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MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHI and JAWAHARLAL NEHRU: a CONCISE COMPARATIVE STUDY Mir Z

MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHI and JAWAHARLAL NEHRU: a CONCISE COMPARATIVE STUDY Mir Z

J. S. Asian Stud. 04 (03) 2016. 69-79

Available Online at ESci Journals Journal of South Asian Studies ISSN: 2307-4000 (Online), 2308-7846 (Print) http://www.escijournals.net/JSAS

MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND AND : A CONCISE COMPARATIVE STUDY Mir Z. Husain*, Department of Political Science, University of South Alabama, Alabama, of America.

A B S T R A C T

India was fortunate to have the charismatic and enlightened leadership of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. While these two legendary Indian leaders shared a few similarities, in most respects, they were very different. was one of the principal leaders of the Indian nationalist movement against British colonial rule, the father of the Indian , and one of the most successful and well-known practitioners of active, non-violent . His political strategy was emulated by King Jr. during the American Civil Movement, feminists, environmentalists, and countless students and workers demonstrating for democratization all over the world. In contrast, Nehru was the architect of Indian , rapid modernization, and one of the founding fathers of the Non-Aligned Movement. This paper compares these two famous figures from the developing world through a concise essay and unique table. Keywords: ; Congress Party, Fabian , , Idealist, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Nai taleem, , .

INTRODUCTION wisdom (Ali, 1985). Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (popularly known as Both leaders were born in in the second half of the Mahatma Gandhi) and Jawaharlal Nehru profoundly nineteenth century. Gandhi was born on 2, 1869 impacted the Indian subcontinent and the entire world to a middle class family. He was the fourth son born to during the twentieth century. While they shared some his father’s fourth wife. His father served as the chief similarities, these two famous Indian leaders were very minister to the raja (ruler) of , a coastal town different men whose lives took very different paths. located in northwestern India, which is in the modern- Gandhi’s and Nehru’s Hindu followers gave both leaders day State of (Fisher, 1954). Gandhi’s mother, a honorary titles. Rabindarnak Tagore, the Bengali devout Hindu who frequently prayed and fasted, Hindu author, artist, and musician who received the instilled in her children, along with 1913 for Literature, gave Gandhi the and a respect for all living things. She was reverential title of mahatma, or “great soul” (Dhussa, of the sect of Vaishnavist Hinduism, which 2012). Even though Gandhi himself was embarrassed, syncretically combined elements of Hindu and Muslim rather than honored, by the title, India’s prophet of non- practices and advocated and is better known to this day as Mahatma Gandhi, harmony, that were incredibly formative for the rather than his birth name of Mohandas Karamchand young Gandhi. At that time, the Jain tradition was also Gandhi (Parel, 2006). Similarly, Nehru was given the particularly influential in Porbander, and the Jain title of pandit (learned or enlightened teacher) concepts of ahimsa (non-injury) and the many-sided because of his advanced education, knowledge, and nature of affected the impressionable young * Corresponding Author: Mohandas (Rynne, 2008). Gandhi himself was a Email ID:

