SPAFA Journal 1993, Vol 3, No 2

Southeast Asian Performing Arts: Issues of Cultural Identity

ASSOCIC1ATE PROFESSOR DR. CHUA SOO PONG

Lecture delivered at the Seoul National University Korea, on the 12th November 1992

Music and dance events in traditional Southeast Asian societies were not simple theatrical events for a paying audience. They were usually organized for several functions simultaneously. Subli in the Philippines, Chinese opera in Singapore, Mak Yong in Malaysia, Wayang Punva in Java, Lakorn Chatri in Thailand, all demonstrate the fact that in this region theatrical events or rituals which Iwve music and dance elements serve a variety of social, religious or political purposes much more explicitly tlian the performing arts termed in the west.

2 6 SPAFA JOURNAL VOLUME THREE NUMBER TWO Anthropologists of the arts and indigenous values, morals and cultures all provided opportunities for expressive culture recognize the in the waves of westernization and exchanging ideas and information. importance of the studies of globalization. These issues, whether it performance in relation to social is nationalism or national integration, What then are the similar concerns in function and cultural development urbanization or multiculturalism, the question of cultural identity? processes. Their interest is not only mass culture transmitted by electronic confined to the creative processes media, are invariably related to the Amongst the Southeast Asian and institutions of art, but also to all key issue of cultural identity and countries, Thailand has never been aspects that are related to patronage ethnicity. colonized by any western power, systems, social institutions, mediators, largely due to the clever economic structure, technology and It is my intention to review these manipulation of the situations by the political environment of art products. issues, in the variety of ways they kings. Court arts in Thailand, In the last decade. Southeast Asian are reflected in the performing arts of including dance, masked play, Khon, countries in varying degrees Southeast Asian countries. For the music, and large shadow play have experienced rapid changes in convenience of discussion, I will been patronized by the kings while economic development, urbanization generalize the common concerns of folk performing arts have been and westernization. Industrialization these societies and then examine the organized mainly for religious and mass communication technology different preoccupations and functions. In those days, dance and have dismantled the traditional social particularity of each of the six music training and the imparting of structure and have changed the life countries I have chosen to discuss: performing arts knowledge took styles of the masses. Regional Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, place mainly on the palace grounds imbalance in political power and Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and or in the households of the ruling economic development have further Thailand. These six countries, since class. Producing court theatre events created social and cultural problems. 8th August 1967, form the enhanced the social prestige of the Unlike the traditional societies where Association of Southeast Asian members of the households of the cultural unity was expressed in local Nations. Through its Committee of ruling class. The masked dance and communities, contemporary Southeast Culture and Information (COCI), it dance drama in the early period Asian societies, demarcated by new organizes numerous projects in (14th-18th century) were the sole political boundaries, are characterized literature, performing arts and visual property of the kings. They were by the dichotomy of indigenous art. These activities are funded by the regarded as the symbol of power culture and imported culture, dominant ASEAN Cultural Fund with financial similar to other royal regalias such as group and periphery group cultures, resources supplied by Japan. The crown, sword and throne. These nationalism and globalization. chief objective of the ASEAN COCI, court performances were state rituals is to promote intra-ASEAN cooperation that displayed and confirmed the Faced with such encounters of in the field of culture and information. political legitimacy of the kings. The cultures and cultural forces, Southeast The cultural activities of COCI and form and contents of these court Asians are compelled to search for a other non-government organizations performing arts manifested the path that is suitable for them. What have indeed promoted greater ideology of kingship and offered a kind of culture do they want? Each understanding amongst the peoples model of behavior. Gradually, these Southeast Asian country has its own in these countries. The continuous court art forms were secularized but agenda and priority. efforts made by the governments and continued to be used at state the media has to a great extent organized activities and functions as Issues range from identity crisis, projected a strong symbolic solidarity the refined dance and music became creation of a new national culture, in cultural expressions. Regional important cultural symbols of the conflicts derived from regional theatre festival, dance festival, song Thais. imbalance in economic development festival, music workshop and music and power sharing, fear of erosion of camp and publications of plays have The School of Dramatic Arts was set

SPAFA JOURNAL VOLUME THREE NUMBER TWO 2 7 Touristic dance at its best at Rose Garden, Thailand

