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How have the needs for Deaf/deaf NESB adults been met within AMEP Research Report Series programs? Is current provision adequate and in what ways could it be improved? Series Editor: Geoff Brindley This Research Report is based on research carried out with service providers of education institutions such as AMES, ELLS, TAFE and DEN (Deaf Education Network). It presents the findings of the research as well as recommendations for teaching Deaf/deaf learners and training TESOL teachers working with them. The report includes the views of Deaf/deaf NESB learners, TESOL teachers of Deaf/deaf NESB learners and providers of English Language and Literacy services. Also included is information for TESOL teachers of Deaf/deaf adults.
This report is relevant reading for TESOL teachers and service providers as well as anyone interested in the issues of teaching English as a second language to Deaf/deaf adults.
The other titles in this series are:
1. Language Audits and Industry Restructuring Giselle Mawer, 1991
2. Computer-enhanced Language Assessment Chris Corbel, 1993 Improving Services for Deaf 3. Teachers’ Interactive Decision-Making David Nunan, 1993 4. Learner Pathways in the Adult Migrant English Program and Hard of Hearing Lilli Lipa, 1993
5. Non-language Outcomes in the Adult Migrant English Program Elaine Jackson, 1994 NESB Adults in Australia 6. From Proficiency to Competencies: A Collaborative Approach to Curriculum Innovation Youle Bottomley, Jeanette Dalton and Chris Corbel, 1994
7. The Process Syllabus in Action Diana Simmons and Sylvia Wheeler, 1995
8. The Computing Practices of Language and Literacy Teachers Chris Corbel, 1996
9. Investigating Learner Outcomes for Clients with Special Needs in the Adult Migrant English Program Donovan V. Cresdee Pam McPherson, 1997
10. Current Practice in the Use of Telematics to Support Distance Learners in the Adult Migrant English Program Ann Nicholson, 1997
Donovan Cresdee is currently Coordinator of the Auslan Certificate Program at the Adelaide Institute of TAFE. He has been involved in a number of national research projects including projects for the Deaf Education Network and has been working on a new national curriculum for Auslan. He is a founder member of the Auslan Teachers Professional Association and has delivered papers on deafness at many national conferences.
11 National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research Improving Services for Deaf and
Hard of Hearing NESB Adults in Australia
Donovan V. Cresdee
National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research Improving Services for Deaf and Hard of Hearing NESB Adults in Australia
Published and distributed by the National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research Macquarie University Sydney NSW 2109
Cresdee, Donovan V, 1956 –, Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia
ISBN 1 86408 403 0. ISSN 1037–5422
1. Deaf - Education - Australia. 2. Minorities - Education - Australia. 3. Immigrants - Education - Australia. 4. English language - Study and teaching - Australia - Foreign speakers. I. National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (Australia). II. Title. (Series NCELTR research report; 11).
428.00715
371.358
© Macquarie University 1997
Copyright All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any means, without the publisher’s permission.
This is the eleventh in the NCELTR Research Report Series.
Series Editor: Geoff Brindley
The National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR) is a Commonwealth Government-funded Key Centre of Teaching and Research established at Macquarie University in 1988. The National Centre forms part of the Linguistics discipline within the School of English, Linguistics and Media at Macquarie University. NCELTR is funded by the Commonwealth Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs.
The publishers have used their best efforts to contact all copyright holders for permission to reproduce artwork and text extracts. Contents
Acknowledgments ...... iv
Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 1
Chapter 2 Methodology...... 3
Chapter 3 Project outcomes...... 5
Chapter 4 Information for teachers of English to speakers of other languages ...... 13
Chapter 5 Recommendations ...... 27
Key terminology ...... 28
Acronyms and abbreviations ...... 30
References ...... 32
List of appendices ...... 34
1. Questionnaire ...... 35
2. Letter to AMEP providers ...... 37
3. Letter to Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults ...... 38
4. Consent form ...... 39 Acknowledgments
This project was funded by the National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research, and managed by English Language and Literacy Services (ELLS), a work unit within the Adelaide Institute of TAFE, South Australia.
ELLS has been fully certified to Australian and International As/NZS ISO 9001, 1994 quality management standards.
Postal address Adelaide Institute of TAFE 120 Currie Street Adelaide SA 5000
Telephone 08 8207 8805
Fax 08 8207 8644
TTY 08 8207 8806
iv Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia Chapter 1 Introduction
Project Description
The project was designed to: • Illustrate Deaf/deaf NESB learners’ expressed opinions about the current provision of services. • Define the terms Deaf/deaf, including a description of Deaf culture. • Provide a description of the issues relating to Deaf/deaf NESB learners and their needs in order to assist TESOL teachers’ awareness of them. • Recommend the most appropriate methodology for teaching English literacy skills and Auslan. • Identify the skills training needed by TESOL teachers of Deaf NESB learners. • Provide recommendations applying mainly to Deaf NESB learners.
Project background/rationale
A small but significant number of AMEP clients who are Deaf, profoundly deaf, or hard of hearing, have found it difficult to attain English language competence. It is necessary to identify the extent to which Deaf and hard of hearing NESB learners are served by current provision and to describe the type of provision which would best address their particular needs.
The research project has attempted to investigate not only the special learning needs of Deaf and hard of hearing learners, but also the issues relevant to such learners’ language and culture. These issues are significant for learning and teaching, as an understanding of the issues may enable providers of AMEP services to make decisions which accommodate Deaf clients by placing appropriately skilled staff into special classes, making other tuition arrangements or by referring them to the appropriate providers.
This project also has attempted to identify essential elements that need to be incorporated into the information for TESOL teachers and language assessors, and to develop appropriate and comprehensive information relevant to Deafness, Deaf culture, Deaf language and literacy issues. The project report concludes with some recommendations for the improvement of language and literacy programs for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB learners in Australia.
The reason for this investigation is that, through extensive work with both Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults over many years, I have been made aware of the lack of appropriate language and literacy programs for
Chapter 1 Introduction 1 members of the Deaf culture in Australia. Fred Wilson, an Educational Manager at English Language and Literacy Services, South Australia, and I have encouraged Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults to express their opinions about their language learning experiences in AMEP services. These opinions have value for this project. Some Deaf NESB interviewees have concerns regarding their personal skills with literacy, their use of signed language, Deaf identity and so on, which can also apply to Deaf community values. Therefore the project has included comprehensive information relevant to Deafness, Deaf culture, Deaf language and literacy issues, in order to enable TESOL teachers and language assessors working with Deaf learners to gain an understanding of these elements.
