192 TAXONOi1"IlC PROCEDURE PREPAR,1TION 01" TAXONOJf IC J>.ll'EUS to the method of reproduction which will ultimately be utilized in publi·'.' hooks or manuals have been published on the subject, among which may cation, since this affects both the techniques to be followed and the cost of he mentioned Ridgway (1938), Kuhl (1949), and Cannon (1936). preparation and publication. Pencil sketches should be made with a soft pencil, and bilaterally Technique in drM1,ing is largely a penmnal matter, depending on the symmetrical animals should be "corrected" for symmetry by tracing one ability and training of the individual. A scientist is fortunate if he half on the other with thin semitransparent paper. The original outline may be obtained by freehand sketching but, at ~ Delete and close up ~1 En dash least with microscopically small organisms, can be done more quickly and accurately by one or another mechanical means. Perhaps the most popu­ 0 Reverse ;I Insert semicolon .... lar of these devices is the camera lucida, which, by means of prisms and a .... Close up (i) Insert colon mirror, projects the microscope image on a piece of paper. With this ~ Insert space 0 Insert period 'II Paragraph ?I Insert interrogation point 0 Indent one em (i) Query to author ( Move to left " Use ligature J Move to right. G Spell out LI Lower Transpose A B c n Elevate """~Wrong font ~·w. 42. Simple types of shading: A, pseudo stipple; B, stipple: C, lines (reprintedfro11t Insert marginal addition ~ Set in~ type '/'he Principles of Systematic Entomology, by Gordon Ployd FerriN, with permission of !hf' author and the publishers, Stanford University Press). '\JI\" Even space ~ Set in{Oma!i}type apparatus it is possible to look in the microscope and see the specimen x Broken letter .ito! Set in~ type superimposed on the reflection of the paper. By careful adjustment of ' Push down space CAf6 Set in CAPITALS the light, it is possible to draw an outline with the specimen and the pencil point both clearly in view. Another method of obtaining the out­ ._"' Straighten line SC.. Set in SMALL CAPIT~ line is the direct projection of an image on a screen or paper by a micro­ \\ Align type ic, Set in lower case projector attached to the microscope. Still another technique is to A Insert comma ~ Lower-case letter photograph the specimen and print an enlargement on a dull mat paper. The outline can be inked directly on the photograph, after which the ~ Insert apostrophe ~ Let it stand photographic emulsion can be washed off. Some workers prefer to sketch 'VJ Insert quotes 'Y\Dqi Run in same paragraph freehand on a crosshatched paper, guided by a grid in the ocular of the ;f Hyphen .tel.) Insert lead between lines microscope. The preliminary sketches should be checked for accuracy of pro­ ~1 Emdash ~!t Hair space between letters portion and then transferred to the final drawing paper. A hard-surface Fm. 41. Proofreaders' marh. \\'hite paper is best for black-and-white line drawings, but various sur­ faced papers may be used for special purposes. Chalk-surface "stipple happens to be endowed with talent as an artist. However, the scient~st hoards" are especially useful when shading is desired, soft carbon pencils who lacks artistic talent need not be di;;couraged, because clear-cut dia­ or black wax crayons being used to obtain the desired effects. High grammatic drawings are perfectly satisfactory and, in :;ome ca"es, superi~r .. ·· lights may be shown on chalk-'surface papers by simply scraping an area. to artistic drawings for scientific purposes. Ferris (1928) has called this : Pens of various styles may be used, depending on the strength of line type of drawing drafting and expresses the opinion that any conscientious'· desired and on the preference of the illustrator. scientist ran learn to make satisfactory drawings of this kind. Several Line drawings are made with black India ink. The lines should be I L 194 TAXONOMIC PROCEDURE PREPARATION OF TAXONOMIC PAPERS 195 firm and even-not scratched-and should be heavier on the lower right , pencil, using a soft stub, or by brushing on various dilutions of India ink. side of the drawing (assuming that the light source is from the upper left) . In either case a very different type of drawing results which must be to indic,ate depth and contour (Fig. 43). Convexity may also be indicated reproduced as a halftone or fulltone, like a photograph. Details of by short crosslines on the side away from the light (Fig. 44). mounting and labeling halftones will be given later. More elaborate shading may be rendered by stipple or parallel lines, Photographs are generally less effective than drawings because of lack but this requires more artistic ability and should not be attempted with­ of contrast and dimension. However, they do serve to portray general out considerable practice. If stippling is to be done, it should be even, facies or habitus, and they are indispensable for portraying the habitat of not irregularly speckled, the variations in tone being due to spacing rather , a given species and other biological features. Photographs should be specific, i.e., concentrated on the portrayal of one object. They should show as much contrast as· possible, and they must not be dull or blurred. 