An Initial Estimate Toward Identifying and Numbering Extant Tuatara, Amphisbaena, and Snake Kinds
Answers Research Journal 7 (2014):31–47. www.answersingenesis.org/arj/v7/tuatara-amphisbaena-snake-kinds.pdf
An Initial Estimate toward Identifying and Numbering Extant Tuatara, Amphisbaena, and Snake Kinds
Tom Hennigan, Truett-McConnell College, Cleveland, Georgia.
Abstract %LRV\VWHPDWLFV LV LQ JUHDW ÁX[ WRGD\ EHFDXVH RI WKH SOHWKRUD RI JHQHWLF UHVHDUFK ZKLFK FRQWLQXDOO\ UHGHÀQHV KRZ ZH SHUFHLYH RUJDQLVP UHODWLRQVKLSV 'HVSLWH WKH ODUJH DPRXQW RI GDWD EHLQJ SXEOLVKHG the challenge is having enough knowledge about genetics to draw conclusions regarding the biological KLVWRU\RIRUJDQLVPVDQGWKHLUWD[RQRP\%DVHGRQWKHDQDO\VHVRIH[WDQWRUJDQLVPPROHFXODUGDWD WD[RQRP\DQGK\EULGL]DWLRQFDSDELOLW\DWHQWDWLYHHVWLPDWHRIRQHWXDWDUDWZRDPSKLVEDHQDDQG snake kinds is proposed as being on the Ark.
Keywords: $UN(QFRXQWHUELRV\VWHPDWLFVWD[RQRP\DPQLRWHVUHSWLOHVVQDNHDPSKLVEDHQDWXDWDUD lepidosaurs, squamata, serpentes, kind, baraminology
Introduction DQG XQLYHUVDO FRPPRQ GHVFHQW ,Q NHHSLQJ ZLWK Creation research is guided by God’s Word, these assumptions, they are gradually moving ZKLFK LV IRXQGDWLRQDO WR WKH VFLHQWLÀF PRGHOV WKDW away from Linnaean hierarchies and toward DUH EXLOW 7KH $UN (QFRXQWHU 3URMHFW KDV WDVNHG WKH 3K\OR&RGH V\VWHP 9LWW DQG &DOGZHOO creation researchers to investigate several questions SS² ,QFRQWUDVWFUHDWLRQELRORJLVWVUHFRJQL]H VXUURXQGLQJ ZKDW WKH NLQG LV KRZ WR UHFRJQL]H WKH*RGRI6FULSWXUHDVWKH&UHDWRURIDOO´NLQGVµDQG it, and the mechanisms involved with organism DVVXPH´IRUHVWµUDWKHUWKDQ´WUHHµWKLQNLQJZKHQ GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ %URSK\ DQG .UDPHU Lightner interpreting biological diversity and disparity. HW DO 6DQGHUV DQG :LVH 7XUQHU ,QVWHDGRIWKHWUHH RUWUHHV RIOLIHWKDWUHSUHVHQW :LOOLDPV :LVH :RRGHWDO :RRG evolutionary random processes and universal Woodmorappe 1996). FRPPRQ GHVFHQW WKH FUHDWLRQLVW PD\ YLVXDOL]H In previous papers the numbers of amphibian, individual trees in a forest as the originally created FURFRGLOHDQGWXUWOHNLQGVZHUHHVWLPDWHG +HQQLJDQ NLQGV 7KH VHSDUDWLRQ RI HDFK WUHH UHSUHVHQWV DE +HQQLJDQ 7KHSXUSRVHRIWKLV WKH GLVFRQWLQXLW\ EHWZHHQ NLQGV DQG WKH GHJUHH paper is to use all available information in order to of branching represents limited descent with PDNH DQ LQLWLDO HVWLPDWH RI WKH LGHQWLÀFDWLRQ DQG PRGLÀFDWLRQZLWKLQWKHNLQGRYHUWLPH6SHFLÀFDOO\ QXPEHUVRIH[WDQW/HSLGRVDXUNLQGVH[FHSWIRUWKH creationists are interested in how creatures have ´OL]DUGVµ 7KLV LQFOXGHV WXDWDUDV DPSKLVEDHQDV GLYHUVLÀHG IURP WKH RULJLQDOO\ FUHDWHG EDUDPLQV DQGVQDNHV/L]DUGVZLOOEHWKHVXEMHFWRIDIXWXUH DQGWKHDUFKHW\SHVWKDWOHIWWKH$UN:KLOHJHQHWLF paper. and molecular data will be incorporated in this taxonomic analysis, there is still not enough The State of Biosystematics NQRZOHGJHDERXWELRFKHPLVWU\WRGUDZFRQFOXVLRQV and Taxonomy Today regarding the biological history and taxonomy of Biosystematics is the science of discovering, organisms. Therefore, other variables will also be FODVVLI\LQJ DQG RUJDQL]LQJ ELRORJLFDO GLYHUVLW\ LQFRUSRUDWHGVXFKDVK\EULGL]DWLRQGDWD *HQHVLV The science of identifying taxa and naming *HQHVLV /LJKWQHUHWDO Sanders and Wise organisms is taxonomy. There is no universally :RRGDE DFFHSWHG SURFHGXUH IRU RUJDQLVP FODVVLÀFDWLRQ It is important to consider the following precautions DQGFXUUHQWO\WKHVHGLVFLSOLQHVDUHLQJUHDWÁX[DV and perspectives. Baraminologists tend to equate researchers are placing more importance on the NLQGVZLWKWKHIDPLO\DQGIRUPDQ\FDVHVZLWKJRRG accumulating new genetic and molecular data for UHDVRQ :RRGD +RZHYHUZHVKRXOGFDUHIXOO\ SK\ORJHQ\ GHYHORSPHQW PXFK LV EHLQJ FKDQJHG DQDO\]H WKH VWUXFWXUHV EHKDYLRUV DQG SK\VLRORJLHV accordingly. Therefore, how organisms are named RIPHPEHUVRIDSXWDWLYHNLQGDQGORRNDWWKHJHQHWLF DQG RUJDQL]HG WRGD\ PD\ FKDQJH WRPRUURZ UHDVRQVZK\DFHUWDLQPHPEHURIDNLQGGRHVQ·WKDYH depending on the data and assumptions about that FKDUDFWHUVWKDWWKHRWKHUPHPEHUVSRVVHVV :LOVRQ data. For example, naturalists assume randomness 2010). This research is meant to be a foundation
ISSN: 1937-9056 Copyright © 2014, 2016 Answers in Genesis, Inc. All content is owned by Answers in Genesis (“AiG”) unless otherwise indicated. AiG consents to unlimited copying and distribution of print copies of Answers Research Journal articles for non-commercial, non-sale purposes only, provided the following conditions are met: the author of the article is clearly identified; Answers in Genesis is acknowledged as the copyright owner; Answers Research Journal and its website, www.answersresearchjournal.org, are acknowledged as the publication source; and the integrity of the work is not compromised in any way. For website and other electronic distribution and publication, AiG consents to republication of article abstracts with direct links to the full papers on the ARJ website. All rights reserved. For more information write to: Answers in Genesis, PO Box 510, Hebron, KY 41048, Attn: Editor, Answers Research Journal.