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“grocer” in the Hindi language. It was quite remarkable Both leaders had influential experiences while living for Gandhi, who came from the third caste, to be revered outside of India. In 1893, when Gandhi first went to later in life by even by and Kshatriyas , he experienced a humiliating instance of (Wolfenstein, 1971). racial discrimination. He was forcibly expelled from a Nehru was an only child who was born into privilege on train, simply because he was sitting in the first-class , 1889. His father, , was a compartment, which was reserved for whites only. This prominent and affluent attorney who gave his only child incident hurt his pride, dignity, and self-esteem, and an Anglicized upbringing. Nehru’s mother, a devout helped transform him into a leader of the non-violent Hindu, frequently subjected her young son to rituals civil rights struggle for his Indian comrades in South designed to ward off the evil eye. However, she had far Africa (Fischer, 1954). In contrast, while in England, less influence over him than his secular, educated, Nehru was profoundly influenced by his visit to British- successful, and prosperous father (Tharoor, 2003). controlled Ireland, which, like India, had been brutally Indeed, after becoming India’s first Prime Minister in colonized. The Irish nationalist struggle of the Sinn Fein 1947, Nehru described himself as “the last Englishman movement and Ireland's calls to British trade to rule India” (Nilekani, 2008). By virtue of his largely goods significantly influenced the young Nehru to Westernized and areligious upbringing, Nehru was a aggressively pursue India’s independence from British non-practicing Hindu despite belonging to the priestly colonial rule (Ali, 1985; Tharoor, 2003). caste (Ali, 1985). In his early thirties, when Gandhi looked back on his Gandhi was an average student and received his primary teenage years, he honestly admitted that he had been a and secondary education in India (Parekh, 2010). Nehru, domineering, jealous, and cruel husband. However, after who was younger, received private tutoring in his home the Boer War in South Africa (1899-1902), in which the until he was sixteen, at which point he continued his British used machine guns to massacre the Zulus, Gandhi studies at the prestigious in England. became an advocate of , women’s Both Gandhi and Nehru pursued their higher education emancipation and the equality of the sexes. Perhaps as a in England, studying law. Gandhi received his law degree result of those experiences, Gandhi remained faithful to from the in 1891 and immediately his wife throughout their marriage. Indeed, during returned to India as a qualified . However, his India’s independence movement, Gandhi’s wife was his legal career in India was undistinguished and short- only family member to support him, even as his sons and lived. Sixteen months later, he accepted a job as a tax his extended family remained uninvolved. While Gandhi accountant for a Muslim businessman in South Africa, narrowly escaped the sexual temptations of life in where Gandhi lived for over twenty years, before England, Nehru engaged in pre-marital affairs while returning to India in 1915 (Isaak, 1975; Parekh, 2010). studying there (Parekh, 2010). Although he consented to Beginning in 1907, Nehru attended Trinity College at marry Kamila in an , he did not prefer Cambridge University, where he received a Natural or support this traditional system of matrimony. Science degree. He then continued his education at law Ironically, when his daughter, Indira, wanted to marry school, becoming a qualified barrister at the Inner (no relation to the Mahatma) in a Temple in London. The seven years Nehru spent in marriage based on love and not arranged, Nehru initially England proved to be a formative period in which he opposed the union because Feroze was a Parsi acquired a rational (though skeptical) worldview, also (Zoroastrian) and not a Hindu, but later reluctantly sampling Fabian socialism and Irish (Ali, relented and attended the wedding. Nehru, like Gandhi, 1985). This experience helped to reinforce and renew provided a strong voice for women’s equality in India’s his patriotic dedication. Nehru, like his mentor Gandhi, burgeoning democracy, and vocally supported the returned to India in 1912 and sought a legal career. Like women in his family (mother, sisters, wife, and many lawyers in India at the time, Nehru was swept up daughter) in their active involvement in India’s in nationalist , and served as a delegate, and later nationalist movement and political arena (Mukherjee, in 1929, as president of the 1993; Ali, 198). Later, in 1955, as the political leader of (Goha, 2014). independent India, Nehru pushed legislation to give

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Hindu women inheritance and divorce rights, which had exploitation ended with warm smiles and hearty never been granted them in India before (Guha, 2011). handshakes” (Keay, 2000). Gandhi also had a relatively Another commonality between these leaders was their friendly relationship with the Mountbattens, a rapport ability to write effectively, which was enhanced by their that would be essential during the turbulent time around voracious reading. Both men utilized their time spent in Indo-Pakistani . prison to hone their already considerable talent. Gandhi, Gandhi returned to India from South Africa at the age of however, wrote and published more works than Nehru. 45 and four years later resolved to free India from Gandhi’s literary contributions include: Autobiography: British colonial rule, a determination based upon his The Story of My Experiments with Truth (1925); Hind personal experiences and travels throughout India. Swaraj (1921); Mahatma Gandhi, His Life, Writings and Gandhi believed each individual had a responsibility to Speeches (1918); Satyagraha (1951); Towards Non- actively participate in improving one’s community. He Violent Socialism (1951); and, in 1922, , 3 further denounced the trappings of a powerful central Volumes of collected contributions (1922) (Ashe, 1969). , which engaged in economic transformation Nehru’s most prominent works are Glimpses of World and social engineering. Just as the American Anti- , which was published in 1935 (Sheean, 1954); Federalists of the late eighteenth century called for Autobiography (1936); and Discovery of India, published decentralizing economic, political, and social power, as in 1946 (Ali, 1969). well as authority, Gandhi also insisted that individuals be When he was thirty six, Gandhi adopted allowed to assume control of their own lives. Gandhi practice of brahmacharya, which refers to being mindful believed that avoids corrupting of one’s thoughts, speech, and deeds at all times, as well influences and the concentration of power and wealth, as sexual abstinence. Gandhi believed that kama, or which would lead to greater independence, freedom, and sexual energy, is a vital force, essential for physical democracy (Gandhi, 2009). A large centralized strength, as well as mental and spiritual energy. Gandhi government was incompatible with Gandhi’s theory of believed losing kama through sexual activity contributes swaraj (self-rule), or local autonomy and self-sufficiency, to problems both spiritually and physically. Gandhi along with individual and states’ rights (Brown, 1953). advocated total celibacy as an , or adarsiya, though However, Gandhi’s younger counterpart, Nehru, had a he did note that it was not feasible for every individual. philosophy centered on a strong central government At the minimum, however, Gandhi asserted that staffed by educated and competent technocrats. Nehru everyone should practice within marriage, believed this approach would yield rapid economic and which was an essential part of healthy spiritual social change and unite the heterogeneous country development (Parel, 2006). Nehru, on the other hand, (Smith, 1966). Nehru wanted to use this well-staffed believed that Gandhi was absolutely wrong about sexual bureaucracy to create a carefully-controlled private abstinence. In Nehru’s opinion, abstinence was sector, thus minimizing the vagaries of an unstable unnatural because it inhibited one’s own instincts, which marketplace and allowing the country to achieve could result in frustrations that, over time, would industrialization and modernization as quickly as contribute to physical, psychological, and emotional possible (Tharoor, 2003). These technocrats would be complications (Grenire, 1983). Additionally, after responsible for national economic planning and rapidly Nehru’s wife died in her mid-30s due to tuberculosis, he modernizing the entire country. In these regards, Nehru remained a bachelor for the rest of his life, though he did was akin to the Federalists and Gandhi the anti- have several affairs. Circumstantial evidence even Federalists of late-1780s America. suggests Nehru had a triste with Edwina Mountbatten, Furthermore, Gandhi’s socioeconomic and political the wife of Louis Mountbatten, the last British of ideology of swaraj, wherein liberty and power reside India (Whitehead, 1998; Tharoor, 2003). Regardless of within each individual and not the British centralized the nature of Nehru’s personal relationship with Edwina, colonial government, asserted that a large government the political relationship between Nehru and the bureaucracy, and even a , Mountbattens was of supreme political importance would be unnecessary if Indians became their own during the process of Indian independence and Partition. rulers. A moderate and idealistic reformer, Gandhi Indeed, because of this, “two hundred years of colonial believed the most basic human tendency was to build a