Although Deaf culture highlights the use of Auslan in the Deaf community, it is believed that Deaf culture values literacy as well. For several reasons, most Deaf people would rather avoid confusion and ambiguity by communicating with those who do not know Auslan via writing and reading, than by using speech and lip reading. They would like to be independent rather than depend on other Deaf friends or community workers who are skilled in translating from print English into Auslan. The Telephone Typewriter (TTY) enables Deaf and hard of hearing adults to communicate with each other over distance. Therefore, many of them are required to have English literacy skills. It is obvious that Deaf Australians of English-speaking background value literacy, and Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults are of course no different in this regard.
The methodology used for investigation included interviews with Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults and with professionals working with Deaf people, and questionnaires to service providers at educational institutions such as the Adult Migrant English Service (AMES), English Language and Literacy Services (ELLS), Technical and Further Education (TAFE) and the Deaf Education Network (DEN). This project has summarised the views of Deaf NESB learners who are currently studying at Deaf Education Network, and who have dropped out of the Adult Migrant English Service (AMES), English Language and Literacy Services (ELLS), Technical and Further Education (TAFE) and Deaf Education Network (DEN).
2 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia Chapter 2 Methodology
Development of the questionnaire
Providers of English language and literacy are to be found in every state of Australia. The project officer was unable to visit every institution in all the states because of limited time, but found on his visit to Sydney that quite a number of Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults have access to integrated courses (they are placed into mainstream classes with Deaf Australian adults who need to improve literacy). In order to cover the areas of information required, a questionnaire needed to elicit the following information: • extent and characteristics of the provision for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults • information about curriculum modification • description of the providers’ opinions about their successes and/or difficulties • providers’ recommendations about training for TESOL teachers working with Deaf and hard of hearing clients, and about how the training should be utilised. The text of the questionnaire can be found as Appendix 1.
Delivery of the questionnaire and responses from providers
All AMEP institutional providers of English language and literacy courses were asked to complete the questionnaire and a stamped addressed envelope for return of the completed questionnaire was included. The letter briefly outlined the project. About 80 questionnaires were sent to the institutions in all of the states. Only 18 out of 80 providers responded to the questionnaire in spite of a short note urging them to do so.
Preparation for interviews with Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults
Such adults who are currently studying at the Deaf Education Network in Sydney and who have dropped out of the AMEP, were asked to express their opinions about their language learning experiences.
The following questions were asked: • What can you tell me about schooling in your home country. • Are you happy with your language learning experience at the language and literacy service?
Chapter 1 Methodology 3 Comments about the interviews
Unfortunately, it was not easy to elicit information based on these important questions from Deaf NESB adults. Some of the adults had had language learning experience of only a short time at the Deaf Education Network, and found it difficult to grasp the questions. This was not only because of their inadequate skills in Auslan as a first or second visual language, but also apparently, in many instances, because their opinions were not clearly articulated in their own minds. However, the aim was to collect as many opinions as possible in order to gain an overview of migrants’ views, both in the community and in the classroom.
Informal discussions with professionals
The project consulted extensively with two professionals who have experience in teaching English as a Second Language and are currently pursuing PhD research in the field of deaf education (bilingualism for the Deaf) and linguistics (signed language). A third professional consulted is the literacy manager at the Deaf Education Network. Informal, one-to-one discussions have taken place on many issues relevant to this project. The discussions about teaching methodologies, training for TESOL practitioners, and language and literacy issues are summarised in this report.
4 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia Chapter 3 Project outcomes
This chapter contains details of providers’ responses to the questionnaire. Only 18 out of 80 providers responded.
Extent and characteristics of provision for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults
It will be seen from the figures below that enrolments of Deaf and hard of hearing NESB learners in the AMEP are low, the reasons for which will be discussed in this report. It is also clear that few of these learners achieve a satisfactory outcome; indeed, many students drop out of courses altogether.
Number of students
Number of institutes
Figure 3.1 Number of Deaf and hard of hearing NESB clients enrolling in AMEP courses/services provided since 1991.
Chapter 3 Project outcomes 5 Number of students
Number of institutes
Figure 3.2 Numbers of Deaf and hard of hearing NESB clients achieving a satisfactory outcome
A few providers responded ‘Don’t know’ as they had not recorded the number of Deaf and hard of hearing NESB clients. Other providers found they could not respond as they thought the question was relevant only to profoundly deaf clients. From the sample responding, approximately 80–90 clients had enrolled in AMEP courses since 1991, of whom only about 10–12 were judged to have achieved a satisfactory outcome. This low success rate — less than 20 percent of such clients — argues that there is a need for improvement in programs for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB clients.
Modification of curriculum
Respondents were asked three questions related to the needs of deaf and hard of hearing NESB clients.
What curriculum changes did you negotiate with your deaf clients? (Question 3) Only a few providers responded to this question. Examples of curriculum changes are as follows: • small group work based on participants’ needs • use of the Certificate of General Education for Adults (The oral communication component has been changed to Auslan communication.) • emphasis on reading and writing.
Have any other changes been made to accommodate deaf clients? (Question 4) Only a few providers ensured that hard of hearing NESB clients had access to good sound quality through the availability of amplification devices, such as induction loop or audio loop, hearing aids, FM receivers, microphones. One AMEP institution sends its deaf clients to TAFE to learn Auslan (perhaps only a basic course, as they did not indicate otherwise).
6 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia The Deaf Education Network in Sydney successfully accommodates Deaf clients by providing a range of resources and equipment. They are outlined as follows: • use of bilingual/bicultural methods or environment • use of team teaching eg Deaf and hearing • TTY (typewriter device), subtitled videos, alert devices, eg flashing lights for phone ringing or fire alarm • interpreters for field visits and guests • training for both hearing and Deaf staff. (For knowledge and skills required in development of reading and writing materials for Deaf and hard of hearing adults in literacy classes.)
What special classes or other tuition arrangements have you made to accommodate deaf clients? (Question 5) The Deaf Education Network is the only service provider that offers special classes in which Deaf NESB clients can integrate with Deaf English speakers. Therefore it appears that no providers in Australia offer a special class for only Deaf and hard of hearing NESB learners, who may have very different language learning needs from hearing NESB learners or from Deaf ESB learners. Seven AMEP institutions have offered one-to-one tuition, eg Individual Learning Centres, home tutors and extra teacher support.
Description of the providers’ opinions about their successes and/or difficulties
The figures below show that providers see themselves as only moderately successful in providing for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB clients.
Please indicate your opinion of the success of measures you have taken to accommodate deaf clients. (Question 6) While lack of trained staff and resources are problems, it is clear that failure to identify Deaf and hard of hearing learners is extensive.
