Engagement in Digital Entertainment Games: a Systematic Review ⇑ Elizabeth A

Computers in Human Behavior 28 (2012) 771–780

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Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Review Engagement in digital entertainment games: A systematic review ⇑ Elizabeth A. Boyle a, , Thomas M. Connolly b, Thomas Hainey b, James M. Boyle c a School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Health, Education and Social Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, High St., Paisley Campus, Paisley PA1 2BE, Scotland, United Kingdom b School of Computing, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley Campus, Paisley PA1 2BE, Scotland, United Kingdom c School of Psychological Sciences and Health, Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom article info abstract

Article history: Since their introduction over 40 years ago, digital entertainment games have become one of the most Available online 31 December 2011 popular leisure activities globally. While digital games clearly provide highly engaging activities, the nature of this engagement is not well understood. The current study aims to advance our understanding by Keywords: reporting a systematic review of recent literature addressing engagement in computer games. The papers Engagement in the review comprise a sub-sample of papers relating to engagement in digital games that was selected Enjoyment from a broader literature search carried out on the outcomes and impacts of playing computer games. A Entertainment diverse range of studies was identiﬁed that examined varied aspects of engagement in games including Computer games subjective experiences while playing games, the physiological concomitants of these experiences, Flow Motives motives for playing games, game usage and time spent playing games and the impact of playing on life satisfaction. A narrative review was carried out to capture these diverse aspects of engagement and to develop a more coherent understanding of engagement in computer games. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 772 2. Methodology...... 772 2.1. Data collection...... 772 2.1.1. Search terms ...... 772 2.1.2. Databases searched ...... 772 2.1.3. The searchable database ...... 772 2.2. Selection criteria for inclusion of papers in the current review of engagement in games ...... 772 2.3. Data analysis ...... 773 3. Results...... 773 3.1. Main literature search...... 773 3.2. Papers selected for current review using our inclusion criteria ...... 773 3.3. Categorisation of papers ...... 773 3.4. Research designs ...... 773 3.5. Subjective feelings of enjoyment experienced while playing games ...... 773 3.6. Physiological responses to playing games ...... 774 3.7. Motives/reasons for playing games ...... 775 3.8. Game usage ...... 776 3.9. Game market and player loyalty ...... 777 3.10. Impact of game-playing on life satisfaction...... 777 4. Discussion...... 777 4.1. Conclusion ...... 779 Acknowledgment ...... 779 Appendix A. Supplementary material...... 779 References ...... 779

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 141 848 3783; fax: +44 141 848 3780. E-mail address: [email protected] (E.A. Boyle).

1. Introduction While much of the early research on computer games focused on the negative impacts of playing digital games, more recently there Since the introduction of the computer games Pong and Space has also been interest in positive outcomes of playing games. Durkin Invaders into the UK during the 1970s, digital games have had a and Barber (2002), for example, found that adolescents who play transformational impact on how we spend our leisure time. Games games had more favourable outcomes with respect to family close- provide engaging and enjoyable activities and the digital games ness, school engagement, involvement in other leisure activities, market has expanded to become the fastest growing leisure market positive mental health, substance use, self-concept, friendship net- even during a worldwide recession (Chatfield, 2010). While the ap- work and obedience to parents. The engagement provided by games peal of digital games is self-evident in terms of sales of games, can be viewed as one of these positive outcomes. It is recognised numbers of people playing games and time spent playing games, that there is a dearth of empirical evidence concerning the impact it has been deceptively difficult to explain (Nabi & Kremar, of games (Connolly, Stansfield, & Hainey, 2008) and the current re- 2004). Vorderer, Klimmt, and Ritterfield (2004) suggested that review aims to add to our understanding of the nature of engagement search has neglected to consider the nature of media enjoyment, in digital entertainment games by reporting the results of a litera- Sweetser and Wyeth (2005) claimed that understanding game ture review of selected papers which address this topic. usability has had priority over understanding game enjoyment, while Yannakis and Hallam (2007) argued that our knowledge of 2. Methodology how to develop enjoyable computer games is ‘‘fundamentally incomplete’’. 2.1. Data collection Existing theoretical frameworks developed in the literature on motivation, communication and media may help to structure our In 2011 a literature search was carried out with the aim of understanding of engagement in games. These theoretical perspec- developing a searchable database of papers relevant to the impacts tives broadly address two different topics relevant to engagement, and outcomes of computer games. The time period covered in this the subjective experiences and enjoyment of games and motives search was 1961 to 2011. for playing games. The most influential construct used to explain subjective experience while playing games is flow theory 2.1.1. Search terms (Csíkszentmihályi, 1990). Csíkszentmihályi originally developed Search terms used in the main literature search were derived the notion of flow to describe the rewarding, subjective, emotional from a previous search carried out on the evaluation of computer state of optimal pleasure that arises when an individual is ab- games (Connolly et al., 2008) and addressed the variety of digital sorbed in either work or leisure activities that are perceived as games that might be played: valuable. Csíkszentmihályi characterised flow as a complex construct with eight different components. Central to flow is the idea (‘‘computer games’’ OR ‘‘video games’’ OR ‘‘serious games’’ OR that there should be an optimal match between the skills an indi- ‘‘simulation games’’ OR ‘‘games-based learning’’ OR ‘‘MMOG’’ vidual possesses and the challenges presented by an activity. In OR ‘‘MMORPG’’ OR ‘‘MUD’’ OR ‘‘online games’’). addition the experience should be intrinsically rewarding, immersive, involve a high degree of concentration and a sense of personal Additional search terms used for the impacts and outcomes of control, have clear goals and provide direct and immediate feed- computer games reflected our interest in broadly defined out- back. Sherry (2004) applied flow theory to explain the