71 J. S. Asian Stud. 04 (03) 2016. 69-79 democratic and classless with no political sophisticated, energy-intensive, and labor-saving parties. In this respect, Gandhi identified with left-wing machinery. Unlike Gandhi, Nehru was a modernizer, who Socialists/Marxists, who called for the equal distribution was determined to undermine Indian , of wealth. Unlike Marxists, however, Gandhi vehemently traditionalism, and religiosity. In this regard, Nehru opposed using violence to attain equality, and as such, played a far more influential role than Gandhi in shaping India’s communist community, for their part, India’s modern-day India (Shaffer, 2005; Norton, 1984). Unlike communists viewed the Bolshevik Gandhi Nehru’s economic vision for India has been romantically (as the reality of its atrocities had not yet realized. As Prime Minister from 1947 to 1964, Nehru become public knowledge) and saw Gandhi’s political created a tightly regulated economy that was managed methods, particularly satyagraha, as a deliberate by a large bureaucracy and a planning commission that impediment to violent revolution (Guha, 2014a). Gandhi, instituted Soviet-style five-year plans. This Nehruvian however, genuinely empathized with the plight of India’s economic vision continued to dominate Indian economic impoverished masses and fought to implement a more policy into the 1990s (Sanyal, 2008). equitable, if naïve, economic order. On the other hand, Gandhi naively believed that revolutionary Indian Nehru asserted that Gandhi’s conception of swaraj was leaders would inspire capitalists and landlords to utopian and completely unrealistic. Indeed, Nehru become less greedy and exploitative. If Indian leadership believed that if swaraj was realized, more harm would set the correct example, he believed that landowners be done than good. The Westernized Prime Minister would pay their employees and peasants better wages. believed India should have a highly-developed Above all, he was confident that they would make democratic political system with a large government and considerable contributions to society in the form of representative democracy if it was to compete and more goods and services, as well as the formation of develop alongside European powers (Mukhaerjee, humanitarian institutions. Gandhi further believed 1993). communal living () would unite people from all Gandhi wanted Indian society to remain traditional and different classes, professions, religions, and Hindu predominantly agrarian, wherein peasants and farmers (Brown, 1953; Crocker, 1966). used relatively small, indigenously-produced, energy- On the other hand, Nehru was a principled pragmatist, a saving, and labor-intensive technology on their farms. realist, and above all, a Fabian socialist (named after the He was proud of Indian civilization and culture, and Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus, famous for his viewed the subcontinent’s past in a decidedly positive delay tactics). In 1884, a group of left-wing British light, which he believed could be seriously undermined intellectuals established the first (Ali, by rapid modernization and Westernization. Gandhi also 1985). Around the turn of the nineteenth century, a few believed that the rapid industrialization and members of this Fabian Society formed the British Labor urbanization of society would make life so hectic that Party. The party’s main agenda is to advocate peaceful there would no longer be time for prayer or family, both and gradual progress toward socialism through the essential components of one’s individual spiritual democratic process. Judged by today’s standards, little development. Even though both Gandhi and Nehru distinguishes Fabian Socialists from other Social assiduously struggled to free India from British Democrats within the Labor Party. As its title suggests, , Gandhi opposed economic modernization. the Fabian Society has always believed that the road to Nehru, on the other hand, wanted to aggressively socialism is a very long and difficult one. industrialize, urbanize, and modernize India, so that its Nehru’s admiration for Socialism originated with the traditional society could catch up with the developed socialist experiments in the and then the Western world he was openly enamored with. Nehru People’s Republic of (PRC). He extended his firmly believed that for India to have been so easily admiration for the Chinese Communists after they subjugated by European powers its society must have assumed power in 1949 because he believed India and been inferior in some essential way, which Nehru China should be good neighbors and maintain fraternal believed came from stagnant scientific and industrial relations as they were two of the most populous and development (Tharoor, 2003). To achieve these goals, influential Asian countries. In , Nehru was Nehru wanted to build and import modern, stunned when Chinese Communist radicals in Mao’s