2 8 SPAFA JOURNAL VOLUME THREE NUMBER TWO up by the Department of Fine Arts in the traditional folk theatre, music some, like Mattani Rutnin and of the Ministry of Education in 1934, and dance would have acquired some Pornrat Damrung are very concerned to teach traditional and folk music, basic knowledge of appreciation in with the need for expressing the dance, and drama. Today many more their school days where simple Thai emotions of contemporary Thai such schools have been established. dance and music are compulsory society. Thai culture is not all Thai They are in Chiang Mai, Nakon Sri subjects at primary education level. classical dance, music and puppet Thammarat, Angthong, Roi Et, shows. Their cultural identity thus Sukhothai, Chantaburi and Patalung. However, the National Culture cannot be interpreted in only the In addition there are thirtv-six Commission's recent Puppet Theatre motifs of temple paintings or Thai teachers' colleges offering diploma Festival failed to attract audiences at classic dance postures. and degree courses in traditional the Thailand Cultural Centre, which performing arts. contrasted with the great successes of The modern dance pieces staged by a local pop star's week-long concert Chulalongkorn University in Also under the Ministry of Education and the Russian Bolshoi's steeply February 1992 and the dance that is the National Culture Commission, priced ballet, alarming the cultural was created to depict the military created in 1981 to promote cultural agencies and education institutions. oppression of democratic movements activities as well as cultural cooperation The worry is, if Thai cultural shows by Russian trained ballet among neighboring countries. It continue to lose out in their choreographer Bancha Suannanonda organizes national festivals for puppet competition for audiences with pop are examples of cultural dynamics in shows, dance and drama and plays an shows and foreign shows, does it contemporary Thai society. There are, important role of disseminating cultural mean that they will gradually lose admittedly and quite naturally, some information. The National Culture interest in their own culture? The 40 poor imitations of American modern Commission also manages the drama productions staged by mainly dance which have been staged by showpiece performing venue, the amateur theatre groups yearly are amateur dance groups where both Thailand Cultural Centre, which was mostly translations or adaptations of form and content have no relevance actually donated by the Japanese western plays while ballet schools to the Thai society. Such experiments Government. The national anthem is often stage much simplified versions are part of the process of cultural played at the beginning and at the of western popular ballets such as borrowing and it takes time for locals end of theatre performances. At "Nutcracker" or "Coppolier". Does to indigenize foreign cultural forms. government organized theatre events, this mean that they are dominated civil servants of all ranks are by western art products? Among Southeast Asian countries, expected to be in uniform and line the Philippines is arguably the most up according to protocol for the Further investigation reveals the experienced in indigenizing foreign dignitaries, whether princesses, contrary. Leading directors Rassami music, dance and drama. The prince, Queen or King. These Paoluengtong and young director Philippines was colonized by the practices are cultural expressions that Damkerng Thitapiyasak as well as Spanish from 1565 until 1898. When enhance loyalty and national identity. other serious minded dramatists are Spain and America were at war over making efforts to write and stage the right to rule Cuba the Spanish With strong support from the royal local plays which reflect social reality. ended its conflicts with America by family and the government, Some of these attempts might fall ceding the Philippines, Puerto Rico traditional court performances and short in their aesthetic merits but and Guam to the United States. It the 'refined version' of folk given time, some mature writing cost the Filipinos enormous loss in performing arts continue to have a ought to emerge as they accumulate lives and property before they were base: institutions teach and promote experience in their years of staging eventually liberated from America on them and the tourist industry western plays. Although most the 4th July, 1946. provides employment opportunities. directors and drama lecturers at Even for those who are not engaged universities are trained in the west, In their long years of being colonized

SPAFA JOURNAL VOLUME THREE NUMBER TWO 2 9 Nongchik Glwni, Singapore's Malay dance doyen showing a Chinese dancer a step

Philippines choreographer Edna Vida staging a dance drama at the Culture Centre of the Philippines