Providers’ responses
Number of institutes
Figure 3.3 Success of provision at AMES for deaf clients
Chapter 3 Project outcomes 7 Eight institutions believed that they had been moderately successful to very successful in accommodating Deaf clients, though most of them focused on those who were hard of hearing (or hearing impaired). Their comments on reasons for successes are outlined as follows: • extra time to accommodate students’ needs • flexibility • team work • focus on deafness/specialisation • input from community, students, teachers • effective relationship with the community audiologist, including referral of many men for hearing tests • collaboration with Deaf Society and TAFE consultants leading to successful outcomes for clients.
Apart from any already listed, please indicate whether any of the following difficulties have affected your ability to provide for deaf clients. (Question 7)
Providers’ responses
Number of institutes
Figure 3.4 Problems in providing for deaf clients in the AMEP
The following list of difficulties relates to the columns in the figure above:
D1: difficulty in communication
D2: non-availability of teachers with appropriate communication skills (Auslan)
D3: non-availability of teachers with international signing skills (International Sign Language or Gestuno)
D4: non-availability of teaching/learning materials designed for deaf NESB learners
8 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia D5: non-availability of teachers with knowledge of Deaf culture and an understanding of deaf adults’ problems associated with reading and writing
Their comments on reasons for difficulties are outlined as follows:
• New hearing teachers have few or no skills in Auslan. • The difficulties were overcome with the assistance of the Deaf Society and the use of the Telephone Interpreter Service, as well as writing notes for students with hearing loss.
Please indicate the reasons for not offering special tuition arrangements for deaf clients. (Question 8)
Providers’ responses
Number of institutes
Figure 3.5 Reasons for non-provision of special tuition for deaf clients
The following questions relate to the graphs in the above table:
D1: no awareness of demand
D2: absence of appropriately skilled staff
D3: lack of funding
D4: other
Recommendations It emerged from the questionnaire that providers would welcome training and professional development in order to improve their skills in teaching Deaf and hard of hearing NESB learners.
Chapter 3 Project outcomes 9 If training in the skills and knowledge required for working with Deaf and hard of hearing clients were available, would you be prepared to utilise it in your program? (Question 9)
No Response
Providers’ responses
Number of institutes
Figure 3.6 Providers prepared to undertake further training
Many providers felt they needed a training package that would enable teaching staff to develop confidence in teaching Deaf and hard of hearing clients and thus assist language assessors or counsellors to understand the needs of Deaf and hard of hearing clients.
Report on the interviews held with Deaf and hard of hearing NESB learners
One of the topics always raised by the project officer in these interviews was the school experience of Deaf NESB adults in their home countries. Three out of five adults had experienced using signs in school settings, but they did not clarify whether their teachers of the deaf used natural sign language or not. The other two grew up in oral and mainstream schools because one had some residual hearing and another had been encouraged not to use signs. It was difficult to elicit information as to whether they had had a positive language learning experience. One adult from Europe commented that he was satisfied with his secondary school which provided vocational training, for he was one of their top deaf students. Although one deaf student was allowed to use signs in his school, the school emphasised oralism. He was held in high esteem because of his successful oral skills.
The interviewees did not talk about any of their experiences in interacting with successful Deaf adults as role models. It may thus be concluded that their schools did not provide Deaf adults or Deaf teachers. Some interviewees, after leaving school, interacted with successful Deaf adults who were heavily involved in their Deaf community.
Another topic was the language learning experience at language and literacy services (AMES, DEN, etc) in Australia. Two of the interviewees implied that they knew it was not worthwhile for them to study courses provided by AMES, because of inappropriate provision for Deaf adults. Community workers approached them and discussed the provision offered
10 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia by DEN. They found this experience satisfactory for study purposes because they enjoyed learning Auslan there. However they still found it quite a struggle to learn English.
An interviewee from Malaysia was asked what type of printed texts she frequently read. Her response to this question was not entirely clear; however, she stated that she was able to read newspapers in Malay. She understood Malay, but also used the natural sign language adopted by the Malaysian Deaf Community. Based on my observation, it appears that she possesses good skills in her natural sign language. This indicates that she probably has the potential for learning Auslan and for becoming literate in English. She may need intensive support to maintain high motivation in the long term.
An interviewee from South Korea did not respond to the question as the Malaysian interviewee did. It was not possible to ascertain whether he is able to read at a functionally literate level in Korean, but it would appear that he has some skills in Korean sign language through his education at a school in South Korea. It seems that he may have very poor cognition and perception, due to his not having been exposed to sound communication in his early environment. This client clearly needs a very substantial improvement in his languages, both Auslan and English.
A former AMES student whose language learning experience had been influenced by hearing TESOL teachers, expressed his concern, stating that AMES should have provided a bilingual assistant for him and his Deaf NESB wife in the mainstream class. He had asked the provider for this assistance but to no avail. However, he added that he was satisfied with his language learning progress despite no access support. He also stated that his wife had not successfully learnt English although she received support from him through use of their first visual language (Czechoslovakian Sign Language). He agreed that he and his wife should have learnt Auslan before acquiring literacy skills in English, as, in that way, their communication problem with TESOL teachers with Auslan skills or bilingual assistants would have been much less.
An interviewee from South America, who had attended an oral mainstream school, stated that he had found it difficult to learn English at a TAFE Institute (mainstream class) and that he was happy to learn Auslan at present as he wanted to be able to use an interpreter.
Report on informal discussions held with professionals
One of the topics commented on was the model for the ideal teacher working with Deaf NESB adults. Such a teacher is expected to communicate highly effectively with Deaf NESB adults in varied forms of signed language, including international signs, mime and gestures. This communication is not just language, but also includes compensation strategies and highly cognitive strategies, such as inferencing and contextualisation. Any teacher with high Auslan skills should be urged to gain cross-cultural communication experience by interacting with Deaf adults who have no Auslan or English skills.
Chapter 3 Project outcomes 11 Such a teacher also needs to be knowledgable about Deaf Culture and history, especially education of the deaf from around the world. For example, the extent to which language learning experiences of Deaf NESB adults were affected by attitudes of teachers of the deaf or philosophies of schools for the deaf in their home countries? What cultural assumptions and (probably unconscious) behavioural norms are applied to Deaf NESB adults?
The ideal teacher should be able to bring expertise to the learning of Auslan and English with a qualification such as a nationally registered Graduate Diploma in teaching English to speakers of other languages; a Graduate Diploma of Education (Literacy and Language Education) or a Graduate Diploma in Applied Linguistics (or other qualification relevant to this kind of work). These courses enable teachers to gain an understanding of language and literacy pedagogy and its role in second or subsequent language learning.