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China ordered the Chinese People’s Liberation Army worshippers (Ashe, 1969; , 1958). In an interview (PLA) to attack northwestern India. This attack occurred some years after Gandhi’s death, Nehru asserted that at precisely the same time that the U.S. and Soviet Union while Gandhi “used the mildest language” he was were preoccupied with the Cuban Missile Crisis, actually “made of steel,” which reflects the deep personal precluding their aid or involvement (Ali, 1985). admiration that Nehru felt for his mentor, despite their Gandhi, on the other hand, was a classic idealist, paying often differing perspectives (Guha, 2014b). great attention to both the ends and the means of his Gandhi was also Nehru’s (enlightened teacher), and actions. He believed the methods by which one achieved both Indian nationalists detested and demonstrated one’s political goals must always be morally righteous. against Western imperialism and . No goal, however noble, should be achieved through Consequently, their multiple imprisonments totaled over violence, as this would poison the results (Parekh, nine years for each leader (Ali, 1985). Successful 2010). It is no wonder that Gandhi, who abhorred the leadership inspired nationalist leaders and movements use of violence in the name of change, has been called in their struggles for independence against European the father of active non-violent . Two colonial rule. words, ahimsa (love force) and satyagraha Gandhi successfully used Hindu symbolism and rhetoric (truth force), were often part of his message. Ultimately, to mobilize the masses. The cow, which consider Gandhi relied on the forces of ahimsa and satyagraha to sacred, became the symbol of his Congress Party. His prevail over his adversaries, regardless of their power other spiritual message included several essential and interests (Hall, 1929). concepts around which many of his actions revolved. Gandhi and Nehru, both socialistically oriented, wanted Perhaps most central was his conception of ahimsa, or to end poverty, inequality, and injustice in India. non-violence. This is a concept common to several South However, Gandhi was a devout Hindu, while Nehru was Asian religious traditions, perhaps most famously a secular agnostic. Injustice and discrimination , whose ascetics are known to carry brooms to experienced by the lowest-ranked communities in the brush aside insects so as to avoid harming them. For classical caste system—referred to by Europeans as Gandhi, however, the common conception of ahimsa was “outcastes” and “untouchables,” but by the Indian too inactive, and, inspired his own Western education government as “scheduled castes,” and “” (the and the writings of Tolstoy, he drew from the Christian broken or oppressed ones) made them want to notion of caritas, or charity, to help formulate his more undertake far-reaching reforms. Gandhi referred to dynamic philosophy. Gandhi’s ahimsa required these “untouchables” as harijans, or “children of god.” He adherents to resist violence through non-violent means made a concerted effort to include them in his communal (the basis of satyagraha) and to love one’s , ashrams and helped some of them attend Hindu temples. which was eloquently espoused by Jesus Christ two- Gandhi also encouraged the upper castes to treat thousand years ago (Parel, 2006; Parekh, 2010). members of the lower castes with kindness and His other notable spiritual practices included not talking generosity. Conversely, Nehru considered the caste for one day each week, in order to remember and system an anachronism and a major hindrance to the become closer to God. He also undertook periodic development of a modern and secular society. He for self-purification, to unite his followers, and to bring envisioned an independent, free, and modern India that attention to critically important issues, like the savage would transform into a socialist republic, without castes, communal violence of India’s Partition, during which and eventually, the class system (Shirer, 1982; Norton, Gandhi fasted nearly unto death to stop the violence 1984). (Mehta, 1977). Above all, Gandhi believed that Despite vast differences in their religious outlooks, both spirituality was inseparable from positive political leaders worked together closely and amicably. Nehru action, and the measure of a spiritual and religious called Gandhi (father) and “the soul of India.” tradition was its ability to promote , non-violence, Gandhi regarded Nehru as his protégé and heir. and (Parel, 2006). Gandhi further believed that Sometimes, Gandhi’s ardent religious supporters ahimsa had to be practiced not just politically and objected to Nehru’s atheism, but Gandhi believed that socially, but also in one’s relationship with the Jawaharlal was nearer to God than many professed environment. According to him, man is the caretaker of

