Contents

Introduction by the authors ...... ix Acknowledgments ...... xi Glossary ...... xiii Terminological and translation notes ...... xv Reference notes ...... xvii List of tables ...... xix List of illustrations ...... xxiii List of figures ...... xxvii

1 Early space science ...... 1 Space science by balloon...... 3 Scientific flights into the atmosphere: the Akademik series...... 14 Scientific test flights with animals ...... 20 The idea of a scientific Earth satellite ...... 23 Scientific objectives of the first Earth satellites ...... 25 Key people ...... 25 Instead, Prosteishy Sputnik ...... 27 PS2...... 29 Object D: the first large scientific satellite in orbit...... 33 Early space science: what was learned? ...... 37 References ...... 39

2 Deepening our understanding ...... 43 Following Sputnik: the MS series ...... 43 Cosmos 5 and Starfish: introducing Yuri Galperin ...... 48 Following Sputnik: Elektron ...... 55 Elektron feast ...... 58 Introducing the Cosmos program ...... 64 Dnepropetrovsky Sputnik (DS)...... 66 DS-U series ...... 76 Molecular oscillator in orbit ...... 79 vi Contents

The great hunt for anti-matter 80 First astronomy and heliophysical missions 84 New geomagnetic map 85 Supplementary science 86 Nauka modules 91 Application satellites with scientific instruments 98 The third radiation belt 100 Intercosmos 102 Intercosmos solar missions 105 Intercosmos ionospheric missions 107 Intercosmos charged particle missions 109 Ionosfernaya Stantsiya and the Galperin missions 113 Proton: elusive cosmic rays 119 Specialized scientific missions: Energiya and Efir 127 Solar observatories: Prognoz 129 Relikt and Intershock 135 Early Soviet space science: what was learned? 139 References 140 Russian-language references 151

3 Revealing the Moon 153 First Cosmic Ship: discovery of the solar wind 153 Second Cosmic Ship: the lunar environment 157 Mapping the far side of the Moon 158 Soft-landing on the Moon 165 Orbiting the Moon 169 Mapping the Moon in detail: Luna and Zond 173 Recovering lunar samples 181 Luna 20: into the lunar highlands 186 Luna 24: the long view 187 Roving the Moon 191 Lunokhod 2: along the rim of Le Monnier 196 Revealing the Moon: what was learned? 201 References 203 Russian-language references 209

4 Unveiling Venus 211 First Venus probes 211 At last, signals from Venus 215 Descent into the clouds 221 At last, the surface of Venus 222 Photographing the surface 227 Strange atmosphere 233 Chemical laboratory on the surface 237 Mapping the surface of Venus 241 Contents vii

Balloons into the atmosphere ...... 250 Finally, to Halley ...... 255 Unveiling Venus: what was learned? ...... 258 References ...... 260

5 The path to Mars ...... 263 First Mars mission: Mars 1...... 265 The orbital science missions of Mars 2 and 3 ...... 270 Descent through Mars's atmosphere ...... 277 Orbital science: observations from Mars 5 ...... 281 Meeting with Phobos ...... 286 Science from Phobos...... 290 Phobos postscript ...... 294 The path to Mars: what was learned? ...... 295 References ...... 297

6 Orbiting space stations ...... 301 Beginnings of space biology: Korabl Sputnik ...... 301 Space biology by cosmonauts ...... 308 Hitting the first walls of space biology: Cosmos 110 ...... 313 Space biology's lunar journey: the flight of the tortoises ...... 315 Soyuz as a platform for space science ...... 318 Weightlessness: a warning ...... 321 Salyut orbiting station ...... 324 Salyut science ...... 327 Solo Soyuz science ...... 330 Salyut 3 science...... 331 Salyut 4 science...... 332 Salyut 5 science: materials processing plant on orbit ...... 336 Salyut 6 science...... 339 Salyut 7 science...... 347 Mir science ...... 352 International Space Station (ISS) science...... 360 Orbiting space stations: what was learned? ...... 365 References ...... 368

7 Later Soviet space science: the observatories...... 375 Astronomical science: Astron, Kvant, Granat, and Gamma ...... 375 Great observatories: Astron ...... 376 Great observatories: Kvant ...... 380 Granat and the great annihilator ...... 383 The last great observatory: Gamma ...... 389 Integral: the great attractor...... 391 Intercosmos: introducing the second phase ...... 393 The Ellipse and Magik missions ...... 393 viii Contents

The Ionozond missions ...... 397 The Priroda and Bulgaria 1300 missions ...... 402 The Aktivny and APEX missions ...... 405 The Oval mission ...... 409 Aureole 3 ...... 412 The search for fireballs: Prognoz M (Interball) ...... 414 Interball: the magnetosphere remodeled ...... 420 Atmospheric science from sounding rockets: Vertikal ...... 424 Smaller sounding rocket programs ...... 427 Solar science: Koronas ...... 432 Small specialized satellites: Pion and Kompass ...... 437 Biological science: Bion...... 440 Materials science: Foton ...... 449 Later Soviet space science: what was learned? ...... 453 References ...... 455 Russian-language references ...... 464

8 Perspectives, past and future ...... 467 Decline of science during the transition...... 467 Spektr observatories ...... 468 Lunar ``Polygons''...... 471 Phobos sample return ...... 472 Space science in the federal space plan, 2006±2015 ...... 476 Historical overview ...... 478 The Keldysh ascendancy ...... 480 The emergence of IKI...... 482 Key institutes and personalities in the space science program ...... 486 Soviet and Russian space science in a global context...... 489 Concluding remarks ...... 492 References ...... 492 Russian-language references ...... 494

Annexe: Summary of Soviet and Russian space science missions...... 495 Bibliography...... 503 Index ...... 507