterile sterile specimens specimens of of Boswellia Boswellia neglecta S. Moore Rae readilyreadily confused with Lannea alata Engl.Engl. whichwhich oftenoften occursoccurs together with it and may bebe distinguished byby itsits narrowlynarrowly wingedwinged leaf-rachis.leaf-rachis. SeveralSeveral plantsplants within the two genera therefore have been known, simultaneously or successively, by two or more differentdifferent names.names. Recent classifications separateseparate thethe twotwo genera usingusing the fruit asas follows:

Boswellia: Fruit aa (2)3(4-5)(2)3(4-5) -- valvedvalved pseudocapsule,pseudocapsule, releasingreleasing 11 - seededseeded nutletsnutlets onon dehiscence; calyx-lobes and petals 5, stamens 10;10; leaves pinnate;pinnate; truetrue spinesspines absent.absent.

Commiphora: FruitFruit aa dehiscentdehiscent drupe,drupe, splittingsplitting intointo 2(-4)2(-4) valvesvalves disclosingdisclosing aa 1(-2)-seeded1(-2)-seeded stone which is usually surrounded (at least at the base) by a red oror orange,orange, fleshyfleshy pseudoaril.pseudoaril. Calyx-lobes and petalspetals 4,4, stamensstamens 88 (rarely(rarely 4).4). Leaves simple, 1-3-foliate, or pinnate; spines often present.

The speciesspecies of Boswellia Boswellia producing producing frankincensefrankin cense The genus Boswellia Roxb.Roxb. exex Colebr.Colebr. isis composed ofof 20 or soso speciesspecies extendingextending from Ivory Coast to India and south to N.E. Tanzania and N. Madagascar but most numerous inin N.E. tropical Africa.Africa. TheseThese areare unarmedunarmed shrubsshrubs oror smallsmall toto medium-sizedmedium-sized treestrees exudingexuding a watery aromatic substancesubstance from from the the bark bark which which slowly slowly hardens hardens to to a a resin resin on on exposure. exposure. In tropical East Africa, the genus Boswellia is represented by fourfour species:species: B.B. papyrifera,papyrijera, B.B. 21 rivae, B. neglecta and B. microphylla. TheseThese areare easily distinguished by the number, shape and size of their leaflets.

True frankincense isis obtained fromfrom B.B. carteri Birdw, and some otherother speciesspecies g,rowinggrowing in nOlihemnorthern Somalia, Dhofar andand Hadhramaut.Hadhramaut. In tropicaltropical EastEast Africa,Africa, thethe mainmain speciesspecies producing frankincensefrankincense is is B.B. papyrijora,papyrifora, foundfound inin Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia andand B.B. neglecta S. Moore (B.(B. hilderbrandtii Engl.) which is abundant in dry bushland of northernnorthem Kenya. TheThe latterlatter growsgrows onon basementbasement complexcomplex or lava and red sandysandy soilssoils at altitude 200- 13001300 mm withwith lessless than 600 mm of annual rainfall.

The speciesspecies ofof CommiphoraCommiphora producingproducing myrrh The genus Commiphora Jacq. comprises about 190 species, common in the drylands. TheseThese are generally small to medium-sized dioecious trees with outer bark often peeling in papery flakes or scrollsscrolls exposingexposing thethe greengreen oror bluishbluish underunder bark. bark. The leaves are compound, spirally arranged and usually clustered at the ends ofofthe the short and spiny - tipped shoots.

In EastEast AfricaAfrica thethe genusgenus CommiphoraCommiphora is representedrepresented byby about 6666 species.species. This is aa taxonomically difficultdifficult groupgroup andand classificationclassification ofof thethe differentdifferent groups is made possible by first treating thethe entire groupgoup intointo 1414 sectionssections byby useuse ofof combined combined characterscharacters andand thenthen applying a delimiting key to eacheach section.section. These sections are as follows:follows: Rosratae (1),(1), Abyssinicae (13),(13), CommiphoraCommiphora (3),(3), Coriaceae (1), Campestres (7), AfricanaeAfricanae (7), Latifoliolatae (10), Pedunculatae (1),(1), ArillopsidiumArillopsidium (8), Ugogenses (1), Hildebrandtianae (4), HemprichiaHemprichia (6),(6), CiliattaeCiliattae (1)(1) andand OpobalsameaeOpobalsameae (2)(2) species.species. The different species are distinguished by by theirtheir resinresin andand colourcolour ofof thethe barkbark asas wellwell as details of spines and leaves which are not alwaysalways available.available.

Several speciesspecies ofof Commiphora produceproduce gumgum resinsresins whichwhich are used locally, particularly byby the Islamic communities. TheThe chiefchief CommiphoraCommiphora gum ofof economiceconomic importanceimportance is myrrh, produced byby CC. myrrha (C.(C myrrha var. molmol). This is an importantimportant article of commerce in N.E. KenyaKenya which isis locallylocally knownknown asas MolmolMolmol (Somali).(Somali). OtherOther speciesspecies producingproducing myrrhmyrrh but ofofless less value include CC. habessinicahabessinica (C.(C madagascariensis), C.C schimperischimperi (C.(c. buraensis),buraensis), C.C africana (C.(c. pilosa) andand C.C confusa.con/usa. TheseThese species species areare quitequite abundantabundant inin northernnorthern Kenya.Kenya. Gum resins fromfrom CC. holtiziana spp.spp. holtzianaholtziana (C(C. caerurea)caerurea) and C.C pseudopseudopaolipaoli (C.(C paolii) are lcnownknown asas opoponax andand are used asas ticktick repellent.repellent. These areare ofof commercial commercial valuevalue especially inin thethe USAUSA wherewhere theythey areare usedused onon domesticdomestic animals.animals. TheThe samesame resinsresins areare usedused against snake bite.bite. There are also otherother speciesspecies such asas C.C incisa(C.incisa(C candidula),candidula), C.C campestris var. camppestris(Ccamppestris(C. scheffleri)scheifieri) which produce gums that are locally chewed.

Conclusion Over the last few years, itit hashas beenbeen increasinglyincreasingly evidentevident thatthat thethe production production of of franlcincense frankincense and myrrh from Boswellia and Commiphora genera of Burseraceae is gaininggaining in economiceconomic importance particularlyparticularly forfor somesome tropicaltropical AfricanAfrican countries.countries. AlthoughAlthough substantialsubstantial quantitiesquantities of these products are harvested annually,annually, littlelittle isis officiallyofficially knownknown aboutabout thethe status ofof the trees themselves.themselves. Recent classifications suchsuch as "An"An IntegratedIntegrated SystemsSystems ofof Flowering Flowering Plants" byby Arthur Cronquist (1981) and "The Flora of Tropical East Africa"Africa" by JanJan GillettGillett (1991) have greatly contributed to to the understandingunderstanding ofof the membersmembers of thethe familyfamily 22

Burseraceae. These are naturalnatural classifications withwith highhigh level of productivity and all the groups which they delimit are natural. UsefulUseful aromaticaromatic resinsresins forfor instanceinstance occuroccur inin thethe tribetribe Burserae where frankincense andand myrrh are restricted toto the twotwo genera,genera, BoswelliaBoswellia andand CommiphoraComrniphora respectively.respectively. Also,Also, gum resins commercially knownknown as opoponax used as ticktick repellent occur withinwithin SectionSection HemprichiaHemprichia ofof Commiphora. Commiphora. It isis thereforetherefore possiblepossible toto predict with some degree of accuracy which group contains whatwhat productproduct byby investigating aa single species and hence restrictrestrict the areas of investigation within the family.

References Beentje, H.J. 1994.1994. Kenya Trees, Shrubs and Lianas.Lianas. National Museums of Kenya,Kenya, Nairobi, 722pp.

Cronquest, 1981. AnAn integ,rated integrated systemsystem of classification of flowering flowering plantsplants (with a newnew foreword by ArmenAnnen TakhtajTakhtajan). an). ColumbiaColumbia University Press, New York.

Gillett, lB.J.B. 1991. FloraFlora ofof Tropical Tropical EastEast AfricaAfrica - Burseraceae. A.A. Balkema,Balkema, Rotterdam,Rotterdam, Brookfield. 94 pp.

Gillett, J.B. 1973. CommiphoraCommiphora Jacq. Jacq. (Burseraceae)(Burseraceae) - Englerian speciesspecies whichwhich disappear.disappear. Kew Bull. Vol. 28(1),28(1), 25-28.25-28. 23

PLANT GUMS,G S, RESINS AND ESSENTIALESSENTIAL OILOIL RESOURCESRESOURCES IN AFRICA: POTENTIALS FOR DOMESTICATIONDOMESTICATION

D. O. LADIPO Centre for Environment, Renewable Natural Resources Management, Research and Development (CENRAD)(CENRAD) PMB 5052, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria Introduction The forests of Afi-icaAfiica areare fullfull ofof plantsplants andand particularlyparticularly treetree speciesspecies that people within and around them utilise forfor variousvarious purposes.purposes. Gum,Gum, resinresin andand essentialessential oil-producingoil-producing plantsplants faunform partpart ofof thesethese importantimportant species (see Fig. 1). ExtractionExtraction fromfrom wildwild sources still formsforms over 95% of the totaltotal productionproduction butbut deforestationdeforestation isis causingcausing greatgreat concernconcern asas genepoolsgenepools are becoming smaller andand smallersmaller withwith thethe imminentimminent tiu-eatthreat of severesevere geneticgenetic degradationdegradation or extinctionextinction in the casecase ofof some some ofof these these relativelyrelatively wildwild species.species. Genetic resourcesresources collection and conservation has commenced in some cases but the fullfull potentialspotentials ofof these these products areare still toto bebe realised,realised, despitedespite theirtheir immenseimmense socio-cultural,socio-cultural, economiceconomic and scientific importance.importance. Leakey and Izac (1996)(1996) inin consideringconsidering thethe domesticationdomestication andand commercialisation ofof non-timber forest productsproducts enumeratedenumerated somesome evolutionaryevolutionary stepssteps which extends fromfrom rawraw extractivism ofof wildwild productsproducts toto biotechnology.biotechnology. In In thethe casecase ofof gums, resins andand essentialessential oils, markets areare available, so thethe developmentdevelopment of commercialisation does notnot feature herehere although wewe maymay needneed toto helphelp marketmarket expansionexpansion in future.future. From the wildwild toto thethe semi-domesticated semi-domesticated stages,stages, farmersfarmers themselvesthemselves havehave exerted some selection pressure basedbased on acquiredacquired experiences in thethe fieldfield includingincluding markets, local or international. ThisThis is indigenous knowledgeknowledge (IK).(IK). DomesticationDomestication is not a new phenomenon. It is an old process which started very many centuriescenturies agoago forfor manymany plant species.species. Simon (1996) suggested thatthat it must be seenseen asas aa continuumcontinuum - from 'unmolested or unmodified state' toto managementmanagement ofof trees trees inin forestsforests (in-situ)(in-situ) toto cultivationcultivation of semi-domesticated to monomonocultural cultural plantations of advanced The definition of Harlan (1975) simplifies it as it says,says, "to domesticatedomesticate isis toto naturalisenaturalise toto human conditions and this involves human-induced changes in the genetics ofof a a plant". This paper reviews present efforts and identifies needs and potentials for the changechange in genetics' or geneticgenetic improvementimprovement ofof gum, resin and essential oil plants in AfricaAfrica toto facilitate full domestication.

Degradation ofof nativenative geneticgenetic resources The vegetation of mostmost AfricanAfrican forestsforests hashas beenbeen subjectedsubjected toto uncontrolleduncontrolled exploitationexploitation (IUFRO, 1989) for many decades.decades. In thethe drierdrier SahelianSahelian areasareas wherewhere manymany gum-gum- andand tarmin-talmin- producingproducing speciesspecies abound,abound, annualannual firesfires andand droughts have alsoalso increasedincreased inin severity andand frequency inin the pastpast 22 decades,decades, causingcausing significantsignificant changeschanges inin locallocal ecologies andand vegetations.vegetations. ThisThis hashas resultedresulted inin serious lossloss of genetic resources and the creation ofof a poor socio-economy forfor the rural poor who depend on these treestrees oror theirtheir products for survival. 24

Gums ResResins ns Essentail Oils

Acacia senegal Allanblac1daAllanblackia parvifloraparviflora Ocimum gratissimum A. albida Amphimas pterocmpoidas pterocarpoidas Piper guineensis A.dudgeoni Berlinia grandiflora A. farnesianafarnesiana Copaifera salikounda A. hockii Daniellia thurifera A. polycanthapolycantha Garcinia kola A. nilotica Zanthoxylum xanthoxyloides Burkea africana Nauclea latifolia Albizia zygia Pseudospondias microcarpa Combretum nigricans Pterocarpus ernaceus Spondias mombinmombin Carapa procera Sterculia setigera Ceiba pentandrapentandra Stercula tragacantha Tetraplaura tetraptera Albizia adianthifoliaadianthifolia Anogeisus leiocarpus Balanites aegyptica Cola gigantea Dialium guineensis Diospyrus mespiliformismespiliformis Entada africana Hidegardia barteri Piptademiastrum africanum Entandofragma spp

Figure 1. InventoryInventory ofof NativeNative Gum, Resin andand Essential Oil ProducingProducing Plants

Apart from deforestation whichwhich hashas resultedresulted inin loss of vitalvital germplasm,germplasm, Africa is notnot politically stable and many wars which are fought onon the continent contributecontribute toto lossloss ofof genetic resources eithereither in thethe fieldfield oror inin storage.storage. Can genetic resources be safely stored in Africa now? Yes,Yes, butbut duplicateduplicate copiescopies needneed toto be put away (IPGRI)(IPGRl) for security. AsAs deforestationdeforestation andand changechange inin conditionsconditions continue,continue, we will continue to lose vital germplasm, resources that are the building blocks forfor futurefuture development. IUFRO (1989) recognised thisthis problem and suggestedsuggested conservationconservation andand research on some multipurpose trees with DANIDA's contribution for seedseed storage.storage. In Nigeria, this project did not take off, but the document is still availableavailable andand cancan be useful.useful. IUFRO (1989) suggested immediate effort on genetic improvement and the development of effectiveeffective silvo-pastoralsilvo-pastoral management systemssystems forfor these continuallycontinually degradeddegraded andand stressed natural woodlands.woodlands. 25

Past Attempts onon GeneticGenetic Improvement FAO (1980) proposed aa project in SenegalSenegal andand Sudan, among other countries,countlies, for collection ofof the geneticgenetic resourcesresources of some tree speciesspecies includingincluding Acacia nilotica,nilotica, A.A. tortilis, Prosopis sppspp andand thethe well-knownwell-known gum-producing tree,tree, Acacia senegal. TheThe collection areas in these countries were identified and the taxonomic status of the species and their variants determined. This project commenced a significantly robust and soundly scientific approach to saving the continually degrading genepools of these species. Table 1I showsshows the statestate ofof fieldfield plantingsplantings of some gum-producinggum-producing species,species, particularlyparticularly A.A. senegal, inin manymany countriescountries inin Africa.Africa. In 1988,1988, FAOFAO developeddeveloped a projectproject planplan forfor many drylanddryland MPTs (see(see FAOFAO ProjectProject GCP/RAF/234IFRA),GCP/RAF/2341FRA), forfor TanzaniaTanzania andand manymany other African countries.

Table 1:1: Some Records of past general or provenance trials on some gum producing tree species in Africa (Modified after IUFRO,IUFRO, 1989)1989)

Species Year planted Location (Country) Acacia senegalsenegal 1973 Nigeria Mauritania Niger 1974 Senegal 1975 Senegal 1976 Senegal Sudan ParkiaParha biglobosabiglobosa 1977 Burkina Faso 1984 Burkina Faso 1991 Burkina Faso, Nigeria 1986 Mali

This plan recommended the followingfollowing steps:steps: a) Genetic resources collection (ex-situ(ex-situ and in-situ)in-situ) b) Genetic resources conservation c) Provenance trials, progeny trials and eventual breeding It also suggested clonal development and selection based on robust clonal trials andand thenthen the establishment of clonal seed orchards.orchards. The speciesspecies listedlisted includedincluded Acacia senegal,senegal, obviously becausebecause ofof its importance forfor thethe productionproduction ofof gumgum arabic.arabic. ConsideringConsidering thatthat gum arabic was mainly collected from the wild, FAO (1988)(1988) reportedreported that inin TanzaniaTanzania only 40 kg of seedseed was demanded while for AzadiractaAzadiracta indica, demand waswas 600 kg per annum. ThisThis shows thethe low level of planting practicedpracticed forfor mostmost ofof thesethese MPTs.MPTs. InIn A.A. senegal, five provenancesprovenances were identifiedidentified (Arusha, Singida, Ilangani, Tabora andand Mbinga) in this proposal. A networknetwork of 1414 countriescountries (2(2 regions)regions) waswas suggested,suggested, andand itit coveredcovered BurkinaBurkina Faso,Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Ethiopia, Gambia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal,Senegal, Somalia, Sudan and Tanzania. TwelveTwelve ofof these countries were involved in the networknetwork suggested by IUFRO (1989) on Acacia senegal (see(see Table 2). 26

On IUFRO'sTIJFRO's (1989)(1989) request,request, countriescountries suggested thethe species in whichwhich theythey werewere interestedinterested butbut this processprocess waswas probablyprobably wrong.wrong. It isis thusthus valuablevaluable thatthat aa preferencepreference survey on gum, resin andand tannintannin includingincluding essential-oilessential-oil bearingbearing treestrees bebe carried out in each of the countries.

Table 2: StatusStatus ofof in-country in-country activitiesactivities inin breedingbreeding andand relatedrelated researchresearch (Modified(Modified afterafter IUFRO, 1989) Country Biology ofof Clonal and Seed I Veg I Tissue ! Conserve tree spp Progeny Ordered!Ordered Prop. Culture i ! dev.dey. I Burkina Faso x x x x x Cameroon x x x Chad x x Ethiopia x Gambia x Kenya x x x x x x Mali x Mauritania x Niger x x x x Nigeria x x x x x x Senegal x x x x x x Somalia Sudan Tanzania x x x x x

The Process of Genetic ImprovementImprovement Many plants produce gums.gums. VariousVarious presentationspresentations at this meeting have already described gum-producing trees trees andand mentioned thethe various types whichwhich include:include: GumGum karayakaraya (Sterculia gum), S.S. villosa, Gum arabicarabic (Acacia(Acacia senegal gum), A.A. senegal,senegal, GumGum combretum (Combretum gum), Combretum nigicans; and GumGum talhatalha (Acacia(Acacia gum),gum), A.A. seyal and A. sieberiana.sieberiana. The situationsituation is thethe samesame withwith resinresin andand essential-oilessential-oil producingproducing plants (Fig. 1).1). Where many plants are involved in the productionproduction of useful products, wewe need to go through various processes inin order to get toto thethe prioritypriority speciesspecies andand goalsgoals ofof producing producing improved products (Fig. 2). It isis vitalvital thatthat aa listlist ofof wanted wanted speciesspecies andand traitstraits bebe generatedgenerated for each country. ThisThis processprocess ofof species species prioritisationprioritisation isis wellwell documenteddocumented by ICRAFICRAF (Jaenike et al.,a!., 1996)1996) andand cancan helphelp toto identifyidentify prioritypriority speciesspecies inin eacheach ofof the the countries.countries. Booth and Wickens (1988) described non-timber usesuses ofof selected arid zone trees andand shrubs in Africa. TheyThey providedprovided aa clearclear accountaccount ofof thethe usesuses andand thethe environmentalenvironmental needs of various multipurpose species, including thosethose ofof AcaciaAcacia senegal.senegal. TheirTheir accountaccount onon A.A. senegal has providedprovided thethe synthesissynthesis ofof information information criticallycritically neededneeded forfor developingdeveloping aa viable approach to the genetic improvementimprovement andand domestication ofof this this species.species. Besides, it is important that thethe criteriacriteria forfor considerationconsideration bebe identifiedidentified andand discusseddiscussed withwith farmers, users and in this case by foreign industries that use them and know whatwhat productproduct consumers need.need. In thethe casecase ofof gums, gums, thethe involvement involvement ofof the the FAO/WHO F AO/WHO ExpertExpert Committee'Committees son on FoodFood AdditivesAdditives is vital.vital. The support of the US NationalNational Academy of Sciences will also be invaluable so that the desired traits are considered for research, and followed strictly.strictly. Acacia senegal (the(the gumgum arabicarabic producingproducing tree) willwill bebe usedused as an 27

example here.here. However, for a multipurpose tree such as AcaciaAcacia senegal,senegal, desirabledesirable tree criteria may include: fast growth, drought resistance, high gum yield, production ofof highhigh quality non variable gum, and resistance to pests and diseases. The process of genetic improvement will continue to follow the pattern described in Fig. 3, where range-widerange-wide germplasmgernlplasm collectioncollection andand conservation willwill bebe carried out andand inherent variability fully identified andand captured.captured. GeneticGenetic resourcesresources collection will follow the recommendationsrecommendations ofof FAO (1988),(1988), basedbased onon priorplior andand adequate adequate eco-geographic eco-geographic survey. Accessions willwill need toto be duplicatedduplicated at variousvarious locationslocations to preventprevent lossloss inin Africa as a result ofof constant constant instability.instability.

STAGE 11 (Identification Stage)Stage) TROPICAL FORESTS (COUNTRIES)

Villages Ethnobotanical Other Communities ED Surveys (IK)(IK) Identified species for specific products

lJ PrioritizationPrioritizatio nI I Scientific evaluation of product to ascertain quality or potentials (Screening products) PnontlsatloPnontisationnIl II ,It Selected 'few' speciesspecies andand identified trait preferences

Proceed tot Stage Stage II

Figure 2: Processes involved inin obtainingobtaining prioritypriority species andand determining goals of producing improved products 28

The next phasephase (Phase(Phase III)III) willwill includeinclude thethe processprocess forfor carryingcarrying outout actualactual geneticgenetic improvement (see Fig. 4). It will need toto firstfirst review andand evaluateevaluate thethe valuesvalues inin thethe worksworks already carried out in these countries. For example, in Tanzania, where provenancesprovenances havehave already been identified and work on them planned and carried out, breeding andand selectionselection can proceed. Selection should be carried out at this stage together with all otherother supportsupport activities such as vegetativevegetative propagation whichwhich cancan result in earlyearly clonalclonal trials.trials. TheThe development ofof seed orchards to ensure seed supply forfor commercialcommercial planting and thethe production of high-quality gums oror otherother products as may be the casecase shouldshould alsoalso bebe fullyfully considered. TheThe finalfinal phasephase (Phase(Phase IV)IV) willwill be thethe integrationintegration ofof thethe materialsmaterials produced from the processes described in Figures 2 toto 44 intointo appropriateappropriate productionproduction systems.systems. InIn this case, institutionsinstitutions suchsuch asas ICRAFICRAF andand NationalNational ResearchResearch Systems,Systems, (NARS),(NARS), includingincluding NGOs can proceed to work.work.

STAGE II (Genetic Improvement) Selected 'few' speciesspecies andand identifiedidentified trait preferences

1 Exploration (wide range)

Inter-population Intra-population variability s-tudies studies variability studies Provenance trials 1 1Progeny trials Conservation Further Conservation testsle~l~ (Live gene banks) (Live Gene Banks)

Figure 3. TheThe process process ofof genetic genetic improvementimprovement 29

Phase III

Collection andand Exchange DIVERSEDIVERSEPR PRODUCTSODUCTS of germplasm

Provenance // ProgenyProgeny Trials

ISelectionSe ection / Conservation

Breeding I \ VegetativeVege ative Propagation (VP)

Progeny Evaluations Cloud Evaluations I I

IInput nput of other genes (Hybridisation)

Further Breeding* Further Breeding* I Seed Orchard DevelopmentDeve opment I 1 Release of quality seed

UNIFORMUNIFO PRODUCTS

* Further breeding to solve specific problems (pests, diseases, etc.)

Figure 4: A regional ResearchResearch Approach Approach (VVest (West and East/South) forfor A.A. senegalsenegal 30

The improvedimproved materials producedproduced willwill havehave toto be integratedintegrated into a viableviable productionproduction system. Wiersum (1996) suggested the considerationconsideration of tree morphology.morphology. He suggestedsuggested that this will need toto bebe manipulatedmanipulated as it isis aa majormajor componentcomponent of thethe plant'splant's abilityability toto produce in its immediateimmediate environment.environment. Wiersum (1996) was referring to thethe integrationintegration of these trees in agroforestry systemssystems andand forfor this,this, hishis assertionsassertions areare viable.viable. This phase (Fig. 5)5) asas suggestedsuggested inin thethe presentpresent paperpaper will,will, however,however, considerconsider inin additionaddition to agroforestryagroforestry system, thethe intensiveintensive monoculturemono culture production systems which have soso farfar been practiced in Africa with Acacia senegal, in its present small trial plantings.plantings.

Phase IV (Production System)

Improvedmproved MaterialsMaterials

Intensive Monoculture .\Agroforestry SystemSystem System

NARS AND NATIONAL -Trees inin a row DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMSSYSTEMS - Parklands System - Multistreta Systems (ICRAFand NARS)

Figure 5: Integration ofof improvedimproved materialsmaterials intointo aa viableviable production systemsystem

It is commoncommon to considerconsider seedseed orchardsorchards mainlymainly asas reliable sourcessources ofof seed forfor afforestation, such orchards are also established to make genetic management of forests possible. Good "seed production areas"areas" cancan asas well be useful if carefulcareful selectionselection of individuals with desirabledesirable heritablehelitable traitstraits isis mademade fromfrom parent treestrees oror standsstands inin thethe forest.forest.

Through mass selection, genes can accumulateaccumulate if reselectionsres elections are confinedconfined toto standsstands generated by such selectionsselections in the previousprevious generation but this process can be saddledsaddled with variousvarious problems.problems. Therefore, a strictstrict programprogram forfor seedseed orchardorchard developmentdevelopment inin order to ensureensure thethe continuedcontinued supplysupply ofof qualityquality seedseed forfor developmentdevelopment isis suggestedsuggested (Ladipo et. al. 1993).1993). 31

StrategyStrateg,y Recent regional efforts on some Multi-purpose tree species such as Par/daParha biglobosabiglobosa (EEC) and Milicea excelsa (ITTO)(ITTO) showshow thatthat itit is possible and productive toto take a regional rather than aa nationalnational approachapproach toto researchresearch onon geneticgenetic improvementimprovement andand domestication. UsingUsing Acacia senegal asas anan example,example, a 1414 country collaboration (Table 2) is recommended.recommended. ForFor ease of researchresearch management,management, a WestWest andand East/SouthEast/South AfricaAfrica approach for researchresearch collaboration is suggested but full exchange of gellnplasmgermplasm betweenbetween both zones (East/West) is required and exchange of expertise between the groupsgroups (sub-(sub­ regions) willwill also be encouraged. ItIt isis importantimportant to consider this, because in the past, lack of sufficientsufficient researchresearch collaborationcollaboration causedcaused majormajor deficienciesdeficiencies inin researchresearch approach.approach. Particularly, there has never been sufficient exchange or interaction betweenbetween researchersresearchers or experts withinwithin the continent oror withinwithin regions.regions. This has caused a lotlot of duplicationduplication and waste of funds,fimds, which could have been better used to further research.research. With the efforts of the FAO, and IPGRI and other international agencies oror organisations,organisations, these problems cancan bebe solved asas they will act asas "links-men""links-men" and thethe properproper potentialspotentials inherent inin thesethese vital non-wood forest resourcesresources adequately realised.realised.

Needs Training isis neededneeded inin orderorder toto allowallow properproper researchresearch development. development. On this issue, the need to identify the key areas of research requiringrequiring immediateimmediate training oror supportsupport isis thusthus vital.vital. Although this paper has dealtdealt withwith AcaciaAcacia senegalsenegal ,, as anan example,example, thethe processprocess forfor domestication suggestedsuggested aboveabove cancan bebe applied toto other species such as thosethose producingproducing resins or essential oils.oils.

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Jaenicke, H., Franzel, S. andand Boland,Boland, D. J., 1996.1996. TowardsTowards aa methodmethod toto setset prioritiespriorities among species forfor treetree improvementimprovement research: research: a a case case study study fromfrom West West Africa. Africa. Journal ofof Tropical Forest Science, 490-506.

Ladipo, D.O.,D. O., Esegu, F. and E. A. Oduwaiye, 1993. TheThe productionproduction ofof quality quality treetree seed:seed: In ProceedingsProceedings of anan InternationalInternational WorkshopWorkshop on SeedSeed ProcurementProcurement andand LegalLegal Regulations for forest reproductive material in tropical and subtropicalsUbtropical countries.countries. Ed.Ed. H.H. WolfWolfpp pp 555.555.

Lanly, J. P., 1988.1988. InIn Non-timber Non-timber usesuses ofof selected selected aridarid zonezone treestrees andand shrubs shrubs in in Africa. Africa. F.E. M. BoothBooth andand G.G. E.E. Wickens.Wickens. FoodFood and and Agricultw-e Agriculture OrganizationOrganization ofof thethe UnitedUnited Nations, Rome (FAO(FAO ConservationConservation Guide)Guide) pp 176.176.

Leakey, R.R.B. andand A.M.N.A.M.N. Izac,Izac, 1996.1996. In Domestication andand CommercialisationCommercialisation ofof non- non­ timber forestforest products inin Agro-forestryAgro-forestry Systems.Systems. FAO,F AO, Rome,Rome, 1-6.1-6.

Seif El Din and ManarManar Zarroug, 1996.1996. In Domestication andand CommercializationCommercialization of non-non­ timber Forest Products in agroforestry systems FFAO AO Rome, 176-182.

Simmons, A. J.,J., 1996.1996. InIn Domestication Domestication andand CommercialisationCommercialisation ofof non-timbernon-timber forestforest products inin Agro-forestryAgro-forestry Systems.Systems. FAO,FAO, Rome,Rome, 8-22.8-22.

Wiersum K.F., 1996.1996. Domestication of valuable tree speciesspecies inin agroforestryagroforestry systems:systems: evolutionary stages from gatheringgathering to breeding. In DomesticationDomestication andand CommercializationCommercialization of non-timber forest products in agroforestry system. FAO, Rome,147-159. 33

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGEOWLEDGE AND ITSITS APPLICATIONAPPLICATION IN RESOLVING CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION AND UTILISATIONUTILISATION PROBLEMS

EDMUND G.C.G.c. BARROW, Community Conservation CoordinatorCoordinator African WildlifeWildlife Foundation,Foundation, P.O.Box 48177, Nairobi, Kenya. Local Knowledge Ignored Arid and Semi-A_ridSemi-Arid Lands Lands occupy occupy extensive extensive areas areas of of Africa, Africa, up up toto 80% in thethe IGADIGAD countries and between 30 and 90% in other African countries. OurOur knowledgeknowledge basebase forfor such lands is woefullywoefully lacking.lacking. EmphasisEmphasis hashas beenbeen placedplaced onon technologicaltechnological fixesfixes toto whatwhat are, more often than not, social issues (Barrow, 1996). LandLand conversionconversion andand excisionexcision to seemingly moremore productive landland uses, such as irrigationirrigation andand drylanddryland agricultureagriculture isis preferred to improvingimproving naturalnatural resourceresource management.management. Change has beenbeen externallyexternally imposed, thereby ignoringignoring thethe wealthwealth ofof local local lcnowledgeknowledge andand managementmanagement experienceexperience which exists across the drylands of Africa. ByBy ignoring ignoring thatthat knowledgeknowledge base,base, throughthrough external interventions, education systemssystems whichwhich favor others, areare beingbeing marginalisedmarginalised from their betterbetter lands.lands. This perpetuates a neo-colonialneo-colonial andand paternalisticpaternalistic perspectiveperspective derived from agrarian and industrial-based "modem""modern" society,society, andand is probably the single most important contributing factor to the demisedemise ofof thethe ASALs,ASALs, theirtheir perpetualperpetual faminefanline dependency.

To understand the ASALs we must understand how people survive and thrive,tmive, why they do what they do, and what niechanismsmechanisms both technical and social they have putput inin placeplace toto make use of the limited resource base they have at their disposal - a resource base limitedlimited by the unforgiving climate. ThisThis isis aa wide wide subject, subject, encompassingencompassing anan understandingunderstanding of pastoralism, dryland natural resource management and conservationconservation (Ellis andand Swift,Swift, 1988). ForFor this presentation focus focus is is goinggoing toto be placedplaced on howhow andand whywhy peoplepeople inhabiting thethe drylands of AfricaAfrica conserve,conserve, use andand managemanage trees,trees, withwith aa particularparticular emphasis on the topic ofof this conference.conference.

Risk and Resilience CentralCentral to Dryland Natural ResourceResource Management Pastoralism isis based on riskrisk spreadingspreading and resilience - two interdependentinterdependent factors vital to sustainable management ofof natural resources inin such harsh environments, yet two factorsfactors which areare misunderstoodmisunderstood andand misrepresented.misrepresented. For successfulsuccessful dryland naturalnatural resourceresource management, riskrisk spreading, mobilitymobility andand resilienceresilience need need toto includeinclude somesome or allall ofof the the following attributes:attributes:

• wet, dry season grazinggrazing areas,areas, and dry season forage reserves • keeping of multimulti speciesspecies ofof livestock livestock includingincluding grazersgrazers (sheep,(sheep, cattle,cattle, donkeys)donkeys) andand browsers (goats,(goats, camels) • access rights, group or individual, to areas of land, rich resources e.g.e.g. treestrees • water rights (and(and salt)salt) 34

41> practising low input opportunistic crop production

41> malcingmaking useuse ofof and storing wild fruits and foodsfoods andand otherother naturalnatural productsproducts such such as as g,ums gums and resins, especially those of trees

41> ability to sell stock and buy grain (and vice versa) • dividing herds into smaller units • social structurestruct-ure that that enables enables sharingsharing andand lendinglending oflivestockof livestock • linkages withwith other typestypes of resource useruser toto make best use of that resource for instance manuring of agricultural agricultural land,land, andand useuse ofof crop crop residues.residues.

Role ofof WoodyWoody Species,Species, Timber Timber and and Non-TimberNon-Timber ForestForest ProductsProducts All detailed studies of uses andand perceptionsperceptions ofof trees trees byby ruralrural people,people, especiallyespecially thosethose inin thethe drylands, showshow that therethere is anan extensiveextensive ethnobotanicalethnobotanical lcnowledge,knowledge, withwith a keenkeen appreciation ofof species' properties (Weber and Hoslcins,1983;Hoskins,1983; LeachLeach and Mearns,Meams, 1988;1988; Rochleau etet at.,al., 1988; Chambers, etet at.,al., 1989; Barrow, 1996). TreesTrees areare used for a wide variety ofof purposes, andand nowhere more so than in thethe drylandsdrylands wherewhere woodywoody vegetationvegetation survives better,better, and producesproduces more in thethe drier times.times. ThisThis detaileddetailed andand extensiveextensive knowledge about individual tree species and their management is reflected in their people's lifelife styles,styles, and the extent ofof their dependencedependence onon trees.trees. ThereThere isis ampleample evidence across the drylands of Africa that many different tree species in different systems have been deliberatelydeliberately managedmanaged by the local people.

Some tree species are more important than others since they can survivesurvive andand produceproduce well even through the long dry seasonsseasons when theythey areare particularlyparticularly important, including drought times. Indeed, the woody vegetationvegetation may constituteconstitute the most valuablevaluable resourceresource thatthat suchsuch arid and semi-arid lands areas have and within such areas riverine forest and other rich patch areas of vegetation may be thethe mostmost importantimportant (Ecosystems,(Ecosystems, 1985;1985; Barrow,Barrow, 1987;1987; ForestryForestry Department Turkana District, 1989; Barrow 1990; Gerden and Mtallo, 1990; Barrow, 1996). This knowledge reflectsreflects thethe lifelife styles and the extent of theirtheir dependencedependence on thethe woodywoody vegetation including

41> dry timber for woodfuel andand charcoalcharcoal • building timber for houses, fencing and thatching • food for livestock particularly in the dry season • wild fruits and foods for people • use of gums and resins for food, medicinal and cultural usesuses as wellwell asas forfor tradetrade • veterinary medicines for a variety ofoflivestock livestock diseases

41> human medicines for a variety ofof diseases diseases

41> making of household utensils

41> amenity for shade to act as a meeting place • variety of culturalcultual values, values, waterwater purification, purification, andand ceremonialceremonial purposes

41> access and ownership rights to trees

Dryland natural resource management strategies have evolved so as to make optimaloptimal use of a widewide rangerange ofof opportunities opportunities which mitigate risk and improveimprove resilience. AA range of livestock species,species, a wide anayairay of food species available at differentdifferent timestimes ofof thethe year and the 35 use of natural products for trade among other factors, contribute toto this. Yet many of these production strategies are not recognised, not valued, and there areare continuedcontinued attemptsattempts toto substitute them.

Dryland Natural ResourceResource ManagementManagement ToTo HaveHave LocalLocal Level "Value" For dryland natural resource management to be important and develop, it has to have value, economic valuevalue atat a local and national level. However, thisthis value has to be balancedbalanced with risk and resilience. Livestock havehave an obvious and important value. However, the value of other natural products may be locally, but usually are not nationally, understood. To regain some of its viability,viability, thethe grossgross pastoralpastoral productproduct has toto bebe betterbetter recognised, recognised, improvedimproved economic optionsoptions need to be in place for the production and marketing of pastoralpastoral productsproducts and national governments mustmust facilitate the enabling environment pastoralism soso badly needs. Not to dodo so,so, willwill perpetuate perpetuate thethe expropriation expropriation ofof the the most most productive productive drylands,drylands, denigration ofof pastoralism asas a land use, andand continuedcontinued famine and aidaid dependencydependency in thethe vast drought-prone landslands ofof Africa. Africa.

Gums and Resins in DrylandDryland Natural ResourceResource Management: The role of gums andand resinsresins is oneone componentcomponent ofof aa numbernumber ofof non-timber non-timber forestforest products,products, which if integratedintegrated andand balancedbalanced withwith otherother opportunitiesopportunities forfor drylanddryland management,management, cancan contribute to the economic well-being and long-term viabilityviability ofof such areas. There are well documented examplesexamples ofof thethe use of g-umsgums andand resinsresins inin Africa,Africa, some of which areare beingbeing presented in these proceedings (Hammer, 1982; EckholmEckholm etet ai.,al., 1984;1984; Seif el Din,Din, 1987a;1987a; Seif el Din, 1987b). The trick is not to ignoreignore locallocal knowledge,knowledge, but toto understandunderstand itit soso asas toto be ableable to assistassist inin adaptingadapting andand improvingimproving it;it; notnot toto ignoreignore locallocal land-useland-use systemssystems but toto strengthen and support their integrity; not to bypassbypass locallocal socialsocial structures,structures, but understandunderstand and provide synergy for them; and not toto substitutesubstitute oror expropriate,expropriate, but toto enableenable locallocal ownership.