73 J. S. Asian Stud. 04 (03) 2016. 69-79 the natural world. Furthermore, animal life, like its (unifying India’s diverse population), and modernization human counterpart, has a divine nature. While (Shaffer, 2005). maintaining human survival and civilization requires As an idealist, Gandhi was a passionate advocate of violence, a fact that deeply disturbed the Mahatma, he ahimsa (nonviolence). He believed that violence was believed that nature should only be disturbed by only acceptable when one was being attacked and one’s humans when absolutely necessary and then only with life was in imminent danger. While Nehru also accepted great regret (Parekh, 2010). the of ahimsa, in theory, he was a realist who felt Conversely, Nehru, having been raised as an Anglicized the world was a dangerous place in which one’s enemies Indian, did not share Gandhi’s religious worldview or should not be trusted. Therefore, he believed people behavior. Nehru adhered to the British democratic must be prepared to engage in violence to avoid being political tradition of , which is based on the enslaved. For Nehru, violence was bad, but slavery was separation of religion and politics (Smith, 1966). Nehru far worse (Ali, 1985; Norton, 1984). Gandhi was the considered Mahatma Gandhi’s orthodox Hindu ideas and father of active, non-violent, civil disobedience, which ideals to be a volatile mix of religion and politics. Nehru later became a strategy adopted by mass populations for believed orthodox Hinduism would slow the growth of progressive change. This form of peaceful was the nationalist movement, thereby undermining rapid not only seen in India, but also emulated by other modernization after it gained its independence. In fact, nationalists and civil rights leaders throughout the Nehru was particularly concerned about religio-political world. Nehru is considered the father of India’s extremism, which could quickly contribute to inter- democratic political system and one of the leaders religious conflict and endanger India’s future unity and responsible for founding the Non-Aligned Movement harmony (Smith, 1966). (Shaffer, 2005). Not fond of performing administrative duties, Gandhi Gandhi and Nehru shared a concern for furthering served as President of the Indian Congress Party for just education in India, where much of the rural population one year in 1925. This was the only official position he did not receive even the most basic access to schooling. ever held within either the Indian independence In the early twentieth century, the British educational movement or the Congress Party. Unlike Gandhi, Nehru system in India only benefited the most affluent of demonstrated a great talent for administration during Indians, and the literacy rate is thought to have been as his time in office. In contrast, Nehru began serving as the low as 17% (Rai, 2007). Gandhi asserted the notion of President of the Indian Congress Party in 1929 and Nai Taleem (New Education) or basic and free education continued to serve in that capacity after assuming office for all, as a fundamental part of India’s development. as the in 1948. He held this Gandhi viewed education as essential for each position for 17 consecutive years. (Manor, 1993; individual’s mental and spiritual development. He also Tharoor, 2003). saw it as a lifelong process that began with formal Gandhi was an effective agitator and an astute, elementary schooling. For Gandhi, education was a charismatic, and populist politician. Despite disliking character-building exercise that made the student into administrative responsibilities, Gandhi transformed the an ethical and moral human being, rather than simply relatively small and elitist Indian Congress Party into a being an activity through which one attained mass movement, when he became its revolutionary information and knowledge. Through basic education, leader in 1921. Nehru, on the other hand, was an Gandhi wanted to transform children in rural areas into effective and competent administrator. He had an innate model villagers. He also wanted Indian children and talent for building social and political institutions and adults from and cities to appreciate and adopt all effectively governing them. Thanks to Nehru’s that was best and lasting in Indian civilization. To drive enlightened, charismatic, pragmatic, and competent this change of focus, Gandhi’s educational system would leadership, India ratified a secular constitution in 1950 specialize in providing better farming techniques, and developed strong democratic institutions. Nehru studying and practicing health and hygiene, and was also responsible for India’s rapid state-building developing cottage industries that focused on (developing governmental institutions), nation-building handicrafts (Allen, 2008; Parel, 2009; Gandhi, 2009).

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Nehru, on the other hand, greatly admired and beliefs and values. For instance, they respected their supported education in the sciences, and gave followers’ right to participate in matters that would considerable support to their growth and development affect their own lives. Democratic leadership, as we in India. As prime minister, he was responsible for the know it, is based on the acceptance that members of a founding of the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), group have an essential dignity, with an agreement of which became a source of immense pride for the not only cooperation, but also in having their input country. To the present, the IITs are some of the most heard. prestigious institutions for science, technology, Gandhi and Nehru were both outstanding statesmen. engineering, mathematics, and medicine in the entire Statesmen are leaders with far-reaching vision, immense world. IIT graduates are now leaders in technological courage, and great wisdom. While, politicians, the fields both in India and abroad, thanks to Nehru’s statesmen’s counterpart, are known for selfishness, lifelong leadership and support (Tharoor, 2007). short-term interests, narrow partisanship, and an Gandhi was not only a theoretician, but also a obsession with winning the next election. However, practitioner and a tactical politician, who was keenly statesmen, like Gandhi and Nehru, generally avoid aware of short-term impacts, and yet never lost sight of divisive partisanship, think beyond the election cycle, do his ultimate goal. Accordingly, he was regarded as a not require constant polling to inform their decisions, strategist and statesman with a clear vision. However, and often focus on the long-term goals and interests of Gandhi felt it was more important to be remembered as the country, their countrymen, and the world. For these a peaceful visionary. The Indian Congress Party's reasons, many believe Gandhi and Nehru were political continued growth came due to Gandhi's tireless efforts, giants who achieved enormous power, influence, and which ultimately enabled India to overthrow British status, not only within India, but also on the world stage. colonialism. They both assumed their positions by forcing a reluctant Nehru was a modernizer, while Gandhi was a Britain to peacefully abandon India as a colonial traditionalist and nativist, who was proud of his acquisition. India’s liberation was the beginning of the country’s long history and civilization. Hopeful that India end for other European colonial empires in Asia and would maintain its traditional lifestyle, Gandhi Africa as well. The impact and significance of Gandhi’s promoted the use of small scale technology and simple and Nehru’s accomplishments afforded them a place tools, such as the spinning wheel, in order to support among the most influential political leaders who shaped cottage industries. Nehru, on the other hand, disagreed the twentieth century. with Gandhi’s austerity. He believed India needed to Gandhi and Nehru were great political strategists and encourage rapidly modernizing its science, technology, tacticians as well. The concept of strategy is derived agriculture, industry, and defense. Nehru firmly believed from the Greek word for “generalship,” a broad plan of that only socialism and rapid modernization (especially conduct or action, which is a consciously arrived-at set industrialization and urbanization), could remedy the of operations within an integrated whole for solving country’s pervasive poverty and low standard of living problems and achieving goals. Gandhi and Nehru (Ali, 1985; Shaffer, 2005). adopted active, non-violent civil disobedience over the The best political leaders combine the qualities of a 27 years it took to peacefully liberate India from British healthy political theorist, agitator, organizer, and colonial rule (Hall, 1929). The specifics of how a goal administrator. Nehru possessed all four of these will be achieved, the methods of employing manpower attributes, while Gandhi was a great political theorist, to achieve these goals, and even devices for completing a agitator, and organizer, disliked being an administrator short-term target. Tactical operations involve brief, and thus tended to leave administrative tasks to others. small-scale actions, which serve a larger purpose. For He notoriously hated his brief tenure as the leader of the example, after Gandhi’s speech discouraging Indians Congress Party, preferring the freedom of a less official from wearing British-made clothes, a large bonfire of position within the organization (Parekh,). Gandhi and these clothes was built. After that symbolic event, most Nehru exhibited democratic, or participatory, of Gandhi’s male followers stopped wearing typical leadership. They acted according to a socially-conscious Western attire and started wearing the native dress of perspective that supported certain democratic attitudes, pyjamas and kurtas, or white shirts (Mukharjee, 1993).