The professionals interviewed strongly supported the idea that the relevant services should employ teachers who are themselves Deaf. The reasons for this are as follows: • Deaf NESB adults may have never had the experience of seeing successful Deaf professionals as role models in their home countries • Deaf teachers with a knowledge of Deaf language and culture would help deaf NESB adults find their identities as Deaf persons, rather than as disabled persons or hearing-like persons • Deaf teachers would also know how to help Deaf NESB adults quickly learn Auslan by interacting with them in informal settings. One of the professionals stated that it had been very difficult to place Deaf NESB adults into a homogeneous class due to the small numbers of Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults emigrating to Australia (in this case, Sydney) each year. This is further complicated by their disparateness of language learning experiences and communication skills. The difficulty might be overcome by providing a video-conferencing class for homogeneously grouped Deaf NESB adults from all states. This proposal should certainly be considered. In Adelaide, there has been a very small number of Deaf NESB adults; perhaps one or two of these people emigrate to Adelaide per year. How can they be placed into an appropriate class for learning Auslan as a second visual language and for learning literacy?
Another concern is that Deaf NESB adults need access to bilingual methodology, as otherwise they simply may not be able to learn English as the target language in classes. Past practice has seen Deaf NESB adults placed into mainstream AMES classes where their teachers did not use sign language to enable the adults to learn English. Clearly they have been disadvantaged by such a program. Some hard of hearing NESB adults, however, may be able to cope with their studies with the support of AMES teachers with the appropriate attitudes and technical devices. They may need to receive intensified support, in particular for learning phonological production such as the pronunciation of English words and sentence intonation.
12 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia Chapter 4 Information for teachers of English to speakers of other languages
Defining the terms deaf/Deaf
Let us look at two definitions of ‘deaf’ from widely-used dictionaries: deaf Lacking or deprived of the sense of hearing, wholly or partially; unable to hear. (The Macquarie Dictionary) deaf Someone who is deaf is unable to hear anything or is unable to hear very well. (Collins Cobuild)
In point of fact, these definitions may be inadequate and over-simplified since the lack of the sense of hearing can vary in both degree and kind.
The term ‘deaf’ can mean that a group of people with varied degrees of hearing loss use Auslan as their primary language, which has its own culture. However, scholars in the field of deafness would prefer to formulate two distinct definitions. James Woodward (1982) proposed the following convention: the lowercase initial letter ‘deaf’ when referring to the audiological condition of not hearing and the uppercase initial letter ‘Deaf’ when referring to a particular group of deaf people who share a language (indigenous signed language) and a culture. In this project I use this convention because of its explicitness.
Let us now focus more closely on the term ‘deaf’, particularly as an audiological classification, and on kinds of hearing loss. Apart from issues of kind, hearing losses are classified in terms of degree or extent. Labels are profound, moderate, severe and mild. They are based mainly on difficulty in hearing speech.
The following is a detailed explanation of each label.
Profoundly deaf persons, who have hearing level of the order of 85–120 dB HL (hearing loss), report that they have difficulty hearing even shouted speech.
Chapter 4 Information for teachers of English to speakers of other languages 13 Severely deaf persons, who have hearing losses of 65–85 dB HL, cannot hear loud speech or use a telephone satisfactorily but can hear shouted speech.
Moderately deaf persons, who have thresholds of hearing at 45–65 dB HL, have difficulty in telephone use.
Mildly deaf persons, who have a hearing level of the order of 25–45 dB HL for the frequencies 500 to 4000 Hz (the frequency region most important for hearing and understanding speech), report difficulty hearing soft or distant speech such as in the theatre or assembly hall.
Persons who have hearing losses from severe to mild, are often called hearing impaired or hard of hearing, whilst persons with hearing losses of 85 dB HL or greater are called deaf. These categories are general classifications of degree of hearing loss not relative to ability to understand speech, but to hear speech.
It is important to note that not all people with varied degrees of hearing loss are born deaf (called congenitally deaf). Many people are born with normal hearing, but their senses of hearing are deafened gradually or suddenly through illness or accident. In the latter, they are called ‘adventitiously’ deaf. According to educators in the deaf field, adventitiously deaf children (over 3 years of age) or adults, unlike congenitally deaf children from hearing families, have relatively little difficulty in language development, eg English, because they have acquired language and speech at an early age. This issue will be discussed further in the next section. Let us now look in depth at the term ‘Deaf’ which is defined differently from the term ‘deaf’.
In the definition of ‘Deaf’, a particular group of deaf people share a language and a culture. Such language is a visual-spatial language used by visual people — Deaf people. In many developed countries, Deaf peoples’ signed languages are recognised as a legitimate language by federal and state governments. Signed languages are used as a medium of social interaction in Deaf communities, which effecting a strong social cohesion. Hyde and Power (1992) identify over 15,000 deaf users of Auslan (Australian sign language) in Australia. Many thousands of hearing people have learned or are learning Auslan by interacting with Deaf people in social settings or by attending courses offered by tertiary institutions and at primary and secondary schools.
In recent years, a consensus has been reached in linguistics that ASL (American Sign Language), and other signed languages, constitute a language — a complete natural language, quite independent of English. Many people assume that signed language is not a real language but something more akin to a system of sophisticated gesturing; that signs are simply pictorial or iconical representations of external reality and that there is essentially just one sign language, which is a universal language. These assumptions are incorrect. Today, linguists have ample evidence that signed languages have a hierarchical structure of comparable complexity to spoken and written language, and furthermore, that they
14 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia perform a similar range of functions; that there are symbols in signed languages that are still relatively or completely arbitrary; that there are many autonomous signed languages that are not mutually intelligible because of independent creation in different parts of the world.
Deaf culture
Signed languages are the most significant feature of Deaf culture in many developed countries. As previously stated, this medium of social interaction in Deaf communities effects a strong social cohesion. Lane, Hoffmeister and Bahan (1996) affirm that the bonds of Deaf people brought about by a common language (signed language) collectively constitute what is properly called Deaf culture. Traditionally, however, Deaf people have been, and are still, presumed to be ‘culturally deprived’ because they have not achieved the assimilation into the culture of majority communities through listening to music, poetry or plays; or because they have difficulty understanding literature.
Woodward, an American sociolinguist (1982), made the following statement relevant to cultural and other differences between hearing and Deaf persons: ‘... differences between Deaf and hearing people can be seen as cultural differences, not as deviations from a hearing norm’.
A clear understanding of this statement can lead to a more positive basis for interaction and understanding and a greater degree of sensitivity to the needs of Deaf persons. Let us now explore Deaf culture by examining other important features, such as identity, rules for behaviour, organisations and traditions, festivals and celebrations.