If this workshop is to have impact on drylandchyland naturalnatural resource management, itit isis goinggoing havehave to

II understand the wider issues ofof drylanddryland naturalnatural resourceresource management,management, where gumsgums andand resins are one component; II assist with improved, but based on existing, production techniques; II recognise and foster local ownership of land and resources (ownership(ownership maymay bebe single, but more likely based onon aa group;group; itit isis mostly dede facto, but cancan be de jure);

II create viable and functional marketing networks for gums and resins; and II demonstrate thatthat gumsgums andand resins can make a contributioncontribution to land use andand national economies that is worth the investment.

If we cannotcannot startstart toto improveimprove drylanddryland naturalnatural resourceresource management,management, byby aclmowledgingacknowledging and valuing the wide rangerange ofof economic economic optionsoptions includingincluding thosethose fromfrom livestock,livestock, produce fromfrom wild plantsplants andand trees,trees, limitedlimited cropping,cropping, conservation,conservation, andand tourism;tourism; by ensuringensuring thatthat anan enabling policypolicy environment isis in place; and by building on the potential and opportunitiesopportunities found in the local lcnowledgeknowledge base,base, thenthen thethe plight oftheof the drylands can only worsen - aa plight 36 not of existing land users' making, butbut externally,externally, and maybe unwittingly, driven by national governmentsaovernments and donors.

References: Barrow, E. G. C., 1987. Report ofofresults results and findings from a survey on 'Ekwar' carried out fi-omfrom November November 19861986 toto JulyJuly 1987.1987. Lodwar,Lodwar, ForestryForestry Department,Department, TurkanaTurkana district: 20.

Barrow, E. G. C., 1990.1990. "Usufruct rights to trees: The role of `Ekwar''Ekwar' inin drylanddryland CentralCentral Turkana, Kenya." HumanHuman Ecolog,yEcology 18(2): 163-176.

Barrow, E. G. C., 1996.1996. The Drylands of Africa: LocalLocal ParticipationParticipation in TreeTree Management.Management. Initiatives Publishers, Nairobi, Kenya.

Chambers, R., R., A.A. Pacey, etet al.,aI., Eds.,Eds., 1989. FarmerFarmer First: FarmerFarmer InnovationInnovation andand Agricultural Research. London,London, IntermediateIntermediate TechnologyTec1mo10gy Publications.

Eckholm,EckhoIm, E. and G. Foley, 1984.1984. Fuelwood: thethe ener,D)energy crisiscrisis thatthat won't gogo away. London, Earthscan.

Ecosystems, L., 1985. Turkana DistrictDistrict Resources survey 1982-1984.1982-1984. Nairobi, ReportReport forfor Republic of Kenya, Ministry ofof Energy Energy andand Regional Development, TurkanaTurkana RehabilitationRehabilitation Project: 261.261.

Ellis, J. E. andand D.D. M.M. Swift,Swift, 1988.1988. "Stability"Stability ofof African African pastoralpastoral ecosystems:ecosystems: alternativealternative paradigms and implications for development."development." JJ RangeRange Management 41(6): 450-459.

Forestry DepartmentDepartment TurkanaTurkana district,district, 1989. DraftDraft forestry policy andand guidelinesguidelines forfor Turkana district. Based on thethe recommendationsrecommendations fromfrom district,district, divisionaldivisional andand locationlocation seminars onon forestry and woodywoody managementmanagement forfor chiefs, leaders,leaders, elders, women and extension agents. Lodwar, Forestry Department, Turkana District.

Gerden, C. A. and S. Mtallo, 1990.1990. TraditionalTraditional Forest reserves inin BabatiBabati District,District, Tanzania.Tanzania. A studystudy inin humanhuman ecology.ecology. Uppsala,Uppsala, Sweden,Sweden, Forestry Trees and PeoplePeople andand SwedishSwedish University of AgriculturalAgricultural SciencesSciences - InternationalInternational Rural DevelopmentDevelopment CentreCentre WorkingWorking Paper 128:128: 50.50.

Hammer, T., 1982.1982. ReforestatonReforestaton and communitycommunity development inin the Sudan.Sudan. Bergen,Bergen, Norway, Christen Michelsen Institute. DERAP Publication No.No. 150.150.

Leach, G. and R. Mearns,Mearns, 1988.1988. Beyond the woodfuel Crisis.Crisis. People,People, LandLand andand Trees in Africa. London, Earthscan.

Rochleau, D.and F. Weber, 1988.1988. Agroforestry in Dryland Africa. Nairobi, ICRAF ScienceScience and Practise of Agroforestry. 37

Seif el Din, A. G.,G., 1987.1987. GumGmn HashabHashab and landland TenureTenure inin WesternWestern Sudan. Proceeding of International WorkshopWorkshop on TenureTenure IssuesIssues inin Ag,roforestry.Agroforestry. J.J. B.B. Raintree. Nairobi,Nairobi, ICRAF and Land Tenure Centre.Centre.

Seif el Din, A.A. G.,G., 1987.1987. TheThe naturalnatural regenerationregeneration ofof Acacia Acacia senegalsenegal (L)(L) wild.wild. Khartoum,Khartomn, University ofKhartomn.of Khartoum.

Weber, F. and M. Hoskins, 1983.1983. Agroforestry inin thethe Sahel. AA conceptconcept paper paper based on the Niamey Agroforestry Seminar,Seminar, 2323 MayMay toto 9 June 1983.1983. Virginia,Virginia, DepartmentDepartment ofof Sociology, Sociology, Blacksburg, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. 38

INDIGENOUS I(NOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE AND UTILISATIONUTILISATION POTENTIALS OF SELECTED GUM,GUM, RESIN AND OILOIL PLANT SPECIESSPECIES OF TANZANIA

F.B.S. MAKONDA and R.c.R.C. ISHENGOMA Department of Wood Utilisation,Utilisation, Faculty of Forestry Sokoine University of Agriculture, TanzaniaTanzania

Abstract This paper discusses indigenous knowledge andand utilisation potentialspotentials ofof selected plantsplants of Tanzania, producing gums, resins and oils.oils. TheThe selectedselected gum-producinggum-producing plantplant speciesspecies include AcaciaAcacia senegal, A. seyal,seyal, A.A. spirocarpa spirocaipa and A. tortilistortilis whosewhose 60%60% of the produce is used in the foodfood industry.industry. The resin plantsplants areare PinusPinus elliottii, P. P. patulapatula and P. caribaeacaribaea whereas selected oiloil plantsplants includeinclude AllanblackiaAllanblackia stuhlmanii,stuhlmanii, A.A. ulug,urensis,ulugurensis, AdansoniaAdansonia digitata, Eucalyptus spp.spp. and Jatropha curcas. StudiesStudies on uses ofof suchsuch productsproducts inin otherother African countries are mentioned and discussed inin thisthis paperpaper forfor comparisoncomparison and reflection of the potential uses of Tanzania's forestedforested land.

Introduction Tanzania (mainland) has an area covering 88.6 million hectares; almost 50% of this areaarea isis covered by forestsforests andand woodlandswoodlands (MLNRT,(MLNRT, 1989).1989). Only 0.3% of the forestedforested areaarea isis covered by plantationplantation forests,forests, withwith thethe restrest beingbeing naturalnatural forests.forests. The distribution of the vegetation cover is: Woodlands (42,891,000 ha),ha), MangroveMangrove forestsforests (80,000 ha); and Forests other than mangroves (1,400,000(1,400,000 ha) to give a total of 44,371,000 ha.

Many of the Tanzanian indigenous and exotic tree and shrub species found in these forest types are potential producers ofof gums, resinsresins andand oils.oils. TheseThese forestforest resourcesresources contributecontribute to the livelihoodlivelihood of mankindmankind byby providingproviding Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts (NWEPs)(NWFPs) ofof variousvarious sorts including gums, resinsresins andand oils.oils. The pharmaceutical,pharmaceutical, fragrance,fragrance, food,food, agricultural,agricultural, epoxy resin and coating uses are constantly searching for such natural products from plants. Developing countries should use their forest resources to raiseraise theirtheir GDP.GDP. In Peru,Peru, forfor example, NWFPs yieldyield 90%90% ofof the the useuse potential (Statz,(Statz, 1997).1997).

Humankind has always depended on plant productsproducts byby utilisingutilising indigenousindigenous knowledgeknowledge onon forest resources use. Lewington (1990)(1990) documented thatthat the inhalation andand fumigationfumigation ofof the the body with smokesmoke from thethe burningburning of of fragrantfragant plant materialsmaterials isis oneone ofof thethe oldest usesuses ofof plants by humans. Another major use of plants is medicinal. Kasparek (1997) added that atat least 35,000 plant species are used worldwide for medicinal purposes.

Because of their number, versatility, end use variation, dissimilarities ofof the producer base and resource richness, NWFPsNWFPs representrepresent one of the most challenging product goupsgroups fromfrom aa marketing.marketing point of viewview (Lintu,(Lintu, 1995).1995). For example, out of 3,0003,000 essentialessential oilsoils known,known, approximately 300 have a commercial importance (Lintu, 1995).1995). 39

Many authors have documenteddocumented AfricanAfrican indigenousindigenous knowledgeknowledge on thethe utilisationutilisation ofof plantplant gums, resinsresins andand oils.oils. In SouthSouth Africa, for example, thethe ZuluZulu useuse SclerocaryaSclerocarya birrea oil in preservation of meat andand massagingmassaging the skinskin as a cosmetic (Taylor etet al.,al., 1995). MalieheMaliehe (1995) reportedreported thatthat thethe oil of XimeniaXimenia americana is usedused as aa cosmeticcosmetic as wellwell asas forfor softening leather.leather. According toto FFAO AO (1983),(1983), the the kemel kernel of ofX X americana yields 40 - 50%50% oiloil and the shell yields 5.9% fat. LewingtonLewington (1990)(1990) andand AxtellAxtell andand FairmanFairman (1992)(1992) documented that thethe yellow oil obtained fromfrom BalanitesBalanites aegyptiacaaegyptiaca seeds in Sudan and Chad is used as a type of soap and isis alsoalso edible.edible.

ConcemingConcerning plantplant gums, thethe usesuses varyvary betweenbetween places.places. InIn Cameroon,Cameroon, forfor exampleexample thethe gum of Canarium schweinfurthii isis used medicinally toto dress wounds and as a curecure ofof roundround worm and colic ophthalmia (Songwe, 1994) but in Geita Tanzania the use of this gumgum isis inin rituals only, in petty gold mines (Makonda,(Makonda, 1997).1997).

Mwamba (1995) in hishis reportreport forfor Zambia'sZambia's resin-,resin-, gum-gum- andand glue-yieldingglue-yielding plants,plants, indicatedindicated that whilewhile AcaciaAcacia polyacanthapolyacantha can yieldyield gumgum usedused forfor dyeingdyeing andand tanning, tanning, Albizia Albizia adianthifolia yieldsyields sassasassa gumgum which is usedused forfor cosmeticscosmetics andand bookbook bindingbinding whilewhile Piliostigma thonningii yieldsyields gumgum whichwhich isis usedused forfor caulkingcaulking boats.boats.

Some of the traditional uses of these products have been copied by industrial manufacturers. The resins from CommiphoraCommiphora myrrhamyrrha andand C. abyssinica, forfor instance, areare used in somesome cosmetics and perfumes as well as pharmaceuticals in Sudan (Lewington, 1990). The same author added that gumgum karaya exudedexuded fi-omfrom SterculiaSterculia sp.sp. is an importantimportant dentaldental fixativefixative in the west. This product, together with gum arabic, isis among the six importantimportant Indian gums (Soni, 1995).1995).

Chemical analysesanalyses maymay promotepromote somesome ofof the forestforest products.products. Mushove (1995) gave an example of the oiloil extractextract ofof Tegetes Tegetes minutaminuta (Mexican(Mexican marigold),marigold), anan obnoxiousobnoxious weedweed toto have anti-nematode qualitiesqualities andand isis used in organic agriculture. ZimbabweZimbabwe isis reported by this author toto be the largest exporter of T.T minutaminuta oil in Africa.

The objectives of this paper are: .. To provide informationinfolination on the indigenous knowledgeknowledge onon gums,gums, resinsresins andand oilsoils ofof selected plant species of Tanzania .. To provide information on the indigenousindigenous knowledge of the samesame productsproducts inin other African countries .. To provideprovide infoimationinformation onon the potentialspotentials of thethe productsproducts toto thethe economic economic development of the people andand thethe nation atat large .. To provide information onon areasareas needing research andand economiceconomic investments.investments. 40

Selected gum, resin and oiloil plant speciesspecies of Tanzania

Gum plants

AcaciaAcaciaspp spp

Gum arabic is the most important gum in Tanzania. The product is tapped from acaciaacacia treestrees in unmanaged natural forestsforests mainly in Shinyanga,Shinyanga, Dodoma, Singida and Tabora Regions.Regions. Practically, gum arabicarabic is obtainedobtained fromfrom Acacia woodlandwoodland speciesspecies but speciesspecies ofof importance importance include Acacia senegal (true gum arabic) and A.A. seyal.seyal. TheThe gumgum isis onlyonly collectedcollected fi-omfrom a few species and active tapping isis stillstill more limited. Contrarily, inin Sudan, where almost 90% of the world market supply of gum arabicarabic comescomes from (Awouda, 1976), acacias are grown as part ofof anan agrosilvipastoralagrosilvipastoral system and thesethese produce 70% of Sudan's Sudan's gumgum arabicarabic (Jamal(Jamal andand Huntsinger,Huntsinger, 1993).1993). The figuresfigures forfor Sudan'sSudan's exported gum arabic werewere at 56,00056,000 tonstons inin 19661966 (pollath,(Pollath, 1972).1972). The annual production of gum arabic has been reportedreported by TanzaniaTanzania Bureau of StatisticsStatistics (1994) to standstand atat 1,0001,000 tornestonnes outout ofof which which 50%50% isis exported.exported. TheThe exportexport waswas atat aa peakpeak inin 19901990 whenwhen 740740 tonnestonnes were exported. ConstraintsConstraints toto expandingexpanding thethe marketmarket inin TanzaniaTanzania include an unstable world market prices of thethe productproduct andand failurefailure toto meetmeet quality quality requirements requirements forfor exportexport trade.trade. However, Anderson (1993) reported that gum arabic andand gumgum karayakaraya meetingmeeting internationalinternational specifications havehave commercial demanddemand atat competitivecompetitive prices.prices. Moreover, information about the resourceresource and present collection practicespractices to to bebe able to assess the potentialpotential for gumgum collection is inadequate. Statz (1997) reported that 55 - 60% of gum arabic is used in the food industry. Traditionally, gum arabic is an important foodfood forfor pastoralists andand hunters.

Resin plants

Resins of potential development include turpentine and rosin which is obtained by tappingtapping pine trees. TanzaniaTanzania hashas 80,00080,000 haha ofof industrial softwood plantationsplantations whichwhich formfoim sourcessources ofof resins. The species grown areare PinusPinus elliottielliotti andand P. P. caribaea.caribaea. TheThe majormajor potentialpotential sourcessources of supply areare within Sao Hill in hinga,Iringa, BuhindiBuhindi andand RubyaRubya inin Mwanza,Mwanza, RondoRondo inin Lindi,Lindi, Matogoro in Ruvuma, RuvuRuvu inin CoastCoast region, Rubare in Kagera and Ukaguru in Morogoro.

These sources have not yetyet beenbeen tappedtapped andand thethe potentialpotential economiceconomic value is notnot yetyet recognised. Makupa (1995) reported thatthat all commodities whichwhich areare partial derivatives of turpentine and rosin consumed by various industries in Tanzania are imported and most ofof them could be substitutedsubstituted ifif the the existingexisting sourcessources inin TanzaniaTanzania werewere exploited.exploited. TheThe greatestgreatest single use of rosin in Tanzania is for sizing in paper production (Makupa, 1995). Other uses of oleo-resin are in the paintpaint andand varnishvarnish industry as a solventsolvent and thinning agent, in the manufacture ofof adhesives, adhesives, printingprinting inks,inks, rubberrubber products,products, greasesgreases andand lubricants.lubricants.

Oil plants

Potential oil plants in TanzaniaTanzania includeinclude Allanblackia stuhlmanii, A.A. ulugurensis,ulugurensis, AdansoniaAdansonia digitata, Eucalyptus globulus,g/obu/us, E.E. maideniimaidenii andand E. regnansreg,nans andand Jatropha Jatropha curcas. 41

AllalzblackiaAllanblackia spp.

Allanblackia stuhlmanii andand A.A. ulug,urensisulugurensis are found growing naturally in montane forestsforests of the East Usambaras and Uluguru. Nuts oftheseof these species yield an edible fat used locally for cooking, lighting andand as aa liniment.

Mugasha (1980) observed that aa goodgood A. stuhlmanii tree can produce up to 300 fruits in one fruiting season. According toto Glendon (1946 cited by FAOFAO 1983),1983), sun-dried nuts ofof A. A. stuhlmanii contain 51%51 % fat.fat. In Kenya,Kenya, thethe nuts areare usedused inin thethe manufacturemanufacture ofof the the famousfamous cooking fat "Kimbo".

AdansoniaAdalZSOIzia digitata

Tanzania has vastvast areasareas withwith baobabbaobab (Adansonia(Adansonia digitata)digitata) gr,growing owing inin naturalnatural habitats in such regions as Dodoma, Iringa, Singida and Shinyanga. The treetree is well known throughout the country for its fruitsfruits which are traded for making juice that has a similar taste to thatthat of Tamarindus indica fruits.fruits. TheThe adansoniaadansonia fruitsfruits andand juicejuice areare locallylocally lcnownknown as "ubuyu".

In Dodoma the seeds of baobab are used locally as a sourcesource of cookingcooking oil. These seeds contain 37% edible oil (FAO, 1988a; 1988b) whichwhich could bebe extracted easilyeasily usingusing modemmodem technologies. To-date, no efforts have been mademade byby thethe governmentgovernment authoritiesauthorities concernedconcerned to utilise these resources.

Eucalyptus spp.spp.

Tanzania has severalseveral plantations of Eucalyptus species. LargeLarge plantations areare found in Arusha, Mbeya andand Iringa.Iringa. Essential oils that cancan bebe extractedextracted fromfrom eucalyptuseucalyptus includeinclude cineole, citronellal, phellandrenephellandrene andand piperitonepiperitone whichwhich findfind uses in pharmaceuticalphannaceutical and perfumery compounds.

The blue gum trees (Eucalyptus(Eucalyptus globulus and E. maidenii)maidenii) produce cineole from leaves;leaves; the cineole is used for treating nose and throat disorders. TheThe locallocal usesuses ofof eucalyptus eucalyptus oiloil inin Geita District has been reported by Makonda (1997) where eucalyptus leavesleaves areare smoked to repel mosquitoes and as a cure forfor yellowyellow fever. Kiwalabye (1995) reported that in Uganda, Eucalyptus citriodoracitriodora leavesleaves werewere used used in in thethe treatmenttreatment ofof cough. cough.

Extraction of eucalyptus oils from plantations would improve profitability of primary forest activities and provide employment toto thethe local people.people. However,However, asas forfor resins,resins, thethe actualactual production of eucalyptus oils in the countrycountry has not yetyet beenbeen developed.developed. The treestrees areare onlyonly used for poles, posts and pulp.

Jatropha curcas

Jatropha curcascurcas is is widely widely planted planted in in Tanzania Tanzania asas hedges.hedges. ItIt isis alsoalso planted in graveyards for demarcation. TheThe seedsseeds ofof this this plantplant containcontain 35% non-edible oiloil (Henning,(Henning, 1997).1997). In Geita 42

District, Tanzania,Tanzania, thethe oiloil isis usedused forfor lightinglighting andand thethe sapsap from leaves and twigs is used for cleaning tongues particularly in children (Makonda, 1997).1997).

Henning (1997)(1997) reportedreported that that in in Mali,Mali, JatrophaJatropha oil isis usedused asas fuelfuel inin pre-combustion pre-combustion chamber enginesengines andand inin manufacturingmanufacturing soap. soap. This technology could also be imported into Tanzania, whichwhich doesdoes notnot produce produce mineral mineral oil. oil. TheThe JatrophaJatropha oil would form a substitute for diesel, toto savesave somesome foreignforeip exchange exchange andand alsoalso provideprovide rawraw materialmaterial forfor manufacture of soap and boost the local economy.

Conclusion andand Recommendations The forests of Tanzania are aa g,reatgreat reservoirreservoir ofof gum,gum, resinresin and oil plants which have been neglected. ImportantImportant informationinformation about these products is lacldriglacking and so thethe productsproducts areare greatly under-valued and under-utilised.under-utilised.

These productsproducts are of socialsocial andand economiceconomic importance;importance; theythey provideprovide employmentemployment andand income opportunities and are potential foreign exchange earners.

To maximise benefits from these resources, the following actions areare recommended:

• More research on promising gum, resin and oil plant species to establish information concerning quantities, quality, potentialpotential usesuses andand possibilitypossibility ofof domesticationdomestication

• Development of appropriate harvesting methods and tools andand timingtiming ofof operations, operations, processing and g,rading.grading. TheseThese willwill helphelp toto minimiseminimise injuriesinjuries to the plants concerned and improve quality and quantity of the productsproducts

• Development of programmes geared towards enablingenabling thethe ruralrural communitiescommunities toto helphelp themselves using the plant resourcesresources available or which can be mademade available

References Anderson, D.M.W., 1993. Some Factors influencing thethe Demand for Gum ArabicArabic (Acacia(Acacia senegal (L.)(L.) Willd.) and otherother WaterWater SolubleSoluble TreeTree Exudates.Exudates. ForestForest Ecolog,yEcology andand Management 58(1-2): 1I --18. 18.

Axtell B.L.B.L. and R.M. Fairman, 1992. MinorMinor Oil Crops. FFAO AO - AgriculturalAgicultural ServicesServices Bulletin No. 94, 241pp.

FAO, 1983. Food and Fruit-bearing Forest Species I: Examples from Eastern Africa. FAO Forestry Paper 44/1 Rome.

FFAO, AO, 1988a. Traditional Food Plants. FFAO AO FoodFood and NutritionNutrition paper 42, Rome.

FAO, 1988b. Non-Timber Uses of Selected Arid Zone Trees andand ShrubsShrubs inin Africa, FAO Conservation Guide 19,19, Rome.

Henning, R.K.,R.K., 1997. More energy- moremore food.food. Gate 2: 33 - 37. 43

Kasparek, M., 1997.1997. Medicine for the billions. Gate 2: 23 - 26.26.

Kiwalabye, V., 1995.1995. The Diversity of MedicinalMedicinal Plants inin Uganda.Uganda. Paper presented to thethe 2nd RoundtableRoundtable DiscussionDiscussion onon Non-Wood/TimberNon-Wood/Timber ForestForest Products:Products: 21-23 Nov.Nov. 19951995 Pretoria, South Africa.

Lewington, A,A., 1990. Plants forfor People. Natural History Museum, London.

Lintu, L.,1995. Marketing NWFPsNWFPs inin Developing Countries.Countries. TradingTradina andand MarketingMarketing ofof Forest Products, Unasylva 183(46):183(46): 3737- - 41.41.

Makonda, F.B.S., 1997.1997. The Role of Non-Wood Forest ProductsProducts to the LivelihoodLivelihood ofof Rural Rural Communities of Geita Geita District, Mwanza Tanzania.Tanzania. MSc.MSc. thesisthesis SUASUA Morogoro.Morogoro.

Makupa, E.O.K.,1995. Factors Affecting Gum Oleoresin Yielding Potential and Quality in Pinus elliottiielliottii andand PinusPinus patula atat SaoSao HillHill Forest Forest Plantation, Plantation, TanzaniaTanzania MSc.MSc. thesis,thesis, SUASUA Morogoro.

Maliehe, T.M., 1995. Non-Wood Forest Products in South Africa. A pilotpilot CountryCountry StudyStudy prepared for the CommonwealthCommonwealth ScienceScience Council.Council.

Ministry of Lands,Lands, NaturalNatural ResourcesResources andand Tourism,Tourism, 1989.1989. TanzaniaTanzania ForestryForestry ActionAction PlanPlan 1990/911990/91 -- 2007/08,2007/08, DarDar es Salaam

Mugasha, AC.,A.C., 1980.1980. TheThe SilvicultureSilviculture ofof TanzaniaTanzania IndigenousIndigenous TreeTree SpeciesSpecies Vol.Vol. I. Allanblackia stuhlmanii. Tanzania SilviculturalSilvicultural Research Note No. 37,37, 7pp.7pp.

Mushove, P., 1995.1995. A review of the Socio-economicSocio-economic Potential of Non-Wood/Timber Forest Products in Zimbabwe.

Mwamba, C.K., 1995.1995. Zambia'sZambia's PerspectivePerspective TowardToward Non-Wood/TimberNon-WoodlTimber Forest Products.Products. Paper presented to thethe 2nd2nd RoundtableRoundtable DiscussionDiscussion onon Non-Wood/Timber Non-Wood/Timber ForestForest Products:Products: 21-23 Nov. 19951995 Pretoria, South Africa.

Nkana, Z.G. and S.S. Iddi,Iddi, 1991.1991. UtilisationUtilisation ofof Baobab Baobab (Adansonia(Adansonia digitata) inin KondoaKondoa district, Central Tanzania. Record No. 50,50, SUASUA Morogoro.Morogoro.

Statz, J., 1997. Non-Timber ForestForest Products:Products: AA keykey toto SustainableSustainable TropicalTropical ForestForest Management. Gate 2:42:4 -- 11.11.

Songwe, N.C., 1994. Extractivism and Potentialities of Multiple Use Forest Resources in Cameroon withwith Special ReferenceReference toto Non Timber Forest Products. Paper presented at the workshop onon ExtractivismExtractivism andand Potentialities ofof Multiple Multiple Use ForestForest Reserves inin Africa:Africa: 8-138-13 May 1994,1994, Naro MoroMoro Kenya.Kenya. 44

Som,Soni, P.L., 1995.1995. SomeSome CommerciallyCommercially Important IndianIndian Gum Exudates. IndianIndian Forester 121(8): 754754 -- 759.759.

Tanzania Bureau of Statistics,Statistics, 1994.1994. StatisticalStatistical Figures onon AgriculturalAgricultural andand ForestryForestry Crops.Crops. PMOPM0 -- DarDar eses Salaam.Salaam.

Taylor, F.W., K.J.KJ. Butterworth and S. Mateke, 1995.1995. TheThe ImportanceImportance ofof Indigenous Indigenous FruitFruit Trees in Semi-AridSemi-Arid AreasAreas ofof SouthernSouthern andand EasternEastern African.African. VeldVeld ProductsProducts Research,Research, Gaborone Botswana. 45

SOME EXPERIENCE ONON ADAPTIVE RESEARCH INPUT ON NATURAL RESOURCERESGURCE USE: THE CASECASE OFOF GUMSGUMS ANDAND RESINS IN MUKOGODO RANGELANDS, LAIKIPIALAIKIPIA DISTRICT, KENYAk NYA

R. NG'ETHE, A. KARIUKIKARlUKI and C. OPONDO Applied Research Unit P.O. Box 144, Nanyuki, KenyaKenya

Background Mukogodo Division on the NorthernNorthern edge of thethe LaikipiaLaikipia PlateauPlateau comprisescomprises slightlyslightly over 1000 sq. km. with anan altitudinalaltitudinal range of 16001600 - 20002000 mm A.S.L.A.S.L. Annual rainfallrainfall variesvaries between 400 and 600600 mm perper annumannum (Berger, 1989). As a result of the varying topography and climaticclimatic characteristics,characteristics, thethe division supportssupports aa widewide rangerange ofof physiognomically physiognomically different vegetation types (Taiti,(Taiti, 1982).1982). TheThe mainmain economiceconomic activityactivity isis semi-sedentary semi-sedentary pastoralism. Currently, the wood component is dominated by the generagenera Acacia, EucleaEuclea andand Acokanthera - while thethe grassgrass layerlayer isis predominantlypredominantly Themeda,Themeda, Cynodon,Cynodon, EraEragrostis grostis and Pennisetums. These are interspersedinterspersed withwith a tree/shrub layer of Dodenea,Dodenea, Solanum,Solanum, and Ipomoea amongamong others.others. Admittedly, the ecosystem is fairly complex with nono comprehensively describeddescribed aggregateaggegate of faunafauna andand flora.flora. The balance of thethe wildlife,wildlife, livestock, vegetation productionproduction systems systems and and man'sman's activitiesactivities isis equally complex in aa drastically changed ecosystem.ecosystem.

Over time, the human interphases have greatly interfered withwith the natural course of species succession and differentiationdifferentiation toto anan extent of negatively shiftingshifting thethe balancingbalancing forcesforces withinwithin the different production systems in the ecosystem. Briefly, these interphases can be broadly goupedgrouped in in three three time time fi-ames. frames. PriorPrior toto thethe 19th19th century,century, thethe MukogodoMukogodo MaasaiMaasai characterisedcharacterised by thethe differentdifferent groupsgroups i.e.i.e. Iloshon, Mukogodo, Ilngwesi, Ilmumonyot, Ildigiri andand Illeuwaso coexisted withwith the vegetationvegetation as huntershunters andand gatherersgatherers (Herren,(Herren, 1993),1993), withwith defined g,razinggrazing corridors.

Early this century, the EuropeanEuropean settlerssettlers designated the hithertohitherto "productive""productive" rangeland,rangeland, forfor beef ranching, locicinglocking outout thethe Dorobo "reserves". TllisThis processprocess was followed by thethe new-new­ post independentindependent government "one"one million-acre schemescheme project"project" thatthat opened upup thethe subdivision ofof the fOlmerlyformerly private ranchesranches toto smallsmall scalescale farmersfarmers inin Laikipia.Lailcipia. The process has continuouslycontinuously introducedintroduced majormajor conflictsconflicts inin sustainablesustainable naturalnatural resourceresource useuse includingincluding gums and resins.

An earlierearlier inventoryinventory ofof MukogodoMukogodo ForestForest basedbased onon panchromatic panchromatic photographsphotographs 1:25,000,1 :25,000, (Blacket, 1994), described estimates ofof thethe forested area and standing volumes. This report was inadequate on information on other flora and fauna notwithstanding the rich indigenousindigenous knowledge by the locals as laterlater confirmed by other studies (Gachathi and Kariuki, 1996).1996). The usefulness ofofthe the forest forfor dry season grazing and ecotourism biodeversitybiodeversity amongamong otherother uses was conspicuously omitted.omitted. 46

The fact that gumsgums andand resinsresins havehave beenbeen commercially commercially extractedextracted inin neighbouring neighbouring IsioloIsiolo District especially since thethe involvement ofof SALTSALTLICK,LICK, hashas generatedgenerated considerable interestinterest in thethe assessmentassessment ofof thethe potentialpotential forfor resourceresource availabilityavailability inin MukogodoMukogodo byby differentdifferent development practitioners.practitioners. The The importanceimportance ofof Non Wood Forest ProductsProducts (NWFPs)(NWFPs) toto sustainable resourceresource useuse had notnot beenbeen addressed addressed sufficiently.sufficiently. Consequently, variousvarious attempts havehave beenbeen made to understandunderstand the vegetationvegetation trends and moremore recentlyrecently thethe gumsgums and resins resource availability. AnAn earlier attempt byby the Kenya Ministry of CultureCulture andand Social Services jointly with LaikipiaLaikipia ResearchResearch ProgrammeProgramme (1993) waswas inadequateinadequate inin quantifying thethe amount of resource available within Mukogodo Division.

Subsequent studiesstudies byby the ASALASAL -- AppliedApplied ResearchResearch UnitUnit jointlyjointly withwith KenyaKenya ForestryForestry Research Institute, World View (K) and the locallocal communitycommunity participatorily used aa holisticholistic approach inin attempting to understand thethe critical linkslinks betweenbetween thethe flora and the different Non-Wood Forest Products in Mukogodo ecosystem including gums and resins.

Methodology A review of thethe vegetation resources within Mukogodo rangelandsrangelands waswas carried out basedbased on the work of Taiti (1982). FromFrom thisthis review,review, thethe mainmain vegetationvegetation typestypes werewere identified.identified. A participatory reconnaissancereconnaissance survey waswas undertaken in 1995 (Muchiri(Muchiri andand Kariuki,Kariuki, 1996).1996). The survey employed various participatory tools including: transect walks/drives, interactive group/individual discussions,discussions, observations,observations, andand demonstrationsdemonstrations on variousvarious preparationpreparation methods.

A formal survey was also carried out where the area was clustered into five clusters and eight sub-clusters according toto group ranches. The snowball method (Blalock, 1981) was used to lead toto key infolinants.informants. NineteenNineteen keykey respondentsrespondents (3 females and 15 males) were interviewed andand plants of focusfocus byby eacheach respondent respondent identified.identified. SamplesSamples ofof unidentified unidentified plants were pressed and later later verifiedverified atat thethe NationalNational MuseumMuseum herbarium.herbarium. Further data verification waswas carried out by a taxonomist during a follow-upfollow-up study onon NWFPsNWFPs (Gachathi(Gachathi and Kariuki, 1997), where 1111 informantsinformants classifiedclassified by thethe communitycommunity werewere involvedinvolved (Appendix I).

In focusing onon gums and resinresin resources, referencesreferences werewere made made toto thethe workwork done byby the Department ofof Social Services (1993) where information onon principalprincipal production areas was obtained. ThisThis was followed by belt transecttransect surveyssurveys with the assistanceassistance ofof locallocal people.people. Within a given area,area, samplingsampling waswas basedbased onon thethe beltbelt transecttransect approachapproach (Chikamai(Chikamai andand Mbiru, 1995) wherewhere 0.4 ha., square plots were establishedestablished at every samplingsampling point. Data was collected on density by diameterdiameter class ofof the the mainmain gum-andgum-and resin-producingresin-producing species,species, density of associated species, terrain and soilsoil conditions.conditions. 47

Results and DiscussionDiscussion

Reconnaissance Survey Indigenous knowledgeknowledge among the Mukogodo Maasai on natural vegetation was found to be enonnous.enormous. However,However, therethere seemseem toto bebe gapsgaps inin knowledgeknowledge levelslevels betweenbetween generations.generations. The reason perhaps isis duedue toto diminishingdiminishing inter-generationinter-generation interactionsinteractions asas youngeryounger generationsgenerations ascribe to changingchanging lifestyles. The malemale respondentsrespondents portrayedportrayed aa generalised generalised knowledgeknowledge base with thethe exceptionexception ofof isolated isolated expertsexperts onon ethnomedicineethnomedicine whilewhile femalefemale gendergender was specific on plants with attributes on food values andand sicknesssickness in children.children.

The Mukogodo Maasai have through generations depended on natural flora principally or supplementarily toto subsidisesubsidise eithereither directlydirectly oror indirectlyindirectly theirtheir livelihood.livelihood. FloraFlora utilityutility waswas found to have both material and non materials attributesattributes (Table (Table 1a). la). AA total of 78 plantplant species with multiple uses were sampled.

Table la: RankedRanked use use groupsgroups of of Mukogodo Mukogodo floraflora byby thethe MukogodoMukogodo Maasai User group * Frequency Comments 1. Ethnomedicine Human 52 One spp. applied to between 11 & 4 ailments 2. Construction 18 Focus onon Manyattas,Manyattas, cattlecattle bomasbomas andand deaddead fencing 3. Fodder 17 Differentiated to to wet,wet, drydry and allall season fodder, forage 4. Food 16 Mainly fruits, soup,soup, teatea additives,additives, chewingchewing gum 5. Fuelwood 7 Preference on highhigh density,density, lessless smoky/ashysmoky/ashy spp. 6. Crafts 7 Focus on quivers,quivers, bows,bows, arrows,arrows, beebee hiveshives rungus 7. Condiments 7 Perfumes, necklaces, beadwork 8. Bee forage 6 Prolific flowering spp. forfor white/blackwhitelblack andand yellow honey 9. Ethnovet 5 Very narrow spp. on focus?? 10. Toothbrush 4 Spp. with medicinal attributes for oral health 11. Preservatives 4 Food and milk productsproducts 12. Insecticide 2 Repellents e.g.e.g. houseflies/cocicroacheshouseflies/cockroaches 13. Ceremonial 2 Rituals e.g.e g circumcisioncircumcision * FrequencyFrequency refersrefers toto differentdifferent uses underunder the 1313 classified groups Source: Field data collection, Mukogodo, (1995).

It is clearlyclearly evidentevident thatthat thethe MukogodoMukogodo MaasaiMaasai appreciateappreciate thethe gum/resin-producinggumlresin-producing plant species. However,However, the the mainmain useuse of these products is chewing gum (User Group 4) andand fastening arrow heads on arrow shafts (User Group 6). TheThe pointpoint of of interest interest is,is, however,however, the other priority usesuses thatthat the samesame plantplant species species fulfil which givesgives aa pointerpointer toto potential conflicts in resource management. AA summary summary of of plant plant species species of of g,ums/resins gums/resins potential is presented in TableTable lb. 48

Table lb:lb·. Plants Plants of of potential potential forfor gumsgums andand gumgum resinsresins exploitation Plant speciesspecies *Frequency (user(user Utilisation by community Potential groups) Acacia senegal 5 Gum from the stem eateneaten asas Production of (ALDERKESI) chewing gum, medicinal, bee gum arabic forage, fencing

Boswellia neglecta 4 Resinous aromatic aumgum,t, usedused Production of (SILALEI) as chewingchewing gum,gum, g,umgum usedused resinsresms whichwhich are on arrowarrow shafts,shafts, medicinal,medicinal, processed into fencing. resinoids Commiphora 4 Fragrant gum, chewing, gumgum Production of africana used as arrow headsheads onon copins.copms. (LOISHINII)(LOISHIMI) arrow shafts for play by new . . . initiates,initiates, CIrcumcIsIOn,circumcision, live hedge. * FrequencyFreauency refers to different uses under the 13 classifiedclasSIfied user groupgroun Source: Field data 1996-97

Table lc:lc: PriorityPriority plant plant species species in in useuse (frequency)(frequency) andand usesuses (use groups) in Mukogodo Plant name * FrequencyFrequency ** UseUse groupsgroups 1. Olea africanaafricana (Lonen)(Lori en) 5 5 2. Acacia senegal (ALDERKESI)(ALDERKESI) 5 4 3. Croton megarocarpus (Merigwet)(Merigwet) 5 4 4. Senecio stuhlmaniistuhlmanii 4 4 5. Acacia nilotica 4 4 6. Carrisa endulis 4 4 7. Boswellia neglecta (SILALEI)(SILALEI) 4 4 8. Croton dichogamus 4 3 9. Cordia sinensis 4 2 10. Aloe kendogensis 4 2 11. Zanthoxylum chalebeum 4 2 13. ClerodendrumClerodendrurn myricoides 4 1 * Frequency refers toto differentdifferent usesuses under the 1313 classifiedclassified user groups Source: Field data collection, Mukogodo,Mukogodo, (1995). An analysisanalysis ofof how how thethe Mukogodo Mukogodo MaasaiMaasai exploitexploit theirtheir vegetationvegetation resources shows a consciousness on sustainability.sustainability. The traditional uses revealed a detaileddetailed andand delicatedelicate network of interactioninteraction betweenbetween thethe societysociety andand thethe environment.environment. TheThe emphasisemphasis on non-non­ extractive uses and particularly on Non Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts (NWFP)(NWFP) attest to inbuiltinbuilt community conservation ofof naturalnatural vegetation.vegetation. Ten out of 1313 useruser groupsgroups areare non-non­ extractive in nature (Appendix I). CarefulCareful selectionselection on harvesting was shown, among the extractive user groups, fuelwood,fuelwood, construction andand crafts. ForFor instance,instance, the exploitation of Psyda arabicaarabica for for an-ow anow makingmaking was mainly from selectedselected branches andand twigstwigs whilewhile the bush/shrub was leftleft standing.standing. 49

3.2 Resource InventoryInventory (Ground Truthing) The main species of importance in gums and resins production represented in MukogodoMukogodo Division are Acacia senegal andand CommiphoraCommiphora species.species. Generally, the main standsstands wherewhere these species are found are on thethe outlyingoutlying fringes ofof Mukogodo Forest, particularlyparticularly along the lower glades facingfacing IsioloIsiolo District.District.