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Additionally, Gandhi spent several hours every day quarter century. Gandhi is revered as the father of the spinning thread and making cloth on a charka (spinning Indian nation and one of the principal architects of wheel), as well as wearing the cloth he made. Also, in India’s independence. To the rest of the world, Mahatma order to encourage resistance to Britain's imposed tax Gandhi was one of the most successful practitioners of on Indian , Gandhi told Indians to make salt from active, non-violent civil disobedience (Isaak, 1975). Not seawater and boycott the purchase of the salt that the only did his political strategy succeed in ending British British authorities were taxing. He also made the much- colonialism in the Indian subcontinent, but it has also publicized 200-mile Salt to make salt out of water been famously emulated by many people around the from the Indian Ocean (Shirer, 1982). world. His effective strategy can be seen in groups, such Both men, however, were not above making political as Martin Luther King Jr.’s civil rights protestors, blunders. The greatest of these blunders was their feminists, the National Organization for Women (NOW), mutual mishandling of Ali Jinnah and the environmentalists, as well as countless students and Muslim League. In the lead up to Britain’s withdrawal workers demonstrating for democratization all over the from the Indian subcontinent, both Gandhi and Nehru world. In contrast, Pandit Nehru is remembered for failed to respond to the Muslim League’s growing power using his charisma to build robust and enduring among Indian Muslims, even as many former Muslim democratic institutions that have withstood many members of the Congress began to shift their support. challenges and crises. It is to Nehru’s credit that India While the Congress remained neutral in World War II as has enjoyed the praiseworthy distinction of being the a protest against British imperialism, Jinnah shrewdly most populous democracy, since gaining its aided the British, thus buying himself considerable independence from British colonial rule in 1947. Nehru influence over the decision making process after Britain was also the principal architect of India’s rapid left India. For their part, Gandhi and Nehru both modernization and one of the fathers of the Non-Aligned consistently underestimated Jinnah’s growing power Movement. Thanks to him, India is one of the few shining and influence until it was much too late (Guha, 2007). examples of sustained democracy in the post-colonial When it became clear that India’s Partition was developing world (Ali, 1985). See table 1 for India’s inevitable, Gandhi was even willing to make Jinnah the Legendary Political Giants: Mohandas Karamchand leader of all of united India to maintain peace and unity. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. However, Nehru and other Congress leaders gave this REFERENCES suggestion very little credence, as Nehru had seriously Allen, D. (2008) Mahatma Gandhi’s Philosophy of miscalculated Britain’s intentions with negotiations. By Violence, nonviolence, and Education. In Allen, the time of the in 1945, Nehru’s Douglas (Ed.), The Philosophy of Gandhi for the considerable time in jail had cut him off from the Twenty First Century. Plymouth, United political reality of a weakened Britain that wanted to Kingdom: Lexington Books, pp. 39-40 quit India as quickly as possible. He was not aware that Ali, T. (1985). An Indian Dynasty: The Story of the Nehru- Britain wanted to leave India whatever the Gandhi Family. Introduced by Salman Rushdie. consequences, including a bloody Partition and the New York: G. P. Putnam and Sons, pp. 11-15, creation of an independent state called . He still 37,42, 44, 45,76 considered the United Kingdom a hegemonic colonial Ashe, G. (1969). Gandhi. New York: Stein and Day power bent on dominating India in order to account for Publisher, pp. 99, 207, 277, 231. Britain’s willingness to bend to Jinnah’s will. The U.K. Brown, D. M. (1953). Indian Political Thought: From ultimately appeased Jinnah by separating India and Manu to Gandhi, California: The White Umbrella- Pakistan and instigating many years of conflict between University of California Press, pp. 41-47, 53, 54. those two (Tharoor, 2003). Dhussa, R. C. (2012). Global Studies: India and South Asia. In conclusion, Mahatma Gandhi has been viewed by Tenth Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill many of his followers around the world as a saintly Companies, pp. 29-33. figure. He was the charismatic leader who converted the Fisher, L. (1954). Gandhi: His Life and Message for the elitist Indian Congress Party into a mass movement, and World Published. New York: The New American the great organizer who held it together for more than a Library, pp. 9, 35, 96-102.