The views expressed are those of the writer(s) and not necessarily those of the Answers Research Journal Editor or of Answers in Genesis. 32 T. Hennigan upon which further research and understanding VLGHRIWKHMDZ DQGIXVHGSHOYLFERQHVRQDGXOWV 9LWW of God’s diverse organisms can be built. Within his and Caldwell 2009, p. 513). What follows are brief Trinitarian character God is diverse and we would GHVFULSWLRQVRIHDFKJURXSWKHHVWLPDWHGNLQGVDQG H[SHFWWKDWKLVFUHDWLRQZRXOGUHÁHFWWKDWGLYHUVLW\ DYHUDJHVQRXWWRYHQWOHQJWK 69/ RUDYHUDJHWRWDO in his creatures in aspects such as genetics, species, OHQJWK 7/ DVFHUWDLQHG IURP 8HW] DQG 9LWW populations, communities, and ecosystems. When we DQG&DOGZHOO better understand what mechanisms are involved in the production of differences, we should be better Tuatara: Order Rhyncocephalia able to infer whether they are traits produced by Suborder Sphenodontida GLUHFW FUHDWLRQ SRVW)ORRG GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ WKURXJK 1. Tuatara kind— XQNQRZQ GHVLJQHG JHQHWLF PHFKDQLVPV DQGRU Family Sphenodontidae random mutations. Subfamily Sphenodontinae JHQXV Sphenodon)—formerly two species The Non-Avian Reptiles S. punctatus and S. guntheri, but is now Extant reptiles consist of the following taxa: birds, FRQVLGHUHGPRQRW\SLF³69/ FP LQ WXUWOHVWXDWDUDVVQDNHVDPSKLVEDHQDVOL]DUGVDQG FURFRGLOHV 3RXJKHWDOS 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO 2009, p. 24). Currently 9904 species of non-avian UHSWLOHV KDYH EHHQ LGHQWLÀHG ZLWK QHZ VSHFLHV GHVFULEHGWKLV\HDUDORQH 8HW] %LUGVDUHWKH VXEMHFW RI DQRWKHU SDSHU /LJKWQHU 5HSWLOHV along with mammals, are amniotes and have an amniotic membrane that encloses the embryo in D IOXLGILOOHG VDF %DVHG RQ FXUUHQW WD[RQRP\ DOO extant reptiles, with the possible exception of the WXUWOHVDUHFODVVLÀHGLQ'LDSVLGD$OOH[WDQWGLDSVLGV DUHFODVVLÀHGLQWKH6DXULDWD[RQ6DXULDLVIXUWKHU VXEGLYLGHG LQWR WKH $UFKRVDXURPRUSKD FURFRGLOHV dinosaurs, birds, and, depending on the researcher, WXUWOHV DQG /HSLGRVDXURPRUSKD WXDWDUDV OL]DUGV Fig. 1. Sphenodon punctatus6RXUFH KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD DPSKLVEDHQDVDQGVQDNHV>9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO RUJZLNL7XDWDUD p. 19]). The rest of this paper will focus on extant 6XSHURUGHU/HSLGRVDXULDH[FOXGLQJOL]DUGV The word tuatara comes from a Maori word that PHDQV´VSLQ\EDFNµ +HOGHU .LZL&RQVHUYDWLRQ Superorder Lepidosauria &OXE 7KH\DUHNQRZQIRUWKHLUZHOOGHYHORSHG Lepidosaurids, based on Linnaean taxonomy, parietal eye, also referred to as a third eye or DUH FXUUHQWO\ FODVVLÀHG DFFRUGLQJO\ &ODVV 5HSWLOLD SLQHDOH\H DOVRIRXQGLQRWKHUVTXDPDWHV ZKLFKLV 6XEFODVV 'LDSVLGD 6XSHURUGHU /HSLGRVDXULD photoreceptive and associated with biological cycles DQG WZR 2UGHUV 5K\QFRFHSKDOLD 6XERUGHU DQG WKHUPRUHJXODWLRQ 9LWW DQG &DOGZHOO 6SKHQRGRQWLGD³WXDWDUDV DQG 6TXDPDWD ´OL]DUGVµ p. 79). Found only on small islets off the coast of WKDW DOVR LQFOXGH VQDNHV DQG DPSKLVEDHQDV New Zealand, the one species of tuatara is all that Assuming the evolutionary naturalist paradigm, is left of at least 16 genera that are now extinct VQDNHV &ODGH 2SKLGLD³6XERUGHU 6HUSHQWHV 8HW] +\SRWKHVHV YDU\ DV WR ZK\ WKH\ KDYH DQG DPSKLVEDHQDV 6XERUGHU $PSKLVEDHQLD DUH minimal diversity and so few have survived, but FRQVLGHUHG PRQRSK\OHWLF JURXSV RI OL]DUGV DQG DUH VXJJHVWLRQVLQFOXGH OL]DUGVRXWFRPSHWLQJWKHPUDW QHVWHGZLWKLQWKHOL]DUGWD[RQ 6XERUGHU/DFHUWLOLD SUHGDWRUV HDWLQJ ERWK \RXQJ DQG HJJV DQGRU DQ >8HW] @ 6TXDPDWHV KDYH WKH JUHDWHVW UHSWLOH inability to meet changing environmental demands diversity of all reptile taxa and representatives can DIWHUWKH)ORRG$OWKRXJKWKH\ORRNOLNHVTXDPDWHV EH IRXQG RQ DOO FRQWLQHQWV H[FHSW $QWDUFWLFD 8HW] they have several unique characters not shared with 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO SS² WKHP DQDUURZTXDGUDWHERQH EDFNRIORZHUVNXOO All lepidosaurs share many characters including: ZLWKJUHDWO\UHGXFHGRUODWHUDOFRQFKD VKHOOVKDSHG a transverse cloacal opening, distally notched ERQH VWUXFWXUHV RI WKH VNXOO HQFORVHG RU SDUWLDOO\ tongue used for catching prey, full body ecdysis HQFORVHGWHPSRUDOIHQHVWUD KROHLQWKHVNXOOEHKLQG VNLQ VKHGGLQJ LPSHUIRUDWH VWDSHV WHHWK DWWDFKHG WKHH\H MXJDOERQHRIVNXOOWRXFKLQJWKHVTXDPRVDO VXSHUÀFLDOO\ WR WKH MDZERQH acrodont teeth on the ERQH SRVWHULRUO\ FRURQRLG SURFHVV LV SURPLQHQW RQ VXUIDFH RI WKH MDZ RU pleurodont teeth on the inner WKH PDQGLEOH VHYHUDO HQODUJHG DQWHULRU SDODWLQH An Initial Estimate toward Identifying and Numbering Extant Tuatara, Amphisbaena, and Snake Kinds 33
PDQGLEXODU DQG GHQWDU\ WHHWK DQG SUHPD[LOODU\ 2. Worm Lizard kind WHHWK DUH UHSODFHG ZLWK FKLVHOOLNH H[WHQVLRQV 5 Families: ZKHUHWKHXSSHUEHDNRYHUKDQJVWKHORZHUMDZ WKH $PSKLVEDHQLGDH JHQHUDVSHFLHV UHDVRQ IRU WKHLU ORFDO QDPH WKH ´KDOI EHDNVµ³9LWW %ODQLGDH JHQXVVSHFLHV DQG &DOGZHOO S 8QLTXH WUDLWV LQFOXGH &DGHLGDH JHQXVVSHFLHV the ability to delay hatching for of up to 16 months 5KLQHXULGDH PRQRW\SLF DQG DIWHUWKHHJJVDUHODLGDQGKDYLQJWKHORZHVWNQRZQ 7URJRQRSKLLGDH JHQHUDVSHFLHV RSWLPDOLQFXEDWLRQWHPSHUDWXUHV ²& RIH[WDQW 69/ FP LQ UHSWLOHV 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO SS² 8QWLO UHFHQWO\ WZR VSHFLHV ZHUH UHFRJQL]HG KRZHYHU +D\ HW DO DQDO\]HG PLFURVDWHOOLWH '1$ PW'1$ DQG DOOR]\PH GDWD DQG FRQFOXGHG that genus Sphenodon should be considered a single VSHFLHV 8HW] %HFDXVHRIWKHLUGLIIHUHQFHVZLWK 6TXDPDWD,LQFOXGHWKHWXDWDUDDVDVHSDUDWHNLQG
Amphisbaena: Order Squamata Suborder Amphisbaenia :RUP OL]DUGV DQG WZROHJJHG ZRUP OL]DUGV Suborder Amphisbaenia, consist of six families and VSHFLHV 8HW] &KDUDFWHUVVKDUHGLQFOXGH Fig. 2. 5KLQHXUD ÁRULGDQD 6RXUFH KWWS ZZZ URXQG ERG\ LQ FURVV VHFWLRQ 7URJRQRSKLLGDH LV DQ ZLOGÁRULGDFRP3KRWRJUDSK )LRQD6XQTXLVW exception having a body with a triangular cross VHFWLRQ UHGXFHGULJKWOXQJ LQVQDNHVLWLVRIWHQWKH left lung that is reduced or absent), annulated bodies PDGHRIUHFWDQJXODUVKDSHGVFDOHVWKDWDUHMX[WDSRVHG to each other throughout the length of the organism, limbless in most except for Bipedidae, occasional SHOYLF´YHVWLJHVµLQPRVWDXWRWRPRXVWDLOWKDWGRHV QRWUHJHQHUDWHLIEURNHQ LQPRQRW\SLF5KLQHXULGDH WKH WDLO LV VKRUW DQG ODFNV DXWRWRP\ ÀODPHQWRXV papillae on tongue that is covered by lingual scales in diagonal rows, outer ears absent, eyes covered with VNLQDQGVFDOHVPRYHPHQWLVDFFRUGLRQOLNHDELOLW\ WRPRYHEDFNZDUGVDQGIRUZDUGVFDUQLYRURXVDQG Fig. 3. Blanus cinereus6RXUFH KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ HLWKHURYLSDURXVRURYRYLYLSDURXV 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO ZLNL 2009, pp. 528–531). 7KH\ FDQ EH IRXQG IURP WKH VRXWKHDVWHUQ 86$ 3. Two-Legged Worm Lizard kind DQG &HQWUDO6RXWK $PHULFD WR $IULFD DQG (XUDVLD Family Bipedidae 7KH WZROHJJHG ZRUP OL]DUGV %LSHGLGDH³Bipes 1 genus, 3 species sp. IURP FRDVWDO VRXWKZHVWHUQ 0H[LFR DQG %DMD 69/ FP LQ &DOLIRUQLDDUHXQXVXDOEHFDXVHWKH\KDYHPROHOLNH IRUHOLPEV$OODPSKLVEDHQDVDUHIRVVRULDO 9LWWDQG &DOGZHOO S 7KH )ORULGD ZRUP VQDNH 5KLQHXULGDH³5KLQHXUD ÁRULGDQD) is the only member of the family and it inhabits mostly Florida, though there have been two reports of sightings in *HRUJLD -HQVHQHWDO 1RK\EULGL]DWLRQGDWD was located for this suborder. Overall the variability LVZHOOZLWKLQWKDWZKLFKLVIRXQGLQWUDVSHFLÀFDOO\ including squamate oviparity and ovoviviparity +DQGZHUN Lightner 2008). Though the suborder is probably a holobaramin, Bipedidae, EHFDXVH RI WKHLU WZR OHJV DQG PROHOLNH IRUHOLPEV ZLOOEHLGHQWLÀHGDVDVHSDUDWHNLQGVRQXPEHUVDUH Fig. 4. Bipes biporus 6RXUFH KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ not underestimated. ZLNL 34 T. Hennigan