Acacia senegal waswas confirmedconfinned toto occur in four different clusters towards the moremore aridarid northern part ofof the the divisiondivision borderingbordering Isiolo.Isiolo. SignificantSignificant densitiesdensities were foundfound inin Sek-Sek­ Louwai, Ewaso, Tura (Upper(Upper andand Lower)Lower) andand LesheshLeshesh areas though in the laterlater case,case, thethe occurrence is fairly patchy. A characteristic feature oftheseof these clusters is rugged terrain with ridges interspersedinterspersed with LuggasLuggas (dry(dry riverriver valleys)valleys) andand sandysandy toto stony/rockystonylrocky soils.soils. The dominant vegetation is Acacia/Commiphora bushland.bushland.

An analysis ofof stocking stocking densitydensity revealedrevealed thatthat thethe areaarea aroundaround TuraTura hashas thethe highesthighest densitydensity (overall mean density of 192 sph) and Sek-Louwai thethe lowestlowest (145(145 sph).sph). However,However, therethere was greatergreater disparitydisparity in thethe densitydensity withinwithin Tura,Tura, probablyprobably resulting from thethe patchypatchy nature of the resourceresource as observed from the value ofof C.V. TheThe resourceresource waswas confinedconfined mostly on the slopesslopes ofof ridgesridges andand lowlow hills (Table 2a) and in Ewaso (( TableTable 2b2b andand 2c).2c). This implies that there isis probablyprobably betterbetter distributiondistribution of the resourceresource inin thethe latterlatter areasareas and hencehence overalloverall higherhigher representation. representation. An assessmentassessment of thethe quantityquantity ofof resource resource revealed higher representation inin the juvenile age classclass whichwhich indicatesindicates normalnonnal standstand dynamics.

Table 2a: DensityDensity (sph) of Acacia senegalsenegal inin TuraTura (upper(upper andand lower),lower), MukogodoMukogodo Division

Terrain: Ridges and lowlow hills Soils: Sandy to murram Site Density bybv diameter classclass <5<5cm cm 5 -10-10 cm >10>10cm cm 1 170 180 160 2 220 130 70 3 140 230 41 4 110 115 60 5 340 250 100 6 360 380 220

Mean 225 214 109 Mean densitydensity == 182182 std dev. == 9898 C.V.c.V. -=54%54% 50

Table 2b: DensityDensity (sph) (sph) of of Acacia Acacia senegalsellegal inin Ewaso,Ewaso, MukogodoMukogodo DivisionDivision

Terrain: Plains and low hills Soils: Sandy Site Density by diameterdiameter class <5>lOcm 10 cm 1 170170 124 116 2 230 140 127 3 240 160 134

Mean 213 141 126 Mean density = 160160 std. dev. ==43 43 C.V.C.V. == 27% 27%

Table 2c: Density (sph) ofof Acacia senegal in Sek Louwai, Mukogodo DivisionDivision

Terrain: Ridges Soils: Sandy to stony Site Density by diameter class <5>10cm 10 cm 1 150 200 160 2 130130 140 120 3 140140 140 110 4 220 120 140

Mean 160 150 133 Mean density == 148148 std. dev. = 3131 C.V. = 2121% %

When examining the potential of the area for gum arabic production, oneone indicatorindicator is-theis-the abundance ofof thethe resource. However,However, lacklack ofof relevant relevant secondarysecondary data,data, i.e.,i.e., spotspot imagesimages and aerial photographsphotographs limitedlimited thethe team'steam's ability toto produceproduce resourceresource maps.maps. As a result, it was not possible to quantify with certainty thethe amountamount ofof resourceresource available.available. However,However, observations made during the sampling combined with data analysis revealed that onon thethe overall, the areas of Sek-Louwai and Ewaso have expansive resources which extendextend intointo neighbouring Isiolo District.District. The latterlatter is knownknown forfor gumgum productionproduction andand offersoffers opportunities forfor readyready marketmarket ofof gumgum arabic.arabic. Although the area around Tura recorded high densities, the resource is generally patchy inin distribution withwith relativelyrelatively lowlow overall amount.

The second and perhaps major factor relates to conditionsconditions forfor gumgum production.production. GumGum arabic and gum resins are produced when the trees are under stress. In particular, they are produced under conditions of high temperaturestemperatures (> 30°30° C)C) overover aa prolongedprolonged period.period. The areas of Ewaso and Sek Louwai are onon relativelyrelatively lower altitudealtitude andand lee-wardlee-ward side which experience relativelyrelatively higherhigher temperatures.temperatures. Reports of gumgum productionproduction havehave beenbeen reported withinwithin the twotwo areas.areas. However, TuraTura isis relativelyrelatively higher in altitudealtitude andand generally cooler. These conditions are not favourablefavourable for gumgum productionproduction andand indeedindeed local people reportedreported little gum production. 51

Among thethe resin-producingresin-producing species,species, onlyonly CommzPhora Commiphora africana waswas recordedrecorded inin reasonable quantities.quantities. Others includeinclude CommiphoraCommiphora schimperi, AcaciaAcacia seyal andand Boswellia species.species. The principal regionregion waswas thethe areaarea aroundaround Sek-Louwai.Sek-Louwai. A mean stocking density ofof 24 sph was recordedrecorded but with a generallygenerally higherhigher disparitydisparity betweenbetween sampling points.points. Compared withwith AcaciaAcacia senegal,senegal, it had higherhigher representationrepresentation in thethe mature diameter class (Table(Table 3).3). In terms of resin production, the species is knownknown to produce copious amounts. ThereThere isis documenteddocumented informationinformation which attributesattributes the use of resin as plaster for abdominal spasms and against fever.fever. However,However, notnot muchmuch commercialcommercial application has beenbeen establishedestablished forfor thethe resinresin inin thethe country.country.

Table 3:3: Density (sph) ofof CommiphoraCommiphora africanaajricalla inin (Sek-Louwai), (Sek-Louwai), MukogodoMukogodo Division

Terrain: Ridges Soils: Sandy to stony

Site Density by diameter class <5 10lOcm cm 1 25 15 40 2 53 8 60 3 10 15 25 4 13 3 15

Mean 25.25 10.25 35 Mean density = 24 std. dev.dev. = 1717 c.V.C.V. = 70%

The way forward

From the foregoing discussion, it is apparent that gums and resins contributecontribute significantlysignificantly to the livelihood of the pastoral Maasai in Mukogodo Division.Division. Nevertheless,Nevertheless, quantitiesquantities for viableviable andand sustainablesustainable commercialcommercial exploitationexploitation areare limited.limited. This shortcomingshortcoming therefore, poses new scenarios for the future exploitation.

First, exploitation ofof gumsgums andand resinsresins shouldshould not not just just be be seenseen asas an end in itselfitself but aa means to an end.end. TheThe gumsgums andand resinsresins willwill therefore,therefore, provideprovide opportunitiesopportunities for addingadding value to the crucialcrucial process ofof range range improvementimprovement andand rehabilitationrehabilitation wherewhere thethe mainmain outout put isis livestocklivestock production. AsAs a a tier tier technology technology to to prioritised prioritised user user groups, groups, stakeholders stakeholders should use gums and resins initiative as an entry point to promoting viable projects in the rangelands.

Secondly, mechanisms forfor cross fertilisation and dialogue between thethe locallocal expertexpert systems (based onon ITK) andand externalexternal practitionerspractitioners unfoldunfold inin the gumsgums andand resinsresins initiatives. The interface between thethe two knowledgeknowledge paradigms has thethe potentialpotential toto harmonise conflicting goals and expectations of key stakeholders. 52

Thirdly, an understanding ofof why the neighbouring Isiolo DistrictDistrict hashas an upper edge in exploitation and commercialisation of gums and resins asas compared toto MukogodoMukogodo MaasaiMaasai requires ground truthing. Are their inherentinherent skills andand valuesvalues embeddedembedded amongamong thethe Borans and Samburu linked to exploitationexploitation of gumsgums andand resinsresins whichwhich thethe MukogodoMukogodo Maasai lack?

Fourthly, attempts to exploit the limitedlimited gums and resins resources areare alsoalso hamperedhampered byby Socio-cultural dynamicsdynamics among and between neighbouring communities (i.e. the MaasaiMaasai visa -a-viz. SamburuSamburu andand Borans).Borans). This therefore calls for affirmative action from the lawlaw enforcement agents to settlesettle livestocklivestock ownershipownership andand pasturepasture management-relatedmanagement-related conflicts. OnceOnce conflicts are resolved,resolved, anan enablingenabling environmentenvironment forfor exploitationexploitation andand marketing of gums and resins is likely to prevail.

Fifthly, local collectors andand dealers inin gums and resins are "voiceless""voiceless" given the non existence of a formalformal institutioninstitution toto stabilisestabilise thethe marketmarket forces.forces. ItIt is thereforetherefore imperativeimperative that such an institution/organisationinstitution/organisation isis putput in place. The initiatives by ITFSP with GTZ (i.e,. formation of Gum Arabic andand Resins Association -- GARA), which amongamong othersothers isis to look into the welfare of stakeholders, isis welcome.

References Blacket, H.L. 1994. KenyaKenya IndigenousIndigenous ForestForest ConservationConservation Programme. Forest Inventory Report No. 15, Mukogodo.

Berger, P. 1989.1989. Rainfall and AgroclimatologyAgroclimatology ofof the LaikipiaLaikipia plateau,plateau, Kenya.Kenya. GeographicaGeographica Bernesia, Berne,

Blalock, H.M. 1981. Social statistics.statistics. Singapore: McGraw -- Hill,Hill, Second edition.edition.

Chikamai, B.N.B.N. and Mbiru, S. 1997.1997. AssessmentAssessment of gum arabicarabic andand gumgum resinresin resourcesresources inin Mukogodo Division,Division, LailcipiaLaikipia district.

Gachathi, F.N. and Kariuki, A.M. 1997.1997. Useful Non-Wood Forest products of MukogodoMukogodo forestforest and adjacent rangelands. (Unpublished).

Herren, U. 1993.1993. "Socio-economic"Socio-economic strategies of PastoralPastoral MaasaiMaasai HouseholdsHouseholds inin Mukogodo,Mukogodo, Kenya"Kenya". . PhD Thesis. Department of Ethnobotany, University ofof Berne.

Muchiri, B. and Kariuki,Kariuki, A.M.A.M. 1996.1996. AA surveysurvey ofof Indigenous Indigenous foodfood plantsplants ofof Socio-economic Socio-economic importance in Mukogodo rangelands, Laikipia. (Unpublished).(Unpublished).

Republic ofof Kenya, Min. of CultureCulture and SocialSocial Services and LRP. 1982.1982. The vegetationvegetation of LaikipiaLailcipia District,District, Kenya.Kenya. Laikipia Mount Kenya Papers B-2.

Taiti, S. W. 1992. TheThe vegetation vegetation of of Lailcipia Laikipia District,District, Kenya 53

APPENDIX I

List of plants and their usesuses from the Mukogodo Maasai perspective

Plant name BotanicalBotanical/(Maasai) /(Maasai) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 l313 1. Dodonea viscosa (Ilgilai) x x x x 2. Solanu incanum (Ntulelei)(Ntulelei) x x 3. Synadenum grantiigrantii x x (Olkorbobit) 4. Cassia dydrirnobotriadydrimobotria (senetoi)(senetoi) x 5. Euclea divinorum (Olkingei) x x x x 6. Melhania verutina (Epupoi)(Epupoi) x 7. Withania somnifera (Leisayet) x 8. Olea hoschtetteri (Lorondo) x x x x 9. Acacia nilotica (Olkiroriti) x x x I x 10. Carrisa endurisenduris (Lamuriaki)(Lamuriaki) x x x x 11. Olea africanaafricana (Lorien)(Lorien) x x x x x 12. Psyda arabica (Olombai)(Olombai) x x x 13. IpomoeaIpomoea hildebrantiihildebrantii x x x (Lokitengi) 14. EuphorbiaEuphorbia gracilirameagraciliramea x Ikangu) 15. Croton dichogamus x x x x (Olkimdingai) 16. (Olkonyil) x 17. ClerodendrumClerodendrum myricoides xx (Olmakutukutu) xx 18. (Iltipirikwa) xx 19. Grewia bicolar (Ill)(Ill) x 20. lasminumJasminum sp. (Ilmaneen) x 21. Euphorbia sp. (() ) x 22. Combretum mollemoUe (01momoi)(Olmomoi) xx 23. Maerua triphyllatriphylla (Olamaralc)(Olamarak) xx Xx 24. (01oloi)(Ololoi) xx x x 25. Acacia nubica (Ildepe) xx x 26.Pyragmanthera discallensis x x (Ilmeidim kooa) 27. Ramnus staddosstaddos (Olkolakola) x x 28. Sansavellia sp (Oldupai) xx 29. Pappe capensi x (Oldonganaiyoi) 30.Euphorbia heterochroma x x x (Engeletlit) 54

31. (Olmenangi) xx x 32. Aloe kendogensiskendogensis (Suguroi) xx x xX 33. Lantana sp (makirkirienie) xx 34. Berlena aegyptium (sucha)(sueha) x x 35. (Sukurtut)i xx 36. AcaciaAcacia lahai (Oltepesi) x x 37. Zanthozyllum challybeam xx xx (Oloisuki) 38. DraceanaDraceana ellenbeckiana x x (Ndokindongit) 39. Aerua persikapersika (Ilturilan) xx x 40. Croton megalocarpus xxXX Xx X x Xx (Merigwet) 41. Plumbago zylanica x (Ngeriatus) 42. Ximenia americanaamericana (Olomai)(Olomai) x x 43. Cordia sinensis (Silapani)(Silapani) xx x xX 44. WarbugiaWarbugia ugandensis x (Sokonoi) 45. Strychnos henningsii x x x (ilpirikwa) 46. (Oloilei) x 47. Acacia mellifera (Olminishoi)(Olminishoi) x x x x 48. Albezia zizermaunia x (Mugutan) 49. (Sumeita) xx 50. (Olparamunyo) xx 51. Ozoroa insignusinsignus (lukunonoi)(lukunonoi) xx 52. Piliostigma thoningii (Bukoi) x 53. Boswellia hildebraulii x x x (Silalei) 54. Turraea mombasanamombasana (Njeni-(Njeni- x engasho) 55. (Loikordodai) x x 56. Senecio stuhmanni (Leleshua)(Leleshua) x x x x 57. Acacia etbaica (Njakwai)(Njakwai) x x 58. Acacia sp. (Eehurai)(Echurai) x x 59. PodocarpusPodocarpus graciliorgracilior x (Olpiripiri) 60. Acacia seyal (Olerai) x x x 61. (Olaraiti) x x x 62. Rhoicissus tridenttridentateo ateo x (Elkinyeal) 55

63. Acacia shimperishirnperi (Murigoi) x x 64. LanneaLannea triphylll (Olampirori) x 65. (Kurpule) x 66. Gloriosa superba (Saikutari) 1111111111111111.11x 67. (Olmenjo) x 68. Eurphorbia kibwenzkibwenzis s x x x (Olpopongi) 69. (Lokoilie) x 70. Eurphorbia tirucalli IIIIIIMIIIIITE1111x x (Olpurshuruti) 1111.11EIRMIIMI 71. (Ngobiuta)i(Ngohiuta)i INIMEMIEM1111x IMMIIMIMMI 72. Pittosporum lanatum x (Ingilenyai)(Ingilenyai) 111111111111.111111 73. Lychium shansiishansii (Ngokii) IMMINIENIMEIMIIIIMMEI1x 74. Cissus rotundifolia (Ngunee)(Ngunee) 1111MMINE111.1111.1=111.x 75. Cucumis dispassence x x x (N(Naigordodoi)aigordodoi) 76. Ficus sycamorus (Oreteti) 1111111111x x I FREQUENCIES 52 5 7 ormi17 6 4 16 18 7 iii4 24 7ow 2 56

EXPERIENCES IN BENZOIN RESIN PRODUCTION ININ SUMATRA,SUMATRA, INDONESIA

1 2 ESTHER KATZKATZ1, , MARlNAMARINA GOLOUBINOFFGOLOUBINOFF2,, MANUELMANUEL RUIZ PEREZ\PEREZ3, ANDAND GENEVIEVE MICHON4MICHO~

1 ORSTOM-CIFOR, ORSTOM-CIFOR, CIFOR, CIFOR, P. P. O. 0. BoxBox 6596,6596, JKPWB,JI(PWB, Jarkarta,Jarkarta, 10065,10065, Indonesia.Indonesia. 2 CNRS-Musee CNRS-Musee de de l'Homme, l'Homme, 17,17, placeplace dudu Trocadero,Trocadero, 7511675116 Paris.Paris.

3 CIFOR,CIFOR, P. P. O. 0. BoxBox 6596,6596, JKPWB,JI(PWB, Jarkarta,Jarkarta, 10065,10065, IndonesiaIndonesia

4 ORSTOM-ICRAF,ORSTOM-ICRAF, P.O.BoxP.O.Box 161, Bogor 16001.

Introduction Data presented here are the preliminary results of research on benzoin inin NorthNorth SumatraSumatra 1 by two projects dealing with non-timber forest productsproducts inin IndonesiaIndonesia'. • It was decided to study benzoinbenzoin among other products, because of its interesting management, andand becausebecause very littlelittle datadata waswas availableavailable onon presentpresent exploitation.exploitation. This product has beenbeen used,used, exploited andand traded for several centuries, but historical information is sparse.sparse. Colonial foresters ledled somesome work atat thethe beginningbeginning ofof thisthis century,century, butbut littlelittle interestinterest hashas beenbeen shown in non-timber forest products from that period until very recently.recently. ExploratoryExploratory fieldworkfieldwork was initiated in October of 1996 and new members of the team will start their research at the beginning of 1998.1998. SoSo thisthis paperpaper willwill raiseraise questionsquestions rather thanthan provideprovide answers.answers.

Benzoin isis the resinresin ofof various various speciesspecies ofof StyraxStyrax treestrees (Styracaceae).(Styracaceae) . One groupgroup ofof species, as described below, is distributed throughout Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, and may be in JavaJava andand Bali.Bali. As will be observedobserved later, its production is overover 10001000 tonnesltonnes/ year. Another group of speciesspecies is foundfound inin continentalcontinental South-EastSouth-East Asia.Asia. The main resinresin producingproducing speciesspecies is Styrax tonkinensistonkinensis (Pierre) Craib exex HartwissHartwiss (Pinyopusarerk, 1994) while StyraxStyrax benzoinbenzoin Craib. is aa minorminor oneone (Burkill,(Burkill, 1966).1966). Benzoin resin from S. tonkinensistonkinensis is commerciallycommercially knownknown as 'Siam benzoin', asas itit waswas traded throughthrough thethe kingdomkingdom ofof Siam (present Thailand).Thailand). ChineseChinese historical data suggestsuggest that it was first exploitedexploited andand tradedtraded fromfrom North Sumatra,Sumatra, in thethe 8th-9th8th-9th centuries.centuries. FromFrom about the 12th century,century, it alsoalso camecame fromfrom continentalcontinental South-EastSouth-East Asia,Asia, wherewhere itsits namesnames seem to be derivedderived fromfrom IndonesianIndonesian languageslanguages (Yamada,(Yamada, 1954-55;1954-55; Wheatley,Wheatley, 1959).1959). InIn Sumatra, itit is called kemenyan inin Malay and haminjon inin Batak (the Malays inhabit the coasts and thethe Eastern part of Sumatra, the Batak thethe highlandshighlands ofof NorthNorth Sumatra). TheThe

1 CIFOR projectproject 8, directeddirected by ManuelManuel Ruiz Pérez,Perez, on "Global"Global trendstrends inin non-timbernon-timber forest products" and EuropeanEuropean UnionUnion project,project, directeddirected byby GenevièveGenevieve Michon,Michon, on "Alternative strategies for the development of forestforest resoures: extractivism, agroforestryagroforestry or plantations?". EU project involves French, Spanish and Norwegian, Indonesian and Filipino researchresearch institutionsinstitutions andand NGOs.NG0s. CIFOR and EU projectsprojects areare interactinginteracting andand overlapping, and some scientists, such as Esther Katz, are members of both. 57

Thai, Lao, Khmer andand VietnameseVietnamese names are close to kemenyan (for(for instanceinstance nhannhan inin Lao) (Yamada,(Yamada, 1954-55).1954-55). The word 'benzoin' and its equivalentsequivalents in otherother European languages derive from the Arabic lubanlubanjawi, jawi, 'frankincense'frankincense of Sumatra', as it was brought 2 to Europe throughthrough thethe Arab worldworld2.• BenzoinBenzoin is chieflychiefly used for incense,incense, perfume and medicine.

We thought that benzoin in NorthNorth SumatraSumatra hadhad becomebecome a very minorminor activity,activity, yet we found thatthat itit isis still produced in fourteenfourteen sub-districts distributed over two districts,districts , DairiDairi and North Tapanuli, wherewhere itit is eithereither thethe mainmain source of income, or secondarysecondary to commercial agriculture (coffee, pineapple,pineapple, etc.).etc.). Thousands ofof farmers and small local traders still live from thisthis resource.resource.

Species identificationidentification Although benzoinbenzoin resinresin hashas been lcnownlmown forfor a very longlong time,time, thethe identificationidentification of benzoin resinresin producingproducing StyraxStyrax treestrees inin Indonesia isis not yet totallytotally accurate.accurate. DifferentDifferent species ofof StyraxStyrax growgrow all over the island of Sumatra, at least from Aceh toto JambiJambi (and(and are also found in Peninsular Malaysia). Most authors describe Styrax benzoin as the best resin producing species (Braam,(Braam, 1917;1917; Heyne,Heyne, 1927;1927; Hulssen,Hulssen, 1940;1940; Burkill,Burkill, 1966;1966; Pastorova & Boon, 1994). The secondsecond most important species is Styrax paralleloneurum Perk. (Hulssen, 1940, Pastorova & Boon, 1994), but Watanabe et al. (1996)(1996) considerconsider it a better species andand believe it to be thethe samesame asas S.S. sumatranumsumatranum J.J. SmithSmith (mentioned(mentioned by Burkill, 1966), whichwhich maymay also be anotheranother name for S.S. sumatranasumatrana (mentioned as a secondary speciesspecies byby Heyne, 1927).1927). BurkillBurkill (1966)(1966) alsoalso describesdescribes S.S. subpaniculatumsubpaniculatum Jungh. & De Vriese whichwhich growsgrows in PalembangPalembang area, in the SouthSouth ofof Sumatra, Sumatra, andand S.S. serrulatum Roxb. TheThe taxonomy taxonomy ofof Styrax Styrax speciesspecies hashas beenbeen revised sincesince Burkill's work, but unfortunately no ethnobotanical information is provided in this revision (Putz(Putz && Ng,Ng, 1978).1978). HeyneHeyne (1927)(1927) collected samples, local names and ethnobotanicalethnobotanical information at the beginning ofof the century,century, which needs to bebe comparedcompared with presentpresent data.data. BatakBatak peasants distinguishdistinguish twotwo oror three species of benzoin trees, with differentdifferent qualitiesqualities of resin, but we have notnot collectedcollected allall thethe species,species, nornor identifiedidentified them.them. TheThe namesnames andand number ofof species vary according toto thethe areas. LocalLocal namesnames havehave beenbeen givengiven toto us in Batak Dairi in Dairi district and in variousvarious dialects of Batak Toba inin NorthNorth Tapanuli,Tapanuli, which are two different, althoughalthough closelyclosely related,related, languages.languages.

Chemical composition Some informationinfonuation is availableavailable on thethe resinresin chemicalchemical compositioncomposition of StyraxStyrax tonkinensistonkinensis (,Siam('Siam benzoin'),benzoin'), StyraxStyrax benzoinbenzoin andand StyraxStyrax paralleloneurum.paralleloneurum. SiamSiam benzoinbenzoin isis more valued for pharmaceuticalpharmaceutical preparationspreparations and and forfor perfumeperfume thanthan SumatraSumatra benzoin.benzoin. According toto data compiled byby BurkhillBurkhill (1966),(1966), StyraxStyrax tonkinensistonkinensis andand StyraxStyrax benzoinbenzoin both contain benzo-resinol and traces of three fragrant substances, benzaldehyde vanillin, phenylpropyl cinnamatecinnamate styrol, and styracin; but Styrax tonkinensistonkinensis containscontains free benzoic acid, whilewhile StyraxStyrax benzoinbenzoin containscontains free acid and holds lower quantities of vanillinvanillin andand styrol; StyraxStymy paralleloneurum paralleloneurum yieldsyields aa benzoinbenzoin mademade upup principallyprincipally of cinnamiccinnamic acid.acid. A recent study waswas made on samplessamples of differentdifferent qualitiesqualities of StyraxStyrax benzoinbenzoin and StyraxStyrax

2 TheThe firstfirst ArabArab travellerstravellers called both Java and Sumatra 'Jawa'. 58 paralleloneurum collectedcollected in North SumatraSumatra (Pastorova & Boon,Boon, 1994).1994). FromFrom thethe gasgas chromatograms, they identified six groups of components in allall the samples:samples: freefree benzoicbenzoic acid, free cinnamiccinnamic acid,acid, freefree alcoholsalcohols andand vanillin,vanillin, benzoicbenzoic acidacid esters,esters, cinnamiccinnamic acidacid esters and higher molecular weightweight compounds.compounds. TheyThey concludedconcluded that qualityquality ofof both both thethe resins isis correlatedcorrelated withwith thethe aromaticaromatic esterester content.content. StyraxStyrax paralleloneurumparalleloneurum containscontains primarily cinnamic acid esters and Styrax benzoin about equal amounts of cinnamic andand benzoic acid esters. LowerLower gradesgrades containcontain mainly free benzoic and cinnanliccinnamic acids and an amount ofof triterpenoids.triterpenoids. It isis veryvery likelylikely thatthat thethe collectorscollectors andand thethe traderstraders mixmix thethe different species ofof Sumatra Sumatra benzoin.

Tree management Data about the natural distribution of Styrax trees has also to be compiled and revised. In Sumatra, they can be found in the undergrowth of primary forests (Laumonier, 1991), but are more common in secondary forestsforests (Laumonier,(Laumonier, pers.pers. com.),com.), whichwhich isis alsoalso thethe casecase inin Northern Laos (Vidal,(Vidal, 1960).1960).

In Indonesia,Indonesia, resin productionproduction is centered in thethe highlandshighlands ofof North North Sumatra,Sumatra, wherewhere itsits cultivation seems to havehave originated. Benzoin was alsoalso extractedextracted forfor locallocal usesuses inin KerinciKerinci Seblat National Park (Aumeeruddy, pers.pers. com.), in Jambi (Laumonier,(Laumonier, pers. com.)com.) andand maybe in other partsparts ofof Sumatra Sumatra andand CentralCentral Java.Java. AccordingAccording toto DutchDutch forestryforestry literature,literature, it was also tradedtraded fromfrom PalembangPalembang (Heyne,(Heyne, 1927).1927).

Most of thethe NorthNorth SumatraSumatra productionproduction presentlypresently comes from planted trees. TheyThey areare usually cultivated at elevations fromfi-om 800 800 m m toto about 15001500 m. FarmersFarmers saysay thatthat wildwild benzoin trees can be found in the forests located far away from the villages. We have not been in any of these these forests.forests. AsAs thisthis environmentenvironment hashas beenbeen managedmanaged overover manymany centuries,centuries, we wonder whether these trees are really "wild". An ecological study will be undertaken at different vegetationvegetation g,radientsgradients and will probably provide answersanswers toto thesethese questions.questions.

Most of thethe failfarmers ters wewe havehave interviewedinterviewed soso farfar plantplant benzoin benzoin seeds,seeds, oror preferablypreferably seedlings, inside the forest,forest, usually in aa place wherewhere therethere areare ah-eadyalready benzoin trees. TheyThey pick seedlings aroundaround the best resin producing trees in their plantation. When the benzoin trees reach aboutabout oneone meter,meter, theythey progressivelyprogressively eliminateeliminate thethe otherother species.species. AfterAfter eighteight years, they start tapping the benzoin trees. If they do it properly, they can extract the resin for about sixty years - this means that the farmer, his son and his grandson will live on it. Then they abandon the site and let it grow as a forest. They say that they cannot replace the trees oneone byby one,one, asas itit is is done done in in Southern Southern Sumatra, Sumatra, inin damar damar plantations plantations (Shorea(Shorea javanica) (Michon && Bompard, 1987). This plantation method was reported at thethe beginning of the centurycentury by Heyne (1927), but plantations have also been described in abandoned rice fallowsfallows (Braam,(Braam, 1917;1917; Heyne;Heyne; 1927;1927; Marsden,Marsden, 1986)3.1986)3. This practice isis apparently much less common nowadays. AccordingAccording toto farmers in Tapanuli,Tapanuli, the treestrees produce resin only afterafter 20 years, compared to 88 years underunder forestforest cover.cover.

3 In Laos, benzoin treestrees grow spontaneously inin ricerice fallowsfallows (Savathvong(Savathvong et aI.,al., 1997) 59

The history of benzoin cultivation will have to be traced. Plantations were observed by a British traveler as early as 17721772 (Marsden,(Marsden, 1986),1986), but we do notnot knowknow whenwhen theythey werewere established. No foreign traveller reached the highlandshighlands previously, as the BatakBatak fiercelyfiercely defended theirtheir territory. AsAs there was an externalexternal tradetrade demanddemand fromfrom thethe 8th century,century, intensification ofof the productionproduction maymay havehave happenedhappened severalseveral centuriescenturies ago, but waswas probably expanded a few generations ago. In 1917,1917, Braam (op. cit.),cit.), observedobserved thatthat a lot of planting had occurred in the few preceding years. We do not know either what hashas beenbeen the proportion of cultivated trees to 'wild''wild' trees over the centuries. Marsden (op.(op. cit.)cit.) saw wild benzoin trees, but it is difficultdifficult toto knowknow whatwhat was really wild, favouredfavoured oror managedmanaged in the forest.forest. We stillstill havehave toto studystudy thethe differencedifference betweenbetween wild andand cultivatedcultivated benzoinbenzoin trees and better understand the method of selectingselecting seedlings.seedlings. We needneed toto recognise,recognise, inin any case, that the Batak farmers started plantingplanting andand selectingselecting thethe treestrees atat a time when there was no scientific agronomic research and that the indigenous knowledge of benzoin has been built up over centuries.

Presently the benzoin farmers are facingfacing problemsproblems ofof landland limitation.limitation. TheirTheir plantationsplantations are getting old and forest spaces have been reduced to the minimum.minimum. A bigbig pulppulp andand paper company located in the area is inin greatgreat needneed ofof wood. wood. ThisThis companycompany hashas alreadyalready cut hundreds ofof hectares of pines which were planted inin colonial timestimes and have been planting eucalyptus trees.trees. InIn some villages, they have cutcut benzoinbenzoin plantationsplantations oror areare planning to do soso andand replacereplace themthem withwith eucalyptus.eucalyptus. This is quitequite aa paradox,paradox, becausebecause inin Vietnam, Styrax tonkinensis are planted for pulp and paper (Pinyopusarerk, 1994).1994). YoungYoung farmers also voluntarily sellsell theirtheir benzoinbenzoin treestrees and turnturn to other activities. Many older farmers' sonssons havehave migratedmigrated toto thethe cities. These farmersfarmers havehave nono reasonreason toto set up newnew plantations, and when theythey are too old to work,work, theythey abandonabandon theirtheir plantation oror sellsell it.it. The price incentive to retain benzoin is very low at the moment. Prices on local Sumatra markets have not increased for several years, which means that in realreal terms,telms, theythey havehave 4 been decreasing. BothBoth farmersfarmers andand traderstraders areare worriedworried aboutabout thethe future4. future .

Tapping techniquestechniques During the peak seasons, farmers whose main activity is benzoin exploitation go to their forest plantationsplantations forfor aboutabout threethree toto five days per week and return to the village forfor thethe weekly market and church. Benzoin exploitationexploitation is usually a malemale occupation.occupation. ItIt isis hardhard and risky, as it requires the tapper to climb up the tree to 4-64-6 meters.meters. TheThe bottombottom ofof the the tree is tapped or harvested first,first, andand thenthen aa rope of sugar palm fiber is tied atat aboutabout 2 meters above the ground. The tapper standsstands on aa smallsmall piecepiece ofof wood wood tiedtied toto thethe roperope toto tap or harvest the second part of the tree. This is repeated at thethe next 2 meters, and so on if necessary. Only a few women exploit the trees to help their husband or because they are widows, and this does not occur in all the villages. The benzoin tree itself is is perceivedperceived as aa womanwoman and the resinresin isis seenseen asas herher tearstears oror herher milk.milk. BeforeBefore goinggoing toto theirtheir plantations, thethe farmers mustmust be nice to their wives and whilewhile tapping, theythey must not talk in a coarse manner, otherwise the 'lady tree' will not give resin.

4 In Laos, farmersfarmers located close toto roadsroads havehave turnedturned toto otherother alternatives.alternatives. OnlyOnly farmersfarmers located in marginal remote areas still tap benzoinbenzoin treestrees (Chagnaud,(Chagnaud, 1996;1996; SavathvongSavathvong et a!.,al., 1997).1997). 60

Before tapping, the bark has to bebe cleanedcleaned ofof mossesmosses withwith aa scraperscraper (guris).(guris). This way, the resin will not mix with impuritiesimpurities when it flows out, and the sun shines directly on the trunk, warming it.it. FarmersFarmers saysay thatthat thethe moss keepskeeps itit coolcool andand thatthat thethe treetree producesproduces moremore resin if it is warm. AA typetype ofof aa knifeknife (agat(agat panuktuk)panuktuk) is used to open a smallsmall wound of about 22 emcm in thethe bark.bark. TheThe metalmetal goes under the bark and liftslifts itit up,up, thenthen thethe farmerfarmer pushes it back withwith thethe knifeknife handle,handle, shapedshaped likelike aa hammer.hammer. ThisThis way,way, moremore resinresin willwill remain under the bark. They make about 10 wounds on each two meters level of the tree, 5 on each side, so aboutabout 30 wounds are made on a tree. The tapping starts in May and lasts about until August, depending onon thethe numbernumber ofof treestrees toto tap. Only trees with full foliage cancan bebe tapped. The trees, which have lost their leaves or have very young ones (they are called susang) have to be tapped later,later, between January and March, once their foliage has recovered.

The resin flows under the bark and outside. It can be collected after three or four months, from August toto about December, forfor mostmost trees,trees, and from AprilApril toto June for the susang. It is better to collect itit inin thethe rainyrainy season,season, because the weather is cooler and the resin does not melt,melt, but ifif it it gets gets wet wet while while collecting, collecting, itit becomes becomes dirty.dirty. CollectingCollecting shouldshould be avoided inin thethe middle ofof the day in the hot sun, as it isis alsoalso likelylikely toto melt.melt. TheThe farmerfarmer uses a small blunt broad bladed knifeknife (agat)(agat) to pry away the bark to which the resin is stuck. HeHe putsputs it inin aa basketbasket carriedcarried on hishis back.back. AA farmerfarmer cancan collectcollect aboutabout 55 kg/day,kg/day, which gives about 3 kg ofof purepure resin.resin. ThisThis firstfirst flowflow resinresin isis calledcalled takasan,takas an, thethe innerinner white resin isis called matamata dalam,dalam, thethe outer yellowishyellowish resinresin isis calledcalled matamata luar.luar.

Two or three months later,later, the farmer can gogo backback toto thethe samesame treetree andand collectcollect thethe secondsecond flow of resinresin from the wounded bark. HeHe justjust scrapes it from the tree with the same knife. This resin isis calledcalled lecet.lecet. Part of this resinresin isis white,white, andand partpart aa darkdark brownbrown colour,colour, described as as 'black''black' byby local people.people. AsAs the resin flows on to thethe treetree trunk,trunk, somesome 5 impuritiesimpurities are collected. ItIt driesdries lessless easilyeasily thanthan thethe first-flowfirst-flow resin5.resin .

Then, about three months later, a third flow of resinresin cancan bebe collected.collected. Usually,Usually, while farmers collectcollect it, they tap thethe treetree inin another part of the trunk. More commonly, theythey tap on the sideside opposite opposite to to the the last last wound. wound. This This third third resin, resin, called called tahir tahiror jurur, or, isis alsoalso dark.dark. It looks like the darkdark parts of thethe second resin, but some of it cancan be slightlyslightly reddishreddish andand more transparent. Data about the average annual resin production per tree vary between 200 g/year /tree and 11 kg/year/tree.kg/year/tree. ItIt depends onon the age of thethe trees.trees. WatanabeWatanabe et al. (1996) mention aa production of 11 kg/year/tree forfor fullyfully producing trees.trees.