engagement comes and impacts of playing games, as well as the more specific that players experience in playing games. impact of games in learning or engaging or motivating players: Self determination (SD) theory is an influential account of human motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985) which proposes that human (‘‘evaluation’’ OR ‘‘impacts’’ OR ‘‘outcomes’’ OR ‘‘effects’’ OR behaviours are determined by very general human needs for com- ‘‘learning’’ OR ‘‘education’’ OR ‘‘skills’’ OR ‘‘behaviour’’ OR ‘‘atti- petence, autonomy and relatedness. Competence refers to the need tude’’ OR ‘‘engagement’’ OR ‘‘motivation’’ OR ‘‘affect’’). to take part in activities which allow us to feel capable and effec- tive, autonomy refers to the need to experience freedom in the 2.1.2. Databases searched activities we choose and relatedness refers to the need to feel a The databases searched included those identified as relevant sense of connection to other people. Self determination theory to education, information technology and social science: ACM, has been applied to many different human behaviours and could ASSIA (Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts), BioMed potentially explain engagement in digital entertainment games. Central, Cambridge Journals Online, ChildData, Index to Theses, Uses and gratifications (U&G) theory is another needs based moti- Oxford University Press (journals), ScienceDirect, EBSCO (consist- vational theory which claims that people have specific needs for ing of Psychology and Behavioural Science, PsycINFO, SocINDEX, entertainment and they will use a range of media to meet these Library, Information Science and Technology Abstracts, CINAHL), needs. U&G theory was originally developed within the domain ERIC, IngentaConnect, Infotrac (Expanded Academic ASAP) and of media and mass communication to explain why people watch Emerald. television and listen to music (Schramm, Lyle, & Parker, 1961) but has been extended to explain why people play computer 2.1.3. The searchable database games (Lucas & Sherry, 2004). The searchable database is available to the public and can be Another theory relevant to explaining why people play games is found at http://icte.uws.ac.uk/search.aspx. the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989). This theory was developed to explain determinants of technology acceptance 2.2. Selection criteria for inclusion of papers in the current review of in the area of work and training. TAM proposes perceived useful- engagement in games ness and perceived ease of use as two key factors in this. While ease of use of a system may be a contributing factor to explaining This searchable database was used to select papers for the cur- engagement in entertainment games, perceived usefulness may be rent review of papers relating to engagement in digital entertain- less important in determining the acceptance of games for leisure ment games. To narrow down the selection of papers for purposes. inclusion in the current review, the database was further searched E.A. Boyle et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 28 (2012) 771–780 773

Table 1 from consideration of different stages in the engagement process. Numbers of papers focusing on each aspect of engagement by study design. Subjective experience is core to engagement and looks at the mo- Study design ment-to-moment experiences of players while they play the Aspect of engagement RCT Quasi- Survey Qualitative Total games. Related to this, a group of papers looked at the physiologi- experimental cal correlates of emotions experienced in playing games. Motives Subjective experience 2 9 1 1 13 for playing games are more enduring appraisals of players’ reasons Physiological 77for playing games. Some of these papers looked at motives for responses playing specific games; others focused on motives typical of differ- Motives for playing 2 14 2 18 ent kinds of player. Several papers examined game usage including Game usage 7 7 time spent playing games and intentions to play games as well as Games market and 33 loyalty to game the market for games. The last group looked at the impact of play- Impact of game on life 16 7ing games on life satisfaction and well-being. Papers were spread satisfaction fairly evenly across the different topics with papers on motives Total 2 19 31 3 55 the most frequent (18) followed by papers examining subjective experiences while playing games (13). There were several papers on games usage, impact of games on life satisfaction and physiological responses with fewer on the games market and player using only the terms ‘‘engagement’’, ‘‘motivation’’, ‘‘affect’’ and loyalty. ‘‘attitude’’. These entries were narrowed down further by focusing on papers which (a) included empirical evidence relating to 3.4. Research designs engagement in digital entertainment games; (b) discussed engagement in digital entertainment games but not learning or serious Table 1 also shows the different designs which were used in the games; (c) focused on positive aspects of engagement; (d) dated studies identified in the review with respect to the main focus of from January 2001 to October 2011 (because interest in engage- the papers. Overall, surveys (30) were the most frequently used de- ment flourished during this time period); (e) were published in ref- signs followed by quasi-experiments (19), with qualitative studies ereed academic journals; and (f) included an abstract. Using these (3) and RCTs (2) much less frequently reported. In theory, the de- six conditions 55 papers met the criteria for inclusion in the cur- sign of choice in evaluating engagement in a game would be sim- rent review. ilar to assessments of other interventions, a randomised controlled trial (RCT) (Connolly et al., 2008). In an RCT players would be ran- 2.3. Data analysis domly allocated to a game or control condition, measures of engagement administered before and after taking part in the inter- Papers were coded in terms of: name of authors and date pub- vention and pre to post differences between the two groups as- lished; the main aims of study; the sample, including details of the sessed. However, entertainment games frequently offer new participants, their mean age, age range and gender split; the re- leisure experiences for which there is no obvious non-game-based search design and method and major findings. The design of each condition to act as a control. It is likely that this is one reason for study was coded according to whether it used a randomised con- the relative dearth of RCTs. Table 1 shows that there were differ- trol trial (RCT), a quasi-experimental design, a survey or a qualita- ences between the designs used to study different aspects of tive design. Coding of the papers along these dimensions is shown engagement games. The quasi-experiment was the design used in Appendix A. most frequently in studies of subjective experiences and physiological responses in games, while surveys were the most popular designs in studies of motives, game usage and market and impact 3. Results on quality of life.