Snakes: Order Squamata GDWD´FRQÀUPHGWKHK\SRWKHVLVWKDWWKHLQGLYLGXDO Suborder Serpentes (Clade Ophidia) WR[LQV WKDW PDNH XS WKH YHQRP GHYHORSHG IURP 3UHVHQWO\ WKHUH DUH VSHFLHV RI VQDNHV proteins that originally evolved for unglamorous UHFRJQL]HG LQ IDPLOLHV DQG WKH\ DUH WKH VHFRQG GD\WRGD\ WDVNV HOVHZKHUH LQ WKH ERG\ 7KH JHQHV PRVWVSHFLRVHJURXSRIUHSWLOHV 8HW] $WOHDVW responsible for these proteins have been duplicated QHZVSHFLHVZHUHGHVFULEHGWKLV\HDU 8HW] PDQ\ WLPHV DOORZLQJ WKH RULJLQDO YHUVLRQ WR NHHS 7KH\DUHFRQVLGHUHGDPRQRSK\OHWLFJURXSRIOL]DUGV GRLQJLWVMREZKLOHWKHFRS\PXWDWHVIXUWKHUDQGWDNHV and are quite diverse in their morphology, behavior, RQQHZIXQFWLRQV7KLVDOORZVWKHSURWHLQVWDNHQXS and habitat preference. Some species are fully by the venom system to multiply and diversify away aquatic while others are fully subterranean. Some from their original purposes and contribute to the can glide from tree to tree while others contain some LQFUHDVLQJO\ FRPSOH[ YHQRPRXV FRFNWDLO IRUPLQJ of the most powerful venoms found in creation. A lethal suites of chemicals that interact with each FRXSOHRIVSHFLHVVXFKDVWKH(DVWHUQKRJQRVHVQDNH RWKHUWRGRPRUHKDUPWRSUH\µ 0DUVKDOO 7KH Heterodon platirhinos ZLOOVKXIÁHWKURXJKVHYHUDO DERYHUHVHDUFKPD\KDYHUDPLÀFDWLRQVERWKLQWKH EL]DUUH EHKDYLRUV ZKHQ GLVWXUEHG IURP VSUHDGLQJ DUHDVRIWKHRGLF\DQG6HUSHQWHVGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQVLQFH LWV KHDG OLNH D FREUD DQG UDWWOLQJ LWV WDLO LQ OHDYHV the Fall. WR ´EOHHGLQJµ IURP WKH PRXWK DQG IHLJQLQJ GHDWK &XUUHQWO\ WKH %XUPHVH S\WKRQ Python molurus +HQQLJDQ bivittatus) is being used as a model for studying WKH KLJK GLYHUVLW\ IRXQG LQ DOO VQDNHV %XUPHVH The Problem of Biological Evil pythons, and probably other species, can experience Within Christian theism, if all things were created rapid physiological changes two to three days after very good, the issue of disease, death, and suffering IHHGLQJZKLFKLQFOXGH DLQFUHDVHLQPHWDEROLF HJ ELRORJLFDO HYLO FDQ EH XVHG DV DQ REMHFWLRQ UDWH KLJKHU WKDQ DQ\ RWKHU WHWUDSRG ² to the acceptance of a biblical worldview or lead increase in heart, liver, pancreas, small intestine, to wrong conclusions about the goodness of God. DQG NLGQH\V IROG LQFUHDVH LQ SODVPD IDWW\ This theological issue is in the realm of theodicy DFLGVDQGWULJO\FHULGHFRQWHQW DQGDIROGLQFUHDVH and deals with the question of why a loving God LQ PLFURYLOOXV OHQJWK &DVWRH HW DO :KHQ ZRXOGGHVLJQRUJDQLVPVVXFKDVYHQRPRXVVQDNHV digestion is complete these phenotypic and metabolic ZLWK VXSHUE WR[LF FKHPLFDOV DQG NLOOLQJ DSSDUDWL changes reverse to a state they were prior to feeding. Man’s disobedience and God’s subsequent curse on &DVWRH HW DO IRXQG ´PDVVLYH UDSLG FKDQJHV this planet is certainly the starting point of such a LQ JHQH H[SUHVVLRQ WKDW FRRUGLQDWH PDMRU FKDQJHV discussion. Though space does not allow for an in- LQ RUJDQ VL]H DQG IXQFWLRQ DIWHU IHHGLQJµ 7KHVH depth coverage of this topic, there is new research that ÀQGLQJV EULQJ PRUH LQVLJKW LQWR WKH FRPSOH[LW\ RI may shed light on issues of theodicy that Christians chemical pathways, how they affect metabolism and FDQ DQDO\]H 6QDNH YHQRPV DUH FRPSOH[ SURWHLQ phenotypic plasticity, and may reveal mechanisms mixtures that are deadly if they wind up in the body IRUUDSLGGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ\HWWREHGLVFRYHUHG of a prey species. They have also been used in the Though they share many traits with other PHGLFDOÀHOGDVDQWLYHQLQVIRUVQDNHELWHYLFWLPVDQG squamates, there are a few traits unique to them and hold great promise in being used to decrease suffering they include: pectoral girdle and forelimbs absent LQ DUHDV OLNH FDQFHU UHVHDUFK +ROODQG 2QH EXW VRPH PD\ KDYH D ´UXGLPHQWDU\µ SHOYLF JLUGOH UHVHDUFKHU H[SODLQV ´2XU UHVXOWV GHPRQVWUDWH WKDW or hindlimbs in the form of a bony spur, 120 to 500 the evolution of venoms is a really complex process. YHUWHEUDHHDFKQHFNDQGWUXQNYHUWHEUDKDVDSDLURI 7KHYHQRPJODQGRIVQDNHVDSSHDUVWREHDPHOWLQJ ULEVPDNLQJWKHPH[WUHPHO\ÁH[LEOHLQWKHFUDQLXP pot for evolving new functions for molecules, some of the supraoccipital is excluded from the margin ZKLFKDUHUHWDLQHGLQYHQRPIRUNLOOLQJSUH\ZKLOH RI WKH IRUDPHQ PDJQXP E\ H[RFFLSLWDOV ÁH[LEOH others go on to serve new functions in other tissues ligamentous symphysis between the dentaries LQ WKH ERG\µ )LW]JHUDOG $ FRDXWKRU RI WKH DOORZVWKHULJKWDQGOHIWMDZWRZLGHO\VSUHDGDSDUW VDPH UHVHDUFK VXPPDUL]HV ´0DQ\ VQDNH YHQRP left lung absent or largely reduced, dominant right toxins target the same physiological pathways that lung, ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve is GRFWRUV ZRXOG OLNH WR WDUJHW WR WUHDW D YDULHW\ RI enclosed within the brain case and enters the orbit PHGLFDOFRQGLWLRQV8QGHUVWDQGLQJKRZWR[LQVFDQEH WKURXJKWKHRSWLFIRUDPHQ LQRWKHUVTXDPDWHVWKH tamed into harmless physiological proteins may aid nerve is not enclosed and enters the orbit posteriorly), GHYHORSPHQWRIFXUHVIURPYHQRPµ )LW]JHUDOG WKHOHIWDUWHULDODUFKLVODUJHUWKDQWKHULJKW LQDOO 5HFHQWO\9RQNHWDO VHTXHQFHGWKHJHQRPHRI other tetrapods it is the reverse), and the absence of WKH ,QGRQHVLDQ NLQJ FREUD Ophiophagus hannah) FLOLDU\ERG\ PXVFOHV LQ WKH H\H 3RXJK HW DO and compared it with other vertebrate species. The SS² 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO SS² An Initial Estimate toward Identifying and Numbering Extant Tuatara, Amphisbaena, and Snake Kinds 35
Within the evolutionary naturalist’s paradigm, the 7KHERQ\VSXUVIRXQGRQVQDNHVOLNHS\WKRQVDQG RULJLQRIVQDNHVLVXQUHVROYHGDQGWKHLUSK\ORJHQ\LV boas, may have an alternative interpretation other LQFRQVWDQWÁX[$OOHYROXWLRQLVWVDJUHHWKDWVQDNHV WKDQD´UXGLPHQWDU\µSHOYLFJLUGOHDQGOHJV7RGD\ DUH GHVFHQGDQWV RI OL]DUGV EHFDXVH VQDNHV VKDUH PRVW VQDNHV GR QRW KDYH WKHVH VWUXFWXUHV DQG WKH derived similarities with extent terrestrial varanid VQDNHV WKDW GR XVH WKHP IRU JULSSLQJ RQH DQRWKHU OL]DUGV DQG H[WLQFW PDULQH PRVDVDXUV /HH during the mating process. Therefore, there are two competing evolutionary :KHQ FRQVLGHULQJ WKH DERYH VQDNH RULJLQV FDQ K\SRWKHVHV IRU VQDNH RULJLQV 2QH K\SRWKHVLV LV be interpreted in different ways, depending on WKDW VQDNHV DUH GHVFHQGDQWV RI VRPH DQFHVWUDO one’s worldview. As for the competing evolutionary burrowing varanid, in part, because of their unique K\SRWKHVHV 6DUIDWL H[SODLQV WKDW WKH H\H VWUXFWXUH /HH 0F'RZHOO 6QDNH “. . . features that are alleged to show common eyes are so different that it is thought that they ancestry according to one theory, must really be HYROYHG IURP YHVWLJLDO H\HV RI D EXUURZLQJ OL]DUG homoplasies, i.e. convergent evolution of features 7KH RWKHU K\SRWKHVLV LV WKDW VQDNHV DUH that arose independently, if the other theory were GHVFHQGDQWV RI PDULQH OL]DUGV UHODWHG WR WKH right. But homology is alleged to be the evidence for PRVDVDXUV /HH /HH DWWHPSWHG WR HYROXWLRQ GHVSLWH PDQ\ SUREOHPV µ+H JRHV RQ UHIXWH WKH PDULQH OL]DUG K\SRWKHVLV EXW DIWHU to argue that maybe the problem with evolutionary KDYLQJFRPELQHGERWKmolecular and morphological QDWXUDOLVW LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV WR FRQQHFW VQDNHV ZLWK data and the inherent QDWXUDOLVWLFDVVXPSWLRQVKH RWKHU FUHDWXUHV LV EHFDXVH VQDNHV ZHUH GLUHFWO\ IRXQG WKDW VQDNHV ZHUH PRUH FORVHO\ DOLJQHG ZLWK created by God and did not evolve from anything. PDULQH OL]DUGV DQG FRXOG not refute the marine What follows is a delineation of the taxa and hypothesis. HVWLPDWHG QDPH DQG QXPEHU RI NLQGV EULHI Fossil Snakes with “Legs” descriptions, and average snout to vent length $GGLQJ WR WKH GLVFXVVLRQ DUH WKH IRVVLO ´VQDNHV 69/ RU DYHUDJH WRWDO OHQJWK 7/ DV DVFHUWDLQHG ZLWK OHJVµ ZKLFK DUH Pachyrhachis problematicus, E\ 9LWW DQG &DOGZHOO DQG WKH 8HW] Haasiophis terrasanctus, and Eupodophis Massive taxonomic changes continue to be made descouensi 5DJH DQG (VFXLOOLp $ORQJ ZLWK and updated for Serpentes. This is