3 0 SI'AFA JOURNAL VOLUME THREE NUMBER TWO by the Spanish and the Americans, worker character replacing Jesus Although Tagalog is the national the Filipinos were imposed with Christ as the hero to lead them in language, until recently, it was not many cultural forms and practises, their straggle against the colonizers. widely spoken. The elite and the from law, constitution, education, middle class, mostly educated in religion to expressive culture. It is Apart from the successful linglish in schools and universities, amazing to note how they borrowed, contemporization and indigenization speak little or no Tagalog. It is only adapted and indigenized the many of the imported performing arts in recent years, through the forms of music and dance. forms, the Philippines also has a advocation of the government, that unique grassroots theatre movement Tagalog regained its importance. In Sarsuwela, Komedya, and Sinakulo, that focuses attention on the social- the south, where the Muslim were all imported form the Spanish political turmoils of the country. This Filipinos live. Islamic arts, community several hundred years ago but have movement, however, under the theatre and indigeneous theatre such become indigenized. Marcos dictatorship was marginalized as Bayok are now regaining as the mainstream theatre was popularity. Gone is the inferiority Sarsuwela nowadays, for example, dominated by American western complex. has moved away from its simplistic theatre and heavily supported by the stereotypical love story, although it government with the previous First In this process of adjustment and retains the format of integrating Lady Mrs. Marcos as patron. The change, performing arts artistes, music and dance, like the original elegant cultural centre of the whether the city-based mainstream Spanish form. For instance, Nicamor Philippines which rises on the sea theatre represented by the Cultural Tiongson in his recreation of a page front of Roxas Boulevand, was Mrs. Centre of the Philippines, the from revolution history in 1907, Marcos' pet project. It was the base metropolitan theatre and the "Pilipinas Circa 1907" made a highly of Ballet Philippines as well as universities, or the community successful new Sarsuwela. theatre companies. Since Corazon theatres which are thriving in student Aquino, widow of the assassinated clubs, workers' unions, peasant The Spanish used theatre to opposition leader installed after a associations, all realize the subjugate the people during their four-day bloodless revolution in 1986, importance of indigeneous theatre rule. Komedya is a case in point. It cultural policy has changed and re- and are now more actively learning, is a theatre form which combines oriented its direction. researching and using elements of elements of dance, songs and traditional theatre in their new dialogue in a comical way. The story is Heavy subsidies of western arts creative works. Such actions are centered on princes and princesses who companies was questioned and the indications of the new psyche. differ in their religious backgrounds. new establishment asserted the Nevertheless, it is always the promotion of national cultural Although Indonesia was invaded by Christians who win, thus explicitly identity through the arts. Legitimacy the Netherlands for almost as long a discrediting Islam and implying the is not based on successes in London time as the Philippines by Spain and superiority of the colonizer's religion. and New York; artistic judgment is America since the 1640s, the Such a presentation of course is no now made locally. Indonesians are to a much lesser longer tolerated. The new Komedya, extent acculturated in the arts by like Sarsuwela, is able to take up Unlike Thailand, the Philippines is a their colonizers, although Christianity current issues that relate to society. multi-ethnic and multi-cultural retains a dominant presence in the country, with over three dozen major 13,677 islands of the Indonesian The passion play, called Sinakulo, ethnic groups scattered mostly in the archipelago. used to feature Jesus Christ as a 11 major islands. The two largest hero. Today, new writers create their islands, Luzon and Minalano, contain The Dutch's long years of bloody own heroes. Aurelio Tolentino's 60 percent of the country's military campaigns provoked more Sinakulo written in the 1920s has a population of 56 million. resistance and stronger political

SPAFA JOURNAL VOLUME THREE NUMBER TWO 3 1 Participants of SPAFA Training Course on Labanotation, finding a way to record Southeast Asian dance

Ritual on dance, performed by the Malaysian Chinese Cultural Society in Melaka, choreographed by Koh Eng Kiam