3.1. Main literature search 3.5. Subjective feelings of enjoyment experienced while playing games

19,776 papers were identified by the search terms used in the Several papers in the current review addressed the pleasurable, main literature search. The majority of these papers were specula- subjective experiences which are central to media enjoyment tive or discussion papers, considering the potential impact of (Vorderer et al., 2004). The only papers which reported RCTs were games or papers describing how specific games were designed. Russell and Newton (2008) and Jennett et al. (2008). Russell and Newton compared mood and enjoyment of physical activity in a 3.2. Papers selected for current review using our inclusion criteria cycle only, game only and game plus cycle condition. They found that incorporating a game element into an exercise cycle led to im- Fifty-five papers met the inclusion criteria for the current re- proved mood compared to a sedentary activity (game only control view on engagement in digital entertainment games. These papers condition), but there was no additional effect of the game plus were very diverse in scope and addressed a range of different as- exercise over exercise alone. This suggests that exercise games pects of engagement in games, utilised a range of theoretical mod- have the potential to elicit affective benefits, but careful consider- els and adopted a variety of methodological approaches. To capture ation needs to be given to how these games are implemented and the heterogeneity of topics and approaches a narrative synthesis the circumstances under which these benefits are most likely to was adopted. occur. Jennett et al. compared performance on a real-life ‘‘tangram’’ 3.3. Categorisation of papers task before and after taking part in either a game (Half-life) or a non-immersive square-clicking task. While they found the pre- Scrutiny of the papers suggested that it was useful to organise dicted differences in immersion between the game and non-game them into categories depending on the main focus of the paper. conditions, they also found that players actually found the non The categories used are shown in Table 1 along with the number immersive control condition quite immersive! This illustrates the of papers in each of these categories. The categories were derived difficulties of selecting an appropriate control condition. 774 E.A. Boyle et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 28 (2012) 771–780

Jennett’s study was an in-depth analysis designed to clarify the and Ficher (2009) found that suspense added to player enjoyment nature of immersion and develop better subjective and objective of a game: a suspenseful version of a game was more enjoyable measures of immersion. A validation study of their immersion than a non suspenseful version, although in their study spatial experience questionnaire confirmed five factors: cognitive involve- presence had no impact on enjoyment. Klimmt, Hartman, and Frey ment, emotional involvement, real world dissociation, challenge (2007) found that reducing player effectance in a game by reducing and control. Jennett et al. also experimentally tested two objective the immediate feedback provided to players about their actions in measures of immersion. The first measure using the ‘‘tangram’’ the game reduced players’ enjoyment of the game, while reducing task focused on the ‘‘dissociation from the real world’’ component player control by increasing the speed of the game did not reduce of immersion and found that participation in an immersive game player enjoyment. Schneider, Lang, Shin, and Bradley (2004) inves- impaired subsequent performance on the real world ‘‘tangram’’ tigated the impact of introducing a storyline into a first person task. The second measure predicted that players’ eye movements shooter game and found that players felt a greater sense of pres- would significantly increase over time in a non-immersive task, ence, showed increases in physiological arousal and greater identi- but decrease over time in an immersive task as their attention be- fication with characters when a game was structured round a story came focused on visual features relevant to the game. Jennett et al. than an equivalent game without a story, but there were no differ- found that both methods had potential as objective measures of ences in self-reported arousal or dominance. immersion. Chumbley and Griffiths (2006) and Qin, Rau, and Salvendy Jennett et al. also looked at the role of negative emotions in (2010) looked at how changing features of a game could change immersion in games. They examined the impact of the pace of a emotions and presence in the game respectively. Chumbley and game on immersion, predicting that faster paced games might be Griffiths found that increasing the ratio of negative to positive rein- more immersive, although they might also lead to higher levels forcement provided to players increased their frustration and de- of anxiety. While they found that state anxiety and negative affect creased excitement, while increasing positive reinforcement were higher for faster paced games, these differences were not sig- increased the chances of players returning to play. Qin et al. found nificant. Although these findings about pace and immersion were that player immersion was higher when the difficulty of the game inconclusive, they did suggest that negative emotions should be between levels was changed in a down and up direction than with studied in understanding the immersive appeal of games. up and down or continuous change. Other studies of subjective experience in games compared In developing their Game Engagement Questionnaire, Brockmyer, enjoyment, presence, immersion and arousal in different games Fox, Curtiss, McBroom, and Burkhart (2009, p. 624) argued that or different conditions of the same game. Weibel, Wissmath, ‘‘definitional agreement regarding how to label subjective experi- Habegger, Steiner, and Groner (2008) found that playing against ence during video game-playing has not yet been achieved’’. They a human-controlled opponent in the online game Neverwinter adopted an eclectic and inclusive definition of engagement in Nights elicited stronger feelings of presence, flow and enjoyment developing the questionnaire including items on flow, immersion, than playing against a computer-controlled opponent. They also presence and adsorption. Rasch analysis provided support for the found strong positive correlations between presence, flow and reliability and functionality of the questionnaire and the question- enjoyment with regression analysis confirming Hoffman and naire predicted engagement in video games. Novak’s (1996) prediction that presence precedes flow with flow mediating the relationship between presence and enjoyment. 