Identity Identity is an important feature of Deaf culture because Deaf children and adults, with full access to Deaf culture through signed language, are likely to develop a sense of belonging. The Deaf sociolinguist, Barbara Kannapell, a pioneer in the American Deaf Rights Movement, has written of ASL (American Sign Language): ‘It is our language in every sense of the word. We create it, we keep it alive, and it keeps us and our traditions alive’. And further, ‘To reject ASL is to reject the Deaf person’.
On the other hand, not all deaf persons identify with the Deaf community. Persons who are deaf and grow up with other students in special programs may identify with hearing persons as members of the majority culture. This is not a judgment based on degree or kind of hearing loss but mainly upon learned attitudes towards languages. Possibly this is because their teachers of the deaf and their hearing parents may have negative attitudes toward signed language and are powerful agents in influencing these persons’ feelings towards the languages. However, other people with various degrees of hearing loss, from mild to severe, who are educated with other students in special programs, may devote the rest of their lives to the Deaf community and in turn be fully accepted by it. Children with mild hearing loss but with Deaf parents or siblings often become members of Deaf communities also. Thus, a hearing loss or deafness is not the most important criterion for membership in Deaf communities, nor is a profound
Chapter 4 Information for teachers of English to speakers of other languages 15 hearing loss a necessary criterion.
How deaf people identify with Deaf communities may depend on their attitudes toward signed language (Auslan, BSL, ASL, SSL), even though they may be applying other criteria, such as their own skill in signed language and their experience and involvement in Deaf communities.
Rules of Behaviour Deaf people have their own specific behaviour when they interact with Deaf people and also have different specific behaviours when they interact with hearing people, particularly those who have little or no knowledge of Deaf culture and Deaf language. These different behaviours may not be perceived by hearing people in general. Let us look now at several main aspects of these behaviours.
One of these aspects is code-switching. Naturally, many Deaf people who live in both the Deaf and hearing worlds have had an opportunity to develop abilities in code-switching from one language variety to another as the situation demands. For example, when a Deaf person communicates with another Deaf person, they may use Auslan or Auslan-like contact signing, but when they communicate with a hearing person who has limited skills in signing, some of the Auslan features, particularly non- manual grammatical behaviours, may not be used. They may tend to sign like ‘foreigner talk’ and use Auslan signs in English word order. They may even try to use voice communication. This is because they may be trying to accommodate to hearing addressees’ needs, in order to achieve good communication or to forestall any communication breakdowns.
Attention-getting devices is the second example of behavioural rules. There are specific ways of getting a Deaf person’s attention: • tapping on his/her shoulder • waving your hand • flashing the room light • pounding a table or stamping on the floor • shouting loudly enough to cause echoing. The reason for this is that Deaf people prefer to use visual or vibrant attention-getters rather than those based on sound.
Deaf organisations The founding of the world’s first public school for the Deaf in the late 1760s, in Paris, instigated a powerful bonding force within the Deaf community. Deaf leaders and supporters in developed countries continue to devote time to Deaf organisations in order to control and manage a territory where all Deaf people can enjoy being involved in a wide range of sporting, recreational, social and political activities. Sport may be the most important aspect of Deaf culture, as many thousands of Deaf people meet to participate in competitions around the world.
Sport is popular worldwide in Deaf communities, as it enables Deaf people to participate in Deaf competitions at local, state, national and
16 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia international levels, and to enjoy meeting and socialising with other Deaf people. Participants also gain opportunities to develop leadership skills and preserve cultural bonding. There may be pressure on Deaf athletes to participate in Deaf sports partly because the community is relatively small and its athletes are concerned to maintain this important cultural bonding. The reason for this is that increasing numbers of young Deaf people are mainstreamed into regular schools where Deaf sports are not offered, therefore depriving them of an opportunity for Deaf pride. The Australian Deaf Sports Federation has been promoting Deaf sports by sending its directors into mainstream schools where hard of hearing and Deaf children are isolated from Deaf communities in Australia. The same problem also occurs in many other countries.
Le Comité International des Sports des Sourds (the International Committee for Deaf Sports) was founded to affiliate all Deaf sports federations in 1924. The first World Games for the Deaf were held in Paris of that year. Thousands of Deaf athletes are motivated to participate in the Games which are held every four years. CISS was given formal recognition as an international federation with Olympic standing by the International Olympics Committee in 1955. CISS voted to withdraw from the International Paralympics Committee and return to the former direct relation with the International Olympics Committee. The main reason for this is that Deaf communities see themselves as a language minority group, not a disability group that requires the adaptation of sport codes.
Social activities and functions also have a prominent place in the social life of the Deaf community. Many Deaf people attend social events such as bingo, fancy dress functions, eight ball tournaments, dances, sporting presentations and so on, primarily to seek social satisfaction and easy communication. Naturally these treasured cultural values of the community are more practicable in social organisations where Deaf people can use their natural visual language to interact with the same language users.
In my own experience of participating in social, sporting and political events organised by Deaf people themselves at the Deaf club, I have seen many Deaf people often sign ‘the Deaf club is like a second home’. Obviously, the Deaf club is territory which constitutes a non-threatening environment. Most big cities in many developed countries have a Deaf club. In Australia, Deaf societies which are service providers for the Deaf and hard of hearing, take on the responsibility of caring for this development of the ‘deaf club’, with hearing and Deaf board members participating. Support is offered for young Deaf students from various types of schools who may wish to discover their identity within the Deaf community at these clubs. The club is traditionally the key place for further acculturation and socialising. This is where older members teach young people about Deaf values, customs and knowledge, signed language, Deaf stories and jokes, and Deaf history.
Religious organisations also have an important role in the bonding of Deaf communities. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, who founded the first public school for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut, USA, was a clergyman, as were many other founders of Deaf education, beginning with the Abbé de
Chapter 4 Information for teachers of English to speakers of other languages 17 L’Epée in the 1750s, in France. In Australia, Frederick Rose, himself Deaf, founded a school for the Deaf in St Kilda, Melbourne, and was one of those who were first involved in the congregation of Deaf worshippers in Melbourne during the 1860s. Thomas Gallaudet, like L’Epée, promoted the ‘saving of souls’ as the central purpose of Deaf education. In Australia there are churches serving Auslan users such as Lutherans, Catholics, members of the Church of Christ, Assembly of God, Christian Fellowship. Some Deaf people are integrated into these churches while other ‘fundamentalist’ churches offer support through interpreters. Churches with Deaf congregations sponsor a wide range of activities, such as recreation and social programs, camps, vocational and family counselling, Bible study classes, religious education for Deaf children and children of Deaf adults (CODAs). There are a few priests and pastors who are Deaf themselves, using their natural language to effectively communicate with Deaf Christians.