3 2 SPAFA JOURNAL VOLUME THKEE NUMBER TWO reaction than they probably influence is evident in the process of force. Thus whether plays written in envisaged. Thus culturally speaking, performing arts development. In the the conventional approach using the the Indonesians are alienated to the colonial days, drama enthusiasts proscenium stage, such as those of Dutch practices; after all the Dutch wrote plays in the style of text they Usmar Ismail, Teguh Karyn, Suyatna were more interested in economic studied in the Dutch schools. Post Anirun or N. Riantiarno, or plays exploitation. More ironic is the fact independence saw the beginning of which combine new idiomatic that the Indonesians who attended young artists going abroad to study expressions with traditional theatre the Dutch schools were the ones who dance, music, film and theatre, elements exemplified by works of sowed the seeds of revolution and especially so in the last decades. But Arifin Noer or W. S. Rendra, or offered hope of independence. similar to other countries in those experimental plays of Putu Southeast Asia, young intellects value Widjaya and Ikranagara, all However, it was the Dutch who the function of theatre as a means of performed and published in Bahasa introduced the proscenium stage to social communication and political Indonesia. the Indonesians which in a short expression. Western plays were time gained acceptance and replaced adapted to the Indonesian context For a country that is so vast in the open air space of the traditional and original plays which discussed geographical area and with so long a performing arts presentation. Folk art social issues were produced. cultural history, Indonesia is not as forms such as Saman dance in Ache, vulnerable to the wave of cultural Tlenjeng dance and Ketopang in At times, the authorities found it globalization. New music or new Java, Randai in Minangkabau, Legong hard to permit challenges to the choreography created by Indonesian in Jakarta, Wayang Orang in Surabaya, establishment or provocation of artists, regardless of their years of Wayang Gelek in Bandung and resentment. Whenever contemporary affiliation with or training in western Wayang Kulit in Bali are presented for theatre productions are viewed by institutions, always clearly marriages, circumcisions, harvesting the censorship board as too demonstrate the distinctive and other religious rites or ceremonies. threatening they are banned. indigenous cultural elements. Is the These were in essence, cultural Indonesianess in the arts a result of expressions of social solidarity. The government has been actively deep cultural roots? Or the artistes' Performances were organized under supporting traditional performing arts strong sense of cultural identity? If the patronage of local nobilities. and has set up seven government one examines large numbers of new tertiary-level colleges in the nation to works of dance and music created by The court arts, such as Langendriyan train young performers, teachers and the young choreographers and and Wayang Orang Kraton in researchers. composers, one can easily detect this Jogyakarta, Legong Koraton in Bali trend: they are innovative in creating and Bedaya Ketapoan in Surakarta, Each year, the Directorate of Arts, new motifs, using new physical were at one time regularly presented under the Ministry of Education and materials yet retaining the indigenous at the Kraton performance pavilions. Culture, organizes festivals, seminars and traditional aesthetic principles of The large contingent of dancers and and competitions to promote dance, their art forms. Their liberal use of musicians were employed by the music and theatre. Many invite the traditional elements in new sultans to present the highly stylized participation of representatives from combination or innovations of new dance and theatre for state functions the 27 provinces and have themes motifs do not violate their cultural and religious ceremonies. that are aimed at enhancing national rules. unity and cultural identity. These court arts have been secularized However, one must note that because and have become some of the most Indonesians have, since the time of of the vastness of the country and its loved art forms of Indonesians. their struggle for independence, cultural and religious diversity, most accepted Bah'asa Indonesia (the Indonesians actually are still products These is no doubt that western national language) as a unifying of a plural culture. The national

SPAFA JOURNAL VOLUME THREE NUMBER TWO 3 3 Nezc dance created by Thai choreographer Nar.tphong Ouirassri for the 1st ASEAN Dance Festival held in Jakarta in 1990