3.6. Physiological responses to playing games However Aymerich-Franch (2010) found that body participation does not always lead to an enhanced sense of being in the game. The search terms in the main literature search did not include They compared presence and emotions for participants in two dif- specific terms for physiological impacts of games, but several pa- ferent game conditions, interacting either through body movement pers identified in the search reported a range of physiological out- or a joystick. They found that body participation did not impact on comes of playing games. These papers are relevant because they the sense of presence or on self reported valence (positive or neg- describe physiological correlates of emotional responses while ative) or arousal (excitement or boring) dimensions of emotion playing a game. All 7 of these studies used quasi-experimental de- compared with a joystick condition, although presence was linked signs either to compare physiological responses to different kinds to both dimension of emotion. of games or events in games. Baldaro et al. (2004) compared the Rapid advances in the technology used in games, such as in- short-term effects of playing violent or non-violent computer creased interactivity, animation and download speed, provide games on physiological (heart rate and arterial pressure) and psy- increasingly realistic experiences for players. Ivory and Kalyanar- chological variables (state and trait anxiety) in young adults before, aman (2007) suggested that the increased realism of these techno- during and after playing a violent game (Unreal tournament) or a logically more advanced games may enhance players’ feelings of non-violent game (Puzzle bobble). The results revealed increased presence while playing games. They compared engagement in both systolic blood pressure during game-play and an increase in state violent and non-violent games which were more or less technolog- anxiety following game-play only for those playing violent games. ically advanced. They found a significant main effect of technolog- This indicated that physiological and emotional changes take place ical advancement, indicating that technologically more advanced while playing games and these differ for violent and non violent games did lead to higher levels of presence, involvement and phys- games.van Reekum et al. (2004) used an action adventure com- iological (skin conductance) and self-reported measures of arousal puter game, Xquest, to study the impact of different game events for both violent and non-violent games. This result would appear on changes in a range of physiological measures including cardiac to justify the development of increasingly realistic games while activity, skin conductance, skin temperature and muscle activity also suggesting that non-violent games can be just as engaging and emotion self-report. Goal conduciveness (whether the event as violent games. Nacke, Grimshaw, and Lindley (2009) found that was congruent with the desired game goal or not) was found to the presence or absence of sound and music in a game impacted on have an impact on the physiological measures but intrinsic pleas- measures of subjective experience including immersion, tension, antness (subjective appraisals of emotional events as pleasurable competence, flow, negative affect, positive affect and challenge, or not) had little impact on physiological responses. While this but did not have an impact on tonic psychophysiological measures. seems to suggest that physiological responses do not reflect our A number of papers focused on specific features of games intuitions that we much prefer pleasant to unpleasant events, thought to increase enjoyment. Klimmt, Rizzo, Vorderer, Koch, van Reekum et al. argued that congruence of emotions was more E.A. Boyle et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 28 (2012) 771–780 775 relevant to game players than their intrinsic pleasantness in this Liu, Agrawal, Sarkar, and Chen (2009) reported an innovative situation. use of players’ predictable physiological responses to games as a Neuropsychologists are interested in identifying the regions of basis for adjusting the level of game difficulty (DDA) for players the brain where the enjoyable subjective experiences felt while in trying to provide them with optimal challenge. This method playing games are located. Since previous research has shown that was compared with DDA based on player performance measures. activation in the prefrontal cortex (trans-cranial direct current While the study used small numbers, it was found to provide a stimulation or tDCS) was negatively linked to the subjective feeling promising means of quantifying players’ emotions when playing of presence, Beeli, Casutt, Baumgartner, and Jäncke (2008) exam- computer games and using these to provide optimally challenging ined how the feelings of presence felt during a virtual roller coaster experiences for players. simulation could be modulated by decreasing activity in the dorsa- lateral pre-frontal cortex (dlPFC). The researchers argued that, since 3.7. Motives/reasons for playing games the dlPFC is also involved in the inhibition of impulsive behaviour, lowered activation within the dlPFC should also be accompanied by Over time, enjoyable feelings experienced while playing games higher impulsiveness. Participants were randomly assigned to cath- will lead to positive attitudes and expectations of games which odal, anodal or sham trans-cranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) provide more enduring reasons or motives for playing games. and measures of electro-myogram (EMG), skin conductance, impul- Motives for playing games provide an alternative perspective on sivity and presence were recorded. Cathodal tDCS led to increased engagement which involve appraisals of feelings experienced skin conductance and increased numbers of false alarms (i.e. in- while playing games. Tan (2008) made a similar theoretical dis- creased impulsivity) relative to the other two groups, but there tinction between ‘‘on-line phenomenal experiences of activities’’ were no differences between the three groups in emg or subjective and ‘‘selecting and engaging in activities’’ in discussing emotions measures of presence. This study demonstrated that the relation- linked to media. ship between physiological stimulation and measures of subjective Overall the method used most frequently in studying motives experience is not always straightforward. for playing games was the survey (14), although two good quasi- Salminen and Ravaja (2008) examined brain wave activity (EEG experimental studies and two qualitative studies were also identi- responses) linked to two emotional events, wounding and killing fied. Several studies of motives for playing digital games were an opponent, while playing a first-person shooting game (James grounded in rigorous theoretical models, mostly based on satisfac- Bond 007: NightFire). They found increases in theta wave activity tion of needs. Ryan, Rigby, and Przybylski (2006) argued that in response to both violent game events compared with the pre- understanding motives for playing games is an under-researched event baseline, suggesting that this kind of brain activity is linked area and they applied Deci and Ryan’s (1985) generic motivational to the emotional responses experienced during violent events. In a theory, self determination (SD) theory, to examine players’ motives previous study they had found no similar responses when players for playing games. The main finding from Ryan et al.’s detailed were playing a non-violent game, SuperMonkey Ball 2 (Salminen & studies was that players’ ratings of enjoyment and value in games Ravaja, 2007). Taken together these results suggest that the ob- and a desire for future play were strongly predicted by presence served increases in theta wave activity were linked to taking part and players’ self determined needs for competence, autonomy in emotional events in games. and relatedness. This suggests that the need for challenge, the