the most current the molecular and morphological data, these have XQGHUVWDQGLQJEDVHGRQGDWDREWDLQHGE\WKH8HW] EHHQXVHGWRDUJXHWKDWVQDNHVXVHGWRKDYHOHJV FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK D OL]DUG RULJLQ DQG QHVWLQJ ZLWKLQ WKH OL]DUG WD[RQ )URP D FUHDWLRQDU\ SHUVSHFWLYH Superfamily Acrochordoidea this hypothesis is possible in that the idea of losing File Snake kind features through natural processes is within the Family Acrochordidae realm of the biblical worldview of Creation and 1 genus Acrochordus³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ the Fall. Loss of limbs has also been correlated with changes in the expression of some regulatory genes, including Hox gene expression and structure &DVWRHHWDO +RZHYHUWKHLVVXHRIZKHWKHU WKHVH DUH OHJV DQG KRZ WKH\ ÀW LQWR WKH VQDNH origins narrative is more complicated when viewed LQGHSWK)RUH[DPSOHWKHOHJVWKDWZHUHLGHQWLÀHG RQWKHIRVVLOVDUHYHU\VPDOOLQUHODWLRQWRWKHVL]H RI WKH ERG\ LQ VRPH FDVHV RQO\ FP LQ DQG are nearly comparable with the horny spurs found RQ S\WKRQV 6DUIDWL 7KH ´OHJJ\ VQDNHVµ DUH DOVR IRXQG LQ WKH VDPH &HQRPDQLDQ VWDJH HDUO\ late Cretaceous stratum) and restricted to the same Mediterranean region which suggests that they are Fig. 5. Acrochordus arafurae6RXUFH KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD FRQWHPSRUDU\ZLWKHDFKRWKHU 5DJHDQG(VFXLOOLp RUJZLNL 2003). Complicating matters, there are legless Located in Southeast Asia and northern Australia, IRVVLO VQDNHV ORZHU LQ WKH VWUDWD WKDQ WKH OHJJ\ WKHVH VQDNHV KDYH WKH IROORZLQJ FKDUDFWHULVWLFV ones and both Haasiophis and Pachyrhachis have VPDOOKHDG ORRVHVNLQ WKLFNERGLHV RQHOHIWFDURWLG WKH ´DGYDQFHGµ VQDNH IHDWXUHV WKDW HQDEOHG WKHP DUWHU\ PDQGLEOHODFNLQJDFRURQRLGERQH JLUGOHDQG WRGLVORFDWHWKHLUMDZVFDXVLQJVRPHUHVHDUFKHUVWR OLPE HOHPHQWV DEVHQW QXPHURXV VPDOO DQG QRQ FRQMHFWXUHZKHWKHUVRPHVQDNHVORVWOHJVDQGWKHQ RYHUODSSLQJEULVWOHWLSWXEHUFOHVFRYHUVNLQDQGDUH UHHYROYHGWKHP +HFKW IXOO\DTXDWLF 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S 7KH\GR 36 T. Hennigan not maneuver on land very well and are ovoviviparous, 8QFHUWDLQ &ODVVLILFDWLRQ Incertae sedis) of giving birth to live young in the water. Females can Superfamily: PipeSnake²Like Species also delay conception until environmental conditions 5. False Coral Snake kind DUHJRRGIRUJLYLQJELUWK +RXVWRQDQG6KLQH )DPLO\$QLOLLGDH V\QRQ\P³,O\VLLGDH 7KH\IHHGSULPDULO\RQÀVKDQGREVHUYDWLRQVVXSSRUW Anilius scytale 0RQRW\SLF ³7/ FP LQ WKDW ZKHQ D ÀVK PDNHV FRQWDFW ZLWK WKH VQDNH·V ERG\ WKH VQDNH LPPHGLDWHO\ ZUDSV DURXQG LW HQWDQJOHVLWLQWKHEDJJ\IROGVRILWVVNLQKROGVLWLQ place with the bristle-tipped tubercles, and swallows LW 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S %HFDXVHRILWVIXOO\ aquatic existence and capability of osmoregulating in hypotonic and hypertonic aquatic environments, it is potentially capable of surviving Flood conditions and DUHQRWLQFOXGHGRQWKH$UN
Superfamily Uropeltoidea 4. Pipe Snake kind Family Anomochilidae 1 genus Anomochilus—3 species Cylindrophiidae 1 genus Cylindrophis³VSHFLHV³69/ FP LQ
Fig. 7. Anilius scytale 6RXUFH KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ ZLNL 6RPH DVSHFWV RI WKH WD[RQRP\ RI WKLV VQDNH including what superfamily it belongs to, are XQFHUWDLQVRLWKDVEHHQNHSWDVDVHSDUDWHNLQGWR avoid underestimating the numbers. Morphology is VLPLODU WR SLSH VQDNHV ,W KDV D GHIHQVLYH EHKDYLRU ZKHUH LW ÁDWWHQV RXW ZKHQ GDQJHU DSSURDFKHV DQG lifts the tail off the ground, waving it around as Fig. 6. Anomochilus leonardi 6RXUFH KWWS UHSWLOH LW VOLWKHUV DZD\ RU WLJKWHQV LQWR D EDOO 9LWW DQG GDWDEDVHUHSWDULXPF] Caldwell 2009, pp. 258–259). Located in Southeastern Asia, shared characters LQFOXGH VKRUW WDLOV WKLFN ERGLHV VPRRWK VKLQ\ 6. Shield-Tail Snake kind YHQWUDOVFDOHV WZRFRPPRQFDURWLGDUWHULHV FRURQRLG )DPLO\8URSHOWLGDH ERQH RQ PDQGLEOH KLQGOLPE ´YHVWLJHVµ DSSHDU DV JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³69/ FP LQ FORDFDOVSXUV UHGXFHGOHIWOXQJ WUDFKHDOOXQJDEVHQW )URP6UL/DQNDDQGVRXWKHUQ,QGLDWKHVHVQDNHV and the left and right oviducts are well developed share the following characters: cone-shaped heads 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S 7KHVHIDPLOLHVXVHG ZLWK NHUDWLQL]HG WLSV DQG D XQLTXH DQG HQODUJHG to be together in the Cylindrophiidae family, but VFDOHDWWKHHQGRIWKHWDLO 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO have since been split into their own families. Though S 7KHVHVQDNHVDUHIRVVRULDODQGZKHQGDQJHU WKHUHDUHPLQRUGLIIHUHQFHVRWKHUWKDQDYHUDJHVL]H approaches they begin burrowing while waving their WKH\KDYHEHHQNHSWWRJHWKHUDVRQHNLQGEHFDXVHRI VKLHOGHGWDLODWWKHDWWDFNHU 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO their strong cognita. p. 560). An Initial Estimate toward Identifying and Numbering Extant Tuatara, Amphisbaena, and Snake Kinds 37
Superfamily Pythonoidea 1DWLYHIURPVRXWKHUQ0H[LFRWR&RVWD5LFDWKHLU 7. Python kind ELRORJ\ LV QRW ZHOO NQRZQ DQG WKHLU FKDUDFWHUV DUH Family Pythonidae VLPLODUWRRWKHUS\WKRQV7KH\DUHNHSWDVDVHSDUDWH JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ P IW NLQGVRQXPEHUVDUHQRWXQGHUHVWLPDWHG
9. Sunbeam Snake kind Family Xenopeltidae 1 genus Xenopeltis VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ
Fig. 8. Python molurus6RXUFH KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ ZLNL 3\WKRQVDUHJHQHUDOO\ODUJHWRYHU\ODUJHVQDNHV Fig. 10. Xenopeltis unicolor6RXUFH KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD from sub-Sahara Africa, Southeast Asia and RUJZLNL $XVWUDOLD &KDUDFWHUV DUH VLPLODU WR RWKHU VQDNHV 6XQEHDPVQDNHVFDQEHIRXQGLQ6RXWKHDVW$VLD but also include: infrared receptors in the interlabial and get their name from the glow of their iridescent SLWVWKDWFDQGHWHFWWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHVRI& VFDOHVZKHQOLJKWKLWVWKHP 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO DQG FORDFDO VSXUV 9LWW DQG &DOGZHOO S p. 562). It has also been reported that at least some species PD\ JLYH ELUWK E\ SDUWKHQRJHQHVLV %RRWK HW DO Superfamily Booidea ,QWHUVSHFLÀFK\EULGL]DWLRQKDVEHHQUHSRUWHG Family Boidae and intergeneric hybrids connect the following 12 genera—55 species JHQHUD Python × Liasis, Morelia × Liasis, Morelia General characters shared in family Boidae are × Python, Aspidites × Python. Through the current similar to pythons, but boas are ovoviviparous. K\EULGL]DWLRQGDWDDWOHDVWIRXURIWKHQLQHJHQHUD 5HFHQWO\LWKDVEHHQUHSRUWHGWKDWERDIHPDOHVFDQ PDNHRQHPRQREDUDPLQ %DQNVDQG6FKZDQHU JLYHELUWKE\SDUWKHQRJHQHVLV %RRWKHWDO +HQQLJDQ +\EULGKHUSV 10. True Boa kind 8. Mesoamerican Python kind Subfamily Boinae Family Loxocemidae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ P IW 0RQRW\SLF Loxocemus bicolor ³69/ P IW
Fig. 9. Loxocemus bicolor 6RXUFH KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD Fig. 11. Boa constrictor6RXUFH KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ RUJZLNL ZLNL 38 T. Hennigan
Found in the tropical Americas and islands in Incertae sedis Subfamilies of Boa-Like Snakes WKH 6RXWKZHVW 3DFLÀF WKLV IDPLO\ LQFOXGHV WKH 13. Split-Jaw Boa kind JLDQW $QDFRQGD Eunectes sp.) that may reach Family Bolyeridae OHQJWKV RI P IW 9LWW DQG &DOGZHOO JHQHUD³VSHFLHV H[WLQFW ³69/ P IW S ,QWHUVSHFLÀFK\EULGVRIWKHHPHUDOGWUHHERD Corallus caninus DQG $PD]RQ WUHH ERD Corallus hortulanus KDYH EHHQ UHSRUWHG DPRQJVW VQDNH EUHHGHUV +\EULGKHUSV
11. Exiliboa kind 6XEIDPLO\8QJDOLRSKLLQDH JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ
Fig. 14. Casarea dussumieri. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD RUJZLNL