Drying, commercialization,commercialization, sorting,sorting, processingprocessing and and transportation transportation Some people sell their harvest directlydirectly withwith thethe bark,bark, whilewhile othersothers preferprefer toto drydry itit for a week, in a dark cool place, usually an attic, before cleaning thethe resin from thethe bark.bark. IfIf thethe farmers havehave enough money, theythey drydry the resin a little longer, as itit increasesincreases thethe value.value. Otherwise, theythey sellsell it right awayaway to thethe locallocal villagevillage traders.traders. TheThe barksbarks can be soldsold separately inin large quantitiesquantities for 33 cents/kg.cents/kg. The prices for resin vary from $2 to $4$4

5 Laos benzoin is only harvested once and only gives whitewhite resinresin (Pinyopusarerk, 1994). 61 according to quality.quality. The trader sorts the differentdifferent types of resinsresins accordingaccording to theirtheir colour and size and dries them forfor aa longerlonger time.time. ForFor instanceinstance the second resin is bothboth white and black. HeHe may may extractextract thethe whitewhite piecespieces and put them with the resinresin of firstfirst quality and gain some profit on it. He sieves the benzoin andand separates itit into heapsheaps ofof different sizes,sizes, calledcalled 'big 'big pieces', pieces', 'bean', 'bean', 'corn', 'corn', 'rice', 'rice', 'clust16. 'dust,6. If he has enough capital, he keeps the benzoin drying as longlong asas hehe can. TheThe drierdrier thethe benzoin,benzoin, thethe easiereasier it is forfor transportation. When enough benzoin has been accumulated, the tradertrader or hishis wifewife goesgoes to the nearest trading towntown toto sellsell it,it, usuallyusually onon marketmarket day. day. He or she has to go veryvery early so that the resin doesdoes notnot meltmelt withwith thethe sunsun oror heat.heat. They transport it in cardboardcardboard boxes or big baskets on the top of buses. OnOn one one occasion,occasion, we observed a village trader who could not catchcatch anan earlyearly bus,bus, asas theythey werewere crowded,crowded, andand whosewhose benzoinbenzoin meltedmelted on the way. AsAs he he arrived arrived intointo town,town, allall thethe piecespieces werewere stuckstuck together,together, alteringaltering thethe shape and the colour. TheThe selling selling price price consequently consequently dropped.dropped. MaybeMaybe means of transportationtransportation could be improved inin order to preservepreserve the quality of benzoin. In the marketmarket town,town, thethe traderstraders againagain mixmix thethe differentdifferent qualities.qualities. They placeplace thethe smallersmaller size pieces in the bottom ofofthe the heap, then bigger ones over it and the biggestbiggest ones on top. The trading game consistsconsists of thethe buyerbuyer evaluating the quantityquantity ofof each each sizesize andand thethe profitprofit that can be made onon thethe wholewhole heap.heap. The buyers go from one heap toto thethe other,other, taketake pieces fromfrom thethe bottom andand liftlift them upup to thethe top;top; pickpick aa samplesample toto evaluateevaluate thethe proportion of of eacheach size;size; burnburn a smallsmall piece of resinresin onon theirtheir cigarettecigarette toto smellsmell itsits fragrance; look at its appearance and its shine. They bargain the price with the seller lmtiluntil reaching an agreement or leaving it. Occasionally sellers do not find adequate buyers and return home with their heap, especially if they are based in that same town.

The bigger traders again sort out the different sizes and qualities and dry the benzoinbenzoin longer. They keep it about four months before theythey sell itit toto distantdistant places:places: CentralCentral Java,Java, located at four daysdays drive, andand Singapore,Singapore, reached by boat from Medan harbour within about a day. Drying and stocking the benzoin requires again toto hold enough capital to be able to wait for a few months. The longer traders keep Sumatra benzoin, the drier and the more valuable it is. In contrast, Laos benzoin, which seems to dry faster, must be sold as quickly as possible toto preservepreserve itsits fragrancefragrance (Fischer,(Fischer, personalpersonal communication).communication). Itlt isis possible that Sumatra benzoin alsoalso losesloses itsits scent inin the process, butbut if it doesdoes notnot drydry properly, thethe product loses more of itsits quality.quality. WeWe wonderwonder whetherwhether allall thethe differentdifferent manipUlationsmanipulations of sorting the pieces by sieving, mixing them again andand sievingsieving themthem againagain do not also alter thethe quality7.qualit/.

Some benzoin isis sold pure, butbut aa biggerbigger proportion proportion isis processed.processed. PossiblyPossibly somesome processing occursoccurs inin Sumatra, andand somesome in Singapore,Singapore, butbut most of thethe benzoinbenzoin isis transformed in Central Java. There, it is wrappedwrapped in little plastic bags, pressed into blocks or put into cigarettes. In some cases, blocks may be made out of pure benzoin, but more

56 InIn Singapore,Singap* ore, the the traders traders use use three three main main categories: categories: 'almonds' 'almonds' (for(for bigbig pieces),pieces), 'siftings' (for small pieces), 'dust'.'dust'. 7 This question was also raised by ChagnaudChagnaud (1996). 62

8 commonly, benzoinbenzoin isis adulteratedadulterated with with damardamar resin resin (Shorea(Shorea spp.),spp), which is cheaper8.cheaper . Some Batak traderstraders also mentioned thatthat itit waswas goinggoing intointo glassglass andand textiletextile industries, and it may also be processed in IndonesiaIndonesia in flavouring, perfume and essential oil industries, but we do not have any information aboutabout it yet.

Uses andand tradetrade The present trading channels of benzoin still have to be accuratelyaccurately researched. AccordingAccording to official regional figures, present production inin NorthNorth SumatraSumatra wouldwould bebe ofof about 5,000 9 TIT/ year, of whichwhich 1,0001,000 TTare are exported9. exported . We dodo notnot knowknow whetherwhether itit includesincludes onlyonly exports from Sumatra or also from Java and if they areare reliable.reliable. AnotherAnother officialofficial sourcesource gives similar figures (800-1,100(800-1,100 T) forfor benzoinbenzoin exportsexports fromfrom IndonesiaIndonesia toto SingaporeSingapore (about 90%), Malaysia, Taiwan, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, India, HongHong Kong,Kong, Pakistan, Japan, Saudi Arabia (Silitonga, 1994, quoted by Coppen, 1995).1995). In 1920,1920, thethe district of Tapanuli alone was producing 2,000 TIT/ year (Schnepper, 1923).1923). In 1931,1931,2,500 2,500 TIT/ year were exported, to Singapore,Singapore, India, Arabia, Egypt, Algeria, Europe and America (Koppel, 1932).1932). It isis veryvery difficultdifficult toto tracetrace benzoinbenzoin exportsexports to otherother countries,countries, asas theirtheir figures are not largelarge enoughenough to warrantwarrant a separateseparate category; theythey are included in the "gums and resins" category. We have not checked the current figures, but our estimates,estimates, based on two field trips, indicate that the North Sumatran production falls within an order of magnitude of thousands of tonnes. If it really is 5,000 T, we wonderwonder howhow 4,0004,000 TT areare consumed byby the nationalnational populationpopulation of Indonesia, even though there areare 200200 millionmillion inhabitants.

The use of benzoinbenzoin hashas aa longlong historyhistory inin Sumatra,Sumatra, sincesince itit waswas alreadyalready exportedexported fromfrom there in the 8th century.century. ItsIts oldestoldest usesuses maymay bebe associatedassociated with shamanisticshamanistic rituals.rituals. Even today, shamans in the Batak highlands,highlands, as well as inin allall SumatraSumatra andand Java,Java, burnburn benzoinbenzoin incense when they enter a possession trance inin curing rituals. It is widelywidely usedused inin bothboth islands in different typestypes ofof traditional traditional ritualsrituals : protection from bad spirits,spirits, rice-reapingrice-reaping ceremonies, rainrain rituals,rituals, offeringsofferings toto thethe dead,dead, toto the house spirits, etc. Benzoin is also talcentaken asas aa medicinemedicine andand smokedsmoked inin cigarettes,cigarettes, sometimessometimes alsoalso usedused inin rituals. The habit of smoking benzoinbenzoin cigarettescigarettes isis very much ingrained in CentralCentral Java,Java, wherewhere ritualsrituals involving the use ofof benzoinbenzoin incenseincense areare moremore commoncommon andand frequentfrequent thanthan anywhereanywhere elseelse in Indonesia. We estimated the sales of a small retailing stand inin the central market of a main city in Central Java to be; aa minimumminimum figure of 5 T/TI year.year. TheThe enquiryenquiry needsneeds toto gogo further to estimate the local consumption in that region. Some small local industries still make benzoin cigarettes, but these cigarettes, whether industrial oror home made, are now smoked only by older peoplepeople ofof Javanese Javanese peasantpeasant background.background. IndustrialistsIndustrialists expectexpect itit toto die with the passing of thisthis generationgeneration (Tarmidi, 1996). Nevertheless, itit is possible that

8 We saw that benzoinbenzoin usedused toto bebe adulteratedadulterated byby frankincensefrankincense oror myrrh.myrrh. WeWe don'tdon't lcnowknow when it started to be adulterated by damar, but it is mentioned at least in the early fourties (Hulssen, 1940). At that time therethere were processing factories on the west coastcoast ofof North North Sumatra. 9 Informasi Pasar Industri Produksi Lokal Jenis Tanaman Kemenyan didi KabupatenKabupaten Tapanuli Utara, 1993-94, data collectedcollected by J. Coppen in April 19971997 at North SumatraSumatra Forestry Service. 63 benzoin is alsoal.so added as a flavouringflavouring to some brands of modem kretekkretek cloveclove cigarettes,cigarettes, what would implyImply large quantities since 140140 billions ofof kretekkretek cigarettes were produced in 1993,1993, mainly forfor thethe nationalnational marketmarket (ibid.).(ibid.). InIn a modemmodem fast-changingfast-changing Indonesia,Indonesia, traditional Javanese rituals involving benzoin, practised sincesince pre-islamicpre-islamic times, are now perceived asas backwardbacicward and and areare rejectedrejected byby orthodoxorthodox Muslims.Muslims So thisthis consumption has been declining andand is likelylikely toto decreasedecrease even more. Nevertheless, inin thethe rest ofof thethe Muslim world,10world,1° benzoin benzoin is is widelywidely used used andand burntburnt in homes and mosques, in manymany religious andand lifelife cyclecycle rituals,rituals, asas wellwell asas to chase away badbad spirits. In the Maghreb,Maghreb, in particular, its use is very frequent.frequent. TheyThey alwaysalways useuse blockblock benzoin.benzoin.

As earlyearly asas thethe 8th8th century,century, benzoinbenzoin waswas discovereddiscovered inin SumatraSumatra byby Middle-EasternMiddle-Eastern traders who,who, as noted earlier, called it 'frankincense'frankincense ofof Sumatra' andand imported itit to bebe used in a similarsimilar wayway oror inin associationassociation withwith frankincensefrankincense andand myrrh.myrrh. AroundAround thethe 12th12th century, Arab merchantsmerchants began shippingshipping frankincensefrankincense from thethe HadhramautHadhramaut portsports (present Yemen) toto the Sumatran harbour of Sri Vijaya, from where they werewere tradingtrading itit to China. They were also shipping benzoin to India and thethe Middle-EastMiddle-East forfor adulterationadulteration with Indian gum-gugul 11 and and Arabian Arabian frankincense, frankincense, prior prior to to carrying carrying back back toto thethe EastEast for sale inin China (Wheatley, 1959). At thatthat time,time, thethe Chinese werewere mainlymainly using it as a means of fixing the aroma of more volatile perfumes, and not yet as aa medicinemedicine (ibid.).{ibid.}. TheyThey probably also included it in theirtheir incenses,incenses, asas diddid neighbouringneighbouring countriescountries suchsuch asas JapanJapan and Vietnam.12Vietnam. 12 The The ChristiansChristians too too werewere using frankincense and myrrhmyrrh forfor religiousreligious purposes, which, according to the Bible, were brought by the Three WiseWise MenMen toto Jesus.Jesus. They alsoalso receivedreceived benzoin from the Arabs, probably in the Middle-Ages, andand addedadded itit toto the earlierearlier incenses. AA study in FranceFrance showed that the useuse ofof incense incense declineddeclined inin Catholic churches, but is stillstill veryvery importantimportant inin orientaloriental churcheschurches (Goloubinoff, (Goloubinoff, 1997).13 1997).13 ItIt seems to bebe moremore widelywidely consumedconsumed in countriescountries where there are stillstill bigbig CatholicCatholic processions, such such asas in Spain.Spain. BenzoinBenzoin isis still usedused inin WesternWestern pharmacopeia,pharmacopeia, inin particular for respiratory ailments, butbut in small quantities. It is employedemployed asas wellwell in_thein-the perfume industry,industry, asas a fixative for more volatile scents and to givegive aa sweetsweet "oriental""oriental" note. The quantities involved in this industry are not very great either (about 1-10I-lOT/year T/ year for small and middle-sized companies). InIn the pharmacy and perfume industries,industries, SiamSiam benzoin is actually more valued than SumatraSumatra benzoin, but perfumers mixmix bothboth resinsresins toto reduce the costs, sincesince SiamSiam benzoinbenzoin isis moremore expensive.expensive. InIn MarseilleMarseille harbour,harbour, inin 1997,1997,

10 It includes at least thethe Middle and Near-East,Near-East, thethe IndianIndian sub-continentsub-continent and the Northern part of Africa, from the SomaliSomali andand SwahiliSwahili coastcoast toto Senegal.Senegal. The results of archeological excavations presentlypresently ledled byby a French-Indonesian teamteam inin Barns,Barus, aa historical harbour ofof North Sumatra, willwill provide moremore accurate datadata on the history ofof the benzoin trade. Disperse data on benzoin historical andand present uses and trading channels will have also to be gathered. 11 11 Gum-gugul isis probablyprobably aa Commiphora.Commiphora. 12 12 Japan in particular has developped an "incense culture". Incense ceremonies, similar to tea ceremonies, are still practised nowadaysnowadays (Kobayashi,(Kobayashi, personalpersonal communication,communication, 1997). 13 In In the the citycity ofof Paris,Paris, thethe consumptionconsumption ofof incenseincense wouldwould notnot exceedexceed 400400 kg/yearkg/year inin the Catholic churches, and 75 kg/year in the Oriental churches. As theythey areare incenseincense mixtures,mixtures, benzoin is only a part of this amount (Goloubinoff, 1997).1997). 64 the price ofof purepure SumatraSumatra benzoinbenzoin was betweenbetween $6 andand $18$18 accordingaccording toto quality,quality, andand Siam benzoin waswas $27. Curiously, severalseveral perfumersperfumers we we visitedvisited diddid notnot seem toto have access to the highest qualities of Sumatra benzoin almonds.

With new esoteric and 'green' trends, there is a recent development of the use ofof incenseincense in the Western world, which is actually a returnreturn toto oldold traditions.traditions. TheThe studystudy inin FranceFrance showed that small quantities are sold, butbut at high prices.prices. AdulteratedAdulterated benzoinbenzoin isis oftenoften sold under the name of 'benzoin' or 'Sumatra benzoin' in small 50 g bags, for prices from $50 to $165/$1651 kg. In twotwo places,places, 5050 gg bagsbags ofof pure pure benzoinbenzoin siftingssiftings (worth(worth $8$8 /kg/kg inin Marseille)Marseille) were soldsold forfor $215/kg$215/kg underunder thethe namename ofof 'Tibetan 'Tibetan incense',incense', 'for'for deepdeep meditation'meditation' (Goloubinoff, 1997). As far as we know, Tibetans make incense out of Himalayan plants, and do not use benzoin. This raises the questionquestion of labelling. This 'Tibetan incense' is an example of false labelling. Also, adulterated benzoin should not be soldsold underunder thethe namename of 'benzoin'. TheThe consumer shouldshould bebe ableable toto knowknow whatwhat hehe isis buyingbuying andand thethe originorigin of the product. ProbablyProbably veryvery smallsmall quantitiesquantities areare sold inin eacheach of thesethese shops,shops, but the prices differences areare amazing. InIn contrast, the profitsprofits mademade byby thethe differentdifferent intermediariesintermediaries between Sumatra andand aa EuropeanEuropean harbourharbour areare notnot veryvery high.high. We wonder whether thisthis new trend develop further andand if new nicheniche marketsmarkets can bebe found for benzoin with an increasing use of natural products such asas essentialessential oils,oils, naturalnatural flavours and fragrances. Conclusion Benzoin production byby Batak farmers is basedbased onon centuriescenturies ofof indigenous indigenous knowledge.knowledge. Amazingly,Arnazingly, benzoinbenzoin isis usedused for the same purposes (incense, medicine and perfume) all over the world andand withwith anan incredibleincredible historicalhistorical continuity. InIn the samesame way,way, presentpresent trading channelschannels followfollow veryvery oldold tradingtrading routes.routes. TheThe usesuses ofof benzoin are so muchmuch ingrained inin cultural and religious habits that we can imagineimagine there will continue to bebe aa demand for it. The Indonesian consumption, whichwhich isis possiblypossibly thethe highesthighest inin the worldworld at the moment, is the most likely to decrease, as using benzoin inin ritualsrituals isis now perceived as backward. IfIf benzoin really is a componentcomponent of kretek cigarettes and if health campaignscampaigns occur in thethe futurefuture inin thethe country,country, thisthis endend use use could could also also decrease decrease tremendously. tremendously. Research is still needed to more accurately definedefine the present marketingmarketing charmelschannels and the future potential of this product. Benzoin is everywhere,everywhere, but few people know about it oror pay attention to it. Its consumptionconsumption and trade, which at first sight seemed to belong to the past, are not major enoughenough toto bebe noticed,noticed, butbut areare notnot thatthat minorminor either.either.

We recommend that customscustoms officesoffices changechange theirtheir categories,categories, soso thatthat import-exportimport-export figures of 'minor' products such as benzoinbenzoin cancan appearappear separately.separately. For centuries,centuries, this product has had no need to be advertised,advertised, but it may be time now to advertiseadvertise it andand letlet consumers knowknow moremore aboutabout it.it. Its marketingmarketing and trade have been operating the samesame way forfor centuries.centuries. MaybeMaybe now, qualityquality standardsstandards should be setset up.up. Handling,Handling, storing,storing, packaging andand transportation of of thethe product could be improved,improved, andand maybemaybe alsoalso production methods. It would be interestinginteresting to labellabel thethe productproduct properlyproperly andand makemake a distinction, as it was already suggested by Dutch chemists in the fortiesforties (Hulssen,(Hulssen, 1940),1940), between pure benzoin resin,resin, moremore appropriateappropriate forfor perfumeperfume andand chemist-rychemistry purposes, and adulterated benzoinbenzoin blocks,blocks, cheapercheaper butbut suitable asas incense. At thethe moment, benzoin 65

incense consumers have no idea about what the original productproduct looks like, and they have a right to know. As each producing area in North Sumatra has its characteristics, it would be interesting too to classifyclassify and label according to the place of production, as it is donedone for wine, for instance.instance. Local traderstraders know thatthat the most fragrant resin of thethe area comes from the sub-district ofof Parlilitan.Parlilitan. PerfumersPerfumers mightmight want to choose this typetype ofof product,product, even with an added value, if its quality standard was kept high andand constant.

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PRODUCTION, MARI:ETSMARKETS ANDAND QUALITY CONTROL OF GUM ARABIC IN AFRICA: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMEIATIONS FROM AN FAOFAO PROJECTPROJECT

BEN CHIKAMAI, Kenya Forestry Research Institute,Institute, P.O. Box 30241, Nairobi, Kenya.

Introduction With a view to identifyingidentifying ways in whichwhich production, and more particularly quality, can be increasedincreased oror improved, all aspectsaspects ofof production,production, marketingmarketing andand qualityquality controlcontrol were reviewed inin 12 producingproducing AfricanAfrican countries,countries, comprisingcomprising six AnglophoneAnglophone and sixsix Francophone countries in a projectproject formulatedformulated byby FAO.F AO. TheThe AnglophoneAnglophone countriescountries were Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan and Zimbabwe,Zimbabwe, while thethe sixsix FrancophoneFrancophone countries were Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger,Niger, Senegal and Chad. The fmdingsfindings and the recommendationsrecommendations ofof thisthis project are summarisedsummarised in thethe presentpresent paper.paper. TheThe reportreport established thatthat aa total of 1717 speciesspecies ofof AcaciaAcacia produceproduce gumgum whichwhich isis collectedcollected byby locallocal communities either for domestic use or export. Out of these, fourfour speciesspecies produceproduce gumgum thatthat is marketedmarketed as gumgum arabic;arabic; Acacia.Acacia. senegal and A.A. seyalseyal (across(across thethe Sahel)Sahel) andand A.A. polyacantha andand A.A. karookaroo (in(in localizedlocalized regions). It was furtherfurther establishedestablished that whereas the botanical source affects quality of gum arabic, the main factorfactor relatesrelates to harvestingharvesting andand postpost harvest treatment. IncludedIncluded inin thisthis are the methodmethod ofof harvesting, harvesting, cleaning,cleaning, sortingsorting and grading practices. RegardingRegarding qualityquality control,control, it waswas observedobserved thatthat twotwo factorsfactors werewere responsible; lack of aa clearclear definitiondefinition forfor gumgum arabicarabic andand inadequate inadequate analyticalanalytical proceduresprocedures which do not adequately take into account naturalnatural productproduct variability.variability. Based onon thethe aboveabove considerations, several several recommendationsrecommendations were were developed developed as as aa means ofof improving improving production and qualityquality ofof commercially commercially producedproduced gumgum arabic.arabic.

BackgroundBac!;:ground The project on production, markets and quality control of gumgum arabicarabic waswas formulatedformulated by FAO with two main objectives:objectives:

• To acquire information on all aspects of gum arabicarabic productionproduction andand qualityquality control,control, andand on the basis of recommendations, assist producer countries in theirtheir effortsefforts toto improveimprove thethe quality of their products so as to meet international specifications • To collect samples of gum from authenticatedauthenticated trees and from commercial sourcessources in the countries visited. TheseThese samplessamples werewere analysedanalysed inin threethree independentindependent laboratorieslaboratories and the data made available to JECFAJECF A forfor useuse inin drawingdrawing upup revisedrevised specificationsspecifications forfor good-good­ gradegade gumgum arabic.arabic.

The project was implemented by a multi-disciplinarymulti-disciplinary team of expertsexperts which comprisedcomprised a three-man internationalinternational team team and and an an FFAO AO teamteam member.member. TheThe latterlatter waswas assisted byby a marketing expertexpert andand six national consultants.consultants. A totaltotal ofof 12 12 producingproducing AfricanAfrican countriescountries 68 were covered comprisingcompnsmg six AnglophoneAnglophone andand sixsix FrancophoneFrancophone countries.countries. The sixsix Anglophone countries were Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan and Zimbabwe, whilewhile the six FrancophoneFrancophone countriescountries were Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania,Mauritania, Niger, SenegalSenegal andand Chad. The AnglophoneAnglophone countries werewere covered byby the InternationalInternational team whilewhile thethe Francophone countriescountries were were covered covered by by thethe FFAO AO teamteam member andand his group.group. GumGum chemistry waswas carried out by the mission chemist assisted byby the FAOF AO team membermember andand one other expelt.expert. TheThe projectproject waswas carriedcarried outout betweenbetween April 19951995 and December 19961996 andand covered two gum production seasons allowing for collection of more samples andand otherother datadata not collected during thethe firstfirst mission.mission. Findings and recommendations ofof thethe project are summarised in the present paper.

Mission Findings

Botanical Sources and Management AspectsAspects Seventeen species species were were identifiedidentified as as sourcessources of of AcaciaAcacia gumgum collected byby thethe locallocal communities - either for domestic use or for export (Table 1). Acacia senegal, A.A. seyalseyal andand A. polycantha havehave widespreadwidespread distributiondistribution within the gumgum belt.belt. Acacia senegal andand A.A. seyal are variable species with the formerfonner having about four varietiesvarieties while thethe latterlatter hashas two. Other species have limitedlimited regional distribution. For instance, A. KarooKaroo isis confinedconfined toto Southern AfiicaAfrica (where it is widely distributed), A.A. drepanolobiumdrepanolobium andand A.A. paoli paoli to Eastern Africa and the HornHom ofof Africa, Africa, while A. late andand A.A. dudgeoni are confinedconfined to WestWest Africa.Africa. Acacia gourmaensis, A.A. macrostachya andand A.A. macrothyrsa have even moremore restrictedrestricted distribution inin West Africa. Except for Sudan, and toto some extent Nigeria, Chad, Mali and Senegal, wherewhere initiatives have been undertalcenundertaken to to introduceintroduce plantationsplantations ofof A.A. senegal,senegal, the bulk of gum arabic andand Acacia gum is derivedderived fromfrom natural standsstands andand byby naturalnatural exudation.exudation. In most of thethe countries, countries, the the extent extent of of distribution distribution is is not not lcnown known veryvery precisely,precisely, maldngmaking itit difficult toto establish thethe potentialpotential forfor productionproduction and and for for sound sound management management decisions to be taken.talcen. The The problemproblem inin somesome countriescountries isis compounded byby aa lack of knowledgeknowledge aboutabout thethe botanical sourcessources and sound practices of gum production and this can leadlead toto inadvertentinadvertent mixing of gums.

Production, Quality and Markets Production levelslevels forfor gumgum arabicarabic inin thethe 12 countries areare shownshown inin TableTable 2.2. There is wide variation inin the scalescale ofof production production withwith Sudan,Sudan, Nigeria and ChadChad accountingaccounting forfor thethe majority of gum arabicarabic inin worldworld trade.

Quality ofof gum arabic was observed to be influenced byby two factors, one of whichwhich waswas botanical origin.origin. Gum fromfrom differentdifferent speciesspecies (A. senegal and A.A. seyal)seyal) exhibited characteristics thatthat were intrinsically different. EvenEven within the samesame species,species, differentdifferent varieties produceproduce gum with differentdifferent characteristics.characteristics. Recognising thesethese differences in the species and/or varieties is important inin producing gumgum arabic for desired end use. Besides botanical source, quality is also affected by harvest and post-harvest treatment.treatment. Tapping for example, givesgives a more consistent and better fonnedformed gum than collection caused by insect borers. BetterBetter quality gum is obtained byby picking itit off the tree rather than letting it fallfall on the ground. Above all, mixing the gum fromfrom different species at collection timetime or at post-post­ harvest handling stage results in variability and is the prime reason for poor quality. 69

Characterisation andand specification specification of gum arabic The average values (physico-chemical, carbohydrate andand aminoamino acidacid composition)composition) for gum from A.senegal and A. seyalseyal werewere consistent with publishedpublished datadata and typical of each type of gum irrespective of source, i.e., country or locality. However, though related (possessing(possessing thethe same chemical species), thethe two gums could be distinguished fromfrom each other by allall thethe three methods. This supports thethe ideaidea ofof producingproducing andand marketingmarketing thethe twotwo gumsgums separatelyseparately ifif future improvements in quality and quality control are to be attained.attained. It was shownshown furtherfurther that A. late and A. polycantha are closely related toto A.A. senegalsenegal while A.A. karoo is closelyclosely related to A. seyal.

Meanwhile, within a given type of gum there was significant samplesample variation brought about either by differencesdifferences inin varieties,varieties, climaticclimatic factorsfactors oror handlinghandling aspect.aspect. TheseThese observedobserved variabilities areare worthworth noting and may require applying more than oneone analyticalanalytical methodmethod before a decision isis mademade whenwhen specifying specifying g,urn gum arabic for commerce.

Evaluation of the methodsmethods revealedrevealed thatthat chemomet-ricschemometrics whenwhen applied to the analyticalanalytical datadata obtained inin the investigationinvestigation isis a powerfulpowerful method of characterising thethe gum arabicarabic of commerce, byby identifying individual speciesspecies ofof AcaciaAcacia andand those gums whichwhich wouldwould bebe adulterants within the terms of the JECFAJECF A definition of g,umgum arabic.arabic. Acacia.Acacia. senegalsenegal and and A.A. seyal could be separated into distinct clusters,clusters, despitedespite thethe factfact thatthat thethe twotwo areare relatedrelated (Fig.(Fig. 1). 70

Table 1:1: Source of Acacia gum in 1212 African countries coveredcovered in the project

Country Acacias utilised for commercial Source ofof bulkbulk AG AG producedproduced Methods of obtaining AG

AG production 1 1"2 Species:specIes .j3 4 Burkina Faso A. senegal ** ** A. senegalsenegal ** A.A.laeta laeta ** A.laetaA. laeta ** A. seyal ** A. seyalseyal ** A. gourmaensisgourm aensis ** A. gourmaensisgourmaensis ** A. dudgeoni ** A. dudgeoni ** A.raddiana ** A.raddiana ** Mali A. senegal ** ** A. senegalsenegal ** ** A.laetaA. laeta ** A.laetaA. laeta ** ** A. seyal ** A. seyalseyal ** A. polyacanthapolyacantha ** A:A. polyacanthapolyacantha ** A. raddiana ** ** A. raddianaraddiana ** Mauritania A. senegal ** ** A. senegalsenegal ** ** A.A.laeta laeta ** A.laetaA. laeta ** A. seyal ** A. seyalseyal ** A. macrostachyainacrostachya ** A. 171macrostachya acrostachya ** Senegal A. senegalsenegal ** ** A. senegalsenegal ** ** A. ehrenbergiana ** A. ehrenbergianaehrenbergiana ** A.laetaA. laeta ** A.laetaA. laeta ** ** A. macrostachya ** A. macrostachyamacrostachya ** A. macrothyrsamacrothyrsa ** A. macrothyrsamacrothyrsa ** A. nilitica ** A. nilitica ** A. polycanthatpolycanthat ** A. polycanthatpolycanthat ** A. sieberana ** A. sieberanasieberana ** A. tortilis ** A. tortilistortilis ** Country Acacias utilised for commercial Source ofof bulkbulk AG AG producedproduced Methods ofof obtainingobtaining AGAG 71

AG production 1 2 Species 3 4

Sudan A. senegal var. senegal ** ** A. senegalsenegal var. senegal ** ** A. seyal var. seyal ** A. seyal var. seyal ** ** Ethiopia A. senegal var. senegal ** ** A. senegal var. senegal ** ** ** A. senegal var. kerenskerensis is ** A. senegal var. kerensiskerens is ** ** A. seyal var. seyal ** A. seyal var. seyal ** ** A. seyal var. fistula ** A. seyal var. fistula ** ** A. polyacanthatpolyacanthat ** A. polyacanthapolyacantha ** A. drepanolobium ** A. drepanolobiumdrepanolobium ** ** Kenya AA. senegalsenegal var. kerenskerensis is ** A. senegalsenegal var. kerenskerensis is ** A.A.paoli paoli ** A.A.paoli paoli ** Zimbabwe A. karroo ** A. karroo ** ** . . Nigeria A. senegalsenegal var. senegal ** A. senegal var. senegal ** ** ** A. seyalseyal var. seyal ** A. seyal var. seyal ** ** AA. nilotica ** A. nilotica *** Ghana A. sieberana ** A. sieberana ** A. polyacanthapolyacantha ** A. polyacanthapolyacantha ** Chad A. senegalsenegal var. senegal ** A. senegal var. senegal ** ** ** A.laetaA.laeta ** A.laetaA. laeta ** ** A. seyalseyal ** A. seyal ** A. polycanthapolycantha ** A. polycanthapolycantha ** ** ** Niger A. senegalsenegal ** ** A. senegalsenegal ** ** A. seyal ** A. seyal ** A. raddianaraddiana ** A. raddiana ** A. tortilis ** A. tortilis ** A. polyacanthatpolyacanthat ** A. polyacanthat ** 1. PlantatIOnsPlantations 2. Natural Stands 3. TappIngTapping 4. Natural exudation oror incidentalincidenta injuryInjury 72 Table 2: Summary of gum arabicarabic datadata forfor 1212 African countriescountries (botanical(botanical source, production, imports into EC,EC, USA,USA, Japan andand main EuropeanEuropean markets)markets)

Country Main botanic AnnualArutual Annual imports toto Annual imports source productionproductionaa EC, USA, JapanbJapanb to main European markets

Sudan A. senegalvar.senegal var. senegal 17,100 EC 12,200 France 4,900 A. seyal 3,900 USA 3,800 UK 2,400 Japan 1,750 Italy 2,300 Germany 1,300 Nigeria A. senegalvar.senegalsenegal var. senegal 60,000-10,000? ECEC 4,500 UK 2,500 A. seyal USA 300 Germany 1,300 Japan 3 France 650 Ethiopia A. senegal 250-300 EC 80 Germany 80 A. seyal 50-100 USA Japan Kenya A. senegalsenegal var. kerensis} 200-500? EC 40 Italy 25 A. senegal var.var. senegal}senegal} USA 30 UK 10 Japan 2 Zimbabwe A.karroo <30 EC - USA Japan Ghana A. polyacanthapolyacantha <10 EC 50 UK.UK 50 USA - Japan Burkina A. senegal 200-300 Faso A. seyal Chad A. senegalsenegal 3,500 EC 3,500 France 2,800 A. seyalseyal 1,500 UK 600 Mali A. senegalsenegal 500 EC 140 France 45 A. seyal Mauritani A. senegalsenegal 400 EC 180 a Niger A. senegalsenegal 300 EC 150 France 115 A. seyal Senegal A. senegal 700 EC 450 France 300 UK 130

Notes: a EstimatesEstimates except except for for SudanSudan which which areare 7-7- yearyear annualannual averages (1988(1988 -- 94)94) b AnnualAnnual averages averages fromfrom tradetrade statistics statistics (EC(Ee andand JapanJapan 1988-93;1988-93; USAUSA 1991-94)1991-94) "1313

~/\ f \ ;' \ ! \ / \ / \ I / i i, .I \ / \ \,

a , --! \, \ \ A c \ \ \ P4'kt \, ,

\ \ \ \ \ \ \, \ e e o Aj,. /.----.------:e----- e / '.- " \ .,.1fA \ / 1.0 \,- I : -.-' \ / \ / 1- / ~.Z \- '/" ~( , f \11::....;....\! . __ .. , ... -.~<----.~~-~

)..0 10 Opticnl Rotation °Ptic-al

andaronic rotation /0,specific parameters, ontbree based analysts Cboter Vigure acid. 74 Recommendations

Production, Quality and Markets . . Education, training and dissemination ofof informationinfonnation werewere identified asas keykey toto improvingunprovmg production, its qualityquality andand the prospects forfor developingdeveloping newnew oror increasedincreased markets.markets.

It was therefore recommended that:that: • The preparation and publication of a manual oror technicaltechnical profileprofile bebe commissionedcommissioned coveringcovering all aspects of gum arabic production, from collection fromfrom thethe treetree toto the point of exportexport of the product: the manual shouldshould be availableavailable inin formal/nationalfonnal/national lang,uageslanguages usedused by producing countries and distributed to relevant organisations involvedinvolved inin gum arabicarabic productionproduction andand trade including donor agencies and international organisations. • A package of training initiatives be developeddeveloped to promotepromote 'good'good manufacturingmanufacturing practice'practice' andand 'quality consciousness' among among producers producers and and traders traders of of gum gum arabic arabic at at allall levelslevels with the manual serving as one of the main tools forfor trainingtraining. The firstfirst stepstep shouldshould bebe aa regional regional workshopworkshop toto sensitisesensitise bothboth thethe producer producer andand consumer consumer countries on the initiativesinitiatives alreadyalready undertakenundertaken by FAOF AO inin relationrelation toto promotingpromoting thethe importance importance and valuevalue ofof gum gum arabic,arabic, includingincluding regionalregional corporation.corporation. This could bebe followedfollowed byby carefifflycarefully structured study tours in Sudan and Chad by extension officers (or similar staff) from the other producing countries. Finally workshops/seminars forfor representativesrepresentatives from from thethe public and the private sector dealing with gum arabic quality control couldcould alsoalso bebe organised as part ofof thethe training initiative.

It was also recommended that:that: • Priority be g,ivengiven toto undertakingundertaking resourceresource surveyssurveys inin allall thethe countries producing gum arabicarabic and improving the resource base itself.

Characterisation and and specification specification ofof gum arabic. • Because gum arabic ofof commerce isis a product of A. senegal and A. seyal, (the twotwo gumsgums contribute uptoupto 95%95% ofof total gum entering thethe market comprising 70%.70%. A.A. senegalsenegal andand 15-15- 25%, A. seyal)seyal) thethe tennterm gumgum arabic should bebe revised to include the two species and "closely"closely related" species. TheThe words 'closely related'related' should apply to thosethose speciesspecies establishedestablished inin thethe study to be chemicallychemically closely related to A. senegal andand A.A. seyal respectively.respectively. However, in view of thethe observedobserved analyticalanalytical differences betweenbetween the the twotwo mainmain gums,gums, theythey should be produced and marketed separately soso as to minimiseminimise variability and improve aspects of quality and quality control. • The general methods by JECFAJECF A need to be updated to take into account newer methods suchsuch as Chemometrics inin specifying gumgum arabic of commerce. ThisThis is in additionaddition toto thethe currentcurrent methods (FAO,(FAO, 1995).1995).

References FAO (1995). FoodFood and and Nutrition,Nutrition, No.No. 52.52. Add.3. 75 THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERISATIONCHARACTERISATION OFOF MYRRHMYRRH ANDAND FRANKINCENSE AND OPPORTUNITIESOPPORTUNITIES FORFOR COMMERCIALCOMMERCIAL UTILISATION

DR.DR.K.A.~ALLA K. A. KARAMALLA Dept. of Food Science and Technology Faculty of Agriculture University-University ofof KhartoumKhartoum Khartoum, SUDAN.

Introduction Oleo-gum resinresin isis an exudate,exudate, essentially mixturemixture ofof volatilevolatile oil,oil, resinresin and gum, obtained by incision from thethe plantplant familyfamily Burseraceae.Burseraceae. Oleogum-resin obtained from the genus Boswellia is olibanum or frankincense while that obtained from genus CommzphoraCommiphora isis myrrh.myrrh.

There are about 1212 speciesspecies ofof thethe genusgenus BoswelliaBoswellia in North, East Africa and SouthernSouthern Arabia (Howes, 1949). BoswelliaBos-wellia serrate serrate isis anan IndianIndian variety,variety, whilewhile BoswelliaBoswellia carteriicarterii and B. papyriferapapyrifera are African varieties.

On the other hand, there are about 160 species ofof thethe genusgenus Commiphora.Commiphora. All are African with the exceptionexception ofof 12 speciesspecies which occur from S. ArabiaArabia to India.India. CommiphoraCommiphora africanafricana a is indigenous to Africa while C.C. abyssinica isis foundfound inin S.S. ArabiaArabia andand E. Africa.Africa.

Chemical composition

Oil It hashas beenbeen reportedreported (Hough et al.,ai., 1952;1952; Treas and Evans, 1978; Abdel et al ., 1987) thatthat olibanum fromfrom B.B. carteria containscontains 60-70% resin and 3-8%3-8% volatilevolatile oil. InIn contrast,contrast, myrrhmyrrh contains 25-40% resin and 7-17%7-17% volatilevolatile oil.oil. RecentlyRecently (Kararnalla,(Karamalla, 1997)1997) ethanol-extractedethanol-extracted oil has been found to be 72.1,72.1, 72.2,72.2, andand 95.9%95.9% whilewhile steam-distilledsteam-distilled oil has beenbeen foundfound toto bebe 2.8,2.8, trace, and 9.6 for B.B. papyrifera,papyrifera, C. africana and C.C. abyssinica oleo gum resins respectively. Twenty-seven sesquiterpene hydrocarbons have been identified (Yates andand Wenninger, 1970)1970) inin the oil of BoswelliaBoswellia sppspp obtainedobtained byby steamsteam distillation.

The volatilevolatile oil ofof myrrhmyrrh hashas beenbeen shownshown (Treas(Treas andand Evans,Evans, 1978)1978) toto containcontain terpenes,terpenes, sesquiteipenes,sesquiterpenes, esters, aldehydes and alcohols whilewhile thatthat ofof olibanum has been found to consist of numerous terpenes and sequiterpenes.sequiterpenes. Seven sesquiterpenessesquiterpenes hydrocarbons, a furanosesquiterpenoidfuranosesquiterpenoid oiloil and furanoidienefuranoidiene havehave beenbeen detected (Graveiro et al.,ai., 1983)1983) inin thethe volatilevolatile oiloil ofof C. C. quidotti.quidotti. A study (provan(Provan et ai.,al., 1987)1987) ofof the volatile portions of resins from a number of Kenyan species of Commiphora has shown thatthat these oils consist mainly ofofmonoterpenoids monoterpenoids or sesquiterpenoids.sesquiterpenoids. Two triterpenes havehave beenbeen identified inin thethe resinsresins of C. incisa andand C.C. latakua andand theirtheir potentialpotential chemotaxonomicchemotaxonqmic significance indicatedindicated (Provan(provan andand Waterman, 1988).1988).