free- Ravaja, Turpeinen, Saari, Puttonen, and Keltikangas-Jarvinen dom to act in a virtual world and opportunities to develop relation- (2008) looked at facial EMG activity and skin conductance re- ships are important contributors to game enjoyment. Ryan et al. sponses as well as assessments of mood during game-play (joy, also found that player presence was an important predictor of pleasant relaxation, fear, anger, and depressed feeling) in response game enjoyment. to short duration emotional game events. They found that counter- Uses and gratifications (U&G) theory provides an account of intuitive emotions were experienced during game playing events. more specific, media-related motives for playing games. Lucas Although we might expect that wounding and killing one’s oppo- and Sherry (2004) asked 18–24 year olds to rate six previously nent would elicit positive emotional responses since these events established uses and gratifications for playing computer games indicate progress in the game, the events did in fact lead to anxiety (competition, challenge, social interaction, diversion, fantasy and or anger. Players possibly experience ‘‘normal’’ empathetic re- arousal). Challenge was the top rated reason for playing games sponses that would be felt in response to such an event in real life. for both males and females, with the need for arousal and excite- Similarly wounding or killing of one’s own character, which would ment also rated highly by both genders. Colwell (2007) was also be a negative event in the game, led to positive emotions, which influenced by U&G theory and identified companionship, prefer- may have been due to relief from the stress of playing the game. ring playing games to being with friends, fun/challenge and stress The authors concluded that we should not assume that we know relief as needs that playing games meets for adolescents. which emotions are experienced during game-play as it may be Chou and Tsai (2007) examined links between reasons for play- difficult to dissociate the import of emotions in games from those ing games and enjoyment of games in Taiwanese high school stu- experienced in real life. dents. They found that using games for entertainment, seeking Sell, Lillie, and Taylor (2008) measured enjoyment of the game information, filling time and social reasons were among the four as well as physiological benefits (heart rate, oxygen consumption most important reasons predicting enjoyment of games for both and energy expenditure) experienced by players while playing males and females. the dance exercise game Dance Dance Revolution (DDR). Sell A sub-set of papers focused on motives for playing specific et al. found that all players enjoyed playing the game more than kinds of games. Kim and Ross (2006) extended U&G theory to working on a treadmill but the physiological benefits experienced study the gratifications of playing sports games and found sports depended on the level of fitness of the players. More experienced knowledge and application and identification with sport as unique players were able to work at higher levels of the game and could motives for playing sports games. Klimmt, Schmid, and Orthmann consequently expend more energy, achieving improved physical (2009) found that the primary determiners of the appeal of multi- benefits and increased enjoyment compared to less experienced player browser games were the social relationships developed in players. This study also illustrates difficulties in choosing an appro- the games and their flexibility of use, with competition a less priate control since treadmills are not typically known for their important motive for playing these games. Clearly some game gen- engaging properties! res or platforms are more engaging than others. Lee et al. (2007) 776 E.A. Boyle et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 28 (2012) 771–780 found that simulation, role-playing and action games were the ences in motives and play patterns between adult and adolescent most popular games with high and middle school students in players of Everquest. They found that adolescents are more likely Korea. to play because of violence and are more likely to sacrifice work Several papers addressed the increasing popularity of Massively to play, while adults are more likely to sacrifice socialising. Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs) and Massively Multiplayer Jeng and Teng (2008) found that personality traits were strong Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs). In a short but influential predictors of game-playing motivations, while Teng (2008) found paper, Yee (2006) found achievement, socialising and immersion that players of online games had higher openness, conscientious- were important motives for playing online games. Using Yee’s ness, and extraversion scores but not neurotocism or agreeable- (2006) questionnaire, Suznjevic and Matijasevic (2010) found that ness. Koo (2009) found that players with an external locus of achievement was the most important motive for players of the control enjoy online games more, concentrate more on the games MMORPG World of Warcraft with team work also important but and use games as an escape strategy more than those with an immersive features less so. Using a qualitative approach, Fros- internal locus of control. tling-Henningsson (2009) found that online gaming is motivated Sell et al. (2008) found that player expertise impacted on enjoy- primarily by social reasons with players seeking opportunities for ment of games, with more experienced players of DDR achieving cooperation and competition. Players were also motivated by improved physical benefits and greater enjoyment than less expe- escapism and flow as well as opportunities to carry out behaviours rienced players. Fang and Zhao (2010) brought together player that would not be possible in the real world. Lin and Lin (2011) characteristics and game type, arguing that the fit between these used a more specialised qualitative technique used in marketing will influence the level of enjoyment experienced in playing to identify players’ perceptions of the attributes, consequences games. They examined the impact of sensation seeking and self and values associated with playing MMORPGs. Players identified forgetfulness on enjoyment of five different categories of computer fun and enjoyment of life, a sense of belonging, warm relationships game and found that sensation seeking was linked to behavioural with others and a sense of accomplishment as reasons for playing enjoyment for action oriented game types and to cognition for games. These studies confirm, using a different methodological ap- family entertainment/simulation game. proach, the use of games for enjoyment and to satisfy the needs for Wan and Chiou (2007) found that players who were classified competence and relatedness as specified in self-determination as on-line game addicts had higher levels of intrinsic than extrinsic theory. motivation, while non-addicts’ extrinsic motivation was signifi- The popularity of violent games would appear to suggest that cantly higher than their intrinsic motivation. This suggests that ad- the violent content of games is an important factor in the enjoy- dicts are more susceptible to the pleasurable features of the games. ment of these games. While the current review did not focus on Lee et al. (2007) found that players in a high risk group for internet violence, Przybylski, Ryan, and