6OHQGHU ERDOLNH RYLSDURXV VQDNHV ZLWKRXW cloacal spurs, bolyerids are endemic to Mauritius DQG 5RXQG ,VODQG LVODQG QRUWK RI 0DXULWLXV DQG Fig. 12. Exiliboa placata6RXUFH KWWS UHSWLOHGDWDEDVH are unique because they possess a maxillary that is UHSWDULXPF] GLYLGHG DQG KLQJHG LQWR IURQW DQG EDFN VWUXFWXUHV ZKLFKSURGXFHVDVSOLWMDZ 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO These species made of the two genera Exiliboa S 7KH URXQG LVODQG EXUURZLQJ ERD Bolyeria PRQRW\SLF DQGUngaliophis used to be included in multocarinata LVQRZFRQVLGHUHGH[WLQFW ,8&15HG %RLQDHEXW:LOFR[HWDO XVLQJ'1$VHTXHQFH List 2013). analysis, have placed them in their own subfamily 8HW] 6RNLQGVDUHQRWXQGHUHVWLPDWHGWKH\ 14. Dwarf Boa kind ZLOOEHNHSWVHSDUDWHXQWLOIXUWKHUGDWDFODULÀHVWKHLU Family Tropidophiidae taxonomic status. JHQHUD Trachyboa and Tropidophis) VSHFLHV³69/ FP LQ 12. Sand/Rubber Boa kind Subfamily Erycinae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ
Fig. 15. Trachyboa boulengeri. Source: KWWS UHSWLOH GDWDEDVHUHSWDULXPF] Fig. 13. Eryx jaculus. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ ZLNL Found in the West Indies, Central America, and This subfamily of rubber, sand, and rosy boas are South America they were considered a sister taxon VHPLIRVVRULDO VQDNHV WKDW FDQ EH IRXQG LQ ZHVWHUQ WR8QJDOLRSKLLQDHDUHSULPDULO\VQDNHVRIWKHIRUHVW 1RUWK $PHULFD &HQWUDO $IULFD DQG $VLD 9LWW DQG DQG DUH RYRYLYLSDURXV 9LWW DQG &DOGZHOO Caldwell 2009, p. 564). p. 557). An Initial Estimate toward Identifying and Numbering Extant Tuatara, Amphisbaena, and Snake Kinds 39
15. Spine-Jaw Snake kind This diverse taxon has a worldwide distribution Family Xenophidiidae and is connected by several molecular characters. *HQXV Xenophidion) )LYHJHQHUD Pantherophis, Lampropeltis, Pituophis, 6SHFLHV³69/ FP LQ Elaphe, and Coelognathus) unite 47 species Endemic to Malaysia, this genus used to be nested WKURXJK LQWHUJHQHULF K\EULGL]DWLRQ DQG FRQVWLWXWH ZLWKLQ7URSLGRSKLLGDHXQWLO/DZVRQ6ORZLQVNLDQG RQH PRQREDUDPLQ +HQQLJDQ +\EULGKHUSV %XUEULQN SXW WKHP LQWR WKHLU RZQ IDPLO\ 9LWW DQG &DOGZHOO S ,QWHUVSHFLÀF using cytochrome B analyses and suggested that K\EULGL]DWLRQ KDV EHHQ UHSRUWHG LQ Chilomeniscus WKH\ DUH D VLVWHU WD[RQ WR %RO\HULGDH 8HW] and Conopsis PDNLQJ WZR PRUH PRQREDUDPLQV LQ 7KH\KDYHDXQLTXHDQWHULRUFDQLQHOLNHWRRWKRQWKH WKLVVXEIDPLO\ +HQQLJDQ GHQWDU\ZLWKWKHK\SRWKHVL]HGIXQFWLRQRIKROGLQJ RQWRVPDOOYHUWHEUDWHSUH\ 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO 17. African Water Snake kind p. 558). Subfamily Grayiinae JHQXV Grayia, synonym Lycodonomorphus) Superfamily Colubroidea VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ 5HFHQWO\ WKLV JURXS KDV EHHQ WD[RQRPLFDOO\ updated to consist of seven families, 17 subfamilies and greater than 2500 species based on molecular DQDO\VLVDQGHYROXWLRQDU\DVVXPSWLRQV 3\URQHWDO 8HW] ,WLVDYHU\ODUJHJURXSDQGLQJUHDW WD[RQRPLF ÁX[ $Q\ LQIRUPDWLRQ GLVFXVVHG EHORZ is very tentative. In order to identify the estimated NLQGVLQWKLVFRPSOH[DQGGLYHUVHWD[RQZKDWIROORZV LVDEUHDNGRZQRIWKHIDPLOLHVDQGVXEIDPLOLHVEDVHG on molecular analysis.
Family Colubridae This family consists of seven subfamilies according WRWKHPRVWUHFHQWDQDO\VLV &KHQHWDO 3\URQ Fig. 17. Lycodonomorphus rufulus. Source: KWWS HWDO 3\URQ%XUEULQNDQG:LHQV 7KHUH HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL are venomous species in this family and they differ IURP RWKHU YHQRPRXV VQDNHV LQ WKDW WKH\ KDYH 18. Dwarf Burrowing Snake kind RSLVWKRJO\SKRXV rearward grooved) teeth that have Subfamily Calamariinae VLQJOHJURRYHVDORQJHDFKODUJHWRRWK9HQRPWUDYHOV JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ GRZQ WKHVH JURRYHV DQG LV LQMHFWHG LQ DQ RUJDQLVP when a bite is delivered. Based on molecular data 19. Hognose Snake kind DQG PXFK WD[RQRPLF XQFHUWDLQW\ NLQGV ZLOO EH 6XEIDPLO\'LSVDGLQDH delineated at the subfamily, but may be lower, and About 89 genera—742 species should be considered extremely tentative. 7/ FP LQ
16. King Snake kind Subfamily Colubrinae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³69/ P IW
Fig. 16. Lampropeltis elapsoides. Source: KWWS Fig. 18. Heterodon platirhinos. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL 40 T. Hennigan
20. Mountain Snake kind Family Lamprophiidae Subfamily Pseudoxenodontinae This family consists of seven subfamilies and 301 JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ VSHFLHV%HFDXVHVRPXFKLVXQNQRZQWKHNLQGZLOO be delineated at the subfamily, based on molecular 21. Garter Snake kind analysis, and should be considered very tentative. Subfamily Natricinae About 31 genera—220 species 23. African Rear-Fanged Snake kind 69/ FP LQ Subfamily Aparallactinae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ
24. Mole Viper kind Subfamily Atractaspidinae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ
Fig. 19. Thamnophis elegans terrestris. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL
,QWHUVSHFLÀFK\EULGL]DWLRQKDVEHHQGRFXPHQWHG DQG WZR PRQREDUDPLQV KDYH EHHQ LGHQWLÀHG Thamnophis and Nerodia +HQQLJDQ Fig. 21. Atractaspis engaddensis. Source: KWWS 2QFHWKRXJKWWREHQRQYHQRPRXVJDUWHUVQDNHV HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL produce a mild neurotoxin and have a posterior tooth. 25. African House Snake kind Subfamily Lamprophiinae 22. Neck-Band Snake kind JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ New Subfamily Scaphiodontophiinae JHQXV Scaphiodontophis)—2 species &KHQ HW DO 3\URQ HW DO 3\URQ %XUEULQNDQG:LHQV 7D[RQRP\VWLOOLQÁX[³7/ FP LQ
Fig. 20. Scaphiodontophis annulatus. Source: KWWS UHSWLOHGDWDEDVHUHSWDULXPF] 3KRWRJUDSK -DULR Fig. 22. Lamprophis fuliginosus. Source: KWWS Maldonado. HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL An Initial Estimate toward Identifying and Numbering Extant Tuatara, Amphisbaena, and Snake Kinds 41
26. African Beaked/Sand Snake kind 29. Malagasy Leaf Snake kind Subfamily Psammophiinae Subfamily Pseudoxyrhophiinae JHQHUD³ VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ 0DQ\JHQHUDDUHIRXQGLQ0DGDJDVFDU RWKHUV are found in Africa and parts of the Middle East)
Fig. 23. Psammophis trinasalis. Source: KWWS Fig. 26. Leioheterodon madagascariensis. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL 27. African Shovelsnout Snake kind Superfamily Elapoidea Subfamily Prosymninae Family Elapidae JHQXV³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ 2 Subfamilies—354 species 7KLV IDPLO\ FRQVLVWV RI YHQRPRXV VQDNHV DQG LQFOXGHWKHFREUDVNUDLWVVHDVQDNHVGHDWKDGGHUV FRUDO VQDNHV DQG DOOLHV $ FRPPRQ FKDUDFWHU WKH\ SRVVHVV LV SURWHURJO\SKRXV forward grooved) fangs ZKLFK DUH À[HG QRQKLQJHG IRUZDUG SODFHG DQG ZLWKDFORVHGFDQDOLQZKLFKYHQRPLVGLVSHQVHG LQ FRQWUDVWWRUHDU´JURRYHGµWHHWKLQFROXEULGV 6SLWWLQJ FREUDV Naja sp.) have specially designed venom DSSDUDWLWKDWHQDEOHWKHPWRÀUHYHQRPDWDGLVWDQFH and accurately hit an organism in the eyes. Some members are fully marine and ancestors could survive WKH)ORRGWKHUHIRUHDIHZZLOOQRWEHFRXQWHGDV$UN NLQGV 7KHLU PRUSKRORJ\ LV VLPLODU WR RWKHU VQDNHV Fig. 24. Prosymna ambigua. Source: KWWS UHSWLOH except for the fact that the tracheal lung is commonly GDWDEDVHUHSWDULXPF]3KRWRJUDSK .DWH-DFNVRQ present in marine species, but is absent in terrestrial RQHV 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S 7KHUHLVVRPH 28. African Mole/Keeled Snake kind disagreement as to the taxonomy of this family. Kelly Subfamily Pseudaspidinae HWDO GRLQIHUHTXLYDOHQWJURXSVZLWK3\URQHW JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ P IW DO 7KH IRUPHU VSOLWV VXSHUIDPLO\ (ODSRLGHD LQWR ÀYH IDPLOLHV $WUDFWDVSLGLGDH LQFOXGLQJ Atractaspidinae and Aparallactinae), Lamprophiidae, Prosymnidae, Psammophiidae, Pseudaspididae, 3VHXGR[\UKRSKLLGDH LQFOXGLQJ 3VHXGR[\UKRSKLLQDH DQG$PSORUKLQLQDH³8HW] 6LQFHUHODWLRQVKLSV UHPDLQ XQUHVROYHG WKH NLQG ZLOO EH WHQWDWLYHO\ delineated at the subfamily or lower.