000 Frn. 44. Riptortus tutuilensis China; lateral view.of head and thorax (China, 1930) For best reproduction, photographs to be shown on the same plate should have similar backgrounds and should be similar in tone, both for esthetic reasons and because the engraver cannot make a satisfactory plate if the 000 photographs are uneven in tone. If for any reason photographs are not up to standard, they may be improved somewhat by careful retouching. This is a delicate operation and should not be undertaken without consi­ Frn. 43. Diagrams showing the effect of conventionalized shading as employed by' derable experience. A mat print is made, and soft pencil mechanical draftsmen (reprinted from The Principles of Systematic Entomology, by : is employed to Gordon Floyd Ferris, with the permission of the author strengthen lines or emphasize certain points. Then the retouched photo­ and of the publishers, Stanford ,1 University Press). graph is rephotographed and printed on glossy paper or, in some cases, may be used directly. than size of dots. Lines are also useful for shading but require great care. Halftone drawings or retouched photographs should be protected by a In every case, individual drawings should be made one and one half to two tissue-paper cover to prevent rubbing. times larger than final size, because minor imperfections in line and stipple ; Colored illustrations are strictly in the realm of works of art and, as are deemphasized by reduction (Fig. 42). such, should be left to the skilled artist or scientist-illustrator. No Transparent stipple paper is available commercially with various sizes general rules are given here, because so much depends on the skill of the of dots, crosshatching, and lines. These papers may be pressed onto , artist. A recent development along this line is the production of color drawings and trimmed to fit a given space, thus automatically providing prints by photography. In the future this method may be exploited a uniform tone. This technique is especially useful for distribution maps, , more fully; it has already proved useful for illustrations of butterflies. which, incidentally, are handled exactly like line drawings. - Drawings are most frequently reproduced either as zinc etchings or More delicate shading is accomplished by rubbing on tones of carbon halftones or by photolithography. Zinc etchings are produced by 106 T.L\"O.VOMIC PROCEDURE PREPARATION OF TAXONOMIC PAPERS 19i photographing the illustration on zinc and etching away the background' Hoom must be allowed at the bottom of the page for the legend. Figure with acid. It is the least expensive method of reproduction and is. numbers, letters, abbreviations, etc., should be put on neatly. In order especially satisfactory for line drawings, graphs, charts, .etc. Halftones to be legible, letters should be 1Y2 or 2 X 716 in. or %z in. high, depend­ are screened and broken up into tiny dots, so that white areas appear ing on the amount of reduction. Freehand lettering is rarely satisfactory. gray. The method is more costly than zinc etchings but shows greater.· ~umbers and letters may be clipped from old calenders or standard detail and more delicate shading. If desired, the background may be ·· ('haracters printed on gummed paper, or they may be made by various routed out, as in zinc etching, but this still further increases the cost. mechanical lettering guides. The editor, when determining the amount of In photolithography the illustration is photographed on gelatine and isi·.. reduction, is limited by the size of the page, the need for captions, and ~~~~-~-----~D1 other considerations and is therefore often not in a position to follow the instructions of the author. This is particularly true in the case of large figures. Magnification or reduction should therefore not be stated on the figures themselves, but rather in the captions. Where many illustrations are to be utilized, grouping is often required for economical reproduction. For zinc etchings, dra"·ings may be assem­ ,__ ______~ c, bled into plates by merely arranging and pasting on a cardboard sheet. Colorless paste or rubber cement should be used. The paper edges of indi­ \·idual drawings will not show. For halftones, however, trimmed edges will ;;how, and when several drawings are to be fitted together for a plate, a mechanical paper cutter should be used for trimming. Slight discolora­ tions, especially when yellowish, also become conspicuous in reproduction.