Thirty-three constituentsconstituents havehave beenbeen identifiedidentified in in the the steam steam distilled distilled oil oil of of B. B. carterii, carterii, eleveneleven ofof which were not detected in the n- hexane extract. The oil contained 62.1%62.1 % ester, 15.4% alcohol, 9.9% monoterpene hydrocarbons and 7.1%7.1 % diterpenes (Abdel et ai.,al ., 1987).1987). 76 The resins of C.C. terbinthinaterbinthina and C.C. cyclophyllacyclophylla havehave been shown (Abegaz etet al., 1989)1989) toto consist primarily of moneterpene hydrocarbons with limonene as aa major component.component. However,However, the resin of C. terbinthina is rich in sesquiterpenes.

The carbohydrate component component ofof Oleo-gum Oleo-gum resins

Content Extraction of gum myrrh with 90% alcohol gave a crude polysaccharide (PS) that ranged in yield from 27 to 61%61 % (Hough(Hough et al.,a!., 1952,1952, TreasTreas andand Evans,Evans, 1978;1978; Hirst and Jones,Jones, 1981).1981). OnOn thethe other hand, gum olibanum on similarsimilar treatmenttreatment gavegave aa cru.decrude polysaccharidepolysaccharide that ranged from 27-27- 3535%. %.

Recently (Karamalla, 1997) thethe carbohydrate componentcomponent contentscontents ofof B.B. papyrifera, papyrifera, C. africana and C. abyssinica have been found to be 27.9,27.9,27.3 27.3 and 4.1%4.1 % respectively.

Protein content It has been reported (Hough(Bough et al., 1952,)1952,) that the crude PS of myrrh contained 18% protein, andand that the purified PS from B. papyriferapapyrifera has only 4-8% protein (Anderson et al.,ai., 1965).1965). RecentlyRecently (Abdel Kariem, 1992) the protein content of the crude PS of B. papyriferapapyrifera has been foundfound toto bebe 3.9%. The crude acidic PS of gum myrrh has an equivalent weightweight ofof 547547 (Hough(Hough etet ai.,al., 1952) and that of B. carterii hashas anan equivalentequivalent weight ofof 540 540 (Jones(Jones and Nunn, 1955).1955). Very recently (Kararnalla,(Karamalla, 1997),1997), 614614 and 628 have been reported as values for thethe equivalentequivalent weight ofofPS PS from B. papyriferapapyrifera and C. africana respectively.

Specific rotationrotation Specific rotationrotation for frankincensefranldncense of B. carteriicarterii and that of gum gum myrrh have been reportedreported (Jones(Jones and Nunn, 1955) to be -8°_80 and +32+32°0 respectively.respectively. For gum from B. papyri/erapapyrifera aa valuevalue ofof -4° _40 forfor the specific rotation has been reported (Abdel(Abdel Kariem,Kariem, 1992).1992). Very recently (Karamalla, 1997) PS from B. papyriferapapyrifera and C. africana have been foundfound toto havehave specific rotation of -11°_110 and -26°_260 respectively

Sugar compositioncomposition Complete hydrolysis ofPSof PS from B. papyriferapapyrifera (Anderson et al .,., 1965) has afforded uronic acid 19%, D-galactose 60% L-arabonose 10% and L-rharrmoseL-rhamnose 5% plusplus a tracetrace ofL-fucose.of L-fucose. Recently (Abdel Kariem, 1992) PSPS from B. papyrifera has been foundfound to containcontain D-galactose 35%. L-L­ arabinose 12% uronic acid 20% withwith tracestraces ofof L-rhamnose L-rharnnose andand L-fucose.L-fucose. VeryVery recentlyrecently (Karamalla, 1997)1997) itit hashas beenbeen shown thatthat thethe sugar composition ofof PSPS of BpapyriferaB.papyrifera is L-L­ arabonose 12.7%,12.7%, LL-rhamnose 13.7%,13.7%, L-fucose 13.1%,13.1%, D-galactoseD-galactose 18.7%,18.7%, D-glucuronicD-glucuronic acidacid 25.3% and 4-0-4-0- methyl-D-glucuronicmethyl-D-glucuronic acid acid 13.8%13.8% whitewhite PSPS from C. africanaafricana affordedafforded L-L­ arabinose 20.2%, L-rhamnoseL-rharnnose 19.7%, L-fucose 17.6%, D-galactose 19.6%, and D-glucuronicD-glucuronic acid 22.8%. 77 Heterogeneity ofof PSPS Solvent fractionation yieldedyielded aa number of PS fractionsfractions for myrrh and olibanum that varied in yield, solubility in waterwater andand alkali,alkali, specificspecific rotationrotation and molar proportions of D-galactose and L-arabinose (Hough et al.,at., 1952).1952). ThisThis findingfinding hashas recentlyrecently (Karamalla, 1997) been confirmedconfirmed by acetoneacetone fractionationfractionation ofof thethe polysaccharidepolysaccharide fromfrom B.B. papyrifera, indicatingindicating once more thethe heretogeneity ofof plant plant g,ums. gums.

Utilisation Exports ofof gum olibanum and gum myrrh have been increasing in recent years with a rapid rise in production and earning, indicating expanding utilisation of these oleo-gum resins.resins. Historically, myrrh has been used by the ancient Egyptians inin embalmingembalming andand as a chewing gum (Hirst andand Jones,Jones, 1981). NowNow oleo-gumoleo-gum resins are widely used in perfumes, medicine and as insecticides.

(i) Perfumes The gum resin of C.C. africanaafricana meltedmelted withwith waterwater isis usedused as a perfumedperfumed applicationapplication to the bodybody (Watt and Berger, 1962). OlibanumOlibanum isis usedused asas odourousodourous fragrancefragrance which last for a very long time and is an excellent fixative forfor perfumesperfumes forfor men.men. Oleo-gumOleo-gum fromfrom B.B. carteriicarterii andand fromii-om B.B. wightii isis widelywidely usedused asas anan incenseincense inin religiousreligious ceremoniesceremonies for for example example (Elamin, (Elamin, 1981). 1981). Oil of B. sen-ateserrate is used in the soap and perfumery industry (Karnik and Sharma,Sharma, 1970).1970). It has been suggestedsuggested that the alcoholalcohol soluble resins oil of olibanumolibanum has muchmuch more fixationfixation properties than the volatile oil. However, the reverse is true of myrrh. Oleo-gum fromfrom B.B. papyri/erapapynfera is used widely as incense in holy places and temples and also to perfume houses (Elamin,(Elamin, 1981).1981).

(ii) Medical usesuses Myrrh is a disinfectantdisinfectant and may be usedused asas aa locallocal stimulantstimulant toto thethe mucousmucous membranemembrane (Howes,(Howes, 1949). TheThe resinresin ofof B. B. carteriicarterii isis usedused asas aa diuretic.diuretic. It is boiled with sesame oil and taken daily for bilharzia. AA decoctiondecoction mademade withwith cinnamoncinnamon andand cardamoncardamon isis usedused forfor thethe reliefrelief of of stomach- stomach­ ache. In India, oleo-pmoleo-gum resinresin isis usedused asas aa remedy remedy forfor rheumatoidrheumatoid andand diseasesdiseases ofof nervousnervous system, and is an ingredient of certain ointments (Watt and Berger, 1962).1962).

Oleo-g,umOleo-gum resinresin fromfrom C.C. wightiiwightii isis consideredconsidered asas astringent,astringent, demulcent, expectorant, carminative aphrodisiac and antiseptic (Elamin, 1981) it has also been usedused forfor treatingtreating rheumatoidrheumatoid arthritis,arthritis, heart ailments, neurologicalneurolog,ical disorders, disorders, skin skin infections, infections, and and obesity obesity in in humans. humans. An extractextract fromfrom the resin of some species of BurseraceaeBurseraceae has been known to have anti-inflammatory activities.

(iii) Insecticides Myrrh is used as anan insecticide especially asas a repellent ofof termites and as a mosquito repellent when blended as incense sticks (Elamin, 1981).1981).

Essential oil from B. serrata isis foundfound toto affect affect spermatogenesis spennatogenesis inin Dysdercus Dysdercus similis,similis, therebythereby acting as anan effectiveeffective insectinsect growthgrowth regulator.regulator. Constituents ofof thethe resinresin from C. rostrata havehave repellent effects againstagainst thethe maizemaize weevil.weevil. The effect of gum resin of B.B. papyrifera andand C.C. africana onon threethree insectinsect pestspests ofof economic economic importance, has led to morphological malformation of adults and pupa, reducing the emergence of adults and increasing mortality rate. 78 References

Abdel Kariem, E. H. 1992.1992. Structural Studies of Some Sudanese Gums. Ph.D.Ph.D. ThesisThesis FacultyFaculty ofof ScienceScience University of Khartoum.

Abdel Wahab, S.M..,S.M.. , Aboutable,Aboutable, E.A.,E.A, El-Zalbeni,El-Zalbeni, S.M.,.S.M.,. Fouad. H.A., DeDe Pooter,Pooter, H.I., andand El-El- FallahaFallaha B. 1987. The essential oil of olibanum. Planta Medica 52,52, 382-384.382-384.

Abegaz B., Dagne, E.,. Bates C. and Waterman, P.G. 1989 Monoterpene -rich resinsresins from two Ethiopian species of Commiphora. FlavourFlavour and FragranceFragrance Journal 44 (30.,(30.,99-101. 99-101.

Anderson, D.M.W., Cree, G.M., Marshall, J.J.II and Rahman, S. 1965. Studies on uronic acid materials Part XI. The carbohydrate component of the oleo-resin from B.B. papyrefera.papyrefera. Carbohydrate Research 1-320-1-320- 323.

Elamin 1981. Trees and Shrubs ofof the Sudan. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Science,Science, University ofof Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan.

Graveiro, A,A., Corsano, S., Proitti, G. andand StrappaghettiStrappaghetti G.G. 1983. Constituents ofof essential oiloil of C. guidotti. PlantaMedica,Planta Medica, 4848 (2),(2), 97-98.

Hirst E. I. and Jones, J.FJ.F.N. .N. 1981. ChemistryChemistly of Plant Plant gums: Research 4.411.

Hough, L., Jones,Jones, J.K.N.J.K.N. andand WadmanWadman 1952.1952. SomeSome observationobservation onon the the constituents constituents ofof g,urn gum myrrh.myrrh. J.J Chem.Chern. Soc. 795-797.

Howes, T.N 1949. VegetableVegetable Gums and Resins pp 199-182, Chronica Botanica Co, Waltham, Mass. USA

Jones, J.K.N.IK.N. and Nunnn, J.R.J.R. 1955.1955. TheThe StructureStructure ofof Frankincense Frankincense gum. gum. J.J Am.Am. Chem.Chern. Soc.Soc. 77.8745.77.8745.

Karamalla, K. AA. 1997. Unpublished results, Faculty of agriculture, University of Khartoum, Sudan.

Kamik,Karnik, M.G. and Sharma, O.R.O.R. 1970.1970. FurtherFurther studiesstudies on the distributiondistribution and utilization ofof oleo-gum oleo-gum resin of B. sen"ata.sen-ata. Indian Drugs 96 (1) 843-848.

Provan, G.I,G.J., Gray, A.I., andand WatermanWaterman P.G.P.G. 1987.1987. MonoterpeneMonoterpene -rich resins fromfrom somesome KenyanKenyan Burserceae.

Provan, G.J.,GJ., and Waterman,Water' P.G. 1988.1988. Major triterpene from thethe resinresin of C. incisaincisa and C. kua and their potential chemotaxonomic significance.

Treas. G.E. and Evans, W.C.W.C. 1978.1978. VolatileVolatile oils and resinsresins phannacognosyphannacognosy pp. 463-464463-464 B.B. Tindall,Tindall, London.

Watt, J., and Breger, M.G. 1962.1962. TheThe Medicinal and PoisionausssPoisionausss PlantsPlants of of SouthernSouthern and and Eastern Eastern Afi-ica Africa pp 151-153. Livingstone Ltd. Edinugh and London

Yates, R.L. and Wenninger, J.A.IA 1970.1970. ConstituentsConstituents of olibanum oil sesquiterpene hydrocarbons.hydrocarbons. J J. ofof Association ofof Official Analytical Chemists, 53,53,941-980. 941-980. 79 PRELIMINARY REPORT ONON ESSENTIAL OILS FROM FRANKINCENSE, MYMYRRH "' AND OTHEROTHER PLANTS OFOF ETHIOPIAETHIOPIA

ERMIAS DAGNE, AMAN DEKEBODEKEBO , ENGIDA DESALEGN,DESALEGN, TEFERATEFERA BEKELE,BEKELE, HAILEMICHAELHAILEMICHAEL TESSO AND DANIEL BISRAT

African Laboratory forfor Natural Products (ALNAP),(ALNAP), Department of Chemistry, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 30270, Addis Ababa,Ababa, Ethiopia.Ethiopia.

Introduction Boswellia and CommiphoraCommiphora speciesspecies (family(family Burseraceae)Burseraceae) are mainly found in the HornHom of Africa with a few species in Arabia and India. The major frankincense supplierssuppliers ofof the world today areare Ethiopia,Ethiopia, SomaliaSomalia andand Kenya.Kenya. TheseThese plantsplants areare sources of thethe culturallyculturally andand economically important resins known as frankincensefrankincense and myrrh respectively.respectively. TheThe principalprincipal fi-ankincensefrankincense producing producing species species are: are: B. B. papryjera, papryfera, B. B. neglectaneglecta andand B. rivaerivae occurringoccurring inin Ethiopia, B.B. sacrasacra (syn B. carteri) and B. ji-ereanafrereana in Somalia and B. serrata inin India.India. TheThe highly aromatic resin producing B. pirotaepirotae isis endemicendemic toto centralcentral andand northernnorthern Ethiopia.Ethiopia.

Myrrh is a natural oleo-gum-resin composed of 3-8% essentialessential oil,oil, 30-60%30-60% waterwater solublesoluble gum and 25-40% alcohol soluble resins. Myrrh has been employed as incense and for embalmingembalming since ancient times.times. It is employedemployed in formulationsformulations ofof perfumes sincesince it blends well with geranium, musk andand patchouli.patchouli. It is knovvnknown to impartimpart pleasantpleasant aromaticaromatic flavourflavour toto mouthwashes andand toothtooth pastes.pastes. Strictly speaking myrrh isis the resinresin obtainedobtained fromfrom CommiphCommiphora ora myrrh myrrha a (syn(syn C. molmol). However,However, resinsresins fromfrom other Commiphora species (C.(c. africana C.C. habessinica, C.C. hildebrandtii,hildebrandtii, C.C. erythraea, C.C. kua, C.C. schimperischimperi etc)etc) sometimes pass asas myrrh or asas itsits adulterants.adulterants.

Several thousand tons of frankincense and myrrh are collected annuallyannually fromfrom wild trees in eastern and north eastern Africa and exported toto manymany partsparts ofof the world because of great demand in the international market for their steamsteam distillates and extracts, which areare usedused inin the manufacture of perfumes. There is also a largelarge locallocal market for use ofof these these productsproducts asas incense. However, hardly any effort has been gearedgeared towards adding value toto thesethese naturalnatural products in particularparticular in thosethose countriescountries wherewhere thethe resin-producingresin-producing trees are foundfound inin abundance. Value-added processing should be introduced so that the concerned communitiescommunities in these countries earn more income from the resins and thereby become more aware of thethe value of maintaining the sustainable utilisation of the trees.

The starting point for research into these resources is to establish the botanical identity of the resin-producing species. species. It It shouldshould bebe pointed outout that much of thethe chemistrychemistry workwork onon frankincense andand myrrh in the past was conductedconducted on resinsresins obtained fromfrom commerce,commerce, thus leading to much confusion in the chemical literature. However,However, recentrecent advances inin thethe botanic identification of many Boswellia and Commiphora species isis makingmaking it possible forfor chemistschemists to work on resins obtained from properly identified species.

In ourour laboratory,laboratory, chemicalchemical investigation isis in progress on resinsresins obtainedobtained fromfrom severalseveral botanically identified Boswellia andand Commiphora species.species. LiteratureLiterature reportsreports showshow thatthat these 80 species are rich in sesquiterpenes.sesquiterpenes. However, muchmuch remains toto be done, sincesince inin EthiopiaEthiopia alone there are at least 6 Boswellia and 50 Commiphora species. There is richrich ethnobotanicalethnobotanical heritageheritage inin communitiescommunities where where the the trees trees areare foundfound and it isis therefore importantimportant toto document thisthis knowledge. CursoryCursory interviewsinterviews of of elderselders inin suchsuch communities byby botanistsbotanists ofof the Flora Project of thethe NationalNational Herbarium in AddisAddis AbabaAbaba revealed thatthat thethe gums of C. kua and C.C. habessinicahabessinica are used as soapsoap substitute,substitute, that of C.C. tubuk and C. coronillifolia asas glue and forfor makingmaking ink.ink. TheThe gumgum ofof C. myrrha when mixed with charcoal also yields ink used for writing texts fromfrom the KoranKoran onon woodenwooden boards.boards. TheThe resins with medicinal values are those of C. gowlello used against swellings on humans and livestocks, C.C. incisaincisa toto treat skin disease, C. ogadensis against ringring worm and C.C. myrrhamyrrha against stomach ache and to suppresssuppress virilityvirility ofof youngyoung men.men. FrankincenseFrankincense derivedderived fromfrom Boswellia neglecta isis smokedsmoked toto repelrepel snakessnakes andand flies.flies.

Preliminary results on frankincense andand myrrh One of the most importantimportant sources of frankincensefrankincense in Ethiopia is Boswellia papryfera whichwhich occurs widely in the northern parts of the country. The l3C13C NMR spectrum ofof thethe crudecrude steamsteam distillate from resinresin obtained fromfrom anan identified B.B. paPlyferapaptyfera tree is shown in Fig. 1,1, whichwhich indicates thethe main component (88%) toto be octyl acetate, a resultresult alsoalso confirmedconfirmed byby GC-MSGC-MS analysis (Fig. 2) supported by NIST and Wiley databases.

~H 3 5 8 1 ~H, ~o ""CC NMR speanm spa.= of of 4mm mam dNataln 0Js!i1atD 01of 20/NN009N/ViwuBO$WlJJJJa~ 9 ,. 04C~1 (1170.7), (0170,7), 22(542)3(316) {64.3}.3(31.6},3(31.6), 4,5"',5 (7.0.0). (29.0). 6(20.5),,,", •.5),1 7 (25.7),.(2.5.7), 8 (22.4),. (22.4). 1(702),(20.5),10(13.8) 10(130)

.. ~ I IV( "'0

J 7 • ~ 4 1

2

rv I' I I 'I i. I , !," I 10 t,,0 5060 IfO410 .}O ;(1))0

Figure 1:1: 13C13e NMRNMR spectrumspectrum of crude steamsteam distillatedistillate ofof B. B. paptyferapapryfera showingshowing that octyloctyl acetate is the principal componentcomponent

It is interestinginteresting to notenote thatthat AbdelAbdel WahabWahab et al.al. (1987)(1987) foundfound octyloctyl acetate to the extent of 60% along with 33 other components in the steam distillatedistillate ofof olibanumolibanum purchased fromfrom the Drug Market in Cairo 'andand presumedpresumed to originateoriginate from B. carterii growinggrowing in Somalia,Somalia, anan assertion that is difficult to substantiate when one is studying resins originating fromfrom markets.markets. 81

CliBAS:J2CUBAS 02 SC:l11 EI- 10100 0 71::; 3.S05ei

abonumOIlbanvm(commort:Hll) (commorcal) S1eomSbom dl:t\IUotl)Matitinto

1.1·0=l3ncJ1-Ccland 2. Q::lylCctil acetateOXOl010

11.00 12 0 13 0 14 1500 16 .0 17 0 13 0 I0 .'O 20 0 21

Figure 2: Gas chromatogram ofof thethe steamsteam distillatedistillate ofof commercial olibanum in which the majormajor componentcomponent isis octyloctyl acetate.acetate.

In the course of ourour workwork wewe havehave beenbeen ableable toto collectcollect resinsresins ofof myrrhmyrrh fromfrom treestrees properlyproperly identified as C. myrrha. This tree is thethe truetrue sourcesource ofof the the wellwell knownknown myrrhmyrrh ofof commerce. commerce. The constituents of the steam distillate are quite similar to that of thethe petrolpetrol extract.extract. TheThe mainmain components are the lcnownknown fourfour sesquiterpenes:sesquiterpenes: twotwo ofof thethe eudesmane typetype (2a and 2b)2b) andand the other two (3(3 andand 4)4) possessingpossessing thethe germacranegermacrane skeleton. Compounds 2a2a and 2b, which have nearly identical RfRf onon TLC are unstableunstable once removed fromfrom thethe resin. As thesethese compounds decompose quitequite fastfast when coming in contact with silica gel both CCCC andand TLCTLC are betterbetter performed using aluminum oxide. The fact that components of myrrh are unstable after isolation has not been clearly stated in previous reports on the chemistry of this resin.

. 1 2 3 4 o , I j ~H 2a =lindestrene=Ii ndestrene 2b=2b = furanoeudesman-1,3-dienefuranoeudesman-1 .3-diene

RO~0J>RO ~ • 3,3. RR == MeMe • 4.4, R = Ac • •

Figure 3: TLC onon aluminumaluminum oxide oxide (developed(developed byby petrol)petrol) of:of:

1 = Petrol extract of myrrh 2 == RefRef cpdscpds 2a2a andand 2b2b (spot(spot atat origin,origin, decomposition)

3 & 44 == RefRef cpds cpds 33 andand 4 82 These compounds werewere reportedreported alongalong withwith severalseveral othersothers byby BrieskornBrieskom andand NobleNoble (1980,(1980, 1983) whowho workedworked on resins obtained from commercial sources originating most likely from C. myrrhmyrrha a but not properly botanically substantiated.substantiated.

Other essentialessential oils underunder study inin ourour laboratorylaboratory We have recently investigatedinvestigated thethe aerial parts of thethe ratherrather rarerare andand pleasantly pleasantly smellingsmelling Artemisia abyssinica which occur sporadically inin farmsfarms in central Ethiopia. The plant yields on steam distillation of its aerial parts a light yellow oil whose GC profile is shown in Fig.Fig. 44. .

ARTABYSCAHTABYSD Scan EI+El* 2 TIC 100 4.96e7 5

%

3 4

rt 81000 o.bob' o 14 doo 16.600 18.66o' 2o.doo ' 22.600

Figure 4: Gas chromatogram of of the the essential essential oil oil of of Artenzisia Artemisia abyssinica . ( 1. UnknownUnknown 2. Yomogi alcoholalcohol 3.3. ArtemisiaArtemisia alcoholalcohol 4. UnknownUnknown 5. Artemisia alcohol acetate.)

Yoloop akobol A ArtarnisiaArtcnllil IlcOOol JIOCUte (Mmes.,' abytrours) (M4:'IIUUf(Artemusa cbynlllka)cbminIcer)

2.5.5.Tnr.byhIA.havaa4as,2.1 os.,

.. J ., ..1... .J 4' V." Jo j '*' # '.

. ,

i .. J"i. I ' I ~, t j ,'j' ,~.llh .' 1/' 1<' fiT ",. (.J< 1!1" , ! ' i I ! til Ii, I ' i i t ii' i ' I ' i /'}(, "" I:' ,;1' I(. ,!" ,II '" ~, :... - !" " A B

Figure 5:5: 13C13e NMR spectrum ofof A. A. yomogi alcohol and B. artemisia alcohol acetate. 83 In both cases the lowest spectrum is due to completely decoupled, the middle CH and CHCH33 upup andand CHCH22 down, down, andand thethe toptop CH only. By means of GC-MS andand NMR analysis three rare irregular monoterpenes namely yomogi alcohol, artemisia alcoholalcohol and artemisia alcohol acetate were readily identified. The l3C13C NMR spectra including DEPT of two of these monoterpenes separated by means of column chromatography onon silicasilica gelgel areare shownshown inin Fig.Fig. 5.5. The biosynthesis of the irregular monterpenes and chrysanthemic acid is shown in the scheme below, where the key intermediate is chrysanthemyl pyrophosphate (Torssell, 1997).1997). Unlike in the case of the regular monoterpenes, geraniol and nerol are not obligatory intermediates.

OP OP

OH H,01110 a ~OH ~ Santolina alcohol

H20 Chrysanthemyl Yorrogi alcohol pyrophosphate Yomogi alcohol

OH

Artemisia alcohol

COOH hrysanthemic acid

In contrast to this, Abegaz and Yohannes (1982) have shown that the essential oil of Artemisia rehan, anotheranother commoncommon aromaticaromatic plant ofof Ethiopia widelywidely usedused byby many peoplepeople for fragrance purposes, is mainly made up of monoterpenes such as

72.18A272..1802 Sm (Mn.(Mn, 3x9) Scan EI+El. 4 8 TIC 100 AnemisiaArtemisia reinan rerum 4,34e6 (steam{steam distHtate)distillate)

3 Linaloollinalool 6. BornylBomyl acetate 4 Camphorcamphor 7.7. Ethyl cinnacimamate mate 5 Terpinen-4.01Terpinen4-01 8,Oavanone8. Davanone

%

5 6

25.880 30.180 0 5. 0O 10.88010. 0 15.10.110 0 20.20.880 0 25. 0 Figure 6:6: GasGas chromatogramchromatogram of of the the essential essential oil oil ofof ArtemisiaArtemisia rehan. 84 linalool, camphor, terpinen-4-olterpinen-4-01 and the sesquiterpene davanone. Re-examination of the oil by our group has confirmedconfinned the result of the above workersworkers and the gas chromatogram is shown in Fig. 6.6.

Work is in progress in our laboratory on several essential oil-bearing plants including Ocimum basilicumbasilicum var basilicum, Ocimum basilicum var thyrsiflorum andand O.0. lamifolium.lamifolium. Attempts are also being made to investigate how to add value to four locally produced essential oilsoils (palmarosa,(palmarosa, lemonlemon grass,gass, citriodoracitriodora and orange peel oils). The results of our studies on Euclayptus oils were recently published (Muchori etet al.,al., 1997;1997; AssefaAssefa and and Dagne,Dagne, 1997).

Acknowledgements: Financial Financial assistance assistance providedprovided byby thethe EthiopianEthiopian ScienceScience andand Technology Commission, The Addis Ababa University, SIDA-SARECSIDA-SAREC (Sweden)(Sweden) and International Prog,ramProgram in Chemical SciencesSciences (Sweden)(Sweden) isis gr,gratefully atefully acknowledged.acknowledged.

REFERENCES Abdel-Wahab, S.M., Aboutabl, E.A., El-Zalabani, S.M., Fouad, H.A., De Pooter, H.L. and EI-Fallaha,El-Fallaha, B. 1987. The Essential Oil of Olibanum. PlantaPlanta Med, 53, 382-384.

Abegaz, B. andand Yohannes,Yohannes, P.G.P.G. 1982.1982. ConstituentsConstituents ofof the the EssentialEssential OilOil ofof Artemisia Artemisia rehan.rehan. Phytochemistry,Phytochemistg, 21,21, 1791-1793.1791-1793.

Assefa, A. and Dagne, E. 1997.1997. Essential oils of three EucalyptusEucalyptus species acclimatized in Ethiopia. Bull. Chem.Chem. Soc. Ethiop., 10,10,47-50. 47-50.

Brieskorn, C.H. and Noble, P. 1980.1980. Drei Neue FuranogennacreneFuranogermacrene aus Myrrhe. Tetrahedron Letters, 21,1511-1514.

Brieskorn, C.H. and Noble, P.P. 1983.1983. FuranosesquiterpenesFuranosesquiterpenes fromfrom thethe EssentialEssential OilOil ofof Myrrh. Myrrh. Phytochemistry, 22, 1207-1211.1207-1211.

Brieskorn, C.H. and Noble, P. 1983.1983. Two FuranoeudesmFuranoeudesmaneses from the Essential OilOil ofof Myrrh. Myrrh. Phytochemistry,Phytochemistg, 22,22, 187-189.187-189.

Muchori, P., Manguro, L., Chikamai, B., Dagne, E. and Bekele, T. 1997. Essential oils offiveof five Eucalyptus species growngrown inin Kenya.Kenya. Sinet:Sinet: Ethiop.Ethiop. J.J Sci.,Sci., 20,20, 139-143.139-143.

Torssell, K.B.G. 1997.1997. Natural ProductsProducts Chemistry,Chemistry, SwedishSwedish Phan-naceuticalPharmaceutical Society, Stockholm, p. 265. 85 INTERNATIONALINTE NATIONAL REGULATIONS REGULATIONS FORFOR NATURAL NATURAL PRODUCTS USED ASAS FOODFOOD ADDITIVES

ENRICO CASADEI Food and Nutrition Division FAO,FAO,ROME ROME

Introduction Foods moving in internationalinternational tradetrade areare subjectsubject toto aa varietyvariety ofof constraints, constraints, includingincluding basicbasic foodfood quality and safety laws and regulations. TheseThese areare officiallyofficially appliedapplied byby importingimporting countriescountries toto protect consumers, to ensure fair food trading practices and to prevent commercial fraud.

Food control agencies of importingimporting countriescountries generally apply regulations which give themthem authority over such factors asas foodfood safety,safety, hygiene,hygiene, quality,quality, packaging,packaging, labelling,labelling, handlinghandling andand storage. InIn general, general, thesethese regulationsregulations includeinclude preciseprecise requirements,requirements, which must be met ifif foodfood products are to be admitted into the importing country. ForFor example,example, regulationsregulations oftenoften indicateindicate levels ofof contaminantscontaminants (microbiological,(microbiological, agriculturalagricultural andand veterinary,veterinary, environmentalenvironmental andand radioactive) andand levels of additives thatthat mustmust notnot bebe exceeded. TheseThese areare oftenoften referredreferred toto asas sanitary requirements.requirements. Other regulations, whichwhich are commonlycommonly referredreferred toto as qualityquality requirements, include parametersparameters concerning the essential composition, labelling and description ofof foods. FoodFood products products whichwhich dodo notnot complycomply withwith thesethese requirements,requirements, willwill oftenoften result in their rejection oror detention.detention.

While the need to protect consumersconsumers fromfrom healthhealth hazards and deception is beyond question,question, the potential for applyingapplying nationalnational regulationsregulations in anan inequitableinequitable oror discriminatorydiscriminatory mannermanner isis everever present. TheThe application application of of such such inequitable inequitable oror discriminatory discriminatory practicespractices amountsamounts toto non-tariffnon-tariff technical barriers, which impede, rather than facilitate, internationalinternational trade in foods.

Codex AUmentariusAlimentarius Commission The importance ofof non-tariff non-tariff technical technical barriersbarriers toto tradetrade inin impedingimpeding internationalinternational tradetrade inin foodsfoods is recognised by thethe majormajor foodfood exportingexporting andand importingimporting nations.nations. The CodexCodex AlimentariusAlimentarius Commission, which is administered by the JointJoint FAO/WHOF AOIWHO FoodFood StandardsStandards Programme,Programme, waswas established inin partpart in response to the potential for the application of suchsuch non-tariff barriers to trade. TheThe work work of of the the Commission Commission has has been been specifically specifically recog,nisedrecognised under the WorldWorld Trade Organisation (WTO)(WTO) Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and on TechnicalTechnical Barriers to Trade.

In undertaking its work on the establishmentestablislnnent of maximum levels forfor foodfood additivesadditives inin foods,foods, thethe Commission reliesrelies onon the useuse ofof independent independent scientificscientific advice providedprovided by FAOF AO andand WHOWHO through thethe Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee onon FoodFood AdditivesAdditives (JECFA).(JECFA). For almostalmost 40 years, the recommendations of JECFAJECF A have formed the essential basis for countriescou11tries to judge the acceptability and and safetysafety ofof these compoundscompounds andand havehave set thethe parametersparameters forfor fruitful intergovernmental CodexCodex discussionsdiscussions onon additives.additives. Similar advice has been provided on an ad hoc basis by FAOFAO andand WHOWHO inin the the areas areas of of Contaminants Contaminants (including (including radionuclides),radionuclides), Food Hygiene, Nutrition, Analytical Methods, Protein Quality Evaluation and Labelling. 86 The use of foodfood additivesadditives isis regulatedregulated atat internationalinternational levellevel byby CodexCodex standards.standards. OnlyOnly foodfood additives, whichwhich havehave beenbeen evaluated byby JECFJECFA A and found acceptable forfor useuse in foods,foods, areare included inin thethe Codex General Standard andand areare pennittedpeimitted for useuse inin foods. Food additives are only included in Codex standard when the substance does not present any risk to the health of the consumer at thethe levels ofof use proposed. AcceptableAcceptable DailyDaily Intake,Intake, or equivalentequivalent assessment,assessment, established for the additives and itsits probable dailydaily intalceintake from all sources are taken into account before the inclusion of food additives inin CodexCodex standards.standards.

Food additives used in accordance with the CodexCodex GeneralGeneral standard,standard, should be ofof appropriate appropriate food grade quality and should at all times conformconfonn with the applicable Specifications of Identity and Purity recommended byby the CodexCodex Alimentarius Commission or,or, inin the absenceabsence ofof suchsuch specifications, with appropriate specifications developed byby responsible national or international bodies.

Food additives are classifiedclassified according toto their functionalfunctional class but cancan bebe distinguished distinguished between natural and syntheticsynthetic products.products. The divisiondivision betweenbetween natural andand syntheticsynthetic foodfood additives cannotcannot bebe considered separatedseparated byby a net mark,mark, because many natural products are produced synthetically andand manymany synthetic products are producedproduced by modifyingmodifying naturalnatural products or using for their production biological systems such as fennentation.fermentation.

One of the mainmain differencesdifferences between natural and synthetic food additives consists inin the fact that for synthetic products it is quite easy to establish Specifications ofIdentityof Identity and Purity while for natural products it is moremore elaborateelaborate toto establishestablish suchsuch specificationsspecifications due to thethe complexcomplex nature of the products and to some differencesdifferences depending on areas of production, climatic and soil conditions and sources which cancan influenceinfluence notablynotably thethe compositioncomposition ofof the the product.product.

Principles forfor thethe safetysafety assessmentassessment ofof food food additivesadditives inin foodfood More than 500 substances have been evaluated and provided with specifications for purity and identity byby JECFA.JECF A. Specifications of of foodfood additivesadditives are are intended intended to to serveserve asas a guideguide forfor manufacturers and and usersusers ofof thethe additives, asas well as thethe basisbasis forfor newnew oror revised revised national national legislation or regulation of member countriescountries ofofF FAOAO andand WHO.WHO.

JECFJECFA A has always operated on thethe principleprinciple thatthat testingtesting requirementsrequirements for allall foodfood additivesadditives should not be the same. Such factors as expected toxicity, exposure levels, natural occurrence in food, occurrence as nonnalnormal body constituents, use in traditional foods, and knowledge of effects on man should be takentaken intointo account.account. InIn relationrelation toto carcinogeniccarcinogenic hazards,hazards, thethe CommitteeCommittee hashas stated thatthat "the"the scopescope ofof the the testtest requiredrequired shouldshould dependdepend onon aa numbernumber ofof factors, factors, suchsuch asas thethe nature of the substance,substance, thethe extent to which it might be presentpresent in foodfood andand thethe populationpopUlation consuming it".it". MoreMore generally,generally, the CommitteeCommittee hashas requested datadata on,on, interinter alia,alia, methods ofof manufacture, impurities,impurities, fatefate inin food,food, levelslevels ofof useuse ofof food additives inin food, and estimates of actual daily intake, and concluded that such informationinfonnation "was''was important and relevant both forfor the toxicological evaluation and for the preparation of specifications"

Naturally occurringoccurring polysaccharidespolysaccharides The termtenn 'gums' isis used used toto describedescribe a a group group ofof naturally naturally occurring occurring polysaccharidespolysaccharides whichwhich findfind widespread industrial use because of their ability either to formfonn viscous solutions or gels or to stabilise emulsions and dispersions. A convenientconvenient means of classifying gums is accordingaccordino- to their source and Table 11 givesgives detailsdetails ofof gums gums commonlycommonly used.used. I:;) 87 Polysaccharide gums are poly disperse materials containing molecules withwith a broad range ofof molecular masses and usually differ to aa greatergreater oror lesserlesser extentextent inin theirtheir carbohydratecarbohydrate structure or make-upmake-up dependingdepending onon theirtheir sourcesource andand methodmethod ofof extraction extraction or manufacture.manufacture. SuchSuch differences in composition commonly leadsleads toto variabilityvariability inin properties.

Tree Exudates Gum exudates differdiffer considerablyconsiderably chemically. Gum arabic (Acacia senegal) consists of threethree water-soluble fractions, namely an arabinogalactan (± 90 %)%) andand twotwo arabinogalactan-proteinarabinogalactan-protein complexes whichwhich differ in their molecularmolecular size and inin thethe proportionproportion ofof the the proteinaceous proteinaceous material associated withwith each. GumGum tragacanth tragacanth consistsconsists ofof a a water-swellable water-swellable fractionfraction calledcalled tragacanthic acid (or(or bassorin)bassolin) (60(60 - 7070 %)%) andand aa water water soluble soluble fraction fraction called called tragacanthin. tragacanthin. Gum Karaya isis aa heavilyheavily acetylated acetylated polysaccharide polysaccharide composedcomposed of of chains chains of of cc-D-galacturonic a-D-galacturonic acid and a-L-rhamnose. Gum ghattighatti has a mainmain chainchain of alternating 1,4-13-D-l,4-B-D­ glucopyranosyluronic acidacid andand 1,2-aD-manno-pyranose unitsunits and containscontains numerousnumerous side-side­ chains and branches consisting ofofL-arabinose, L-arabinose, D-galactose andand D-glucuronicD-glucuronic acid.acid.

Seaweed Extracts Seaweed gums constitute thethe structuralstructural componentcomponent of of the the plantplant andand are isolated by acidacid oror alkaline extraction followedfollowed byby precipitation andand drying.drying. AgarAgar and carrageenancarrageenan are bothboth polygalactans. Agar consists ofof two components, namelynamely agaroseagarose (50(50 - 90 %) and agaropectin.agaropectin. The carrageenans areare a groupgroup ofof linearlinear sulphatedsulphated galactansgalactans and threethree typestypes areare availableavailable commercially: kappa, iota and lambda.