Subfamily Hydrophiinae This taxon continues to be confusing and is made up of both terrestrial and aquatic taxa. The aquatic group is interpreted, by some, as consisting of two Fig. 25. Pseudaspis cana. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD marine clades that are well designed for living in RUJZLNL ZDWHU 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S 7KHWHUUHVWULDO 42 T. Hennigan members consist of semi-aquatic, surface feeding, VHPLDUERUHDO DQG VHPLIRVVRULDO VSHFLHV 9LWW DQG Caldwell 2009, p. 575). Based on molecular data and GHVLJQWKHWHQWDWLYHNLQGVDUHGHOLQHDWHGEHORZ
True Sea Snake kind 8 genera—62 species: Aipysurus VSHFLHV Emydocephalus VSHFLHV Ephalophis VSHFLHV Hydrelaps VSHFLHV Hydrophis VSHFLHV Kolpophis VSHFLHV Parahydrophis VSHFLHV Thalassophis VSHFLHV ³69/ P IW
Fig. 28. Laticauda colubrina. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD RUJZLNL 31. Cobra kind Subfamily Elapinae $ERXW JHQHUD DQG VSHFLHV³7/ P IW Fig. 27. Aipysurus laevis. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD RUJZLNL
7KHVHPDULQHVQDNHVDUHWRWDOO\DTXDWLFDQGKDYH shared characters that include: laterally compressed ERG\ RYRYLYLSDULW\ EDELHV DUH ERUQ LQ WKH ZDWHU KLJKO\YHQRPRXVODWHUDOO\ÁDWWHQHGSDGGOHOLNHWDLO no ventral scales, incapable of terrestrial locomotion, DQGSLVFLYRURXV 8HW] 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S *HQHUDDQGVSHFLHVZHUHLGHQWLÀHGLQRUGHU WR EUHDN GRZQ WKH VXEIDPLO\ LQWR NLQGV EDVHG RQ Fig. 29. Naja naja. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL morphology and behavioral design. Because they could have survived the Flood, they are not counted Much is still very confusing about the taxonomy DVDQ$UNNLQG RI WKLV JURXS 8QWLO IXUWKHU UHVHDUFK FODULÀHV UHODWLRQVKLSV WKH NLQG LV KHUH LGHQWLÀHG DW WKH 30. Sea Krait kind subfamily. There is a lot of variability in this JHQXV Laticauda) group and they can be found in Eurasia, Africa VSHFLHV³69/ FP LQ and the $PHULFDV 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S 6HDNUDLWVDUHGHVLJQHGWROLYHRQERWKODQGDQG :HOO NQRZQ PHPEHUV DUH WKH FREUDV FRUDO VQDNHV water. Characters include reduced ventral scales, DQGdeath adders—all of which are venomous. regularly come on land, good terrestrial locomotion, oviparity where they must lay eggs on land, some use 32. Australo-Asian Water Snake kind WKH VKRUH WR EDVN DQG GLJHVW IRRG PRUH F\OLQGULFDO Family Homalopsidae PRUSKRORJ\DQGYHQRPRXV 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ S 6R DV WR QRW XQGHUHVWLPDWH NLQGV WKH\ DUH Formerly this taxon was subfamily Homalopsinae LQFOXGHGRQWKH$UN in Colubridae. They share the following characters: An Initial Estimate toward Identifying and Numbering Extant Tuatara, Amphisbaena, and Snake Kinds 43
34. Slug Snake Kind Family Pareatidae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ
Fig. 32. Pareas margaritophorus. Source: KWWS Fig. 30. Cerberus rynchops. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL RUJZLNL From Southeast Asia, shared characters LQFOXGH YDOYXODU FUHVFHQW GRUVDO QRVWULOV GRUVDOO\ RULHQWHG blunt snout, no mental groove, and no teeth on H\HV RYRYLYLSDULW\ ODVW WZR RU WKUHH PD[LOODU\ DQWHULRU SDUW RI WKH PD[LOODU\ 9LWW DQG &DOGZHOO WHHWK JURRYHG ZLWK ZHOOGHYHORSHG YHQRP LQKDELW 2009, p. 572). VKDOORZ ZDWHU ZLWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI Brachyorrhos and Calamophis WKDW DUH VHPLIRVVRULDO WHUUHVWULDO Family Viperidae and sometimes aquatic species). Brachyorrhos has The viper family currently consists of three been inferred to be a basal taxon of Homalopsidae subfamilies and 320 species and found worldwide 0XUSK\ 0XUSK\HWDO 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO H[FHSW IRU 3DSXDXVWUDOLD DQG RFHDQLF LVODQGV 8HW] S 7KHWHQWDFOHVQDNHKDVEHHQVHSDUDWHG 9LWW DQG &DOGZHOO S &RPPRQ IURP WKLV JURXS DV D VHSDUDWH NLQG EHFDXVH RI LWV FKDUDFWHUVLQFOXGHORQJURWDWLQJVROHQRJO\SKRXV pipe unusual traits. grooved IDQJVWKDWIROGXSDJDLQVWURRIRIPRXWK YHQRP WUDYHOVWKURXJKDFORVHGFDQDO pipe groove LQWHHWK 33. The Tentacle Snake kind PRVWKDYHUREXVWERGLHVDQGWULDQJXODUKHDGV RWKHU Family Homalopsidae ERG\PRUSKRORJ\VLPLODUDVRWKHUVQDNHVH[FHSWWKDW JHQXV Erpeton) in crotalines infrared receptors capable of detecting VSHFLHV tentaculatum ³7/ FP LQ & WHPSHUDWXUH GLIIHUHQFHV RFFXU LQ ORUHDO SLWV RQ WKH IDFH ZKLFK LV ZKHUH WKH WHUP ´SLW YLSHUµ FRPHV from), and in other taxa the heat receptors are located EHQHDWKVFDOHVXUIDFHV 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S )RU WKH SXUSRVHV RI WKLV DQDO\VLV UDWWOHVQDNHV KDYH EHHQLGHQWLÀHGDVDVHSDUDWHNLQGZLWKLQ&URWDOLQDH because the rattle is a unique synapomorphy common WRERWKUDWWOHVQDNHJHQHUD
35. Fea Viper kind 6XEIDPLO\$]HPLRSLQDH JHQXV Azemiops ³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ
Fig. 31. Erpeton tentaculatum. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL 7KLV LV DQ XQXVXDO ZDWHU VQDNH IURP 7KDLODQG &DPERGLD DQG 9LHWQDP WKDW LV WKH RQO\ VQDNH WR have two tentacles on the front of its head used as PHFKDQRVHQVRUVIRUGHWHFWLQJSUH\ 8HW] 7KH\ live all their lives in water bodies that include fresh, EUDFNLVK DQG VDOWZDWHU DQG FDQ EH XQGHUZDWHU for many minutes at a time. If they are not a post Flood phenomenon, they have the capability of osmoregulating in various aquatic environments, could potentially survive the Flood, and are therefore QRWLQFOXGHGLQWKH$UNFRXQW Fig. 33. Azemiops feae. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL 44 T. Hennigan
Fea vipers are endemic from South-Central China Endemic to Africa and Eurasia, viperines do not WR%XUPDDQG9LHWQDPDQGWHQGWREHIRXQGLQPRLVW have loreal pits. Instead, infrared sensors are located PRQWDQHIRUHVWV 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S XQGHUVFDOHVXUIDFHV 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO S ,QWHUVSHFLÀFK\EULGL]DWLRQKDVEHHQUHSRUWHGLQBitis, 36. Rattlesnake kind which encompasses 17 species into one monobaramin Subfamily Crotalinae +HQQLJDQ 8HW] JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ 39. Odd-Scaled Snake kind Family Xenodermatidae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ
Fig. 34. Crotalus cerastes. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLD RUJZLNL Endemic to Southwest and southern Asia and Fig. 3. Achalinus formosanus. Source: KWWS WKH $PHULFDV WKHVH VQDNHV KDYH ZHOO GHYHORSHG HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL LQIUDUHGVHQVRUVLQWKHORUHDOSLW 9LWWDQG&DOGZHOO Formerly a colubrid subfamily, xenodermatids S ,QWHUJHQHULF K\EULGL]DWLRQ KDV EHHQ KDYH EHHQ UHFODVVLÀHG LQWR WKHLU RZQ IDPLO\ 7KH\ UHSRUWHGIRUWZRJHQHUDRIUDWWOHVQDNHV Sistrurus/ KDYH D GLVMXQFW GLVWULEXWLRQ LQ $VLD 8HW] Crotalus HQFRPSDVVLQJ VSHFLHV WKLV FRQVWLWXWHV Shared characters LQFOXGH an optic nerve exiting a monobaramin within Crotalinae and possibly a through small orbits, a unique morphology where holobaramin because the rattle is unique to this the ophthalmic nerve exits through a foramen in the JURXS +HQQLJDQ 8HW] SDULHWDO DQG JUHDWHU WKDQ PD[LOODU\ WHHWK 9LWW DQG&DOGZHOO S )RUWKLVDQDO\VLVWKHNLQG 37. Copperhead/Moccasin kind is delineated at the family because of their unique Subfamily Crotalinae morphological and molecular characters and because JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ WKHUHLVVWLOOPXFKWKDWLVQRWNQRZQ ,QWHUVSHFLÀF K\EULGL]DWLRQ ZDV UHFRUGHG in Agkistrodon VL[ VSHFLHV LQFOXGLQJ FDQWLOV Superfamily Typhlopoidea copperheads, and moccasins) constituting a V\QRQ\P6FROHFRSKLGLD PRQREDUDPLQ +HQQLJDQ 7KH VRXWKHUQ *HQHUDOO\ NQRZQ DV WKH EOLQG VQDNHV WKLV EXVKPDVWHU Lachesis muta) is the largest crotaline VXSHUIDPLO\LVFXUUHQWO\PDGHXSRIÀYHIDPLOLHVDQG DQG FDQ UHDFK OHQJWKV RI P IW 9LWW DQG two subfamilies. It is quite possible that these taxa Caldwell 2009, p. 568). may comprise a holobaramin. But, so that numbers DUH QRW XQGHUHVWLPDWHG DSSUR[LPDWH NLQGV DUH 38. Adder kind inferred below. 6XEIDPLO\9LSHULQDH JHQHUD³ VSHFLHV³7/ P IW 40. Dawn Blind Snake kind Family Anomalepididae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ (QGHPLFWR&HQWUDODQG6RXWK$PHULFDLQGLVMXQFW populations, their morphology is similar to other VQDNHVSDUWLFXODUO\RWKHUEOLQGVQDNHV,WLVSRVVLEOH WKDWWKH\DUHSDUWRIDODUJHUEOLQGVQDNHKROREDUDPLQ but they are included until a better understanding of their taxonomic relationships is elucidated and VR WKDW QXPEHUV DUH QRW XQGHUHVWLPDWHG 9LWW DQG Fig. 35. Dabioa russelii. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL Caldwell 2009, p. 554). An Initial Estimate toward Identifying and Numbering Extant Tuatara, Amphisbaena, and Snake Kinds 45
Family Leptotyphlopidae This taxon consists of two subfamilies and the NLQGVZLOOEHGHOLQHDWHGDWWKHVXEIDPLO\EDVHGRQ current molecular analysis, until there is a better understanding of their taxonomic status.