Rigby (2009) argued that ‘‘little re- addiction played games more and reported more difficulty in con- search has examined the role of violent player content in player trolling their game use than those in potential or low risk groups. motivation and immersion’’. They examined violence as a motive for playing games but found that the violent content of games 3.8. Game usage did not predict player ratings of enjoyment and value in games over and above players’ needs for competence and autonomy. This The huge amounts of money spent on games, the large numbers suggests that violence is not an important factor in contributing to of children, adolescents and adults who play games worldwide and game enjoyment. Rather players play violent games for reasons the amount of time spent on playing games are important indica- similar to those for playing other games, i. e. because these games tors of engagement in games. The only design which was used in provide challenges and the freedom to act in a virtual world. studying game usage was the survey, although several papers used A number of papers focused on differences between players in sophisticated modelling techniques to analyse predictors of game motives for playing games. Gender is the most obvious user char- usage. Playing games is clearly a highly popular leisure activity acteristic which influences engagement in games: males are more with players spending around 7 h per week playing games (Lee & interested in games, enjoy games more, spend more time playing Larose, 2007; Lucas & Sherry, 2004). Eglesz et al. (2005) found that games, are much more likely to play for extended periods of time children in the 14–18 year old age-range spent the most time play- than females and have different game preferences to females ing games, a fact that they attributed to their need for sensation (Chou & Tsai, 2007). Lucas and Sherry (2004) found that males seeking and emotional release. Griffiths et al. (2004) found that rated all six reasons for playing (challenge, competition, social the average number of hours played by players of the game Ever- interaction, fantasy, arousal and diversion) as more important than quest was 25.3 h per week for adolescents and 24.7 h for adults. females, confirming the greater enthusiasm for games that males A number of authors looked at the links between motives for have. Interestingly males rated social interaction as the second playing games and game usage. Colwell (2007) found fun/chal- most important reason for playing games, while females rated it lenge, preferring games to friends and stress relief were significant the least important suggesting that males are much more likely predictors of the amount, duration and total weekly play. Shieh than females to regard game playing as an opportunity to socialise and Cheng (2007) found that Taiwanese adolescents and young with friends. Jansz, Avis, and Vosmeer (2010) found that social adults who value games as a leisure pursuit, who are concerned interaction, fantasy and challenge were rated significantly more about social norms, who play games for a sense of empathy and important motives for males than females with no gender differ- escapism and who value the social aspects of games will play on- ences in enjoyment, control and diversion. Olson (2010) found that line games more. Yee (2006) found that escapism, hours played boys were significantly more likely than girls to play for fun, to per week and advancement (the desire to progress in the game) compete with other people, for challenge and for emotional rea- were the best predictors of problematic use of games. sons, including excitement, relaxation and coping with anger. Just as we might assume that people play games primarily be- Age differences in motives for playing were also reported. cause they enjoy them, so too we might predict that the more people Eglesz, Fekete, Kiss, and Izsó (2005) found that children under 10 enjoy playing games, the longer they will play. However people play play games to achieve better results, while 14- to 18-year-olds like games for both positive and negative reasons and Lee and LaRose more stimulating games because they are more driven by sensa- (2007) found that time spent playing games is strongly influenced tion-seeking motives. When they fail players over 30 are motivated by negative reasons for playing games. They proposed that many to try again. Griffiths, Davies, and Chappell (2004) showed differ- people start to play video games to help them manage negative E.A. Boyle et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 28 (2012) 771–780 777 psychological states by relieving boredom, reducing loneliness, identification; sociability; reward and entertainment) and this pre- passing time or providing an escape, so-called self-reactive outcome dicted players’ attitudes toward online games, although the effects expectations. Lee and LaRose also highlighted the importance of of materialism on attitude were fully mediated by motivation. Hsu self-regulatory mechanisms in controlling game usage. They mod- and Lu (2007) found that customer loyalty in online game commu- elled computer gaming habits and usage of 388 college undergrad- nities was influenced by perceived enjoyment, social norms and uates and found that players’ self-reactive outcome expectations preference, while perceived cohesion of the community had an indi- were positively linked to deficient self-regulation of game playing, rect impact on loyalty through its impact on customers’ loyalty to with respect to inaccurate judgements about appropriate norms of the community. acceptable games use and failure to feel guilt about excessive play. Lee and Larose also found that flow did not have a direct impact on 3.10. Impact of game-playing on life satisfaction the amount of time spent playing computer games, directly ques- tioning the commonsense assumption that the more players enjoy Seven papers looked at the impact of playing games on life satis- a game the more time they will spend playing it. However, flow faction. Apart from Smyth’s (2007) between groups study, all stud- did have an impact on habit strength, self-reactive outcome expec- ies in this category were surveys. Most of the studies looked at both tations and self-regulation variables, suggesting that experiencing positive and negative impacts of playing games. Ogletree and Drake flow makes it more likely that players will have difficulties in regu- (2007) found gender differences in the impact of games with males lating media consumption. This study provides an interesting in- playing games for longer durations than females and males agreeing sight into the mechanisms by which normal players might be that playing games interfered more with sleeping and class prepara- drawn into playing games excessively and explains why enjoyment tion then females. More males also complained about their own is not necessarily a good predictor of time spent playing games. game playing, while more females than males complained about Many players feel passionate about playing games, but a dis- the amount of time their significant other played computer games. tinction is made between harmonious passion (HP) and obsessive The results are consistent with the displacement hypothesis, which passion (OP), where harmonious passion is regarded as positive proposes that game playing replaces more important activities in and obsessive passion as