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Gandhi, M. K. (2009). Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. A. Norton, H. K. J. (1984). The Third World: South Asia. Parel (Ed.) (Centenary edition) Cambridge: Guilford, Connecticut: The Dushkin Publishing Cambridge University Press, pp. 98-103, 173- Group, pp. 1-7, 95-104. 175. Parel, A. J. (2006). Gandhi’s Philosophy and the Quest for Grenire, R. (1983). The Gandhi Nobody Knows, Foreword Harmony. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge by Franky Grenier, Tenessee: Nelson, University Press, pp. 113, 137-143, 196-197 pp. 43, 48-52, 64-68, 84-89, 92-95. Parekh, B. C. (2010). Gandhi. New York: Sterling Guha, R. (2007). . New York: Harper Publishing Co., Inc. pp. 1, 2, 5, 18-20, 46-47, 47- Collins Books, pp. 56-58 51, 85 Guha, R. (2011). Makers of Modern India. Massachusetts: Rai, V. and Simon, W. (2007). Think India: The Rise of the The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, World’s Next Great Power and What it Means for pp. 330-335 Every American. London, England: Plume Books, Guha, R. (2014a). Gandhi, India and the World. In R. p. 217. Guha (Ed.), Makers of Modern Asia. Rynne, T. J. (2008). Gandhi and Jesus: The Saving Power Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard of Non-Violence. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis University Press, p. 31. Books, pp. 6,8, 15-21 Guha, R. (2014b). Jawaharlal Nehru: Romantic in Politics. Sanyal, S. (2008). The Indian Renaissance: India’s Rise In R. Guha (Ed.), Makers of Modern Asia. After a Thousand Years of Decline. London, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard England: Penguin Books, pp. 28-29 University Press, pp. 119-121. Shaffer, T.; Howard, P.; Shaefer, D. L.; Rossi, J. P; Frey, L.. Hall, J. W. (1929). Eminent Asians: Six Great (2005). Nehru and India. [Review of the book Personalities of the New East, New York: D. Nehru: A Political Life by Judith M. Brown] Appleton and Company, pp. 429, 388, 389, 401, Society 42(6), 78-95. 433, 439, 440, 467, 502, and 510. Sheean, V. (1954). A Condensation of Mahatma Gandhi: Isaak, A. R. (1975). Needs and Nature of Political Man- Family Treasure of Great Biographies. New York: Gandhi. In Individuals and World Politics. John Day Company, pp. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing 176,184,207,210,214,217-220,247-250. Company, pp. 23, 28-38, 41, 43, 45. Shirer, L. W. (1982), Gandhi: A Memoir. Washington, D.C.: Manor, J. (1993). Innovative Leadership n Modern India: Washington Square Press Printing, pp. 213, 91, M. K Gandhi, Nehru and I. Gandhi. In Innovative 113. Leaders in International Politics, Edited by Smith, E. D. (1966). South Asian Politics and Religion. Gabriel Sheffer, New York: State University of Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University New York Press, pp. 187-212. Press, pp. 24,141, 236-240, 340, 434. Mehta, V. (1977). Mahatma Gandhi and His Apostles, New Tharoor, S. (2003). Nehru: The Invention of India. New York: The Viking Press, pp. 132,133,155, 161, York: Arcade Publishing Inc., pp. 8-10, 12-14, 47 180, 181. 140, 150, 154, 187, 245 Mukherjee, R. (1993). Gandhi Reader. New , India: Whitehead, P. (1998). The Dynasty: The Nehru-Gandhi Penguin Books, pp. xiv, xviii, 89, 198. Story. Arlington, VA: Public Broadcasting Nanda, B. R (1958). Mahatma Gandhi, Barron’s Service. Educational Series Inc., New York: Woodbury, Wolfenstein, E. V. (1971). The Revolutionary Personality: pp. 82,147-150,149,151-156. Lenin, Trotsky, Gandhi. Princeton, New Jersey: Nilekani, N. (2008). Imagining India: The Idea of a Princeton University Press, pp. 75-77, 84, 140, Renewed Nation. London, England. Penguin 210, 217-222, 289. Books, pp. 11