Deaf political organisations at local, national and international levels are a very important feature of the Deaf culture. This is because members of the Deaf community themselves founded the community’s agenda for Deaf people on the premise that Deaf people are members of a linguistic and cultural minority. There are organisations such as the World Federation of the Deaf, the British Deaf Association, the Australian Association of the Deaf. The World Federation of the Deaf (WFD) is an international non governmental organisation with headquarters in Helsinki, Finland. It maintains consultative relationships with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), the World Health Organisation (WHO), and the International Labour Organisation (ILO).
At each quadrennial congress of the World Federation of the Deaf, many Deaf issues, such as the existence of social and job discrimination, limited job and educational opportunities, the public suppression of signed language or the extolling of oralism, are recurrent discussion topics. Approximately 112 national Deaf associations have affiliated with the WFD. It is interesting to note that a contact language, an International sign language, is used by Deaf people from different countries, allowing them to be mutually intelligible and communicate with each other. Frequently, at international meetings of Deaf people, speeches are interpreted not only into the signed language of the host country but also into International Sign. The WFD has attempted to expand and standardise the vocabulary of International Sign.
Festivals, celebrations and traditions The World Federation of the Deaf has urged its affiliated national associations to work with state and local branches of these associations to host a big celebration or festival once a year. The purpose of this is to show hearing people in a public forum that Deaf people celebrate their deafness instead of regretting it, and that they also try to encourage public awareness of Deaf people’s different abilities and unique skills.
This celebration is not new to Deaf communities of the world, as Jean- Ferdinand Berthier (1803–1886) created the first known social organisation of the Deaf in France, with the launch of an annual banquet to celebrate
18 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia the birth date of the Abbé de L’Epée. This man, Charles Michel de L`Epée, played an important role in Deaf history, as he established the world’s first public school for the deaf in Paris and was the greatest publicist for deaf people to date. The banquets became the rallying point for the Deaf community for the remainder of the century.
Existing support services for the Deaf and hard of hearing
In 1992 the centre for Deafness Studies and Research, Faculty of Education, at Griffith University in Queensland, published a national directory of organisations of and for Deaf and hearing impaired people in Australia. It is informative and lists hundreds of programs now in existence for the benefit not only of Deaf children and adults but also of hard of hearing children and adults. The list will not be reproduced in this section, but I would like to summarise important information specifically relevant to Deaf NESB adults, as TESOL teachers and language assessors will need to be familiar with the Deaf community context. Furthermore, TESOL teachers and language assessors need information on where they can learn Auslan and Deaf Studies.
Post secondary education programs Many universities and institutions of TAFE offer support services (interpreters, notetakers, tutors and technical aids) for Deaf and hard of hearing students enrolled in a range of courses throughout these institutions. Universities and institutes currently offer courses in specialised areas of major interest to the Deaf community. For example, La Trobe University conducts a Bachelor of Education course in LOTE (Auslan) for native users of Auslan. The Deaf Education Network offers literacy courses for Deaf adults, including Deaf NESB adults, and courses in teaching literacy to Deaf adults (Speakers of Other Languages) and Auslan teaching (Certificate of Auslan Teaching) and so on.
Institutes of TAFE in Richmond (Victoria), Adelaide, Blacktown (NSW) and Perth have been offering courses in Auslan/Deaf Studies, ie Certificates 1–4, recognised by the Australian Training Recognition Council. It requires 450 hours to complete Auslan Certificate 1. To complete the course through to Certificate 4 level requires two years full time or approximately 1800 hours. Deaf Societies or educational institutions such as DEN and WEA have been running short term Auslan courses for those who want to learn basic communication with Deaf people or experiment with their ability in visual/gestural language learning before advancing to a formal Auslan certificate course.
Service agencies The Australian Caption Centre in Sydney produces English language subtitles on television and video material for the benefit of deaf and hard of hearing people and for those learning English as a Second Language. Captions are available on a limited number of TV programs, including the SBS evening news and ABC news services. Deaf NESB adults should be encouraged to access subtitled television in order to improve their reading skills. (Any captioned television feature, such as foreign films on SBS or the cable-TV World Movies channel, is of course a resource of great potential.)
Chapter 4 Information for teachers of English to speakers of other languages 19 The Australian Communication Exchange head office is located in Brisbane, and provides the national relay service that links TTY users and those who do not have TTYs. TTYs are used by Deaf and hard of hearing people for communicating through the telephone system. Deaf people are entitled to receive a free TTY from the Telecommunication Equipment Program under the auspices of the Australian Communication Exchange. ACE also has a community services division, with a full team of community consultants based in each city, who are working to inform, educate and raise awareness about the various services. They also give regular training sessions to d/Deaf people who have recently received a new telephone typewriter (TTY).
The Australian Association of the Deaf Inc is a consumer group run by Deaf people, providing advocacy services for Deaf people, and information services. It has six affiliated state branches of the Association which strongly support its policies on issues such as Auslan, education and employment.
Deafness Resources Australia Ltd provides a wide range of technical devices, books and videos for and about Deaf and hard of hearing people, and teaching/learning materials relevant to Deaf people. The National Deafness Information Service (NDIS), based in Brisbane, offers to provide information on deafness.
Deaf societies based in cities and some towns are non profit organisations that provide a wide range of services for Deaf and hard of hearing people. The services may include Auslan interpreter services, community education programs, independent living training and support, employment services, community workers. Deaf societies also provide facilities for the Deaf community to run social functions and recreational activities.
Identifying important language and literacy issues specifically relevant to Deaf people
This section discusses some important language and literacy issues specifically relevant to Deaf people. Firstly, we will discuss the main communication methods such as ‘total communication’ and oral English; secondly, natural sign languages, contact signing and gestures will be briefly described. Thirdly, we explore literacy issues relevant to Deaf people, and finally examine some views on the importance of a signed language base for improving literacy outcomes.
Main or mainstream communication methods, which do not include natural sign language, have been and are predominantly used in educational settings. Efforts to teach the deaf to speak have been present throughout their history. However, the dominance of oralism began with a decision made at an international meeting of teachers of the deaf in Milan in 1880 (Komesaroff 1994). At the congress, educators voted to ban sign language from deaf education affirming ‘the incontestable superiority of speech over sign’ (Dolmick 1993, cited in Komesaroff 1994).