3 4 SI'AFA JOURNAL VOLUME THREE NUMBER TV.O culture links with the usage of Hinduism and primitive animism. produced and published since then. Mahasa Indonesia and the local The elements are seen as anti-Islamic, Some notable dramatists, such as dialect or language identify with therefore not to be tolerated. Even in Nordin Hassam, Johan Jaafar and local community. This dualism has the rural areas where these forms Mustapha Kamil Yassin have indeed enriched their artistic flourished, audiences are shrinking, produced several popular works. imagination, perceptions and partly because of the low quality of Some make explicit political productions. performance presented by the poorly statements in their plays while others paid artistes and partly due to the are concerned with the confrontation In multi-cultural, multi-language influence exerted by the religious of traditional and modem values. But Malaysia and Singapore, issues of leaders or institutions to limit the one must note that despite years of language, culture and identity are far size of audiences. government efforts, Malay theatre more complicated. In Malaysia, still appeals to mainly a Malay national identity or nationalism are The government is reported to have audience. Similarly, Chinese and interpreted differently by different responded to the call of academic Indian theatre are very much ethnic groups. The Malays, consisting circles and will soon set up a confined to their respective of almost 607c of the total population National Academy, headed by Dr. communities, as attending these saw themselves as the indigenous Mohd Anis Md Nor, to ensure the drama performances is an expression people, the bumiputras. Malay, since transmission of knowledge of the of conforming to their cultural Malaysia became independent from traditional performing arts. It remains identity. the British in 1957, was proclaimed to be seen whether or not these the national language and is traditional performing arts can The government does not give naturally the official language of survive the pressures of strong financial assistance to non-Malay government, law and education. religious groups and the alienation of cultural activities as they are Malay is therefore the tool for the the social environment where they excluded in what is perceived as development of national culture. originally came from. national culture, the Malay culture. They consider their ideas of national The Chinese and Indian communities identity very bounded to culture. More promising is the contemporary therefore have to find their own Malay theatre where official support financial resources to patronize Malav traditional performing arts is much more visible and performing arts, traditional or unfortunately are not enjoying as practitioners are larger in number. In contemporary theatre. For example, much media attention and financial the 1950s Malay contemporary the Chinese community has for the support from the government as the theatre was characterized by a last 12 years organized a national contemporary Malay theatre and preoccupation with nationalism and dance competition which has now literature. Although the Malaysian nationhood. Many Sandiwara become an effective symbolic Ministry of Culture and Tourism has performances captured the attention communication system that helps to various projects assisting traditional of the masses. By the time Malaysia consolidate ethnicity and culture. The performing artistes, traditional Malay was formed in 1963, local plays Indian Temple of Fine Arts' dance art forms are on the decline. This written specifically for Malay high and music classes, as well as concerts partly is due to the national religion, schools proliferated, in the style of have a similar strong appeal to the Islam, as the orthodoxy regard all western realism. Then came the 1969 members of the Indian communities. performing arts as "haram", things riots where serious ethnic conflict These phenomena again confirm the that are not permitted under Islam erupted which caused extensive loss close relationship between cultural for fear of corruption of the mind. of lives. Malay dramatists then began identity and the performing arts. All Malay traditional music, drama a long period of experimentation in and dance have invocations which search of an answer after the shock. Although more than three quarters of are derived from pre-lslamic systems its population is Chin-.'se, the of belief such as Buddhism, Many more plays have been written. Singapore government policy is to

SPAFA JOURNAL VOLUME THREE NUMBER TWO 3 5 give equal official support to nil use all four languages in the drama, arts is often linked to the politics of languages and ethnic groups. Thus it but to date, fail to gain artistic credit nationalism, national integration and has programmes in four languages compared to the better attempts in political context. Despite the extent of on dailv television and radio and the mixing dances of different ethnic westernization and urbanization and 'mother tongue' of each of the main groups made by choreographers. the trend of globalization, it is ethnic groups, the Chinese, the unlikely that Southeast Asia will Indian and the Malay, are taught in To understand the drama, dance and absorb western culture wholesale. school as a 'second' language, while music of Singapore, one must trace With their economic success comes English is the language of instruction. the history of this immigrant society cultural confidence; Southeast Asians It is believed that English, inherited of less than 180 years old and are now more assertive in their from the British colonial history, is understand the usage of performing thinking, whether in the arts or de facto the common language arts in anti-colonial campaigns, and politics. Such a trend is exemplified among the different ethnic groups in political competition between the by the views expressed by ASEAN and that it would help to promote ruling government party and its leaders such as Singapore's former unity. opposition and in forging national prime minister Lee Kuan Yew and unity. It is doubtful that performing Malaysia's Prime Minister Mahathir Singapore has been fairly successful arts, similar to literature, can be Mohamad, that Southeast Asia does in its effort to promote racial harmony. totally cut off from the cultural roots not necessarily need to follow the Emphasis on multiculturalism is and emotional importance of the model of democracy of the west as evident in the National Day three major ethnic groups. More social cultural conditions here are celebrations, Chinese New Year likely to continue is a rich different from those in Europe and parades and all government funded multiethnic performing arts scene America. In the meeting held in activities. Typical cultural shows which permits the artistes to practice Manila at the end of October 1992, incorporate Indian, Malay and their chosen forms and ideology. the ASEAN foreign ministers have Chinese dance and music items with Whatever they want to express or once again told their European equal ratio. Even public holidays to experiment, they will have to operate community counterparts that ASEAN commemorate their religious festival within the complex multi-lingual and has its own political model evolved and new year celebrations are multi-cultural context. from its course of social political equally divided among the ethnic development. Performing arts in groups. Cultural identity defines the sense of Southeast Asia, is therefore likely to nation, community and roots. In the retain distinctive characteristics with Eager to display ethnic unity and a Southeast Asian context, cultural its diverse ethnic and cultural Singaporean identity, some dramatists identity as reflected in the performing heritages in the changing world.

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