negative. Przybylski, Weinstein, Ryan, the lives of young people. Wang, Khoo, Liu, and Divaharan (2008) and Rigby (2009) argued that the former is determined by wanting found that physiological and aesthetic dimensions of game satisfac- to play games, while the latter is determined by needing to play. tion had positive effects, but web surfing frequency and the educa- Wang, Chen, Lin, and Wang (2008) found that players with higher tional component of game satisfaction had negative effects on HP and OP had significantly higher flow disposition, positive affect adolescent life satisfaction. Skoric, Teo, and Neo (2009) found that and played for longer than those with moderate or low HP/OP pro- addictive but not engagement tendencies had a negative impact files. Overall the findings confirmed that harmonious passion tends on the academic performance of primary school children. to be linked to positive outcomes and obsessive passion tends to be Self determination theory proposes that taking part in activities linked to negative outcomes. which meet his needs enhances a person’s well-being. Przybylski, Koo (2009) found that perceived enjoyment, escape and social Weinstein et al. (2009) examined links between game players’ affiliation but not concentration or epistemic curiosity predicted self-determined needs and harmonious and obsessive passion and players’ intention to play. They also found that players with an found, as predicted, that players with higher levels of self-deter- external locus of control enjoy online games more, concentrate mined need satisfaction also had higher levels of harmonious pas- more on the games and use games more as an escape strategy than sion and this was positively linked to life satisfaction, while those players with an internal locus of control. Hsu and Lu (2004) used with lower levels of need satisfaction had higher levels of obsessive the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), extending it to leisure passion, which was negatively linked to life satisfaction. Similar applications of IT and showing that social norms (i. e. players’ per- findings were reported by Lafrenie, Vallerand, Donahue, and Lavigne ceptions of other people’s views of the technology), critical mass (2009), although these authors found that high obsessive passion (the number of people using the technology) and flow are more rel- was positively related to positive as well as negative affective expe- evant to explaining attitudes to and the use of on-line entertain- riences, again suggesting that, despite negative outcomes, even ment games than the traditional extrinsic TAM variables, players with high obsessive passion enjoy playing games. perceived ease of use and usefulness. Addressing concerns that playing online games is associated with detrimental outcomes, Smyth (2007) compared aspects of 3.9. Game market and player loyalty engagement (game usage, health, well-being, socialisation, sleep and academic progress) in MMORPGs with arcade, console and The current review did not explicitly address the computer computer games. Smyth reported that playing MMORPGs is linked games market, but several papers mentioned the need to under- to both positive and negative consequences. The MMORPG group stand the games market in providing a rationale for the study. reported greater enjoyment of the game and a greater interest in For example Lee and Larose (2007) reported that retail sales of continuing to play the game. However they also spent significantly computer games plus consoles, software and accessories reached more hours playing, reported worse health and sleep quality and $US10.5 billion in 2005, while Przybylski, Ryan et al. (2009) re- greater interference of games with their social life and academic ported that the computer games market is now even bigger than work suggesting that, while the MMORPGs are clearly engaging, Hollywood. the outcomes are largely detrimental. Wu, Wang, and Tsai (2010) examined why players want to continue playing a particular game. They found that achievement, enjoyment and social interaction gratifications derived from the 4. Discussion game as well as service mechanisms (fairness, incentive and secu- rity) positively predicted players’ motivations to continue playing The number of papers providing empirical evidence about a game and their ‘‘proactive stickiness’’, i.e. players’ tendency to engagement in digital entertainment games captured in the cur- be loyal to the game. Presence did not predict players’ motivation rent review confirms the surge in interest in this area over the past to continue playing. Chang and Zhang (2008) found that players’ 10 years. A structured approach to synthesising the findings from attitudes to materialism were linked to their motivation for online these diverse papers was developed which categorised studies gaming (self-confidence and achievement; escape and virtual in terms of the different approaches used by their authors to 778 E.A. Boyle et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 28 (2012) 771–780 understand engagement in games. This categorisation is consistent (2006) motivational theory and in U&G theory. Playing games with process models of engagement which look at different stages satisfies players’ need for achievement, a need first identified by in the course of engagement. For example, the model of media McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell (1953) as an important enjoyment proposed by Vorderer et al. (2004) placed subjective motivator of behaviour. There was evidence too that games satisfy experience at the heart of media enjoyment but claimed that a players’ needs for autonomy (Klimmt et al., 2007; Ryan et al., 2006) comprehensive account of media enjoyment should also consider and relatedness (Lin & Lin, 2011), the other needs specified in SD the antecedents of enjoyment such as motives and player and theory. Ryan et al. (2006) also recognised the importance of pres- game prerequisites and outcomes of media enjoyment. O’Brien ence in predicting game enjoyment, although Jennett et al. and Toms’ (2008) process model of engagement with technology (2008) pointed out that presence is not necessary for immersion made similar claims about different stages in the process of as many games and puzzles which do not involve a strong sense engagement but adopted the perspective of an individual engaging of presence are nevertheless highly engaging. with a game rather than providing an abstract description of the SD theory has been criticised for considering a narrow range of process. motives for playing games and U&G theory identified a broader As Brockmyer et al. (2009) acknowledge there is still a lack of range of needs that playing games can meet including competition, consensus about how best to characterise subjective experience arousal and fantasy. Many other features including suspense and in games. The different constructs which have been proposed, narrative have been found to contribute to engagement in games enjoyment, immersion, presence, flow and arousal are similar but and it seems likely that other features will be identified. While emphasise slightly different aspects of subjective experience in we may want to provide a more coherent understanding of motives games. Flow, the best known term for describing the enjoyable for playing games, the reality is that a range of diverse and subjective experiences of playing games, has a strong focus on