20 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia The definition of oralism is that Deaf learners are taught to use English through speech or lip movements and lip reading. Many education systems have traditionally offered such methods as being the most desirable forms of communication for the deaf, while placing the many deaf who failed oralism into ‘special’ low standard classes where they could use sign. Proponents of oralism believed that sign language would adversely affect the acquisition of speech skills. There is, however, no evidence for this belief (Swisher 1989, cited in Komesaroff 1994).
Another important method is ‘total communication’, which includes the bimodal system. This system includes signing and speaking simultaneously; it is designed to provides access to information through lip reading, signs and the use of any residual hearing. There is also an artificial code, known as Signed English, which borrows many signs from Auslan, modifies such signs according to the necessity of constructing accurate English morphemes, and includes many contrived signs. There are also such artificial codes in other countries, for instance Sweden and France.
Duffy et al (1993) state that there are several important reasons for the rejection of Signed English: • Signed English has no significance in the lives of most deaf adults. • The method is artificial and places unnatural demands on signers. • It is inconsistent and often ineffectual. • It has a poor history of educational success. In my interaction with Deaf members of the Australian Deaf community, as well as with Deaf communities in other countries, I have found that many of these members are unwilling to use Signed English or, similarly, Signed Swedish when communicating with their members, because of the above factors. It is obvious that Signed English is not considered a language, but rather an artificial code. Hearing educators of the deaf believed that Signed English would assist the deaf child in learning English. Lane et al (1996) state that deaf children characteristically do not succeed in learning English, therefore this cannot be the real reason for imposing a manual form of English on them. This kind of problem has occurred in both developed and developing countries such as France, Sweden, Indonesia, the Philippines. Lane et al (1996) writes that disciples of Epée and Sicard, who had founded schools for deaf children throughout Europe and the Americas, realised that the effort to dialectise sign language was unsuccessful and that precious class time was lost in attempting to teach Signed French and Signed English. Davis (1991) explains why Signed Swedish has uniformly been rejected as a method of teaching Swedish:
Because most young deaf children hadn’t mastered Swedish, it began to seem that expecting these students to understand the teachers’ sign-supported Swedish was unreasonable... it became clear that although ideas may be communicated through Signed Swedish, young children do not come back with sentences (signed or written) that demonstrate a knowledge of Swedish (Davis 1991,180–181).
Chapter 4 Information for teachers of English to speakers of other languages 21 It is clear that the statement in Duffy et al rejecting Signed English is supported by these research studies. There is a lack of research on whether Deaf NESB learners who have emigrated to Australia from other developed countries learn English successfully through using Signed English. Our belief is that it would be very difficult for such learners, particularly those who are severely or profoundly deaf, to learn the language using Signed English. This is because, to these learners, Signed English is neither accessible nor natural, nor does it provide access to meaning or to making visual sense of language.
Natural Sign Languages As previously discussed in the section on terminology, natural sign languages are the native Deaf languages used in Deaf communities all around the world. These languages do not constitute a universal language, as most countries have their own signed language, an example being British Signed Language (BSL). These signed languages have different ‘phonological’ rules regarding how their handshapes can be used, and also determine which body positions and movements can occur and how these can be combined to form signs. Branson and Miller (1993) write that sign language in Australia dates back to the early 1800s, brought here by English and Irish settlers, and has since developed into the language we know today as Auslan. Trevor Johnston, a linguist in Australian Sign Language, named our Deaf language Auslan in the early 1980s, in order to avoid confusion caused by Australia’s Deaf language incorrectly being labelled Signed English. In fact, Auslan is the natural language of the Deaf community in Australia.
Auslan is a visual/gestural channel of communication produced by the hands, incorporating facial expressions and the use of space as well as directional eye movements. Auslan has its own grammar, based on visual sense, and a vocabulary including many ‘hard translations’ concepts, influenced by Deaf culture. Auslan also has fingerspelled words which are borrowed from English. Some of these words are lexicalised as fingerspelled loan signs. It is clear that Auslan is a separate language, like other spoken languages, except that it is in a different ‘mode’.
Although Deaf people throughout the world use natural sign language as their predominant language, most of them use other skills in communicating with those who have varying degrees of competence in natural sign language, but can use Signed English. One of these skills is contact signing which has arisen from contact between NSL and English. These people may alter the word order of their signed sentences so that they are more like English sentences as they try to accommodate their addressees.
This form of communication is an important source of language variation in Deaf communities all around the world. Contact signing, however, is not like pidgin languages as it cannot become a creole for many reasons (Lucas and Valli 1989). Lucas and Valli (1989) suggest that the outcome of language contact within Deaf communities is unique and quite different from anything that has been described to date in spoken language communities. It is obvious that Deaf communities support this suggestion
22 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia by actively lobbying against this contact signing being accepted as a legitimate language. Many members of Deaf communities expect hearing and oral deaf people to learn NSL in order to communicate effectively with native NSL users, just as they are expected to achieve English as a second language (WFD resolution, 1992).
A contact language known as International Sign has been developed, allowing speakers of mutually unintelligible signed languages to communicate in contact situations. In the 1970s, International Sign was expanded and standardised by the World Federation of the Deaf and used to facilitate communication at international meetings such as WFD assemblies and CISS meetings, and international meetings for researchers of signed language. It has borrowed many signs selected from various signed languages. International Sign is like Esperanto which has been proposed as a standardised spoken language to facilitate communication.
Literacy issues This section will look into how deaf children, particularly those who are profoundly prelingual deaf, learn cultural and critical literacy skills in comparison to hearing children. There is constant reference in the literature as to the low educational level and poor literacy achievement of most deaf school learners (Johnson et al 1987; Charrow and Willow 1989; Branson 1991; Duffy et al 1993; and Kelly 1993, cited in Komesaroff 1994).
Some researchers in the deaf field have tended to focus on the learner in explaining failure, instead of identifying any other possible causes, such as literacy pedagogy. The acknowledgment of the strong relationship between language and reading and their effects on one another (Limbrick, McNaughton and Clay 1992) has led some researchers to conclude that hearing provides many of the requisite skills needed to become literate (Dolman 1992, cited in Komesaroff 1994). This clearly suggests that teachers of the deaf are absolved and that deafness is to be blamed for failure of deaf children’s literacy. Other researchers have expressed doubts about this conclusion and have researched the failure of Deaf children’s literacy development from a different point of view. Keswicki (1980), a Deaf lecturer in the English department of Gallaudet University (the only liberal arts university for the Deaf in the world), states that the many deaf adults, like myself, who read and write proficiently but have unintelligible speech and cannot hear spoken English, are proof of the weakness in the relationship between hearing and literacy skill. According to Wilbur (1987), poor literacy achievement may be traced to several sources: • among deaf children of hearing parents, reduced language input in the early years • inadequate methods of teaching written language to deaf children, in part due to the controversy concerning modality (sign or speech) and in part due to failure to appreciate fully the complexities of the language acquisition process • reading instruction narrowly focusing on one aspect of reading (sentence interpretation) to the detriment of other aspects (decoding, inferencing, paragraphs and story structure).