43. Thread Snake kind Subfamily Leptotyphlopinae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³69/ FP LQ
Fig. 37. Typhlophis squamosus. Source: KWWS UHSWLOH GDWDEDVHUHSWDULXPF]
41. Worm Snake kind Family Gerrhopilidae Fig. 40. Leptotyphlops humilis. Source: KWWS JHQXV Gerrhopilus: synonym Typhlops) HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ 44. Slender Blind Snake kind Subfamily Epictinae JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³69/ FP LQ
Fig. 41. Trilepida macrolepis. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL Fig. 38. Typhlops. Source: KWWS HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL 45. Malagasy Blind snake kind 42. Blind Snake kind Family Xenotyphlopidae Typhlopidae JHQXV Xenotyphlops) JHQHUD³VSHFLHV³7/ FP LQ VSHFLHV³69/ FP LQ
Conclusions The challenge of using a biblical worldview to GHWHUPLQH $UN NLQGV LV GLVWLQJXLVKLQJ LI VLPLODU FKDUDFWHUV DUH SURGXFWV RI D FRPPRQ 'HVLJQHU RU FRPPRQ DQFHVWU\ ZLWKLQ D NLQG DQG ZKHQ GLVFRQWLQXLWLHVLQGLFDWHDVHSDUDWHNLQG$OVRWKHUH DUH RYHUVLPSOLILHG EHOLHIV WKDW VQDNHV GRQ·W KDYH legs because God cursed them to eat the dust of the ground. There are many creatures that are legless Fig. 39. Ramphotyphlops braminus. Source: KWWS and slither and certainly there is more to the serpent HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL in the Garden than a mere animal. The focus of both 46 T. Hennigan
*HQHVLV DQG 5HYHODWLRQ VHHPV WR UHTXLUH WKDW &DVWRH 7$$3-GH .RQLQJ .7+DOO '&&DUG '5 ZHORRNGHHSHULQWRZKDWLVEHKLQGWKHVHUSHQWLQWKH 6FKLHOG 0. )XMLWD 53 5XJJLHUR HW DO 7KH Garden rather than have some simplistic explanation Burmese python genome reveals the molecular basis for IRUZK\VQDNHVGRQ·WKDYHOHJV H[WUHPHDGDSWDWLRQLQVQDNHVPNAS abstract retrieved from KWWS ZZZSQDVRUJFRQWHQWHDUO\ 7KHUHFHQWÀQGLQJVRI9RQNHWDO DQG&DVWRH RQ'HFHPEHU HWDO VXJJHVWV\VWHPVWKDWZHUHZRUNLQJIRU &KHQ ; 6 +XDQJ 3 *XR *5 &ROOL $1LHWR0RQWHV good before the Fall can rapidly change into systems GH 2FD /-9LWW 5$3\URQ DQG )7%XUEULQN that brought harm. The genetic mechanisms involved 8QGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI DQFLHQW LQWHUWURSLFDO in these types of rapid changes are of interest to GLVMXQFWGLVWULEXWLRQVXVLQJ$VLDQDQG1HRWURSLFDOKLQJHG creation biologists in order to better understand WHHWK VQDNHV 6LE\QRSKLV DQG 6FDSKLRGRQWRSKLV how organisms could diversify rapidly and how 6HUSHQWHV Colubridae . Molecular Phylogenetics and normal protein synthesis for metabolic processes, Evolution 66, no. 1: 254-261. typical for organism survival and function, could )LW]JHUDOG.6QDNHYHQRPFRXOGXQORFNGUXJGLVFRYHULHV genetically change in order to meet the demands of for cancer, diabetes. Medical News Today, September 20, environmental stresses in a fallen world. 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZPHGLFDOQHZVWRGD\FRP DUWLFOHVSKSRQ'HFHPEHU The fact that naturalists have a hard time +DQGZHUN % (YROXWLRQ LQ DFWLRQ /L]DUG PRYLQJ connecting all reptiles to one or a few common from eggs to live birth. National Geographic Daily ancestors suggests that they are not all related to News 6HSWHPEHU 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS QHZV one another, but instead were created separately QDWLRQDOJHRJUDSKLFFRPQHZV VFLHQFH DFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUNLQG6LPLODUELRFKHPLVWU\DFURVV DQLPDOVHYROXWLRQDXVWUDOLDOL]DUGVNLQNOLYHELUWKHJJV diverse taxa can also be interpreted as a function of RQ-XO\ KDYLQJDFRPPRQ'HVLJQHUUDWKHUWKDQEHLQJUHODWHG +D\ -06'6DUUH '0/DPEHUW )'$OOHQGRUI DQG by universal common descent. The fact that tuataras, &+'DXJKHUW\*HQHWLFGLYHUVLW\DQGWD[RQRP\ $ DPSKLVEDHQDVDQGVQDNHVDUHPDUYHORXVO\GHVLJQHG UHDVVHVVPHQWRIVSHFLHVGHVLJQDWLRQLQWXDWDUD 6SKHQRGRQ Conservation Genetics 11, no. 3:1063–1081. and are well endowed with structures that surpass 5HSWLOLD +HFKW-3UHKLVWRULFSLQVNew Scientist 165. no. 2231:12. human technology is consistent with a wise and all +HOGHU0 7DQWDOL]LQJWXDWDUDCreation 13, no. 3:24–27. powerful engineer behind their origins. 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS FUHDWLRQFRPWDQWDOL]LQJWXDWDUD RQ After carefully reviewing the molecular and 'HFHPEHU K\EULGL]DWLRQ GDWD EXW UHFRJQL]LQJ WKDW WKHUH LV +HQQLJDQ7 6QDNHVDOLYH7KHUH·VGHVLJQLQWKH&XUVH PXFK WKDW ZH GR QRW NQRZ RU HYHQ XQGHUVWDQG LW &UHDWLRQ QR ² 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS FUHDWLRQ is suggested that one extant tuatara, two extant FRPVQDNHVDOLYHRQ'HFHPEHU DPSKLVEDHQDDQGH[WDQWVQDNHNLQGVPD\KDYH Hennigan, T. 2005. An initial investigation into the EHHQ EURXJKW RQ WKH $UN 6LQFH WKHLU H[LW IURP WKH EDUDPLQRORJ\ RI VQDNHV 2UGHU³6TXDPDWD 6XERUGHU $UNWKH\KDYHGLYHUVLÀHGLQWRWKHSOHWKRUDRIVSHFLHV Serpentes. Creation Research Society Quarterly 42, no. 3:153–160. we marvel at today. No matter how many were Hennigan, T. 2013a. An initial estimate toward identifying LQFOXGHGRQWKH$UNUHSWLOHGLYHUVLW\DQGSHUVLVWHQFH DQGQXPEHULQJDPSKLELDQNLQGVZLWKLQWKHRUGHUVFDXGDWD are a reminder of an all-powerful Creator who is both and gymnophiona. Answers Research Journal 6:17–34. MXVWDQGPHUFLIXO 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZDQVZHUVLQJHQHVLVRUJDUWLFOHV DUMYQDPSKLELDQNLQGV References Hennigan, T. 2013b. An initial estimate toward identifying %DQNV&DQG7'6FKZDQHU 7ZRFDVHVRILQWHUVSHFLÀF DQG QXPEHULQJ WKH IURJ NLQGV RQ WKH $UN 2UGHU DQXUD K\EULGL]DWLRQ DPRQJ FDSWLYH $XVWUDOLDQ ERLG VQDNHV Answers Research Journal ² 5HWULHYHG IURP >3\WKRQ VSLORWHV 3\WKRQ DPHWKLVWLQXV /LDVLV PDFNORWL@ KWWS ZZZDQVZHUVLQJHQHVLVRUJDUWLFOHVDUMYQIURJ Zoo Biology 3, no. 3:221–227. NLQGVRQDUN %RRWK : '+ -RKQVRQ 6 0RRUH & 6FKDO DQG (/2 Hennigan, T. 2014. An initial estimate toward identifying and 9DUJR(YLGHQFHIRUYLDEOHQRQFORQDOEXWIDWKHUOHVV QXPEHULQJ WKH $UN WXUWOH DQG FURFRGLOH NLQGV Answers Boa constrictors. Biology LettersQR ²5HWULHYHG Research Journal ² 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZ IURP KWWS UVEOUR\DOVRFLHW\SXEOLVKLQJRUJFRQWHQW DQVZHUVLQJHQHVLVRUJDUWLFOHVDUMYQWXUWOHFURFRGLOH IXOOSGIKWPORQ'HFHPEHU NLQGV %URSK\ 75 DQG 3$ .UDPHU 3UHOLPLQDU\ UHVXOWV +ROODQG-67KHELWHWKDWKHDOVNational Geographic. from a baraminological analysis of the mole salamanders 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS QJPQDWLRQDOJHRJUDSKLF &DXGDWD $PE\VWRPDWLGDH Occasional Papers of the BSG FRPYHQRPKROODQGWH[W RQ 'HFHPEHU 10:10–24. 