Microbial Gums Xanthan and gellangellan gumsgums areare extracellularextracellular polysaccharidespolysaccharides obtained from thethe aerobicaerobic fermentation of the respective bacteria in batch culture. Xanthan gum consists of aa linearlinear 1,4-1,4- linked-B-linked-ß-D-glucopyranoseD-glucopyranose main main chain chain withwith a trisaccharidetrisaccharide side-chain on alternatealternate glucoseglucose residues. Gellan is aa linearlinear moleculemolecule withwith aa tetrasaccharidetetrasaccharide repeatingrepeating unitunit consistingconsisting ofof two two glucopyranose residues, glucuronic acidacid andand rhamnopyranose. 88 Table 1:1: ClassificationClassification of of gums gums

Source Gum ADII Functional class Tree exudates Acacia Gum arabic NS (1997) TA;TA;S;E S; E Astragalus Gum tragacanth NS (1985) TA;TA;S;E S; E Sterculia urens Gum karaya NS (1988) E;E;S;TA S; TA Anogeissus latifolia Gum ghatti NA (1983) TA;TA;S S Seaweed extractsextracts Red seaweed Rhodophyceae GelidiumlGelidium/ GracilariaGracilaria spp.spp. Agar NS (1973) TA; S Euchema cottonii,cotton ii, Euchema Carrageenan NS (1984) TA; GA; S spinosum, Chondrus crispus and Gigartina sp.sp. Brown seaweed PhyophyceaePhyophyceae Laminaria hyperborea, Alginate NS (1992) TA; S; GFA;GFA;E E MacroMacrocystis cystis pyrifera pyrifera and Ascophyllum nodosum Plant extracts Peel of various citrus fruits and Pectin NS (1981) TA;S;GATA; S; GA apple pommacepommace Seed andand root gums Cyamopsis tetragonolobatetragonoloba GuargumGuar gum NS (1975) TA;STA; S Ceratonia siliqua Carob bean gum NS (1981) TA;STA; S Cesalpina spinosa Tara gum NS (1986) TA;STA; S Amorphophallus konjac Konjac mannan NS (1993) GA;TA;E;SGA; TA; E; S Microbial gums Xantomonas campestris XanthangumXanthan g,um NS (1986) TA;STA; S Auromonas elodea GellanGellangum g,um NS (1990) TA;S;GATA; S; GA

Note: NSNS - - ADIADI not not specifiedspecified NA - ADI not allocated -- The year refers to the latest evaluation by JECFAJECF A E Emulsifier;Emulsifier; GAGA GellingGelling Agent;Agent; GFAGFA Gel-FormingGel-Fonning Agent;Agent; SS Stabilizer;Stabilizer; TA Thickening Agent

Use in Foods Whilst ourour modem life style has ledled toto an increasingincreasing demanddemand forfor convenienceconvenience foodsfoods ourour growing awareness of the relationship betweenbetween foodfood and health has increased the requirement for high-fibre, low-fat food products. These factors have resulted in a considerable interest in the use of hydrocolloids, includingincluding various gums, modified starches and gelatine, in foods and this is expected to continue inin thethe yearsyears ahead.ahead.

Gums have a major influence on the structuralstructural characteristics, texture and overall appearance ofof food products, even though they areare usuallyusually present at concentrations of less than 1%.1%. On foodfood labels theythey are commonly referredreferred toto as 'stabilizers", 'thickeners' oror 'gelling'gelling agents',agents', andand inin factfact 89 they may serveserve aa numbernumber ofof fimctions functions suchsuch as enhancingenhancing viscosity,viscosity, inducinginducing gelation,gelation, emulsifying oils, stabilising foams and inhibiting ice or sugar crystallisation.

Dietary ILLportanceImportance Food gums areare purified solublesoluble polysaccharidepolysaccharide constituents of plant cells.cells. PurifiedPurified foodfood gumsgums are used in thethe foodfood industryindustry to stabilisestabilise emulsion and improve the texture of food.food. TheyThey areare also used asas medicinesmedicines inin thethe preventionprevention andand treatment of diabetesdiabetes mellitus,mellitus, obesityobesity andand hyperlipidaemia, andand inin thethe treatmenttreatment ofof constipation. constipation.

Food gums cannotcannot bebe digesteddigested inin thethe mammalianmammalian smallsmall intestine,intestine, wherewhere theythey tend toto formfmID viscous solutions with dietary water and digestive secretions. Viscous solutions are antimotility agents; they impairimpair thethe effectseffects ofof gastrointestinal gas1Tointestinai contractions in delivering food fromfrom thethe stomach into the smallsmall intestine,intestine, in mixingmixing complexcomplex macronutrients with digestive secretions and in making the productsproducts ofof digestion digestion availableavailable to thethe absorptiveabsorptive surface.surface. In effecteffect nutrientsnutrients remain trapped in the gum matrix. This is thought to result in a marked reduction in the rate of absorption ofof rapidly absorbed substances,substances, suchsuch asas glucoseglucose andand probablyprobably alsoalso inin thethe degreedegree ofof absorption of nutrients that are absorbed moremore slowly,slowly, such as fat and certain micronutrients.micronutrients.

Food gums vary in thethe degreedegree toto whichwhich theythey maymay bebe brokenbroken downdown byby coloniccolonic bacteria.bacteria. PectinPectin and guar areare rapidlyrapidly metabolisedmetabolised to short-chainshort-chain fatty acids, yielding large amounts of gases (carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane). Acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid are the major products of polysaccharide fermentation inin thethe colon,colon, andand they each make a contribution to the energy economy.

Conclusions All gums indicatedindicated in Table 11 havehave beenbeen evaluatedevaluated by JECFA,JECF A, whichwhich establishedestablished for all products, except gum ghatti, ADIADI 'not specified'.

Gum ghatti was evaluated byby the Committee inin 1980, 1982 and 1985. It hashas thethe typicaltypical heteroglycan structure of other gums in food additive use. Notwithstanding this, the Committee considered thatthat data toto allow evaluationevaluation forfor foodfood additiveadditive useuse werewere insufficient.insufficient. NoNo toxicological monographmonograph waswas prepared. The existingexisting specificationsspecifications werewere maintainedmaintained asas tentative.

ADI not specified is a term applicable to a food substance of very low toxicity which, on the basis of thethe availableavailable datadata (chemical,(chemical, biochemical,biochemical, toxicological, andand other), the total dietarydietary intake of the substance arising from its use atat thethe levelslevels necessarynecessary toto achieveachieve thethe desireddesired effecteffect and from itsits acceptableacceptable background inin food does not, in thethe opinionopinion ofof JECFA, JECF A, representrepresent aa hazard to health.health. For that reason,reason, andand forfor reasonsreasons statedstated inin individual individual JECFAJECF A evaluations, evaluations, establishment of of an acceptableacceptable dailydaily intake expressed inin numerical form is notnot deemeddeemed necessary byby JECFJECFA. A. AnAn additiveadditive meetingmeeting thisthis criterioncriterion must be usedused withinwithin thethe boundsbounds ofof Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP). According Codex definition, GMP include:

1. The quantity of the additiveadditive added to food shall be limitedlimited toto thethe lowestlowest possiblepossible levellevel necessary to accomplish its desired effect 2. The quantity of the additive that becomes aa component ofof food as a result of its use in the manufacturing, processing or packaging of a food and which isis notnot intendedintended toto accomplishaccomplish any physical, or other technical effecteffect inin thethe foodfood itself,itself, isis reducedreduced toto thethe extentextent reasonably possible; and,and, 90 3. The additive is prepared and handled in the same way as a food ingredient.

At itsits 22nd22nd Session,Session, thethe CodexCodex CommitteeCommittee onon FoodFood AdditivesAdditives andand ContaminantsContaminants ag,reedagreed to endorse thethe use ofof foodfood additivesadditives withwith non-numericalnon-numerical ADls ADIs forfor useuse in foodsfoods inin generalgeneral according to GMP andand without specificspecific referencereference toto theirtheir technologicaltechnological function.function. ItIt also also ag,reedagreed to AnnexAnnex a listlist ofof food food categoriescategories oror individualindividual foodsfoods wherewhere the useuse ofof these these additivesadditives waswas notnot allowed or was restricted, based on a similar list currently in effect inin thethe European Community. The list of food additives with non-numerical ADlsADIs and the Annex including food categories is attached as Appendix I to this paper.

In view of the factfact that that atat presentpresent riskrisk analysisanalysis was considered toto bebe an integral part of the decision-making processprocess ofof Codex,Codex, thethe Committee onon Food Additives and ContaminantsContaminants is working on thethe elaborationelaboration ofof proceduresprocedures for riskrisk assessmentassessment and managementmanagement andand is considering thatthat a screening method should be used to evaluate additives which requirerequire furtherfurther assessment ofof theirtheir exposure, and that an appropriate numbernumber ofof thesethese additives bebe referred to JECFJECFA A for the evaluation of data data onon probableprobable humanhuman exposure.exposure.

References Codex Alimentarius Commission, ALINORM 97/12A, ReportReport ofof the Twenty-Ninth Session of the Codex Committee on Food AdditivesAdditives andand Contaminants,Contaminants, 19971997

Codex Alimentarius Commission, AL1NORMALINORM 97/37,97/37, ReportReport ofof the Twenty-SecondTwenty-Second SessionSession, 1997

Evaluation of certain food additives andand contaminants (Twenty-ninth report of the Joint FAO/WHOFAOIWHO Expert CommitteeCommittee on FoodFood Additives),Additives), WHOWHO TechnicalTechnical ReportReport Series,Series, NoNo 733,733, 1986

FAO, Summary of Evaluations Performed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA),(JECF A), ILSI Press, 19961996

Gums pp 2267 - 2288.2288. In:In: EncyclopaediaEncyclopaedia ofof FoodFood Science,Science, FoodFood TechnologyTechnology andand Nutrition,Nutrition, London (UK). Academic Press. 19931993

JECFA,JECF A, Compendium of Food AdditiveAdditive Specifications,Specifications, FFAO AO Food andand NutritionNutrition PaperPaper 52/1,52/1, 1993 91 APPENDIX I

GENERAL STANDARD FORFOR FOODFOOD ADDITIVES:ADDITIVES: DRAFT SCHEDULE OF ADDITIVES PERMITTED FOR USE IN FOOD IN GENERAL,GENERAL, UNLESS OTHERWISEOTHERWISE SPECIFIED,SPECIFIED, ININ ACCORDANCEACCORDANCE WITH WITH GMP GMP

Line INS No. Additive

1 260 Acetic Acid 2 472a Acetic and Fatty Acid Esters of Glycerol 3 1422 Acetylated Distarch Adipate 4 1414 Acetylated Distarch Phosphate 5 1401 Acid Treated Starch 6 406 Agar 7 400 Alginic AcidAcid 8 1402 Alkaline Treated Starch 9 1100 Alpha-Amylase (Bacillus nzegateriummegaterium expressed inin Bacillus subtilis)subtilis) 10 1100 Alpha-Amylase (Bacillus stearothermophilus expressedexpressed inin B.B. subtilis)subtilis) 11 1100 Alpha-Amylase (Bacillus stearothermophilus) 12 1100 Alpha-Amylase (Bacillus subtilis) 13 1100 Alpha-Amylase (Carbohydrase) (Bacillus(Bacillus licheniformis)licheniformis) 14 559 Aluminium Silicate 15IS 264 Ammonium Acetate 1616 403 Ammonium Alginate 17 503(i) Ammonium Carbonate 1818 510 Ammonium Chloride 19 380 Ammonium Citrate 20 368 Ammonium Fumarate 21 503(ii) Ammonium Hydrogen Carbonate 22 527 Ammonium Hydroxide 23 328 Ammonium LactateLactate 24 349 Ammonium Malate,Malate, D,L- 25 517 Ammonium Sulphate 26 300 Ascorbic Acid 27 162 Beet Red 28 1403 Bleached Starch 29 1101(iii) Bromelain 30 263 Calcium AcetateAcetate 31 404 Calcium Alginate 32 556 Calcium Aluminium Silicate 33 302 Calcium Ascorbate 34 107(i) Calcium CarbonateCarbonate 35 509 Calcium ChlorideChloride 36 333 Calcium Citrate 37 623 Calcium Glutamate, DI-L- 38 629 Calcium Guanylate, 5'-5'- 39 526 Calcium Hydroxide 40 633 Calcium Inosinate, 5'- 41 327 Calcium Lactate 42 325(ii)325(iO Calcium Malate, D,L- 43 529 Calcium Oxide 44 282 Calcium Propionate 45 634 Calcium Ribonucleotides, 5'- 46 552 Calcium Silicate 47 516 Calcium Sulphate 48 150a Caramel Colour, Class II 49 290 Carbon Dioxide 50 410 Carob Bean Gum 51 407 Carrageenan 52 140 Chlorophylls 53 1001 Choline Salts 54 330 Citric Acid 55 472c Citric and Fatty Acid Esters of Glycerol 56 1400 Dextrins, white and yellow, Roasted Starch 57 628 Dipotassium Guanylate, 5'- 92 Line INS No. Additive

58 632 Dipotassium Inosinate, 5'- 59 627 Disodium Guanylate, 5'- 60 631 Disodium Inosinate, 5'- 61 635 Disodium Ribonucleotides, 5'- 62 1412 Distarch Phosphate 63 1405 Enzyme Treated StarchStarch 64 315 Erythorbic AcidAcid 65 462 Ethyl Cellulose 66 467 Ethyl Hydroxyethyl CelluloseCellulose 67 297 Fumaric AcidAcid 68 418 GelIanGellan Gum 69 575 Glucono Delta-Lactone 70 1102 Glucose Oxidase (Aspergillus(Aspergillus lager,niger, var.)var.) 71 620 Glutamic Acid, L-L- 72 422 Glycerol 73 626 Guanylic Acid, 5'- 74 412 GuarGumGuar Gum 75 414 Gum Arabic 76 507 Hydrochloric AcidAcid 77 463 Hydroxypropyl CelluloseCellulose 78 1442 Hydroxypropyl Distarch Phosphate 79 464 Hydroxypropyl MethylMethyl CelluloseCellulose 80 1440 Hydroxypropyl StarchStarch 81 630 InosinicInosinic Acid, 5'-5'- 82 1202 Insoluble PolyvinylpyrrolidonePolyvinylpyrrolidone 83 505 Iron Carbonate 84 593 IsomaltIsomalt 85 416 Karaya Gum 86 [425] Konjac Flour 87 270 Lactic Acid 88 472b Lactic and Fatty Acid Esters of Glycerol 89 966 Lactitol 90 322 Lecithin 91 1104 Lipase (Animal Sources) 92 1104 Lipase (Aspergillus oryzae,orizae, var.) 93 504(i) Magnesium Carbonate 94 511 Magnesium Chloride 95 625 Magnesium Glutamate, DI-L- 96 504(ii) MagnesiumMag,nesium Hydrogen Carbonate 97 528 Magnesium Hydroxide 98 329 Magnesium Lactate, D,L- 99 530 Magnesium Oxide 100 553(i) Magnesium Silicate (Synthetic) 101 518 Magnesium Sulphate 102 296 Malic Acid, D,L- 103 965 Maltitol (including Maltitol Syrup) 104 421 Mannitol 105 461 Methyl Cellulose 106 465 Methyl Ethyl Cellulose 107 460(i)460(1) Microcrystalline Cellulose 108 471 Mono- and Diglycerides 109 624 Monoammonium Glutamate,Glutamate, L-L- 110 622 Monopotassium Glutamate,Glutamate, L- 111 621 Monosodium Glutamate, L- 112 1410 Monostarch PhosphatePhosphate 113 941 Nitrogen 114 1404 Oxidized Starch 115 1101(ii) Papain 116 440 Pectins (Amidated and Non-amidated) 117 1413 Phosphated DistarchDistarch Phsophate 118 1200 Polydextroses 119 261 Potassium AcetateAcetate 120 402 Potassium AlginateAlginate 93 Line INS No. Additive

121 303 Potassium Ascorbate 122 501(i)5010) Potassium Carbonate 123 508 Potassium Chloride 124 332i Potassium Dihydrogen Citrate 125 501(ii)501 (ii) Potassium Hydrogen Carbonate 126 351(i) Potassium Hydrogen Malate, D,L- 127 525 Potassium Hydroxide 128 326 Potassium Lactate (Solution) 129 351(ii) Potassium Malate, D, L- 130 283 Potassium Propionate 131 560 Potassium Silicate 132 515 Potassium Sulphate 133 460(ii) Powdered Cellulose 134 944 Propane 135 280 Propionic Acid 136 470 Salts of Fatty Acids (Ammonium, Calcium, Potassium, Sodium) 137 551 Silicon Dioxide (Amorphous)(Amorphous) 138 262(i) Sodium Acetate 139 401 Sodium Alginate 140 554 Sodium Aluminosilicate 141 301 Sodium Ascorbate 142 500(i) Sodium Carbonate 143 466 Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose 144 331(i) Sodium Dihydrogen Citrate 145 316 Sodium Erythorbate 146 237 Sodium Fumarate 147 500(ii) Sodium Hydrogen CarbonateCarbonate 148 350(i) Sodium Hydrogen Malate, D, L- 149 524 Sodium Hydroxide 150 325 Sodium Lactate (Solution) 151 350(ii) Sodium Malate, D,L- 152 281 Sodium Propionate 153 500(iii) Sodium Sesquicarbonate 154 550(i) Sodium Silicate 155 514 Sodium Sulphate 156 420 Sorbitol (including Sorbitol Syrup) 157 1420,1421 Starch Acetate 158 1450 Starch Sodium Octenylsuccinate 159 553(iii) Talc 160 417 Tara Gum 161161 472f Tartaric, Acetic and Fatty Acid Esters of Glycerol (mixed) 162 957 Thaumatin 163 171 Titanium Dioxide 164 413 Tragacanth Gum 165 1518 Triacetin 166 380 TriammoniumTriarnmonium Citrate 167 332(ii) Tripotassium Citrate 168 331(iii) Trisodium Citrate 169 415 Xanthan Gum 170 967 Xylitol 94 ANNEX TO APPENDIX I

FOOD CATEGORIES OROR INDIVIDUALINDMDUAL FOOD ITEMS WHERE THE USE OF FOOD ADDITIVES WITH GOOD 14 MANUFACTURING PRACTICE LIMITATIONS LIMITATIONS ONON USEUSE AREARE NOTNOT ALLOWEDALLOWED OROR RESTRICTED14 RESTRICTED

Category Number Food Category 1.1.1 Milk andand ButtermilkButtennilk 1.2 FermentedFennented and RennetedRenneted MilkMil Products Products (plain)(plain) ExcludingExcluding Drinks 1.4.1 Pasteurized Cream 1.4.2 Sterilize or UHT, sterilized whipping cream, or whipped and reduced fatfat creams 22.1 . 1 Fats and oils, essentially free from water 2.2.1.1 Butter andand concentrated butter (Only Butter) 4.1.14 . 1. 1 Fresh Fruits 4.1.1.2 Surface treated fruits 4.1.1.3 Peeled oror cutcut fruitsfruits 4.2.14.2.1 Fresh VegetablesVegetables 4.2.1.2 Surface treated vegetables 4.2.1.3 Peeled or cut vegetables 4.2.2.1 Frozen vegetables 6.1 Whole, broken or flaked grains, including rice 6.2 Flours andand starches 6.4 Pastas and Noodles (Only Dried Products) 8.1.1 Fresh meat, poultry and game in whole pieces/cuts 8.1.2 Fresh comminuted meat, poultry andand game 99.1 . 1 Fresh fish and fish products, including mollusks, crustaceans andand echinodermsechinodenns 9.2 Frozen fish and fish products, including mollusks, crustaceanscrustaceans andand echinodermsechinodenns 10.1 Fresh Eggs 10.2.1 Liquid Egg products 10.2.2 Frozen Egg products 11.1 White and semi-white sugar, fructose, glucose, xylose; sugar solutionssolutions and syrups; (partially) inverted sugarssugars 11.2 Other sugars and syrups (e.g., brown sugar and maple syrup)syrup) 11.3 Honey 12.1 Salt 12.2 Spices, herbs, seasoning (including salt substitutes) and condiments (Only herbs and salt substitutes) 12.8 Yeast 13.1 Infant formulaefonnulae and follow-on formulaefonnulae 13.2 Foods forfor young children (weaning foods)foods) 14.1.1.1 Natural Mineral Waters and SourceSource Waters (Only(Only NaturalNatural MineralMineral Waters)Waters) 14.1.5 Coffee, coffee infusions, and other hot cereal beverages, excluding cocoa It snoulcishould bete notenoted thata Codexo ex hashas establishedestabhshed additional provprovisions sions on the use of food additives illin certain CodexCodex CommodityCommodity Standards Standards and and may may establish establish provisions provisions to Schedules to Schedules 1 and 1 and2 to 2 this to this Standard Standard in the future. 95

GUMG AARABIC11 IC - LIFE ININ AA SATUSATURATEDA TED MAMARKET

IVAN HOLMES Agrilab, Tylas, Rievalx, York, North Yorkshire Y06Y065LH 5LH United Kingdom

Acacia senegal isis anan amazingamazing tree.tree. It grows where almost nothing else will survive,survive, providesprovides fodder, enriches the soilsoil withwith nitrogennitrogen andand providesprovides gumgum arabic,arabic, an extraordinaryextraordinary harvestharvest which can bring security to the fragile existence ofof peoplepeople in the arid lands whowho dependdepend on livestock oror dry-landdry-land farming.farming. GumGum arabic is a uniqueunique and naturalnatural product which is very importantimportant toto the food and pharmaceutical industriesindustries butbut itit isis muchmuch moremore importantimportant as an aridm.id lands resource.resource. ItIt providesprovides realreal andand sustainablesustainable benefitsbenefits toto thethe environmentenvironment andand thethe peoplepeople ofof those regions.

There is a growing range of industrialindustrial alternatives toto gum arabic. MoreMore areare possiblepossible throughthrough fields suchsuch as genetic engineering,engineering, butbut gumgum arabicarabic is is stillstill the the best. best. Being a natural product is a selling pointpoint whichwhich shouldshould keepkeep gumgum arabic arabic at at the the head head of of the the field field for for a a long long time. time. As an industry we have a collectivecollective interestinterest in promoting gum arabic and presenting it inin aa formform which gives little desire or funding to replace it with synthetic or other products.

The pattern which has brought gum arabicarabic usage down from 70,000 tonnes in 19601960 toto aa lowlow of 25,000 tonnes in the early 1990's is now familiar. TheThe dominodomino effecteffect ofof drought, drought, shortageshortage and high prices leads to reduced demand. ReducedReduced confidenceconfidence isis shownshown as,as, eacheach timetime pricesprices return to former levels, usage fails to recover,recover, users having found alternative products andand areare unwilling to changechange back.back. It isis obviousobvious whatwhat damagedamage the cyclicalcyclical trendstrends inin thethe gumgum arabicarabic market do. UserUser confidence confidence is is damaged damaged furtherfurther byby thethe effecteffect ofof casual, casual, opportunistopportunist collectorscollectors in some countries. TheyThey compete compete fiercely fiercely whenwhen pricesprices areare high,high, oftenoften supplying supplying low-quality low-quality adulterated gums at a time when users are willing to accept them. Then,Then, whenwhen prices prices reduce, reduce, collection ceases leavingleaving the end-userend-user andand the pastoralist collector equally disillusioned.

Building Customer ConfidenceConfidence 1. Reliable supply 2. Stable prices 3. Pure unadulterated product 4. Traceability - guarantees ofof good good workingworking practice.practice.

At this point in time there are gum arabic stocks built up throughout the world toto lastlast forfor upup toto 2 years. ItIt is probable that we will not see a large increaseincrease inin pricesprices forfor manymany years.years. As a result the user isis gaininggaining newnew confidenceconfidence inin price price and and supply. supply. ThereThere areare encouragingencouraging signssigns ofof recovery inin thethe market.market. TheThe useruser isis nownow inin aa powerfulpowerful position and can demand the thingsthings he/she wants.

Probably the most importantimportant ofof those those thingsthings isis purity.purity. It is soso fundamentallyfundamentally importantimportant that we present gums which areare notnot adulteratedadulterated withwith gumsgums of another typetype or species. GumGum arabicarabic is increasingly used as a technical product. ItIt isis oftenoften blendedblended withwith otherother gumsgums oror materialsmaterials toto produce precise ingredientsingredients for foodfood andand phaimaceuticals.pharmaceuticals. The variabilityvariability whichwhich hashas sometimes beenbeen normalnormal inin thethe pastpast isis nono longer acceptable.acceptable. The vast sumssums ofof money money whichwhich 96 go intointo developingdeveloping new productproduct lineslines demand that ingredientsingredients mustmust be ofof aa relativelyrelatively invariable nature. IfIf gum gum arabicarabic isis toto bebe inin thatthat categorycategory everyevery one right down toto thethe collectorcollector must be committed toto the supplysupply ofof a a pure andand unadulteratedunadulterated product.product.

Users also want traceability and guarantees that ensure they receive a product which does not expose themthem toto risk. ThereThere areare increasingincreasing problemsproblems fromfrom micro-biologicalmicro-biological organismsorganisms suchsuch asas E. colicoli andand Salmonella.Salmonella. Residues of chemicals or otherother thingsthings areare equallyequally unacceptable.unacceptable. Clean baskets,baskets, sacks,sacks, transporttransport and and storagestorage conditions conditions can can go go aa long way toto ensuringensuring reasonable levels of safety. ProducersProducers whowho adoptadopt andand cancan guaranteeguarantee goodgood workingworking practicespractices will have a more saleable product.product.

How does a country like Kenya achieve thesethese things? KenyaKenya isis aa veryvery smallsmall producerproducer butbut hashas the potential to satisfy richrich marketsmarkets andand cancan increaseincrease currentcurrent levelslevels ofof production. production. There must be some co-operationco-operation betweenbetween allall thosethose involved,involved, leadingleading toto thethe developmentdevelopment ofof a a standard for KenyaKenya gum.gum. Any certificationcertification scheme shouldshould bebe tough enough to deliverdeliver consistent standards to build customer confidence and promoted to deliver real benefits forfor itsits members.

The aim should be:- 1. To develop standards which guarantee clear, graded and unadulterated gumgum of each separate type oror species;species; and 2. To enforce a code ofof practice whichwhich ensures;ensures;

Ell traceability and guarantees of good working practice and Ell that collectors areare consistentlyconsistently andand fairlyfairly treated.treated.

If this can be achieved, it should be possible to see the differences inin Kenyan gumgum notnot as a disadvantage whichwhich incursincurs aa discountdiscount onon marketmarket priceprice butbut as an advantage which attracts a premium.premIUm.

The world is ofof coursecourse litteredlittered withwith marketingmarketing boards and authorities which have failed to protect their product often through too much bureaucracy and very often through a belief that they can dictatedictate toto thethe market.market. We are inin aa worldworld wherewhere therethere is aa surplussurplus ofof mostmost commodities, wherewhere thethe customercustomer isis King.King. TheThe fundamentalfundamental rule is listenlisten toto thethe customercustomer because he will only buy fromfrom peoplepeople who areare committedcommitted toto improvingimproving hishis business.business. I would like to conclude by sayingsaying that Sudanese Kordofan has been anan incrediblyincredibly successfulsuccessful product over thethe years. TheThe wayway isis openopen forfor otherother countriescountries toto developdevelop gumsgums fromfrom differentdifferent species and different regionsregions withwith differentdifferent qualities.qualities. These can complement Kordofan andand provide the customer with an increasedincreased range ofof technicaltechnical productsproducts for anan increasinglyincreasingly technical world.

As producers we should keep things as simple asas possible:possible: Ell Pick gum from the right trees Ell Keep it separate Ell Keep it clean

Ell Deliver in a sack to the customer. Anyone who can achieve this I think has a healthy futurefuture in gumgunl arabic. 97 CHEMOTAXONOMICCHEMOT ONOMIC ASPECTS OFOF GUMGUM EXUDATESEXUDATES FROM SOME ACACIA SPECIES

GASPAR S. MHINZI and HILLARY D.J.D.l MROSSO Chemistry Department, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35061, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.Tanzania.

Key Work Index Index - -Acacia,Acacia, chemotaxonomy; chemotaxonomy; gumgum exudates,exudates, propertiesproperties

Abstract Although Acacia drepanolobium and A. malacocephala areare regardedregarded as beingbeing closelyclosely relatedrelated botanically, analysisanalysis ofof thethe specimens ofof their gumgum exudates confirmconfinn thatthat they are indeed two distinct species. The properties of the gumgum exudateexudate fromfrom A.A. senegal var leiorhachis differdiffer fromfrom that obtained from A. senegal var senegal (widely(widely accepted as the source of commercialcommercial gum arabic) by being much more viscous and having higher proportions of insoluble gel fraction and nitrogen contents. However, thethe propertiesproperties ofof the gum exudates from A.A. seyalseyal var seyal andand A.A. seyal var fistula are quitequite similar and it isis justifiablejustifiable to retain them as variations of the same speCIes.species.

Introduction Morphologically, A.A. drepanolobiumdrepanolobium andand A.A. malacocephalamalacocep hala plants plants are are veryvery similar and it isis almost impossible to distinguish between them on the basis of herbarium specimens alone. The only difference that can be appreciated in the field is that they flower at different times of the year. BurttBurtt (1942) (1942) consideredconsidered themthem asas twotwo distinctdistinct speciesspecies andand mademade anan interestinginteresting distinctiondistinction that A. malacocephala flowersflowers inin thethe laterlater drydry season,season, thethe flowersflowers disappearingdisappearing inin thethe firstfirst rains,rains, whereas A. drepanolobium flowersflowers inin the rainyrainy season.season.

The species A. senegalsenegal is extremely variable.variable. Acacia senegal var. senegal itself shows a wide range of variationvariation inin termsterms ofof indumentum, indumentum, armature,armature, flowerflower sizesize andand generalgeneral habit.habit. Acacia senegal var. leiorhachis differsdiffers fromfrom A.A. senegal var senegalsenegal solelysolely byby itsits glabrousglabrous inflorescenceinflorescence axis, a differencedifference considered as aa minorminor variationvariation byby (Brenan,(Brenan, 1959).1959). Acacia senegalsenegal varvar kerensiskerens is also seems not to be uniformuniform but itsits bushybushy habithabit isis thethe mostmost distinctivedistinctive inin thethe field.field. However, the status of these variants of A. senegal is quite uncertain (Brenan, 1959). It is not yet known whether they represent a responseresponse toto anan unusualunusual habitat,habitat, exceptionsexceptions inin anan otherwiseotherwise normal populationpopUlation oror just distinctdistinct locallocal races.

Acacia seyal var fistulafistula has a greenish white smooth bark, with 'anti-galls' and grows commonly on black cotton soil on the plains. AcaciaAcacia seyalseyal var. var. seyal,seyal, onon thethe otherother hand,hand, hashas aa reddishreddish bark,bark, without 'anti-galls''anti-galls' andand occurs occurs commonlycommonly on on the the hillshills (Brenan,(Brenan, 1959).1959). Acacia drepanolobium, A.A. malacocephala, A.A. seyalseyal var.var. fistula andand A.A. seyal var.var. seyal,seyal, belongbelong toto Bentham's series (Bentham, 1875)1875) GumrniferaeGummiferae whereas A. senegal var. senegal andand A.A. senegalsenegal var leiorhachis belong toto thethe seriesseries Vulgares.

The use of analyticalanalytical datadata toto provideprovide chemotaxonomicchemotaxonomic evidenceevidence toto distinguishdistinguish betweenbetween closelyclosely related varieties of species has been suggestedsuggested by somesome workersworkers (Anderson(Anderson and Brenan,Brenan, 1975;1975; Anderson and Weiping,Weiping, 1990).1990). This paper presentspresents thethe physicochemicalphysicochemical properties of gumgum 98 exudates from the above-named species (except A. senegalsenegal var. kerensis) and presumably will contribute in underpinning the identityidentity ofofthe the various closelyclosely relatedrelated species.species.

Results and Discussion The physicochemical data for the samples are summarised in Table 1.1. AcaciaAcacia g,ums gums areare knownknown to be highlyhighly soluble inin waterwater unlikeunlike other tree exudateexudate gums (e.g. gum karaya) which are not completely soluble in water andand formform highlyhighly viscousviscous solutionssolutions oror suspensionssuspensions atat relativelyrelatively lowlow concentrations (Anderson(Anderson andand Street,Street, 1983;1983; GliksmanGliksman and and Sand, Sand, 1973).1973). The gum exudateexudate from A. drepanolobium is almost completely solublesoluble inin waterwater (CWIG, ca. 0.4% w/w) whereaswhereas its close relative, A. malacocephala possesses a substantial amount of insoluble gel fraction (Table 1). Nitrogen content is considered as one ofof thethe veryvery usefuluseful parametersparameters inin distinguishingdistinguishing gumsgums from different species (Anderson, 1976; Anderson,Anderson, 1977).1977). In fact,fact, JECFAJECFA (JECFA/FAO,(JECFAlFAO, 1990)1990) introduced thethe specification forfor nitrogen contentcontent (0.26-0.39% w/w)w/w) inin the defmitiondefinition of gumgum arabic toto ensure identity andand puritypurity ofof thethe gum. However,However, gumsgums fromfrom somesome closelyclosely relatedrelated species analysed inin thistins work havehave beenbeen foundfound toto differdiffer significantlysignificantly withwith respectrespect toto thistllls parameter. Thus, the nitrogen contents ofof the gum specimens from A. malacocephala found in thistllls workwork areare siglificantlysignificantly higherhigher than than those those of of A. A. drepanolobiumdrepanolobium g,um gum (ca.0.30%)(ca.0.30%) (Table(Table 1).1). Likewise, the specific opticaloptical rotationsrotations andand acidacid equivalentequivalent weightsweights (AEW's)(AEW's) ofof the the gums gums fromfrom A. A. malacocephala andand A. A. drepanolobiumdrepanolobium are remarkably different. However, the methoxyl contents and the total ash levels ofofthe the gum samples from these two species areare fairlyfairly similar.sinrilar.

In general,general, thethe propertiesproperties ofof gums gums fromfrom A. A. malacocep malacocephala hala andand A.A. drepanolobiumdrepanolobium areare substantially different.different. Therefore,Therefore, althoughalthough A.A. malacocepmalacocephala hala andand A. drepanolobiumdrepanolobium are regarded as being closelyclosely relatedrelated botanically, the properties of their gum exudatesexudates confirm that they areare indeedindeed twotwo distinctdistinct species.species. Accordingly,Accordingly, in order toto provideprovide anan unambiguousunambiguous identityidentity for the two species,species, itit isis recommendedrecommended that somesome propertiesproperties of theirtheir gumgum exudatesexudates shouldshould bebe included in their taxonomic description.

Table 11 shows that thethe AEW'sAEW's andand totaltotal ash levelslevels ofof the the gumsgums fromfrom A.A. senegal var.var. leiorhaleiorhachis chis and A. senegalsenegal var. senegal are similar.similar. However, apart from these twotwo parameters,parameters, thethe overalloverall impression isis that these two speciesspecies produce gums with differentdifferent properties. For example,example, there is a notable difference in terms of solubility. The gum from A. senegalsenegal var leiorhachis isis farfar lessless soluble thanthan thatthat from A. senegalsenegal varvar senegal.senegal. AcaciaAcacia gums withwith a high proportion ofof insoluble gel areare known to bebe moremore viscousviscous thanthan thosethose withwith aa lowlow proportionproportion ofof insoluble insoluble gel(Phillipsgel(phillips et a!.,al., 1980). ThereforeTherefore asas expected,expected, thethe viscosity of A. senegalsenegal varvar leiorhachisleiorhachis gum is significantlysiglificantly higher than that ofof A.A. senegalsenegal varvar senegalsenegal atat thethe samesame concentration concentration TableTable 1).1). AA similarsinrilar observation has been reported forfor gumgum ghatii(Jefferiesghatii(Jefferies et et al., al., 1977).1977). In thistllls work A. senegalsenegal var senegal has been foundfound toto havehave aa moremore negativenegative opticaloptical rationration (1,(1, -25:II,-25:II, -26).-26). SinceSince A. senegal var senegal isis thethe mostmost prevalentprevalent variationvariation ofof Sudanese Sudanese A.A. senegalsenegal (Anderson(Anderson etet a/.,1983),al.,1983), thethe value of -35-35 forfor opticaloptical rotationrotation assignedassigned to SudaneseSudanese gumgum arabicarabic (Anderson(Anderson et a/.,1983)aI.,1983) isis presumably the of A. A. senegal varvar senegalsenegal gum.gum. TheThe differencesdifferences betweenbetween valuesvalues obtainedobtained inin thistllls work and the literature value (-30) (Anderson et al., 1983) rightmight be due to variation between the exuding A. senegal trees as reportedreported by Devaluate et al.al. 1993,1993, whowho recordedrecorded a widerwider range of optical rotation with aa minimumnrinimum of -25 -25 and aa maximum ofof -62. -62. TheThe opticaloptical rotationrotation valuesvalues ofof A. A. senegal var. leiorhanchis gumgum areare comparablecomparable toto thosethose reportedreported forfor SudaneseSudanese A. senegal gum (- 30) (Anderson et a/.,1983)aI.,1983) but significantlysignificantly lower than that of A. senegal var kerensis gum (-35) (Chikamai and Banks, 1993).1993). 99 Table 1: Physicochemical properties of gum exudates from some AcaciaAcacia speciesspecies ofof the the series series Vulgares Vulgares andand GummiferaeGummiferae Parameter drepa mala sese sele sefi seya jaa a I II IJ II I II Ib II I II I II Moisture % w/w 10.7 14.4 13.2 13.4 15.0 14.1 13.8 15.3 15.015.0 14.0 14.2 13.4 Ash %w/w% w/w 2.0 1.6 3.0 2.3 4.5 3.8 4.2 5.2 3.0 3.5 3.2 2.6 Acid insoluble matter % w/w 0.20 0.35 1.88 0.73 0.88 0.60 0.30 0.21 0.30 0.78 0.65 0.60 CWIG%w/wCWIG % w/w 0.30 0.43 5.88 3.43 1.57l.57 l.831.83 8.90 15.67 0.20 0.70 2.70 0.35 HWIG%HWIG % W/W 0.30 0.40 3.92 2.96 0.96 l.231.23 2.10 4.03 0.10 1.06 1.70 0.30 Ca (g/100g)c(g/100gt 0.66 0.53 0.68 0.59 0.72 0.43 0.75 0.74 1.01 1.06 1.78 0.77 Mg (g/100gt(g/100g)' 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.29 0.02 0.17 0.15 0.15 0.09 0.08 0.08 Na (g/100g)'(g/100gt 0.08 0.03 0.13 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.0l0.01 0.02 0.01 0.04 K (g/100g)c(g/100g)C 0.19 0.10 0.28 0.11 0.98 0.09 1.09 1.35l.35 0.20 0.20 0.18 0.17 Methoxyl %% w/w 0.81 1.02 1.12 1.10 0.17 0.26 0.30 0.27 l.221.22 l.291.29 1.21 1.43l.43 Nitrogen %% w/w 0.30 0.32 1.67 0.84 0.33 0.28 0.44 0.48 0.13 0.07 0.21 0.18 Hence, Protein (N x 6.25) 1.88 1.94l.94 10.44 5.25 2.06 l.751.75 2.75 3.00 0.81 0.44 l.311.31 1.12

[a]D[ G]D InIn HH20,20, deg +101 +104 +70 +86 -25 -26 -50 -55 +54 +53 +54 +56 Viscosity (centipose)(centipose) l 100 g1-1gr 4.0 2.9 4.73 5.33 4.61 2.90 33.69 79.22 8.98 6.00 7.32 5.70 150 grgril 9.5 5.8 11.06 11.04 9.44 6.14 64.18 181.8 18.83 13.87 19.25 15.39 Optical density 0.18 0.06 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.19 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.12 0.27 Tannin %w/w 0.33 0.40 0.42 0.48 0.28 0.52 0.37 0.44 0.31 0.59 0.29 0.51 d Acid Equivalent WeightWeight 2263d2263 2607 1615 1940 1575 1922 1583d 1703 1424d 1423 1284 1812

KEY: drepa= A.A. drepanolobium,drepanolobium, malamala == A.A. malacocephala, sesesese = = A. A. senegalsenegal var var senegal,senegal, selesele == A. A. senegal varvar leiorhachis,leiorhachis,

seya = A. seyalseyal varvar seyal,seyal, sefisefi = A. seyalseyal varfistula.var fistula. a SomeSOMe of of the the data data are are from from ref.(Mhinzi ref.(Mhinzi andand Mosha,Mosha, 1995). b DataData fromfrom ref. (Mhinzi andand Mrosso, 1995) except Na. K and AEW. 'CorrectedCCorrected for for moisture moisture content.content. dDatadData fromfrom ref.ref. (Mhinzi(Mhinzi and Mosha, 1993). 100 The cationic compositions (Table 1) of A. senegal var senegalsenegal andand A.A. senegalsenegal var var leiorha leiorhachis chis gums are quite similar; MetalMetal ionion content inin plantplant materialmaterial isis thoughtthought toto be a functionfunction of the composition of the soil on which the plants grow (Anderson and Wieping,Wieping, 1990;1990; AndersonAnderson andand Morrison, 1989;1989; AndersonAnderson andand Weiping,Weiping, 1990).1990). Thus, their levels are not veryvery usefuluseful asas chemotaxonomic markersmarkers in identifyingidentifYing different Acacia species.species. The nitrogennitrogen contentscontents andand specific rotation values of A. senegal varvar leiorhachisleiorhachis gumgum found found in in th_is this workwork are similar to those found inA.in A. senegalsenegal var kerensis gum (Chikamai and Banks, 1993) reflecting a close relationshiprelationship between the two varieties of A. senegal.senegal. Acacia senegal varvar senegal gumgum hashas beenbeen foundfound inin this work to have a slightly lowerlower levellevel ofof nitrogen. nitrogen.