cog- unrelated features contribute to engagement. O’Brien and Toms nitive features relating to the task such as challenge, concentration, (2008) call these features ‘‘engagement attributes’’. goals and feedback. Jennett et al. (2008) argued that immersion is a While SD theory focuses on user needs it is also recognised that more useful construct than flow since it can exist to varying de- features of the games themselves contribute to engagement. Pro- grees on different tasks and can explain a broader range of subjec- gress in understanding motives will be made by looking in more tive experiences than flow which refers only to states of optimal detail at the characteristics of specific kinds of games as well differ- experience. Presence, with its specific focus on the feelings of actu- ences between players in the kinds of games that they enjoy. Social ally being present in the game, is an important aspect of the motives are especially important reasons for playing online games engagement experience, but it describes a rather narrow view of and browser games (Klimmt, Rizzo et al., 2009; Klimmt, Schmid engagement. While many accounts view enjoyment of games as al- et al., 2009), while competition seems to be more important in most synonymous with engagement, arousal theory highlights some games than others (Frostling-Henningsson, 2009) and for excitement as a distinct emotion from enjoyment as suggested in some players (Lucas & Sherry, 2004; Olson, 2010). Several papers the dimensional theory of emotions (Aymerich-Franch, 2010). looked at the impact of gender (Chou & Tsai, 2007; Karakus, Inal, Brockmyer et al. adopt a pragmatic and eclectic approach to char- & Cagiltay, 2008), age (Eglesz et al., 2005) and personality differ- acterising engagement in games in their Game Engagement Ques- ences between players in their engagement in games. Fang and tionnaire by including questions about different aspects of Zhao (2010) brought together player characteristics and game subjective experience. type, arguing that the fit between these will influence the level While most measures of engagement are questionnaire based, of enjoyment experienced in playing games. O’Brien and Toms several papers described objective measures of engagement in (2008) side-stepped the issue of whether motivational features games, based either on behavioural or physiological responses. are properties of the game or the player by proposing that engage- While time spent playing games may seem like an obvious corre- ment attributes are properties of the user-game interface. late of enjoyment, Lee and Larose (2007) suggested caution in We have argued that it is useful to distinguish motives and sub- using this as a proxy behavioural indicator of engagement in games jective experience as separate components in understanding since negative reasons for playing games and poor regulation of engagement. However, in practice many game characteristics, game playing were better predictors of game usage than flow. On including enjoyment, challenge, arousal, fantasy, suspense, compe- a more positive note Jennett et al. (2008) found that both eye tition and interest are relevant both as reasons for playing games movements and time to re-engage in an activity following immer- and as facets of subjective experience. Challenge for example is a sion provided promising objective measures of immersion. Liu key characteristic of flow theory but it is also recognised as a mo- et al.’s (2009) use of a range of physiological correlates of emotions tive for playing games. A number of studies examined links be- felt while gaming to adapt the difficulty level of a game to players’ tween reasons for playing and subjective experience. For needs suggests that these measures can provide reliable and useful example Ryan et al. (2006), Przybylski, Ryan et al. (2009), and Chou indicators of engagement in games. However links between phys- and Tsai (2007) looked at motives for playing games as predictors iological and subjective measures of engagement are not always so of enjoyment. In a detailed theoretical analysis of interest, Tan easy to interpret. Ravaja et al. (2005) pointed out that physiological (2008) argued that the experience of boredom (the distal reason) measures can provide potentially ambiguous measures of arousal will set in train behaviours which will be experienced as interest. in computer games. Heart rate, for example, can either increase It would be useful to carry out similar detailed examinations of in response to emotional arousal or decrease in response to atten- other characteristics which are important in engagement. tional engagement, both of which are relevant subjective indica- While enjoyment is key to explanations of engagement in tors of engagement in games. games, players also experience negative emotions while playing While subjective experience is central to explanations of the ap- games. Jennett et al.’s (2008) preliminary studies of pace related peal of games, players’ motives for playing games provide an alter- anxiety and immersion were inconclusive but suggested that expe- native perspective on understanding player engagement which riencing negative emotions such as anxiety may actually help to examines the factors which impact on why people might choose engage players in games. Players also play games for negative rea- to play games. Many different motives for playing games were sons such as escapism, avoiding boredom and depression and, as identified with fun/enjoyment and challenge consistently rated Lee and LaRose found, this has negative consequences since such as the most important reasons for playing games. Challenge (com- players are less able to control their gameplay. While violent petence) is a key reason for playing games in SD theory, Yee’s games are very popular, Przybylski, Ryan et al. (2009) found that E.A. Boyle et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 28 (2012) 771–780 779 violence itself did not predict enjoyment of and immersion in reasons. The current review has regarded engagement in games games while Ivory and Kalyanaraman (2007) found no difference in a positive light, but has also highlighted the need for researchers between violent and non violent games in ratings of presence, to investigate in more detail the delicate balance between positive involvement and arousal. Future research should consider the role and negative experiences, emotions and motives in engaging play- of negative emotions in engaging players in games in more detail. ers in games. Studies looking at the impact of playing games on general life satisfaction also suggest that playing games has both positive Acknowledgment and negative consequences. Smyth (2007) found that players of online games enjoyed them more than those playing other kinds of This research was supported by a grant from the Wellcome games, even although they also suffered more from the detrimen- trust to Professor Thomas M. Connolly. tal effects of playing these games. As with other highly enjoyable behaviours there is a fine dividing line between enjoyment and addiction. Wan and Chiou’s (2007) finding that on-line game ad- Appendix A. Supplementary material dicts had higher levels of intrinsic motivation suggests that, despite the disadvantages of being an addict, these players still Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in enjoy playing games. 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