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Table 1. India’s Legendary Political Giants: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Jawaharlal Nehru Personal Birth ● Porbandar, Gujrat province, India, on October  , province, India, on 2, 1869 November 14, 1889  Fourth son of fourth wife  Only son Influential  Although father was chief minister to the raja  Profoundly influence by his father who was a Parent (ruler) of Porbandar, it was his devout Hindu highly educated, Anglicized, wealthy, and mother who profoundly influenced him. politically influential lawyer. Religious Faith ● Practicing Hindu  Non-practicing/secular Hindu Hindu Caste  Vaisya caste (third caste); Gandhi’s family  Brahmin caste (upper-most caste); Nehru’s came from the middle-class trader caste. family came from the apex of Indian society. Languages ● Spoke Gujrati (first language), English, and  Spoke English (first language) and Hindi. Hindi. Primary and  Attended India’s public schools until 18.  Tutored at home until 16; then, attended Secondary  He was an average student. Harrow, an elite boarding school, in England Education (1905-1907)  He was a good student. Higher  Law degree from the University of London  and law degrees from Trinity Education (1888-1891). College at Cambridge University (1907- 1910); law school at the University of London (1910-1912). Marriage  Arranged marriage to Kastarbai.  Arranged marriage to Kamila. Family Life  Long absences from family due to struggles for India’s independence and periods spent in prison; engaged in public service after winning India’s independence. Early Career  Unsuccessful barrister in India (1892-1893).  Successful lawyer (1912-1936).  Became tax accountant and civil rights leader  Delegate in Indian National Congress Party in South Africa (1893-1915). (1920) and political activist in India. Final Return to  1915—Age 45  1912—Age 23 India Relationship  Nehru’s mentor  Gandhi’s right-hand man and protégé. Time in Prison  10 years, intermittently  9 years, intermittently. Writings  Several informative articles, pamphlets, and books. Death  30, 1948  , 1964.  Assassinated by Hindu fanatic at age 79.  Died of a stroke at age 75 while he was asleep. Political Beliefs Ideological  Idealist, Pacifist, Nativist, and Conservative  Realist, Modernist, and Liberal Outlook Government  Limited, weak central and regional  Strong centralized government run by Envisioned . educated technocrats.  Local governance by village elders.  Emphasized modernization. Type of  Emphasized and promoted participatory democracy. Democracy  Direct democracy  Representative democracy Advocated Economic  (self-reliance)  Fabian socialist. Policy  Advocated simplicity, austerity, self-  Advocated modernization as well as sufficiency, freedom, and communal living. socioeconomic equity and justice. Preferred  Favored small, indigenous, inexpensive,  Favored modern, sophisticated, expensive, Technology energy-saving, and labor-intensive energy-intensive, and labor-saving Western technology. technology.

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Desired Path  Emphasized traditional, simple, and  Emphasized mechanization, for Change inexpensive rural development, along with industrialization, urbanization, and subsistence or communal farming commercial farming. Religious  Religious  Secular. Worldview  Harnessed Hindu ideals and symbols to  Saw religion as an impediment to mobilize and unify the masses. modernization and promoted secularism. Leadership Roles Honorific Title  Mahatma (“great soul” in Hindi)  Pandit (“enlightened teacher” in Hindi) Sources of  Successful civil rights leader for South African  Successful and wealthy Brahmin; associated Legitimacy Indians. with Mahatma Gandhi.  Manipulated Hindu ideals and suffered for  Used his wealth and suffered imprisonment. India’s independence through imprisonment.  International acclaim.  Eloquent communicators; treated their countrymen with kindness, , and fairness. Leadership  Charismatic, populist, and visionary statesmen. Qualities  Mobilized and unified the Indian masses. Political  Promoted satyagraha (active, non-violent, civil disobedience). Strategy Political Style  Disliked administrative tasks; served less  Competent administrator; President of the than a year as President of the Indian Indian Congress Party (1929-1964); Prime Congress Party (1925). Minister of India for 17 years (1947-1964). Legacy  Instrumental in reshaping the All-India  Established India’s secular constitution. Congress Party into the Indian Congress  Father of India’s democratic political system. Party, a mass party that he kept unified for  Significantly contributed to India’s over 27 years. modernization.  Leader of the Indian nationalist movement  One of the founders of the Non-Aligned that helped India achieve its independence Movement. from British colonial rule.  Father of the Indian nation.  Architect of active, non-violent, civil disobedience. Source: Original table developed by the author of this paper

i The Hindu caste system of social stratification was developed during the Vedic Age (1500 BCE to 600 BCE). The Brahmins are the uppermost caste and, composed of priests and professionals. Kshatriyas are the second highest caste in the pyramid, comprising warriors during times of war and administrators during times of peace. Vaisyas are the third caste, and are composed mainly of merchants, traders, and small farmers. Sudras are the fourth caste, comprising the servants and manual labourers. Finally, outside of the caste system are the “untouchables” or dalits, who did all of the unpleasant and unclean manual labour that members of the other castes did not do.

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