The existence of the Acacia senegalsenegal complexcomplex isis wellwell Icnown.known. TheThe notablenotable differences differences observedobserved in this study between the properties of the gums from A. senegalsenegal var.var. senegalsenegal and A. senegalsenegal var leiorhachis amplifies the needneed toto incorporateincorporate selectedselected analyticalanalytical datadata as as chemotaxonomic chemotaxonomic evidence in disting-uishingdistinguishing somesome closely relatedrelated AcaciaAcacia species.

Another pair of giungum specimens we havehave comparedcompared chemotaxonomically, in thisthis work,work, areare thosethose from A. seyalseyal var.var. fistulafistula and A. seyalseyal varvar seyal.seyal. TheThe formerfonner cancan readilyreadily bebe distinguished distinguished fromfrom the latter as it possesses a greenish white smooth bark,bark, withwith 'anti-galls'.'anti-galls'. Acacia seyalseyal var seyal, on the other hand has aa reddishreddish bark,bark, withoutwithout 'anti-galls'. Table 1 shows that thesethese twotwo varietiesvarieties produce gums whichwhich havehave similarsimilar properties.properties. Thus, the valuesvalues ofof specific specific opticaloptical rotation, rotation, methoxyl content, total ash and viscosities of the gums from these variants of A. seyal are quite similar. ItIt is is concluded,concluded, therefore,therefore, thatthat inin generalgeneral thethe properties ofof A. seyal var seyal and A. seyalseyal var fistulafistula gums are similar and it isis justifiable to retain these two species as variations of the same species.

Experimental Origin of samples - The gum samples were collected by the authorsauthors fromfrom centralcentral TanzaniaTanzania inin thethe following locations:

1. A. drepanolobium I 78 km fromfrom DodomaDodoma on thethe DodomaDodoma toto SingidaSingida road. II 12 kmkm north west of Dodoma Town. 2. A. malacocephalainalacocephala I 15.4 km West of Singida town alongalong thethe Singida-Singida­ Mlandara road. II As above 3. A. senegal var. senegal I 63 km from Dodoma on the Dodoma toto Morogoro road II As aboveabove 4. A. senegal var leiorhachis I 37 kmkm fromfrom MorogoroMorogoro onon thethe MorogoroMorogoro toto Dodoma road.road. II As above 5. A. seyal var seyal I 162162 kmIan fromfrom MorogoroMorogoro on thethe MorogoroMorogoro toto DodomaroadDodoma road IIII As above 6. A. seyalseyal var fistulafistula I 91 km West ofofSingida. Singida. Mlandara village.village. II 22 kmkm fromfrom DodomaDodoma onon thethe DodomaDodoma toto KwamtoroK wamtoro road.road.

Botanical vouchers for each ofof the the speciesspecies were also collected and deposited inin thethe Herbarium,Herbarium, Botany Department, University of Dar-es-salaam.Dar-es-salaam. ConfinnationConfirmation ofof the speciesspecies waswas obtainedobtained from the Royal Botanic GardensGardens (Kew,(Kew, UK).UK). 101 The detaileddetailed experimentalexperimental methods forfor all thethe parameters have beenbeen describeddescribed previouslypreviously (Mhinzi(J'v1hinzi and Mrosso, 1995).1995).

AclrnowledgementsAclmowledgements - We thank NORAD and SIDA for financialfinancial support and Mr. Frank Mbago, of the herbarium, Botany Department,Department, University of Dar es Salaam for the identificationidentification of the Acacia species. References Anderson, D.M.W. 19761976 inin IranexIranex S.A.S.A. (Editor),(Editor), GumsG1.UTIS andand HydrosolubleHydrosoluble NaturalNatural Vegetable Colloids, Colloids, 4d1 401 Int. Symp., Paris, p. 105.105.

Anderson, D.M.W.; KewKew Bulletin, 32(3), 529529 (1977).(1977).

Anderson, D.M.W. and Brenan, J.P.M. (1975) BoissieraBoissiera 24, 307

Anderson, D.M.W. andand Morrison, S.A.S.A. (1989). Food Hydrocoll., 3(1),3(1),57. 57.

Anderson, D.M.W., Morrison, N.A., WeipingWeiping,, W. (1983) . Food addit. Contam., 7,303.

Anderson, D.M.W. and StreetStreet C.A. (1983). Talanta 30 (11),887.

Anderson, D.M.W. and Weiping, W. (1990)(1990) FoodFood HydrocolL, Hydrocoll., 3(6),3(6),475. 475.

Anderson, D.M.W. andand Weiping,Weiping, W.W. (1990).(1990). Biochern.Biochem. Sys. andand EcoL Eco!. 18(6),18(6),413. 413.

Benthan1,Bentham, G. (1875) Trans.Trans. Linn.Linn. Soc.Soc. 30,30,335. 335.

Brenan, J.P.M. (1983) Manual on Taxonomy of AcaciaAcacia species,species, FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Brenan, J.P.M. (1959). [Hubbard, e.L.C.L. and Redhead, M. (Editors)];(Editors)]; Flora of TropicalTropical EastEast AfricaAfiica - Legtuninosae:Leguninosae: sub-familysub-family Mimosoideae,Mimosoideae, Crown Agents for OverseasOverseas GovernmentGovernment and AdministrationAdministration (London).

Burtt, B.D. (1942). Joum.Jount Ecol.Ecol. 30,30, 96.96.

Chikamai, B.N. and Banks, W.B.,W.B., 1993.1993. Food Hydrocoll.,Hydrocoll., 7(6),7(6),521. 521.

Duvallet, S., Fenyo, J. C.e. and vendevelde, M.e.M.C. (1993) Food Hydrocoll., 7(4), 319

Glicksman, M. and Sand,Sand, R.E.RE. (1973)(1973) inin Whistler,Whistler, R.R L.L. (Editor);(Editor); IndustrialIndustrial Gums:G1.UTIs: PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides andand theirtheir Derivatives. 2nd2nd Ed.,Ed., AcademicAcademic Press, New York, p. 197.197. JECFA/FAOJECFAlFAO (1990)(1990) FoodFood and and Nutrition Nutrition PaperPaperNo. No. 49,49, Rome.Rome.

Jefferies, M., Pass, G., Phillips, G.O. (1977)(1977)J. J. Sci.Sci. Fd Agric.,Agric., 28,28, 173.173.

Phillips, G.O.,G.O., Pass,Pass, G.,G., Jefferies, M.M. and Morley,Morley, RG.R.G. (1980)(1980) inin Neukom,Neulcom, H. H. and Pilnik,Pilnik, W.W. (Eds).(Eds). Gelling and fuickeningthickening Agents inin Foods,Foods, Foster Publishing Co.Co. Ltd., Switzerland,Switzerland, p. 135.135.

Mhinzi, G.S. and Mrosso, H.D.J.H.DJ. (1995).(1995). Food Chemistry,Chemistry, 54(3),54(3),261. 261.

Mhinzi, G.S. and Mosha D.M.S. (1995). Discovery andand Innovation.Innovation. ManuscriptManuscript inin press.press.

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FAO'S GLOBALGLOBAL PROGRAMME PROG MME ON ON THE THE DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT OFOF NON-NON­ WOODIID FORESTFOREST PRODUCTS (NWFP'S)

PAULPALTL VANTOMME VANTOMME Forestry Officer (Non-Wood Forest Products) Forestry Department Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)(FAO) Rome, Italy

FAO and how it works Established in 1945, the Food and AgricultureAgriculture OrganisationOrganisation of the UnitedUnited NationsNations (FAO),(FAO), isis thethe UN largest technical agency and is amongamong thethe world'sworld's leadingleading internationalinternational agriculture,agriculture, forestryforestry and fisheryfishery technicaltechnical developmentdevelopment organisations.organisations. Today FAO hashas 174174 membermember governmentsgovernments (including Kenya),Kenya), aa comprehensive regionalregional representationrepresentation structurestructure (e.g.(e.g. Ghana,Ghana, AccraAccra isis thethe Regional Office for Africa; and in Zimbabwe, Harare is the sub-regional office for Southern and East Africa), a physical presence in more than 100 countries, and at its headquarters in Rome, a cadre of specialists in agriculture, fisheries,fisheries, forestryforestry andand relatedrelated disciplines.disciplines. The factfact thatthat FAOF AO houses under the sarnesame roof, all the majormajor disciplinesdisciplines relatedrelated toto overalloverall agricultureagriculture developmentdevelopment puts it in a unique position with respect to thethe pursuit ofof holistic agriculturalagricultural andand agro-industrialagro-industrial development programmes,progammes, including those related to the sustainablesustainable production of Non Wood Forest Products (NWFP's) suchsuch asas thosethose discusseddiscussed atat thisthis meeting.meeting.

The primary roles ofofF FAOAO are to serve as:as:

1) a neutralneutral forumforum for for policy policy dialogue dialogue (including (including international international governmental governmental meetingsmeetings for example on agricultural/NWFP'SagriculturallNWFP'S trade, onon naturalnatural resourceresource managementmanagement andand conservation conservation issues),

2) a source ofof information information and and knowledge knowledge (technical (technical information information on on products, products, methodologies methodologies and statistical data on productionproduction and trade on agriculture,agiculture, forestryforestry andand fisheryfishery products),products),

3) a providerprovider ofof technical technical assistance assistance (field (field projects projects toto develop/introduce develop/introduce newnew productsproducts or technologies, to assist governments inin institutionalinstitutional capacitycapacity building, etc.).etc.).

Each of these roles offers ample opportunity toto advance thethe cause of NWFP'S throughthrough aa moremore sustainable management and utilisation ofof all all forestforest resources.

How FAO dealsdeals withwith NWFP'sNWFP's To understand whatwhat FFAO AO isis doingdoing onon thesethese products,products, wewe must must first first recogniserecogiise thatthat therethere existexist twotwo main categories in producing them:

l)1) Products whichwhich are fully domesticated and which can be cultivated by farmersfarmers asas agriculturalagricultural cash crops, such as some spices, medicinal plants, aromatic oilsoils (geranium oil), mushrooms.mushrooms.

This group of plants is covered by several units of FAO'sF AO's Agriculture Department, such as thethe 'Industrial CropsCrops Group', which deals with the industrial production of plantation crops for major edible oils, medicinal andand aromaticsaromatics andand foodfood additives.additives. The AgicultureAgriculture DepartmentDepartment hashas accumulated over the years a wealth of information on the production andand developmentdevelopment ofof these these 103 p~~tsplants and their products, and which can be accessed through FAO'sF AO's publicationspUblications catalogue or VIavia intermentmtennent at:at: <>.AICENTlFaoInfo/Agricult»~

2) The second group contains products which are gathered from (wild) sources in forests or other related land uses. ThisThis largelarge group of plant and animal products is part of what we callcall "Non-"Non­ Wood Forest Products" (NWFP'S) atat FAOFAO (also(also calledcalled minorminor forest products, non-timber forestforest products and special forest products); and fall underunder thethe responsibility ofof FAO's Forestry Department.

For these products, which are used as human food or as food additives,additives, the the Food Food andand NutritionNutrition Division (of FAO'sF AO's EconomicEconomic andand SocialSocial Department)Department) isis providingproviding technical informationinfonnation andand assistance regarding food quality control.controL Further informationinfonnation on the nutritional use of given NWFP'S isis availableavailable on their website at:at: http://www.fao.orgIWAICENTIFAOINFOIECONOMICIESNINURI.HTMhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/ECONOMIC/ESN/NURI.HTM

This paper focuses on thethe rolerole ofofFAO's FAO's ForestryForestry DepartmentDepartment as it's activities inin thisthis fieldfield may be lesser lcnown.known.

The FAO ForestryForestry Programme Programme is isunique unique among among international international organisations. organisations. FAO'sFAO's Forestry Forestry Department isis in fact among the largest and oldestoldest international forestry units of its kind with a broad and comprehensivecomprehensive chartercharter thatthat addressesaddresses all all forestsforests andand all forestforest productsproducts in a comprehensive and and interdisciplinaryinterdisciplinary way; way; this this is is donedone inin a mannermanner whichwhich recognisesrecognises that environmental protection and economic developmentdevelopment areare mutuallymutually dependent.dependent.

FFAO AO is aa majormajor sourcesource ofof information infonnation onon thethe world'sworld's forestforest resourcesresources andand forestforest products. products. Currently, FFAO AO undertakes a global forestforest assessment every 1010 years,years, highlightinghighlighting forestforest cover,cover, deforestation andand forestforest degradation. WeWe workwork collaboratively withwith manymany countriescountries onon this.this. InIn addition, wewe makemake use of satellite imagery and other means of obtainingobtaining accurate data. We areare now developing a detailed planplan forfor assessmentassessment forfor thethe yearyear 2000.2000.

FAOF AO also regularly provides informationinfonnation on production of wood products, trade and capacitycapacity statistics; regionalregional and world forestry outlook studies; and forest sectorsector studies.studies. FAOF AO willwill alsoalso attempt toto broaden the range of statisticalstatistical data toto includeinclude non-woodnon-wood forest products and to undertake long-termlong-tenn strategic outlook for the forestforest sectorsector onon globalglobal andand regionalregional scales,scales, takingtaking intointo account impacts on forestsforests fromfrom otherother sectors,sectors, suchsuch asas population,population, ag,riculture, agriculture, energyenergy andand millingmIlling.

FAOF AO is also a major sourcesource ofof information infonnation onon forestforest science,science, technologytechnology andand practice.practice. ItIt developsdevelops and facilitatesfacilitates thethe exchangeexchange of technicaltechnical information,infonnation, oftenoften in multiplemultiple languages, on thethe environmental, economic economic and and socialsocial dimensions ofof forestry including, the protectionprotection and management of forests and other natural resources; rehabilitation ofof degradeddegaded oror marginal marginal lands;lands; tree planting,planting, especially in aa land-useland-use context;context; enhancing the value,value, efficiency and environmental soundness of harvesting, utilisation and marketing of wood andand non-woodnon-wood forestforest products; and policy analysis,analysis, plarmingplanning and institution strengthening.

A good example of thethe informationinfonnation providedprovided onon technolog,ytechnology is the work inin communitycommunity forestry,forestry, which is one ofFAOof FAO priority activities. For a number of years, FAO has been pioneering work on the socialsocial dimensiondimension ofof sustainablesustainable forestforest management,management, with aa focusfocus onon self-reliance self-reliance andand participatory approachesapproaches involvinginvolving local communities.communities. Through thisthis communitycommunity forestryforestry initiative, FFAO AO stresses decentraliseddecentralised planning, communal managementmanagement ofof forests andand treetree 104 resources, conflictconflict resolutionresolution amongamong user user groups,groups, equityequity issues, issues, the the rolerole ofof gender, and the contribution of forests, trees, and NWFP's to foodfood securitysecurity andand nutritional well-being.well-being.

FFAO's AO's Forestry Department hashas publishedpublished manymany pUblicationspublications on on thethe issues dealing with sustainable forestry development. However,However, itsits flagshipflagship publicationpublication isis thethe "State"State ofof the the World'sWorld's Forests", a report published everyevery tvvotwo years,years, whichwhich isis providing a comprehensive overview of the status of the world's forests and its products (including NWFP'S).NWFP'S). More detaileddetailed information regarding FFAO's AO's activities and publications can be obtained at itsits webweb site: htp:www.fao.org/WAICENTIFAOINFOIFORESTRY/forestry.htm.htp :www. fao org/WAICENT/FAOINF 0/F ORESTRY/forestry.htm.

FAO's Forestry DepartmentDepartment programmeprogramme and and publications publications onon NWFP'sNWFP's Three main activities make up our programme on NWFP'S:

i) information gathering, ii) partnerships iii) technical assistance.

i) Information gathering

Successful implementation of of programmes on NWFP'SNWFP'S requirerequire comprehensive,comprehensive, qualityquality information onon the plants themselves, thethe forestforest ecosystemsecosystems in in whichwhich theythey grow,gow, onon theirtheir harvesting and processing practices and on thethe marketingmarketing andand tradetrade aspectsaspects ofof these these products.products. The collection,collection, analysis,analysis, interpretationinterpretation and disseminationdissemination of suchsuch informationinformation world-wideworld-wide hashas been a priority ofofF FAOAO from the very beginning.

Essentially, we provide threethree typestypes ofof information, information, namely;namely; • descriptive information onon givengiven NVVFP'S NWFp's • information on technologies,technologies, methodologiesmethodologies andand bestbest practices forfor theirtheir production,production, harvesting, processing andand marketing • production andand tradetrade statistics.statistics.

In our NWFP'S workwork programme, programme, wewe havehave twotwo typestypes ofof publications: publications:

a) the "Non Wood ForestForest Products Products Series": Series": which which are are in-depth in-depth technical technical documentsdocuments onon specific NWFP'S oror issues.issues. ExamplesExamples ofof already already publishedpublished issuesissues withwith particular particular relevance toto thisthis Conference,Conference, are:are:

• "Flavours and fragrances":fragrances": dealingdealing withwith cinnamomum,cinnamomum, sassafras,sassafras, rosewood,rosewood, eucalyptus, sandalwood, litsealitsea cubeba,cubeba, frankincense,frankincense, cedarwood,cedarwood, myrrh andand opopanax oils (including product andand resourcesresources description,description, uses,uses, worldworld supply,supply, demand trends, harvesting, processing)processing) • "Gum naval stores: turpentine and rosin fromfrom Pine resin"resin" • "Gums, resins and latexes of plant origin" (gum arabic,arabic, carob,carob, tara,tara, copal,copal, damar,damar, benzoin, copaiba,copaiba, chicle,chicle, balata). • "Natural colourants and dyestuffs" (annatto,(annatto, henna, lac,lac, cochineal)cochineal) •o "Nutmeg and derivates"; "Edible nuts" • "Marketing and information systems for NWFP'S" • "Domestication andand commercialisation ofof NWFP'S inin agroforestryagroforestry systems";systems"; "NWFP'S forfor ruralrural income"income" 105 "Non Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts fromfrom TropicalTropical Palms",Palms", (in preparation is an issue on Medicinal Plants) "International tradetrade inin NWFP'S: anan overview";overview"; "Trade"Trade restrictions affectingaffecting international trade in NWFP'S"; Copies ofof some some of these these publicationspublications are put onon displaydisplay for youryour information. b) the "Non WoodWood News"News" bulletin:bulletin: whichwhich isis a newsletternewsletter published yearlyyearly byby FAOFAO of approximately 6060 to 8080 pagespages compilingcompiling allall relevantrelevant informationinformation on ongoingoncroing activitiesactivities dealing with NWFP'S world-wide,world-wide, andand forfor whichwhich texttext contributionscontributions are ~ademade by readers themselves. The bulletin links some 14001400 people,people, institutionsinstitutions and agencies which areare involved in one way or other with thethe promotionpromotion andand developmentdevelopment ofNWFP'S.ofNWFP'S.

The newsletter is available on internetintemet (from issue No.No.3 3 onwards) at:at: http:/www.fao.org/waicentlfaoinfo/forestry/nwnews/default.htrnhttp:/www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/forestry/nwnews/defaulthtm ii) Partnerships

Although FAOF AO is anan intergovernmentalintergovernmental organisation,organisation, andand asas suchsuch itsits mainmain lineline ofof communication communication is with our member governments, it also needs toto receive a welcome inputinput from a broad range ofof interest groups, including thethe private sector, universities, forest industries and non-governmental organisations representing environmental and developmental interests. There is need,need, therefore,therefore, to ensureensure collaborationcollaboration andand toto avoidavoid duplicationduplication ofof effort effort soso thatthat slcills skills andand resourcesresources areare mostmost efficiently utilised.

To increaseincrease awarenessawareness on NWFP'SNWFP'S andand strengthenstrengthen nationalnational collaborationcollaboration atat thethe regionalregional level,level, FAO's WoodWood andand Non-WoodNon-Wood ProductsProducts UtilisationUtilisation Branch (FOPW)(FOPW) hashas organisedorganised threethree regionalregional expert consultations. TheThe firstfirst waswas forfor AsiaAsia andand thethe PacificPacific RegionRegion inin Bangkok,Bangkok, Thailand,Thailand, in 1991, the second was for Anglophone African Countries, held inin Arusha,Arusha, Tanzania, in 1993; and the third was forfor Latin America andand thethe Caribbean,Caribbean, and was organisedorganised inin Santiago,Santiago, Chile,Chile, 1994.1994.

Two globalglobal expert consultations havehave also beenbeen organised.organised. AA 'Social,'Social, EconomicEconomic andand CulturalCultural Dimensions ofNWFP'S',of NWFP'S', waswas organisedorganised inin Bangkok,Bangkok, Thailand, in 1994;1994; and anan "Inter-regional"Inter-regional Expert ConsultationConsultation on NWFP'S',NWFP'S', waswas organisedorganised inin Yogyalcarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia, inin 1995.1995. During 1997, a workshop was organised by FOPW on: 'Medicinal, Culinary and Aromatic Plants in the Near East', inin Cairo, Egypt, fromfrom 1919 to 2121 May.

For 1998,1998, anan 'Expert'Expert Consultation onon NWFP'SNWFP'S inin the Congo Basin', is planned to be held in Cameroon. In addition, preparations havehave started for expert consultationsconsultations on 'NWFP'S'NWFP'S fromfrom Boreal Forests' and on 'NWFP'S fromfrom thethe NorthNorth American Region.

Especially related to FAOsF AOs networkingnetworking activity on NWFP'S, isis thethe identification,identification, throughthrough aa questionnaire of all interestedinterested partners involved in one way oror thethe otherother withwith the the development development and promotion ofof NWFP'S. TheThe resultsresults ofof processing processing thisthis questionnairequestionnaire will lead to the development ofof aa global Directory onon "Who isis Who" in thethe field ofof NWFP'SNWFP'S (including(including government, private sector, universities, funding agencies, etc.) LaterLater onon this DirectOlYDirectory will also serve as a base to furtherfurther developdevelop FAO's statisticalstatistical knowledgeknowledge on globalglobal productionproduction and trade figures on NWFP'S. 106 iii) TechnicalTechnical assistance

To help put intointo practicepractice policiespolicies andand technologiestechnologies on NWFP'SNWFP'S management,management, productionproduction andand commerce, FFAO AO offers technical assistance toto all member countries. The objectiveobjective ofof suchsuch assistance isis to strengthen national capacities toto effectivelyeffectively planplan andand carry out the fullfull projectproject cycle of improving or introducing new productsproducts andand oror techniquestechniques for NWFP'SNWFP'S developmentdevelopment inin a sustainable manner.marmer TechnicalTechnical project-levelproject-level assistance covers most dimensions of sustainablesustainable NWFP'S development,development, butbut withwith emphasisemphasis onon resourceresource protectionprotection andand management,management, informationinformation gathering and processing, improvedimproved people's participation through communitycommunity forestry,forestry, andand institutional strengthening.

At the project level, FAOF AO is currently active in some 250 forestry technical assistance projects in 90 countries,countries, inin whichwhich forfor manymany ofof them them NWFP'SNWFP'S activitiesactivities areare anan essential essential component. component. Financial supportsupport forfor such projects comes from a varietyvariety ofof sourcessources includingincluding FAO,F AO, butbut especially fromfrom donor governments, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank andand others.others.

Conclusion Developing and implementingimplementing sustainablesustainable production and conservationconservation ofof NVTFP'S, NWFP'S, with rigidrigid product quality control, efficient marketing and equitable distributiondistribution ofof benefitsbenefits to all concerned along the full chain fromfrom thethe producerproducer till the consumer,consumer, is a keykey componentcomponent forfor aa successfulsuccessful programme to achieve more sustainablesustainable management of the forestforest resources,resources, includingincluding betterbetter conservation of their biodiversity.

FAO,F AO, by serving as aa neutralneutral policypolicy forum,forum, a sourcesource of technicaltechnical informationinformation and by assistingassisting countries inin field projects, cancan do a greatgreat dealdeal toto helphelp withwith thethe successfulsuccessful developmentdevelopment and sustainable production of ofNWFP'S. NWFP ' S. 107 THE ROLE OFOF IGADIGAD IN PROMOTING COLLABORATIONCOLLABO T ON NETWORKS AMONG MEMBER COUNTRIES

ROSEMARIE R.N. KIGAMEKlGAME (MRS) IGAD Desk Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources P.O. Box 3012630126 Nairobi, Kenya.

Background The IntergovernmentalIntergovernmental AuthorityAuthority on DevelopmentDevelopment (IGAD) sub-region has beenbeen in thethe limelight with problemsproblems associated associated withwith recurringrecurring droughts,droughts, internalinternal and sub-regionalsub-regional conflicts, foodfood insecurityinsecurity andand environmental environmental deg,radation. degradation. In anan attemptattempt toto addressaddress thesethese problems, while alsoalso convincedconvinced thatthat droughtdrought andand desertificationdesertification can be combatedcombated effectivelyeffectively through development, the Member States, (Djibouti,(Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia,Somalia, SudanSudan andand Uganda) established in 19861986 the IntergovernmentalIntergovernmental Authority on Drought andand DevelopmentDevelopment (IGADD). In 1993, the State of Eritrea became the seventh member ofofthe the Authority.

At the beginningbeginning of 1995,1995, itit becamebecame clearclear thatthat thethe originaloriginal IGADIGAD prioritiespriorities andand strategiesstrategies required revisiting toto enableenable thethe institutioninstitution toto respondrespond toto thethe emerging emerging sub-regional sub-regional challenges. TheThe membermember statesstates werewere convincedconvinced that the currentcurrent economic problems as well as poverty can bebe addressedaddressed effectivelyeffectively tluoughthrough closercloser economic economic co-operation,co-operation, infrastructureinfrastructure development, food security and environment protection and conflict prevention, managementmanagement and resolution. As a result, aa declarationdeclaration to revitaliserevitalise and expandexpand the mandatemandate ofof IGAD IGAD waswas signed in AprilApril 1995.1995. The DeclarationDeclaration took into accountaccount thethe developmentdevelopment issues.issues. The Declaration which was signed by the Heads of State paved the way forfor thethe birthbirth ofof a a dynamicdynamic institution onon development,development, ablyably revitalisedrevitalised inin content,content, orientationorientation and and stru.cture. structure.

IGIGAD I Priority Priority areas areas The IGAD strategystrategy isis basedbased onon itsits overalloverall policypolicy objectivesobjectives whichwhich isis sustainablesustainable economiceconomic development in which regional co-operation and integration is given specialspecial impetusimpetus andand highhigh priority toto promotepromote long-teimlong-term collectivecollective self-sustainingself-sustaining andand integratedintegrated social-culturalsocial-cultural andand economic development. However,However, duedue toto itsits limitedlimited capacity,capacity, IGADIGAD currentlycurrently concentratesconcentrates on its threethree prioritypriority areasareas whichwhich areare Food,Food, SecuritySecurity andand EnvironmentEnvironment Protection,Protection, ConflictConflict Prevention, Management and ResolutionResolution asas wellwell asas HumanitarianHumanitarian Affairs,Affairs, andand Infrastructure Infrastructure Development. IGAD'sIGAD's vision vision is is based based on on determinationdetermination ofof the the govenunentsgovernments ofof the the sub-regionsub-region to poolpool resourcesresources andand co-ordinateco-ordinate developmentdevelopment activities thus enablingenabling thethe sub-regionsub-region toto interact and compete in global economy on behalf of its inhabitants; this will eventuallyeventually leadlead toto regional integration.

Policy organsorgans and function of the AuthorityAuthority IGAD has three policy levels of operationsoperations namely the Heads of StateState andand GovernmentGovernment level,level, who are thethe ultimateultimate decisiondecision makersmakers forfor sanctioningsanctioning and ratifyingratifying newnew initiativesinitiatives and policies; the Council of Ministers, who administer the operation of the organisationorganisation atat policypolicy level and ensure that implementation at the national levels takes place; and the Committee of Ambassadors whowho workwork closely withwith the SecretariatSecretariat on matters already approvedapproved by the Council but may need further clarification to put them into concrete programmes and plan of actions. TheThe policypolicy organsorgans provideprovide directiondirection andand adviceadvice toto thethe executiveexecutive secretariatsecretariat as andand when required. 108

The Assembly of Heads of StateState and GovernmentGovernment meets once a year andand atat anyany timetime uponupon request of any member state ifif accepted byby aa twotwo thirdsthirds majority.majority. The Council of Ministers is composed ofof Ministers of Foreign Affairs and one otherother focalfocal MinisterMinister designateddesignated byby eacheach member state. TheThe CouncilCouncil maymay establishestablish adad hochoc sectoralsectoral ministerialministerial committeescommittees to dealdeal withwith issues inin theirtheir respectiverespective sectors.sectors. The Council meets twicetwice aa yearyear atat anyany timetime uponupon requestrequest ofof any member state. TheThe committees meetmeet as often as is necessary for thethe attainmentattainment ofof theirtheir objective. The CommitteeCommittee of AmbassadorsAmbassadors comprises member state AmbassadorAmbassador at thethe headquarters ofof thethe organisationorganisation (Djibouti)(Djibouti) andand in in major major partners' partners' capitals.capitals. TheThe committee of Ambassadors holds meetings as and whenwhen necessary.necessary. TheseThese committeescommittees inin donordonor capitalscapitals areare chaired byby thethe AmbassadorAmbassador representing the country chairing the Authority.

Project identification, formulation,formulation, implementationimplementation andand resourceresource mobilisation In selecting projects,projects, IGADIGAD ensures thatthat a project must fall under the IGAD priority areas; a project must be sub-regional in nature; there should be an expressedexpressed interest by atat leastleast twotwo member states; the proposedproposed projectproject isis manageable,manageable, hashas fundingfunding potentiality,potentiality, isis sustainablesustainable and economically feasible.

With the understanding that each project is a joint undertaking of two or moremore countries,countries, andand agreed uponupon byby all member states, the project preparation is a jointjoint responsibility of the IGADIGAD secretariat andand expertsexperts fromfrom membermember states.states. However,However, membermember statesstates themselvesthemselves areare directlydirectly in chargecharge ofof projectproject implementation.implementation. The IGAD secretariat is involvedinvolved inin planning,planning, fundfund mobilisation, monitoring and evaluation.evaluation. IGAD'sIGAD's stru.cturestructure includes aa sectionsection specificallyspecifically devoted to resource mobilisation. IGAD's resourceresource mobilisation has beenbeen further strengthened by by thethe establishment ofof the IGADIGAD Partners'Partners' ForumForum (IPF).(IPF). In thethe spiritspirit of partnership building,building, thethe financing agencies (donors)(donors) andand other relevantrelevant andand interestedinterested institutions andand NGOsNGOs can be involved in thethe appropriateappropriate states of thethe projectproject development.development. For example, in order to enhanceenhance dialoguedialogue andand transparency,transparency, IGAD partnerspartners inin developmentdevelopment can participate inin technicaltechnical committee meetings and contribute in discussing the programmes.

Depending onon the nature andand sizesize ofof the the project, project, twotwo institutional institutional approachesapproaches havehave beenbeen envisaged:envisaged:- -

•o Apart from the politicalpolitical focalfocal pointpoint fromfrom thethe MinistryMinistry ofof Foreign Foreign Affairs,Affairs, thethe technical focal points are designated by each member state for thethe co-operationco-operation of overall IGAD sub-regional programmes.programmes. However,However, member statesstates participating in the project identify technical ministries, departments or other institutions and set-set­ up aa nationalnational technicaltechnical committee.committee. The chairman (or representatives)representatives) in eacheach country constitute the sub-regional technical committee of the project, chaired by the projproject ect co-ordinator at the IGADI GAD secretariat.

o• As a mattermatter ofof expediency expediency andand wherewhere thethe secretariatsecretariat doesdoes notnot havehave sufficientsufficient capacity, IGAD may decided to appoint a Centre of Excellence, a Host Centre or a consortion to function as an executing agency for project implementation, with the secretariat still remainingremaining withwith facilitation,facilitation, co-ordination,co-ordination, planning,planning, monitoringmonitoring and evaluation functions. 109 Interaction ofof IGADIGI withwith thethe internationalinternational community,community, otherother sub-regional,sub-regional, regional andand international institutions, NGOs and the private sector The role ofof thethe InternationalInternational CommunityCommunity is toto activelyactively support,support, individuallyindividually or jointly, thethe efforts of IGADIGAD inin implementingimplementing its programmesprogrammes by, interinter alia,alia, providingproviding financialfinancial andand technical means, promoting and facilitating access toto appropriateappropriate technology, know-how andand knowledge and capacitycapacity building.building. In implementingimplementing its mandate,mandate, IGADIGAD findsfinds itself performing similar activitiesactivities inin somesome areasareas withwith otherother organisations. organisations. TowardsTowards thethe spiritspirit ofof co­co- operation and collaboration toto avoid duplicationduplication of effortsefforts andand enhanceenhance synergy,synergy, IGADIGAD endeavours toto participate in joint programming with these organisations and indicateindicate wherewhere joint actionaction isis possible.possible. These institutions supportsupport thethe effortsefforts ofof IGADIGAD in the exchangeexchange of information and experience, capacity building, research and networking in different relevant fields. SomeSome institutionsinstitutions sometimessometimes may be or areare contractedcontracted to do specific jobs for IGAD where the capacity within IGAD is limited.limited. In preparationpreparation ofof projects/programmes,projects/programmes, IGADIGAD identifies collaborating institutionsinstitutions andand agenciesagencies inin all the projects within the threethree prioritypriority areas.

The Authority places a lotlot ofof importance importance onon informationinformation generationgeneration andand exchangeexchange amongamong member states apart from other institutions/organisations asas pointedpointed outout above.above. InformationInformation is crucial for policy co-ordination, harmonisationharmonisation andand co-operation.co-operation. Due to this fact,fact, IGADIGAD makes use ofof differentdifferent institutionalinstitutional arrangementsarrangements developed andand approved by itsits policypolicy organs, in implementing itsits mandate.mandate. TheThe mentionmention butbut aa few:-few:-

• IGAD's political andand technicaltechnical focalfocal pointspoints areare strengthenedstrengthened withwith thethe necessarynecessary andand modemmodern communication andand transporttransport facilitiesfacilities inin order to facilitatefacilitate IGADIGAD relatedrelated activities in thethe membermember state.state. The focalfocal pointspoints organiseorganise IntersectoralIntersectoral and InterInter Ministerial Committees on relevant sub-regional issues,

Ell To enhance synergy, IGAD creates and maintains networks with most national, sub-sub­ regional, regional and internationalinternational organisations dealingdealing withwith issuesissues relevantrelevant toto IGAD's mandate,

• As aa sub-regionalsub-regional organisationorganisation dealing with developmentdevelopment aspects ofof thethe sub-region,sub-region, IGAD assists andand co-ordinatesco-ordinates the sub-regionalsub-regional commoncommon positions,positions, representsrepresents thethe sub-regions inin negotiations of major meetings and conferences and in otherother relevantrelevant fora of sub-regional interest,

• Undertake national sub-regionalsub-regional workshops and seminarsseminars toto enhanceenhance coherencecoherence between national andand sub-regionalsub-regional policies, strategiesstrategies sand actionsactions ofof sub-regional sub-regional interest,

Ell With respect to publicitypublicity andand publicpublic awareness,awareness, IGAD has anan InformationInformation andand Documentation SectionSection thatthat regularly produces information andand press releasesreleases onon IGAD. In addition,addition, IGADIGAD involvesinvolves thethe sub-regional sub-regional mediamedia professionals professionals in publicisingpUblicising itsits activities fromfrom timetime toto timetime andand intendsintends toto institutionaliseinstitutionalise a sub-sub­ regional media network,

Ell Apart from thethe regularregular meetingsmeetings ofof IGADIGAD policypolicy organs,organs, sectional ministerialministerial meetings are also being convened to enhance thethe co-operationco-operation between membermember states and harmonise policies set out in the amended Charter. 110 Besides, IGAD has severalseveral informationinformation projectsprojects thatthat areare atat differentdifferent stagesstages of of implementation. implementation. These projectsprojects seekseek toto promotepromote collaborationcollaboration amongamong suchsuch networksnetworks asas environmental environmental information systems/networks, food security and earlyearly warningwarning inforrnationinformation systems,systems, librarylibrary and documentation networks, as well as improvingimproving member states'states' communicationcommunication viavia thethe Internet.