2013. &DVWRH7$$3-GH.RQLQJ.7+DOO.' ,8&1 The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 5DJH-&DQG)(VFXLOOLp7KH&HQRPDQLDQ 6WDJHRI 9HUVLRQ,QWHUQDWLRQDO8QLRQIRUWKH&RQVHUYDWLRQ KLQGOLPEHGVQDNHVNotebooks on Geology5HWULHYHGIURP RI 1DWXUH 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZLXFQUHGOLVWRUJ RQ KWWS SDOHRSROLVUHGLULVHVFJ&*B$B-&5)(LQGH[B 'HFHPEHU XNKWPORQ-XO\ -HQVHQ-%&'&DPS:*LEERQVDQG0-(OOLRW HGV 6DQGHUV 5: DQG .3 :LVH 7KH FRJQLWXP $ 2008. Amphibians and reptiles of Georgia. Athens, Georgia: perception-dependent concept needed in baraminology. 8QLYHUVLW\RI*HRUJLD3UHVV In Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on .HOO\&0513%DUNHU0+9LOOHWDQG'*%URDGOH\ Creationism HG 5/ ,YH\ -U SS² 3LWWVEXUJK 3K\ORJHQ\ ELRJHRJUDSK\ DQG FODVVLÀFDWLRQ RI WKH Pennsylvania: Creation Science Fellowship. VQDNHVXSHUIDPLO\(ODSRLGHD DUDSLGUDGLDWLRQLQWKHODWH 6DUIDWL-$QRWKHUOHJJ\VQDNH :KDWVKRXOGFUHDWLRQLVWV Eocene. Cladistics 25, no. 1:38–63. WKLQN" 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS FUHDWLRQFRPDQRWKHUOHJJ\ Kiwi Conservation Club. 2013. Tuatara5HWULHYHGIURPKWWS VQDNHRQ'HFHPEHU NFFRUJQ]WXDWDUDRQ'HFHPEHU 7XUQHU .- 7KH NLQGQHVV RI *RG $ WKHRORJLFDO /DZVRQ 5 -% 6ORZLQVNL DQG )7 %XUEULQN $ UHIOHFWLRQRI0vQ´NLQGµ,QCORE Issues in Creation no. 5, molecular approach to discerning the phylogenetic ed. T. C. Wood and P. A. Garner, pp. 31–64. Eugene, Oregon: SODFHPHQW RI WKH HQLJPDWLF VQDNH Xenophidion schaeferi :LSIDQG6WRFN among the Alethinophidia. Journal of Zoology 263:285–294. 8HW] 3 HG 5HSWLOH 'DWDEDVH 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZ /HH 06< 0ROHFXODU HYLGHQFH DQG PDULQH VQDNH UHSWLOHGDWDEDVHRUJGELQIRWD[DKWPO RQ 'HFHPEHU origins. Biology Letters QR ² 5HWULHYHG IURP 2013. KWWS UVEOUR\DOVRFLHW\SXEOLVKLQJRUJFRQWHQWIXOO 9LWW /- DQG -3 &DOGZHOO Herpetology: An SGIKWPORQ-XO\ introductory biology of amphibians and reptiles. 3rd ed. /LJKWQHU-./LIH GHVLJQHGE\*RGWRDGDSW5HWULHYHG Burlington, Massachusetts: Academic Press. IURP KWWS ZZZDQVZHUVLQJHQHVLVRUJDUWLFOHVDLGYQ 9RQN)-15&DVHZHOO&9+HQNHO$0+HLPEHUJ+- OLIHGHVLJQHGWRDGDSWRQ'HFHPEHU -DQVHQ5-50F&OHDU\+0(.HUNNDPSHWDO /LJKWQHU-.$QLQLWLDOHVWLPDWHRIDYLDQ$UNNLQGV 7KH NLQJ FREUD JHQRPH UHYHDOV G\QDPLF JHQH HYROXWLRQ Answers Research Journal ² 5HWULHYHG IURP DQG DGDSWDWLRQ LQ WKH VQDNH YHQRP V\VWHP PNAS KWWS ZZZDQVZHUVLQJHQHVLVRUJDUWLFOHVDUMYQDYLDQ $EVWUDFW UHWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZSQDVRUJFRQWHQW DUNNLQGV HDUO\RQ'HFHPEHU /LJKWQHU-.7+HQQLJDQ*3XUGRPDQG%+RGJH :LOFR[ 73 '- =ZLFNO 7$ +HDWK DQG '0 +LOOLV 'HWHUPLQLQJWKH$UNNLQGVAnswers Research Journal 4: 2002. Phylogenetic relationships of the dwarf boas and ²5HWULHYHGIURPKWWS ZZZDQVZHUVLQJHQHVLVRUJ a comparison of Bayesian and bootstrap measures of DUWLFOHVDUMYQDUNNLQGVÁRRGEDUDPLQRORJ\FRJQLWXP phylogenetic support. Molecular Phylogenetics and Marshall. T. 2013. The rapid evolution of cobra venom. Phys. Evolution 25, no. 2:361–371. Org 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS SK\VRUJQHZVUDSLG :LOOLDPV3- :KDWGRHVminPHDQ"CEN Tech J. 11, HYROXWLRQFREUDYHQRPKWPORQ'HFHPEHU no. 3:344–352. 0F'RZHOO6 7KHHYROXWLRQRIWKHWRQJXHRIVQDNHVDQG Wilson, G. 2010. Classic multidimensional scaling isn’t the LWVEHDULQJRQVQDNHRULJLQVBMC Evolutionary Biology 6: sine qua non RI EDUDPLQRORJ\ 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS 191–273. ZZZDQVZHUVLQJHQHVLVRUJDUWLFOHVDLGYQ FPGV 0XUSK\ -& 6\QRQ\PLVHG DQG IRUJRWWHQ WKH ELUG·V EDUDPLQRORJ\RQ'HFHPEHU KHDG VWRXWWDLOHG VQDNHV Calamophis 0H\HU 6TXDPDWD Wise, K. P. 1992. Practical baraminology. Creation Ex Nihilo Serpentes: Homalopsidae). 7KH5DIÁHV%XOOHWLQRI=RRORJ\ Technical Journal 6, no. 2:122–137. 60, no. 2:515–523. Wood, T. C. 2003. Mediated design. Impact #363. Institute for 0XUSK\ -& 0XPSXQL 5 GH /DQJ '- *RZHU DQG &UHDWLRQ 5HVHDUFK (O &DMRQ &DOLIRUQLD 5HWULHYHG IURP ./ 6DQGHUV 7KH PROXFFDQ VKRUWWDLOHG VQDNHV KWWS ZZZLFURUJLSGILPSLPSSGIRQ-XO\ of the genus Brachyorrhos .XKO 6TXDPDWD 6HUSHQWHV :RRG 7&.3:LVH 5 6DQGHUV DQG 1 'RUDQ $ Homalopsidae), and the status of Calamophis Meyer. The UHÀQHG EDUDPLQ FRQFHSW Occasional Papers of the BSG 5DIÁHV%XOOHWLQRI=RRORJ\ 60, no. 2:501–514. 3:1–14. 3RXJK )+50$QGUHZV -(&DGOH 0/&UXPS $+ Wood, T. C. 2006a. The current status of baraminology. 6DYLWVN\DQG.':HOOVHerpetologyUGHG8SSHU Creation Research Society Quarterly 43, no. 3:149–158. 6DGGOH5LYHU1HZ-HUVH\ 3HDUVRQ3UHQWLFH+DOO :RRG 7& E 6WDWLVWLFDO EDUDPLQRORJ\ ZRUNERRN 3\URQ5$)7%XUEULQN*5&ROOL$10RQWHVGH2FD 8QSXEOLVKHG ZRUNERRN SUHVHQWHG DW ZRUNVKRS GXULQJ /- 9LWW &$ .XF]\QVNL DQG -- :LHQV 7KH WKH %6* FRQIHUHQFH -XQH /LEHUW\ 8QLYHUVLW\ SK\ORJHQ\RIDGYDQFHGVQDNHV &ROXEURLGHD ZLWKGLVFRYHU\ /\QFKEXUJ9LUJLQLD of a new subfamily and comparison of support methods for :RRGPRUDSSH- Noah’s Ark: A feasibility study. Santee, OLNHOLKRRGWUHHVMolecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 58, &DOLIRUQLD ,QVWLWXWHIRU&UHDWLRQ5HVHDUFK no. 2:329–342. 3\URQ5$)7%XUEULQNDQG--:LHQV$SK\ORJHQ\ DQG UHYLVHG FODVVLÀFDWLRQ RI 6TXDPDWD LQFOXGLQJ VSHFLHV RI OL]DUGV DQG VQDNHV BMC Evolutionary Biology 13:93. 48