Capacity building of membermember states'states' institutionsinstitutions isis anotheranother areaarea wherewhere IGADIGAD promotespromotes regional collaboration andand co-operation.co-operation. This This maymay bebe in formform ofof provision provision ofof equipment equipment and/orandlor regional training seminars, or on the job backstopping. Currently, IGAD has two EU­EU- funded projects aimed at training the government and Private Sector staff in graingrain marketing as well as artisanalartisanal fisheries.fisheries. TrainingTraining in water resourceresource management is anotheranother priority area for whichwhich IGADIGAD isis solicitingsoliciting donordonor support.support. However,However, toto improveimprove thethe internalinternal IGADIGAD operational capacity, the SecretariatSecretariat continuescontinues toto utiliseutilise in-housein-house asas wellwell asas externalexternal training.training.

Conclusion IGAD activities are demand-driven, and the Secretariat is ready to work with anyany individualsindividuals to address development challenges of thethe sub-region.sub-region. III111 ROLE OFOF NETWONETWORKS "S ININ ADVANCINGADVANCING NATURAL NATU'' L PRODUCTS RESEARCH IN AFRICA: THE EEXAMPLEMPLE OFOF NAPRECANAPRECA

ERMIAS DAGNE Department of Chemistry, AddisAddis AbabaAbaba University, P.O. Box 30270, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Ethiopia.

Introduction Most natural products chemistschemists inin Africa,Africa, as is indeed the case with scientistsscientists in otherother fields are often forced to work withwith inadequateinadequate facilities,facilities, bothboth inin termstenns ofof appropriate appropriate infrastructureinfrastructure and modernmodem equipment. The disadvantageddisadvantaged researcher is forced to sendsend samplessamples forfor analysisanalysis to laboratorieslaboratories in developeddeveloped countries.countries. It isis difficultdifficult toto conductconduct meaningfulmeaningful research under such circumstances as samplessamples often get lost in the mail,mail, decomposedecompose on long standing and the measurements sometimes sometimes do do notnot come to thethe fullfull satisfactionsatisfaction ofof the the researcher. researcher. TheseThese problems coupled with lack of fullfull accessaccess to the scientificscientific literature and inadequateinadequate financial resources pose as serious stumbling blocks to the development of natural products research in Africa.

The establishment of networks with the aim of initiating, developing and promoting research in natural products is oneone wayway ofof accelerating accelerating the development of this science both atat thethe locallocal andand regional levels.levels.

An exampleexample of a network,network, withwith whichwhich the authorauthor is familiar, familiar, is thethe NaturalNatural ProductsProducts Research Network for Eastern and CentralCentral Africa (NAPRECA), which was established in 19841984 to promote the science of natural products in our sub-region. NAPRECANAPRECA setset out toto achieveachieve itsits goalsgoals not by attempting toto build infrastructureinfrastructure ofof its ownown butbut insteadinstead toto work work towards towards strengthening strengthening capabilities through regionalregional andand internationalinternational cooperation.cooperation. It calledcalled forfor sharingsharing ofof existingexisting facilities and resources in the sub-region. ThisThis cooperationcooperation waswas acceleratedaccelerated throughthrough informationinfonnation dissemination and exchange ofof ideas,ideas, effectedeffected by meansmeans ofof publications, publications, workshops,workshops, symposia,symposia, exchange visits and fellowshipfellowship schemes.schemes.

This paper is an attemptattempt to brieflybriefly present the efforts of NAPRECA inin the past 13 years in promoting natural products research in the sub-region.

Historical Background andand BasicBasic ObjectivesObjectives The main aim ofof NAPRECANAPRECA asas articulatedarticulated in itsits constitutionconstitution isis toto "initiate,"initiate, developdevelop andand promote researchresearch inin the areaarea ofof natural natural productsproducts inin thethe EasternEastern andand CentralCentral AfricanAfrican sub-sub­ region." Dissemination of informationinfonnation pertainingpertaining toto naturalnatural products research is one ofof thethe major objectives of NAPRECA. TheThe importanceimportance ofof establishingestablishing linkslinks withwith counterpartscounterparts in other parts of the world waswas emphasisedemphasised right from the outset, asas oneone ofof thethe objectivesobjectives ofof the the network isis to "foster"foster andand maintainmaintain linkslinks withwith suchsuch scientistsscientists whowho areare activelyactively workingworking inin specific areas of natural productsproducts that areare pertinentpertinent to Africa."Africa." TheThe sectionssections thatthat followfollow willwill attempt toto show to whatwhat extentextent NAPRECANAPRECA has been successful in putting these aims to practice. The activities of the network fallfall under five main categories ofof: : It Dissemination ofof information infonnation • Exchange of Researchers Researchers SchemeScheme • Natural Products SumrnerSummer Schools and Workshops 112

It Natural Products Symposium It Post-graduate scholarship programme

Dissemination of InformationInformation Much emphasis was given within thethe frameworkframework of NAPRECANAPRECA to createcreate aa condusivecondusive atmosphere inin the region for the exchange and wider dissemination of research results in thethe natural products field.field. This has beenbeen mademade possiblepossible inin partpart throughthrough publicationpublication ofof thethe NAPRECA Newsletter.Newsletter. The firstfirst issueissue ofof the the NAPRECANAPRECA NewsletterNewsletter was publishedpublished in September 1984,1984, immediatelyimmediately afterafter foundingfounding NAPRECA NAPRECA in in July July the the same same year. year. One of the objectives ofof the Newsletter isis to disseminatedisseminate informationinfoimation onon progress mademade in the natural products fieldfield ofof relevance toto Africa.Africa. AboutAbout 10001000 copies of eacheach issueissue ofof thethe NewsletterNewsletter areare published twicetwice aa year and are distributed freefree ofof chargecharge toto readersreaders inin various partsparts of the world.

The suggestions and criticisms of NAPRECA readershipreadership greatlygreatly contributedcontributed toto sustainingsustaining thethe Newsletter forfor 12 yearsyears (Vol.(Vol. 11 toto 12). TheThe newnew NAPRECANAPRECA CoordinatingCoordinating Office in Dar es Salaam under the leadershipleadership of the the ExecutiveExecutive Secretary,Secretary, ProfProf M.H.H. M.H.H. NIcunyaNkunya isis successfullysuccessfully maintaining the momentum and has since published the subsequent issues ofof Vol. Vol. 1313 andand 14.14.

A popular column inin thethe Newsletter,Newsletter, "African"African Plants in the CurrentCurrent PhytochemicalPhytochemical Literature"Literature" lists reports on AfricanAfrican plantsplants thatthat appearedappeared inin thethe threethree leading leading natural natural products products journals journals namely: Phytochemistry,Phytochemistry, Journal Journal ofof NaturalNatural ProductsProducts and PlantaPlanta Medica.Medica. The reasonreason forfor selecting thesethese journalsjournals lieslies inin thethe fact that these are thethe leadingleading forafora forfor thethe publicationpublication ofof research results on the chemistry and biological activities of plants and their products originatingoriginating from many parts of thethe worldworld includingincluding Africa. The column serves to alertalert researchersresearchers to thethe appearance in the literature of articles in particular on African plants

Consequently, since a large bodybody of information has accumulated over the yearsyears we felt that it should be treated systematically in a searchablesearchable format. For this reason the citationscitations dealingdealing with African plants that appeared in these three journals in the periodperiod 1984-19941984-1994 werewere enteredentered in aa computercomputer usingusing thethe commerciallycommercially availableavailable BibliographicBibliographic RetrievalRetrieval ProgramProgram SystemSystem known as "Reference Manager" developeddeveloped byby ResearchResearch InformationInformation SystemsSystems Inc.,Inc., USA.USA. ThisThis helped us build aa usefuluseful databasedatabase ofof interest interest toto phytochemistsphytochemists andand otherother naturalnatural productsproducts researchers.

When the database had nearly 1000 entries, a NAPRECA Monograph Series No 8 (1995) was published showing the potentialpotential ofof the information itit offeredoffered then.then. AtAt the moment there are over 4000 records in the database and plans are under way to raise this to 60006000 byby JuneJune 19981998 with support from thethe NetworkNetwork ofof Analytical Analytical andand BiologicalBiological ServicesServices (NABASA).(NABASA). The database has enabled us to render limited literature search for scientists in the region, with the result sent by ordinary or electronic mail.

The Table below shows the current number of paperspapers availableavailable in thethe databasedatabase on AfricanAfrican plants indicating the country of origin ofofthe the plants. 113 Country Entries Country Entries Country Entries Algeria 13 Ethiopia 213 Rwanda 29 Angola 7 Ivory Coast 34 Senegal 33 Benin 4 Kenya 153 Sierra Leone 9 Botswana 3 Lesotho 1 Somalia 24 Burkina Faso 3 Libya 8 South Africa 339 Burundi 2 Madagascar 95 Sudan 22 Cameroon 128 Malawi 30 Tanzania 56 Central Afr. Rep. 5 Mali 44 Togo 2 Chad 4 Mauritius 14 Tunisia 9 Congo 6 Morocco 36 Uganda 5 Gabon 15 Mozambique 6 Zaire 61 Ghana 68 Namibia 14 Zambia 6 Guinea 35 Niger 6 Zimbabwe 37 Egypt 325 Nigeria 233 Miscellaneous 1700

NAPRECA's effort for disseminationdissemination ofof information hashas also included the publicationpublication of a series of monographs as shown below. NineNine monographsmonographs havehave beenbeen publishedpublished so far, thethe firstfirst one of which came out in 19921992 and the ninth on March 1996. A summary is presented below.

Monographs published by NAPRECA in 1992-961992-96

No.1:No. 1: Z.Z. AsfawAsfaw (ed) (ed) 1992.1992. NAPRECANAPRECA YearYear Book:Book: EightEight YearsYears ofof Existence Existence andand FourFour YearsYears ofIntensiveof Intensive Activities, 1616 pp. No.No.2: 2: S. Edwards and Z. Asfaw (eds) 1992.1992. The Status of Some Plant ResourcesResources in TropicalTropical Parts of Africa, 66 pp. No.3:No. 3: N. Saleh (E.(E. DagneDagne andand W.W. Mammo,Mammo, eds)eds) 1992.1992. Flavonoids in the AfricanAfrican Flora, 8585 pp. No.4:No. 4: M.H.H.M.H.H. NktuayaNkunya (B.M.(B.M. AbegazAbegaz andand W. Mammo,Mamrno, eds)eds) 1992. Progress in the SearchSearch forfor Antimalarials, 36 pp. No.5:No. 5: S.S. EdwardsEdwards andand Z.Z. AsfawAsfaw (eds)(eds) 1992.1992. PlantsPlants usedused inin TropicalTropical MedicineMedicine asas Practiced in Ethiopia and Uganda, 35 pp. No.6:No. 6: NAPRECANAPRECA 19931993 Report, 1414 pp. No.7:No. 7: ProceedingsProceedings ofof the the DAAD-NAPRECADAAD-NAPRECA Follow-upFollow-up Conference,Conference, AddisAddis Ababa,Ababa, Nov.Nov. 5-9,5-9, 1993,651993, 65 pp No.8:No. 8: AfricanAfrican PlantsPlants inin thethe CurrentCurrent PhytochemicalPhytochemical Literature: List of Papers in Three Leading PhytochemicalJournals,Phytochemical Journals, 1996,1996, 103103 pp. No.9:No. 9: RemigiusRemigius Bukenya-ZirabaBukenya-Ziraba (1996).(1996). TheThe Non-cultivated edible plants of Uganda. 60 pp.

Exchange ofof Researchers'Researchers' Scheme Under the Exchange Scheme, a selected fellow is granted the opportunity to spend a monthmonth oror two in aa laboratorylaboratory withinwithin thethe sub-region.sub-region. OneOne consequenceconsequence of exchangeexchange programs is thatthat itit encourages AfricanAfrican researchersresearchers toto cooperatecooperate with with eacheach other.other. ItIt alsoalso helpshelps to create an activeactive research environment. The outcome ofof thesethese efforts cancan bebe gaugedgauged byby thethe increasingincreasing numbernumber ofof pUblicationspublications thatthat are coming out with African researchers from different universities appearingappearing as authorsauthors of scientificscientific papers. The listlist belowbelow comprisescomprises some of thethe publicationspublications ofof ourour research group thatthat resulted from the above mentioned exchange programmes with the country of the exchange fellow indicated in parenthesis.

Dagne, E., Marnmo,Mammo, W., Bekele, A.,A., Odyek , O. (Uganda), andand Byaruhanga,Byaruhanga, M.A.M.A. FlavonoidsFlavonoids of Millettia dura. BullBull ChemChern SocSoc Ethiop, 5:5: (2).(2). 81-86(1991).81-86(1991). 114

Dagne,Dape, E.,E., Yenesew, Yenesew, A.,A., Asmellash, Asmellash, S., Demisseew,Demisseew, S.S. and Mavi,Mavi, S.S. (Zimbabawe),(Zimbabawe), Anthraquinones, pre-anthraquinones and isoeleutherol IIIin the roots of AloeAloe species, Phytochemistry 35,35,401-406 401-406 (1994).(1994).

Midiwo, J.O.J.O. , Owino, N.O. (Kenya)(Kenya) andand Dagne,Dagne, E.E. (1994).(1994). FlavonoidsFlavonoids ofof Polygonum Polygonurn senegalense part III:III: IsolationIsolation ofof dihydrochalcone dihydrochalcone glucosideglucoside andand quercetinquercetin glycosides.glycosides. Bull.Bull. Chern.Chem. Soc. Ethiop.,Ethiop., 8, 79-84.79-84.

Mirghani, M.E.S.M.E.S. (Sudan), I.H.LH. HusseinHussein, , E. Dag,neDagne and T. Bekele,Bekele, A comparativecomparative study of seedoils ofChrozophoraof Chrozophora brochiana andand GuizotiaGuizotia abyssinica,abyssinica, Bull.Bull. Chem.Chern. Soc. Ethiop.,Ethiop., 10, 161- 164 (1996).

Muchori, P. (Kenya), Manguro,Manguro, L.,L., Chikamai,Chikamai, B.,B., Dag,ne,Dagne, E. andand Bekele,Bekele, T.T. (1997).(1997). EssentialEssential oils ofoffive five Eucalyptus speciesspecies growngrown inin Kenya,.Kenya,. Sinet:Sinet: Ethiop.Ethiop. J.J. Sci.,Sci., 20,20, 139-143.139-143.

Nkengfack, A. E. (Cameroon), Kouam,Kouam, J.J. , Vouffo, W. T. Fomum, Z. T., Dagne,Dagne, E.,E., Sterner,Sterner, O.,0., Browne, L. M.andM.and Ji,Ji, G.G. FurtherFurther flavonoids flavonoids fromfrom ErythrinaErythrina species,species, Phytochemistry,Phytochemistry, 32,32, 1305-11 (1993).

Noamesi, B.K.B.K. (Ghana), Bogale,Bogale, M.M. andand Dagne,Dagne, E.E. Intestinal Intestinal smoothsmooth musclemuscle spasmolytic spasmolytic actions of the aqueous extract of thethe rootsroots ofof Taverniera Taverniera abyssinica,abyssinica, J.J Ethnopharmacol.Ethnopharmacol. 30,30, 107-113 (1990).

Van Wyk, B.E.,B.E., (South(South Africa), Africa), Yenesew, Yenesew, A. A. andand Dagne, Dagne, E. E. (1995)(1995) ChemotaxonomicChemotaxonomic surveysurvey of anthraquinonesanthraquinones andand pre-anthraquinonespre-anthraquinones in rootsroots ofof Aloe Aloe species.species. Biochem.Biochem. Syst.Syst. Ecol.Ecol. 23,23, 267-275.

Yankep, E.E. (Cameroon),(Cameroon), Fomum, Z.T. and Dagne,Dape, E.E. (1997).(1997). An 0-geranylatedO-geranylated isoflavone from Millettia grijfoniana,griffoniana, Phytochemistry, 46, 591-593.

Natural ProductsProducts SummerSummer Schools Schools and Workshops A regular activity ofofNAPRECA NAPRECA is thethe organisationorganisation of Natural Products Summer Schools. The main aim ofof thethe SummerSummer SchoolSchool isis toto enhanceenhance thethe researchresearch capabilitiescapabilities of participants,participants, in particular in chromatographic, spectroscopic, and bioassay techniques. SevenSeven suchsuch programmesprogrammes have been organised so far.far. ResearchResearch scientistsscientists andand technicaltechnical assistantsassistants working forfor variousvarious institutions inin the region have usedused thethe opportunityopportunity toto improveimprove uponupon theirtheir laboratorylaboratory skills.skills. Usually about 1212 participants take part in the Summer School, half of which come from outside the country where the programrneprogramme takes place. Likewise workshops are organised from time to time toto upgradeupgrade skillsskills ofof researchers. researchers. AmongAmong the successful workshops mention couldcould be made of:of:

@ IFS-NAPRECA WorkshopWorkshop onon NMRNMR techniquestechniques (Addis(Addis Ababa,Ababa, Dec.Dec. 1991)1991)

@ Workshop on bioassay methodsmethods (Antananarivo,(Antananarivo, Sept. 1993) • Workshop on herbarium techniquestechniques (Addis(Addis Ababa,Ababa, AprilApril BB JuneJune 1993)1993) • Training program on glass blowing techniquestechniques (Makerere,(Makerere, Jan.Jan. 1995)1995)

Natural Products SymposiaSymposia As the NAPRECA concept got off the groundground inin anan IUPAC SymposiumSymposium on Natural Products, it is onlyonly naturalnatural for for thethe networknetwork toto paypay special special attentionattention toto organisingorganising similarsimilar conferencesconferences inin 115 Africa. So far seven natural products symposia have been organised in five member countries.countries. The first symposium was indeed a modest one, convened immediatelyimmediately afterafter thethe first meeting ofof the NAPRECANAPRECA Coordinating BoardBoard inin March 1988. No book ofof abstracts abstracts came out ofof thatthat event, the secondsecond waswas heldheld quicklyquickly thereafterthereafter in in NairobiNairobi inin September September 1988.1988. SixteenSixteen participants came from outsideoutside KenyaKenya toto thisthis symposium.symposium.

The third symposiumsymposium waswas held in Arusha,Arusha, Tanzania, inin May 1989 followed by thethe fourth symposium in Addis Ababa, in December 1991. The increased number of papers required for the firstfirst time,time, thethe holdingholding ofof parallel parallel sessions.sessions. TheThe fifthfifth symposiumsymposium heldheld inin Antananarivo, Antananarivo, Madagascar, inin September 1993, enabled a large number of researchers fromfrom SouthSouth AfricaAfrica toto participate inin a NAPRECA activity for the first time. TheThe sixthsixth symposiumsymposium thatthat tooktook placeplace inin Kampala, Uganda, inin September 1995 attracted about 80 participants who came fromfrom variousvarious countries in Africa, Europe and North America. Three pre-symposiumpre-symposium short courses on Nuclear MagneticMag,netic Resonance Resonance (NMR),(NMR), MassMass Spectrometry,Spectrometry, andand OrganicOrganic SynthesisSynthesis were held atat thethe samesame venue. The 7thi h NAPRECANAPRECA SymposiumSymposium was was successfullysuccessfully organised organised in in AugustAugust 1997 in Dar es Salaam by the new Coordinating Office oftheof the Network based in Tanzania.

Post Graduate Scholarship Programme In thethe DAAD-NAPRECADAAD-NAPRECA scholarshipscholarship programme NAPRECA is responsibleresponsible forfor selectingselecting candidates, whowho mustmust enroll in aa post-graduatepost-graduate programme inin a university outsideoutside theirtheir ownown country. DAAD scholarships covercover tuition,tuition, research costs,costs, and subsistence allowances of the fellows in universities in thethe sub-region.sub-region. The firstfirst beneficiariesbeneficiaries were twotwo EthiopiansEthiopians who,who, inin September 1988, joinedjoined the MSc programme of the UniversityUniversity ofof NairobiNairobi andand threethree KenyansKenyans who came to Addis Ababa to join postgraduate programmesprogrammes inin biologybiology andand chemistry.chemistry. SinceSince then nearly 50 post graduate students have benefited from the scheme.

It maymay bebe fittingfitting toto concludeconclude thisthis briefbrief presentation presentation byby statingstating thatthat NAPRECANAPRECA hashas helpedhelped natural products researchers inin thethe regionregion toto getget toto lcnowknow each other and assist oneone another.another.

Reference Dagne, E. 1996.1996. NAPRECANAPRECA and its RoleRole inin thethe DisseminationDissemination ofof Information Information inin Africa.Africa. In:In: Bridge Builders,Builders, AfricanAfrican ExperiencesExperiences withwith InformationInformation andand Communication Communication Technology.Technology. National Academy Press,Press, WashingtonWashington D.C.D.C. p.p. 217-231.217-231. 116

GARAGA AND ITS INITIATIVES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT GUMS ANDD RESINS IN KENYA

A. K. HASSAN andand V.V. A.A. ODIPO,ODIPO, AfriGums, P. 0.O. BoxBox 71968,71968, Nairobi,Nairobi, Kenya.

Abstract Gum Arabic and ResinsResins AssociationAssociation (GARA) waswas fOlmdedfounded outout of thethe desiredesire byby various various stakeholdersstalceholders to to havehave aa coordinating body/organisationbody/organisation withwith thethe responsibility ofof promoting and developing gumgum arabic and resins in Kenya. TheThe overalloverall aimaim isis toto improveimprove productionproduction andand quality ofof thethe product.product. This is expected toto result inin increasedincreased incomeincome toto ruralrural cornmunitiescommunities wherewhere the resources are found while meeting thethe specifications forfor internationalinternational trade.trade. GARAGARA isis aa non-non­ profit making organisation with membership that includes gum/resingumlresin farmers, traders/merchants, government andand non-govemmentalnon-governmental organisations,organisations, development agencies, manufacturing industry; exporters and importers.importers. ItIt is alreadyalready registeredregistered and hashas technicaltechnical andand financialfinancial assistance from research institutions and development agencies respectively. It has embarked on a programmeprogramme ofof enlighteningenlightening thethe communitiescornmunities andand traderstraders inin soundsound productionproduction practices.practices. However, beingbeing at anan infantinfant stagestage itit requiresrequires moremore support.support. This brief paperpaper presentspresents thethe aspirations and initiatives ofofthe the association.association.

Introduction Gum Arabic and ResinsResins AssociationAssociation (GARA) is aa non-profitnon-profit makingmaking organisationorganisation with the responsibility ofof promoting and developing gumgum arabic and resins in Kenya. It brings togethertogether members from variedvaried fields,fields, includingincluding farmers/collectors,farmers/collectors, traders,traders, governmentgovernment andand non-non­ governmental organisations, exportersexporters andand importers whowho have a commoncornmon interestinterest toto improveimprove the production and qualityquality ofof locally locally producedproduced g,umgum arabic and resins (myrrh and frankincense)frankincense) for the domestic andand exportexport markets.markets.

GARA'ss Activities andand Organisation Since its formation over a yearyear ago,ago, GARAGARA hashas beenbeen atat thethe forefore frontfront of of highlighting highlighting criticalcritical issues affecting the g,umgum andand resinresin industryindustry inin thethe country.country. ItIt operatesoperates inin thethe formform ofof consultative consultative meetings wherewhere pertinent issuesissues areare discussed.discussed. During the earlyearly meetings, two workshops were organised toto identifYidentify and prioritise problemsproblems affectingaffecting productionproduction andand marketing. marketing. The outcome of the workshops were:were:

CD Formation ofof a a data base of major stakeholders in gum and resin industry

CD FormationF ormation ofof GARA GARA

CD Development ofof a plan of GARA'sGARA's activities. BasedBased onon this,this, twotwo groupsgroups (sub-(sub­ cornmittees)committees) namely research andand extensionextension werewere established.established.

The researchresearch groupgroup attemptsattempts toto answeranswer questionsquestions fromfrom collectors,collectors, traders,traders, exportersexporters andand importers concerning the new sources of gum andand resinresin species,species, potential quantities,quantities, appropriateappropriate harvesting times, storage and quality through generation ofof data.data. TheThe infoimationinformation generatedgenerated isis made into user-friendly packages byby thethe extension groupgroup and relayedrelayed toto thethe relevantrelevant stakeholderstakeholder group such as collectors,collectors. For example, a simple field manual is being elaborated by the extension group from informationinforniation generated by the research group.

One of the significantsignificant achievementsachievements made by thethe organisationorganisation is removingremoving suspicionsuspicion between collectors andand traders/merchants.traders/merchants. This has been done by explainingexplaining the trend in market prices 117 and howhow thisthis affectsaffects purchasepurchase priceprice atat farmer/collectorfarmer/collector levellevel and reasonsreasons thatthat leadlead toto lowlow pricesprices or rejectionrejection ofof gum gum from from farmers/collectors. farmers/collectors. Building confidence between the twotwo groupsgroups eliminates cheating andand leadsleads toto willingnesswillingness toto acceptaccept introductionintroduction ofof new new ideasideas atat thethe grassrootsgrassroots without resentment. TheThe organisation organisation hashas alsoalso establishedestablished aa continuouscontinuous purchase programme of gums and resinsresins throughthrough its members.members. In thisthis way,way, itit willwill bebe solving solving problemsproblems facingfacing thethe industry, in promoting better management andand handlinghandling of of thethe productproduct soso as to meet exportexport quality requirements. Meanwhile,Meanwhile, GARAGARA is is workingworking on on aa policypolicy frameworkframework forfor adoptionadoption byby thethe government which willwill createcreate anan enablingenabling environmentenvironment supportivesupportive ofof the the industry. industry.

GARA is stillstill aa youngyoung organisationorganisation veryvery much dependentdependent on the goodwillgoodwill of herher membersmembers forfor operation. It has toto datedate receivedreceived facilitationalfacilitational supportsupport fromfrom IntegrationIntegration of TreeTree CropsCrops intointo Farming Systems Project (ITFSP),(ITFSP), technical input from the KenyaKenya ForestryForestry ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute (KEFRI) and somesome financialfinancial assistanceassistance from Mennonite Central Committee among others. ToTo make it self-sustainingself-sustaining andand more focused, aa project has been drawndrawn upup toto elaborateelaborate thethe organisation's operational mechanisms. It is hoped that a strong self-sustaining GARA will result in a viable gum and resinresin industryindustry inin thethe country. 118

HERSI, Ali (Mr.) PART III: III: LISTLIST OFOF SALTLICK, PARTICIPANTS P.O. Box 301, lsiolo,Isiolo, KENYA Tel: 254 1651652350 2350 Fax: 254 165165 2414 1.0 RESOURCERESOURCE PERSONS/ PARTICIPANTS HOLMES, Ivans (Mr.)(Mr.) AGRILAB, Tylas, Rievaulx,Rievaulx, York,York, BARROW, EdmundEdmund (Mr.) North Yorkshire Y06 5LH,5LH, African Wildlife Foundation, UNITED KINGDOM P.O. Box 48177, Nairobi, KENYA Tel: 14391439798308 798308 Tel: 254 2 710367 Fax: 14391439798308 798308 Fax: 2542254 2 710372 Email: [email protected] KARAMALLAH, A. K. (Prof.) University ofof Khartoum, Khartoum, CASADEI, Enrico (Dr.) P.O. Box 857,857, Khartoum, SUDANSUDAN FFAO AO - Food & Nutrition Div., Fax: 249 1111 774852 Via Terme di Caracallo, 00 100100 Rome, ITALY KATZ, Ester (Dr.) Tel: 39657054794396 570 54794 CIFOR, P.O.Box 6596, Email: [email protected] JKPWB, Jarkarta 10065, INDONESIA Tel: 6262251 251 622622 CHIKAMAI, BenBen (Dr.)(Dr.) Fax: 6262251 251 622 100100 Kenya Forestry Research Insti.(KEFRI) Email: e.katz@cg,[email protected] P.O. Box 30241, Nairobi, KENYA Tel: 254 2761063/761246/7647262 761063 / 761246 / 764726 KIGAME, Rosemary (Mrs) Fax: 254 2 760034 IGAD,I GAD , Email: [email protected] Ministry of Environment andand NaturalNatural Resources, DAGNE, ErmaisErmais (Dr.)(Dr.) P.O.Box 30126, Nairobi, KENYA - Addis Ababa University, Tel: 2542542229261 2 229261 Dept. of Chemistry, P.O.Box 30270, Addis Ababa, LADIPO, David (Dr.) ETHIOPIA CENRAD, 5 Akinola Maja Avenue, Tel: 251 1 1148541148541 / 126276126276 P.M.B. 5052,5052, Jericho,Jericho, Ibadan,Ibadan, Fax: 251 1 551244 NIGERIA. Email: [email protected] Tel: 2342342241 2 241 2694 Fax: 234 2 241 3839 GACHATHI, Norman (Mr.) Email: [email protected] Kenya Forestry Research Insti.lnsti. (KEFRI),(KEFRI), P.O. Box 20412, Nairobi, KENYA MAKONDA, F.B.S. (Mr.) Tel: 254 15415432891 32891 /32892132892/32893 /32893 Sokoine University - Wood Utilisation Dept., Fax: 254 15415432844 32844 P.O. Box 3014, Morogoro, TANZANIA. Email: [email protected] Tel: 255 56 36943694/4648: / 4648: Fax: 255 56 4648 HASSAN, A. (Mr.) E-mail: [email protected] AFRIGUMS,AFRI GUMS, P.O. Box 71968, Nairobi, KENYA MHINZI, Gaspar (Dr.)(Dr.) Tel: 2542254 2 725931 University of Dar-es-Salaam, Chemistry Department, 119 P.O.Box 35061, Dar-es-Salaam, P. O.0. BoxBox 53547,53547, Nairobi, KENYA TANZANIA Tel: 2542542227496/227627 2 227496 /227627 Tel: 255 51 43038 Fax: 254 2 227982 Fax: 25551255 51 43038 Email: [email protected] ALI, Ahmed (Mr.) Arid Lands Project MULLER, Didier (Mr.) P. 0.O. BoxBox 53547,53547, Nairobi,Nairobi, KENYA Applications Techniques ForestieresForestieres Tel: 2542542227496/227627 2 227496 /227627 1, RueRue des gentes, 33980, Audege, Fax: 254 2 227982 FRANCE Tel: 33 1 5626841556 26 8415 ANGWENYI, Joe (Mr.) Fax: 33 1 56 26 8584 KAKUZI Ltd., P.O. Box 24, Thika, KENYA NG'ETHE, Robinson (Mr.) Tel: 254 151 64620 Applied Research Unit - Laikipia Fax: 254 151151 64240 P.O. Box 144, Nanyuki, KENYA Tel: 254 17617622574/32527 22574 / 32527 /1 31854 31854 BII, William (Mr) Fax: 254 176176 2220122201 Kenya Forestry Research Institute, KEFRI P.O.BoxP.O.Box468 468 NOUR, HassanHassan Abdel (Prof.) Lodwar, KENYA Minister of State, Agriculture andand Forestry,Forestry, P.O. Box 285, Khartoum, SUDANSUDAN CURRY, Particia (Ms.)(Ms.) Tel: 249 11 780359 SALTLICK, Fax: 249 11 770586: P.O. Box 301, Isiolo, KENYA Tel: 254 1651652350 2350 OCHIENG, George (Mr.) Fax: 254 165 2414 Deputy Chief Conservator ofof Forests, NationalityNationality: : British Forest DDepartment, ep artment, P.O.Box 305l3,30513, Nairobi,Nairobi, KENYAKENYA DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER,OFFICER, Isiolo,Isiolo, Tel: 2542254 2 764288 1/ 764249 NJOKA, S. N. (Mr.) P.O. Box 141, Isiolo,Isiolo, KENYAKENYA OSMAN, M.E.M.E. (Dr.) The Gum ArabicArabic Company DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER,OFFICER, Kwale,Kwale, P.O. Box 857, Khartoum, SUDANSUDAN NJUGUNA, F. N. (Mr.) P.O. Box 5, Kwale, KENYA PHILLIPS, G.O.G.O. (Prof.) New Tech Innovation Centre DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER, Turkana, Wrexham, Clywdd LLl3LL13 7YP, UK KARUIKI, F.F. K.K. (Mr.)(Mr.) Tel: 44 1222 843298 P.O. Box 39,Lodwar, KENYAKENYA Fax: 44 1222 843298 ELOKAOKICH, Paul (Mr.) WASON, RajivRajiv (Mr.) Minstry of Natural Resources - Forest Dept., Rosin Kenya Ltd P.O. Box 7124, Kampala, UGANDA P.O.Box 3126,3126, Nakuru,Nakuru, KENYAKENYA Tel: 256 41 251917 Tel: 2543743939/212387254 37 43939 / 212387 Fax: 25641256 41 251918 EYAPAN, JamesJames (Mr) 2.0 PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS Arid Lands Project P. O.0. BoxBox 53547,53547, Nairobi, KENYA ADAN,ADÁN, BikaBika (Dr.) Tel: 2542542227496/227627 2 227496 /227627 Arid Lands Project Fax: 254 2 227982 120 MWASARU, P. (Mr.) FARAH, Ahmed (Mr) AFRIGUMS,AFRI GUMS, Arid Lands Project P.O. Box 71968, Nairobi, KENYAKENYA P. 0.O. BoxBox 53547,53547, Nairobi,Nairobi, KENYA Tel: 2542542 2 725931725931 Tel: 2542542227496/227627 2 227496 /227627 Fax: 254 2 227982 ODIPO, V. (Mr.) G.A.R.A. HALAKHE, M.M. (Mr.)(Mr.) P.O.Box 50803 Arid Lands Project Nairobi, KENYA P. 0.O. BoxBox 53547,53547, Nairobi,Nairobi, KENYA Tel: 2542542227496/227627 2 227496 /227627 ONDACHI, P. (Mrs.) Fax: 254 2 227982227982 Kenya Forestry Research Institute P.O.Box 20412, Nairobi, KENYA KARIUKI, A.A. (Mr.)(Mr.) Tel: 254 15415432891 32891 132892/32893/ 32892 /32893 Applied Research Unit - Laikipia Fax: 254 15415432844 32844 P.O. Box 144,144, Nanyuki, KENYA Tel:Tel:25417622574/32527/31854 254 176 22574 / 32527 / 31854 MUNG'ALA,MUNG' ALA, P. (Mr.) Fax: 254 17617622201 22201 National CouncilCouncil of Science andand TechnologyTechnology P.O. Box 30623,30623, Nairobi,Nairobi, KENYA.KENYA. KONUCHE, Paul (Dr.) Tel: 2542542221918/221516 2 221918 / 221516 Director Kenya Forestry Research Institute MWANGI,MWANGI, Joe (Prof.) P.O.Box 20412, Nairobi, KENYAKENYA Moi University - Wood Sc.Sc. && Tech.Tech. Dept. Tel: 254 15415432891/32892/32893 32891 / 32892 /32893 P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret, KENYAKENYA Fax: 254 15415432844 32844 Tel: 254254321 321 6310563105/63197 / 63197 Fax: 254 321 63257 LELEI, V.V. K.K. (Mr.)(Mr.) Arid Lands Resource Management Project,Proj ect, NGIMOR, Daniel (Mr.) P.O.Box 53547, Nairobi, KENYA Arid Lands Project Tel: 2542542227627/227496 2 227627 / 227496 P. 0.O. BoxBox 53547, 53547, Nairobi,Nairobi, KENYAKENYA Tel: 2542227496/227627254 2 227496 /227627 LEMPUSHUNA, Mungoni (Mr) Fax: 2542542 2 227982227982 Arid Lands Project P. 0.O. BoxBox 53547,53547, Nairobi,Nairobi, KENYA NJENGA, Hellen (Dr.) Tel: 2542542227496/227627 2 227496 /227627 University ofof Nairobi -- ChemistryChemistry Dept.Dept. Fax: 254 2 227982 P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, KENYA Tel: 2542542 2 745055745055 MILIMO, P.P. (Dr.)(Dr.) African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS)(ACTS) NOVARLY,NOVARLY, JohnJohn (Mr.) P.O.Box 45917, Nairobi, KENYA School of Forestry, University ofof Canterbury Canterbury Tel: 254 2 565173 1/ 569986 Private Bag 4800, Christ Church,Church, Fax: 254 2 57300 NEWZEALAND Tel: 64 3 3482727 Fax: 646433432148 3 3432148 MURRER, Erik E-mail: [email protected] Monosato CompanyCompany 307 West Burbank StreetStreet ODERA J. (Dr.) Harvard, IL 60033 National Museums of Kenya United States of America P.O.Box 40658, Nairobi, KENYA Tel: 2542542742161/751319 2 742161 / 751319 121 Fax: 2542542751319/741424 2 751319 / 741424 NDEGWA, NellieNellie (Ms.)(Ms.) Kenya Forestry ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute (KEFRI),(KEFRI), OPONDO, C. (Mr.) P.O. Box 30241, Nairobi, KENYA Applied Research UnitUnit -- Laikipia,Laikipia, Tel: 2542542761063/761246/764726 2 761063 / 761246 / 764726 P.O. Box 144,144, Nanyuki, KENYA Fax: 2542542760034 2 760034 Tel: 254 17617622574/32527 22574 / 32527 / 31854 Email: [email protected]@africaonline.co.ke Fax: 254 17617622201 22201 MBIRU, SheilaSheila (Mrs.)(Mrs.) OSMAN, AbdisemetAbdisemet (Mr.) Kenya Forestry ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute (KEFRI),(KEFRI), Arid Lands Project P.O. Box 30241, Nairobi, KENYA P. 0.O. BoxBox 53547,53547, Nairobi,Nairobi, KENYA Tel: 2542542 2 761063761063 //761246/764726 761246 / 764726 Tel: 2542227496/227627254 2 227496 /227627 Fax: 254 2 760034760034 Fax: 254 2 227982 Email: [email protected]@africaonline.co.ke

SHAH, Kamel (Mr.) NJAGI, T. K.K. (Mr.)Mr.) Twiga Chemicals Laision Co-ordinatorCo-ordinator FD / KEFRI P.O.Box 30712, Nairobi,Nairobi, KENYAKENYA Forest Department Tel: 254338333254 338333 /338334 P.O.Box 30513,30513, Nairobi, KENYA Fax: 2542223167254 2 223167 Tel: 2542764288/764249254 2 764288 / 764249

WATA, Issoufou (Mr.) TEMU, August (Prof.) Direction des Etudes, de la ICRAF, Programmation et P.O.Box 30677, Nairobi, KENYA l'Intergration regionalregional auau Ministere Tel: 2542542521450 2 521450 de l'HydrauliqueI'Hydraulique etet dede l'environi-nentl'environment Fax: 2542542521001 2 521001 B.P. 10252, Naimey,Naimey, NIGERNIGER Email: [email protected]

WATAI, K. (Mr.) Kenya Forestry Research Institute P.O.Box 20412, Nairobi, KENYA Tel: 254 15415432891 32891 //32892/32893 32892 /32893 Fax: 254 15415432844 32844

WAWERU,W A WERU, S (Mr.) Kenya Forestry College, P.O. Box 8, Londiani, KENYA Tel: 254 362 64043

3.0 SECRETARIAT

CHIKAMAI, BenBen (Dr.)(Dr.) Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), P.O. Box 30241, Nairobi, KENYAKENYA Tel: 2542542761063/761246/764726 2 761063 / 761246 / 764726 Fax: 2542542760034 2 760034 Email: [email protected]

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