Chapter 4 Information for teachers of English to speakers of other languages 23 Many deaf children with hearing parents but with poor skills in oral communication have not brought a substantial body of background knowledge to the reading task, because their parents and siblings might not have used an accessible language, eg Auslan, with them. They may also have received ineffective instruction and spent excessive time devoted to improving their oral skills and English grammar and vocabulary rather than context acquisition.
It is not surprising that most Deaf NESB learners will have great difficulty learning English as a subsequent language when accessing ESL education. This may be because they do not possess essential background knowledge for improving literacy at cultural and critical levels from their previous education in their countries of origin. We are now aware of the fact that Deaf children and adults have problems with literacy. There is therefore a need to accept the strong recommendation by educators of the deaf to teach English as a Second Language with a strong language base in NSL (and instruction in that language). With such a base, learners will have the knowledge to be able to decode and produce English text (Komesaroff 1994). Therefore, in educational settings, there is a need for teachers who possess skills in both English and NSL to be able to explicate the similarities and contrasts between the two languages. Deaf learners will make use of their first language, NSL, for understanding concepts and grammatical rules of English, as well as other significant features such as generic structures and language functions. Although their first language has no written form, Kale (1989, cited in Komesaroff 1994) suggests that learners’ first language be used in assisting the move into literacy in their second language. Accordingly, the use of Deaf learners’ first language is highly recommended for assisting them to acquire literacy in English.
In my experience of literacy teaching with Deaf Auslan users, I have used ‘Auslan writing’ in order to provide examples of Auslan signed sentences needed for discussion about the difference between Auslan and English sentences. Auslan writing is not a standard writing system, but is like the convention of musical scores. The main purpose of this method is to help our students develop their metalinguistic and metalanguage awareness. Auslan and other signed languages are significant aids in the teaching of English as a Second Language, as Deaf learners need to learn English (writing and reading) through the use of Auslan as their main language base. Duffy et al (1993) state in their study that interviews and written responses confirm the Deaf/hearing impaired literature review as highlighting the central importance of the classroom use of Auslan.
For Deaf and hard of hearing NESB learners, programs need to include and develop Auslan, as Auslan will be used as a language of instruction for learning and teaching English as a subsequent language. Therefore, such learners may benefit from first learning Auslan before starting to develop their English literacy skills. They need to be able to communicate in that visual language with their teachers and peers. In contrast to this recommendation, Judy Harwood, who works as literacy manager for the Deaf Education Network in Sydney, commented in interview that her Deaf and hard of hearing NESB learners can learn the skills of both Auslan and English simultaneously, even though there are difficulties of communication between them and their teachers or peers in the learning
24 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia and teaching process. She also asserts that it is natural for learners to desire to learn English in preference to Auslan because English texts occur everywhere in Australia. However, informal discussions with other professionals working with Deaf people nearly all firmly supported the recommendation that Deaf NESB learners should first learn Auslan, and I personally concur with this view.
Identifying the most appropriate methodology for teaching English literacy skills and Auslan to Deaf learners of NESB
As previously discussed, the interviews with Deaf NESB learners conveyed the idea that Auslan should be used in English classes as a vehicle for the acquisition of English literacy skills. Other comments from professionals interviewed were that Auslan, as the language of instruction, should be accessible to Deaf NESB learners in order to improve their access to information as well as their understanding of background information and general knowledge. Therefore, the most appropriate methodology should be bilingual. The appropriate languages to be used in a bilingual course are Auslan and written English.
In addition, Duffy et al (1993) state that the approach to teaching English grammar based on explicit, conscious contrasts between Auslan grammar and English grammar, has greater potential than explanations of English grammar in English (oral or signed). As reported in the interviews, some learners may have attained only ‘semi-lingual’ levels in their written literacy, eg Korean or Malay, and even in their preferred language (sign language). Thus, they may need to develop a strong language base before learning English literacy, despite the difficulties of language learning. Language and literacy programs should therefore give them the opportunity to access the appropriate Auslan curriculum. It is important that Auslan teachers who are d/Deaf themselves be employed as they have expertise in dealing with communication problems. They also are able to use appropriate compensation strategies in communication, employing skilful combinations of gestures, international signs and mime.
Defining skills training for TESOL teachers of Deaf learners
Comments noted from interviews with Deaf NESB adults and with professionals, and implications drawn from the literature review, affirm that TESOL teachers who are interested in working with Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults need in-service training in order to improve services for these learners.
Possible topics for skills training for TESOL teachers, especially hearing persons, include: • Auslan as a second language (one or two years full time) • gestures, international signs and mime • an understanding of the difference between Auslan and signed English • learning about Auslan as a language (history, language issues and policy, social context)
Chapter 4 Information for teachers of English to speakers of other languages 25 • Deaf language and literacy issues, eg ‘Why is it important for deaf NESB adults to learn through Auslan?’ • Deaf culture worldwide • Deaf issues, such as interpreters, oppression • bilingualism — relevance of a bilingual methodology • TTY simulation of conversation and its use in the classroom • the history of Deaf education • world trends in the philosophies of Deaf education • current teaching methodologies relevant to Deaf adults • up-to-date information on existing support services for Deaf and hard of hearing adults • accredited curriculum of relevance to Deaf/hard of hearing adults, eg CSWE, CESOL, CGEA • understanding of amplification devices such as induction loop, audio loop • understanding of Deaf technology, eg TTY, captions, warning and alert devices • discussion on issues such as the adequacy of support for Deaf/hard of hearing NESB adults provided by placing them in mainstream classes.
26 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia Chapter 5 Recommendations
This project provides valuable information about the learning needs of Deaf and hard of hearing adults in Australia. The following are some recommendations for the improvement of services for these adults.
Auslan as a language of instruction Auslan should be used in the classroom, thus enabling Deaf NESB adults to access world knowledge and foster literacy development.
Auslan as a second visual language Providers should ensure that Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults have access to appropriate Auslan curriculum.
Deaf teachers acting as role models Deaf teachers are needed to: • overcome communication barriers • help adults feel at ease • provide appropriate assistance with English.
Video conferencing technology A pilot program needs to be established to improve existing technology and make it more suited to a course for Deaf NESB adults. The most effective methodology for teaching Auslan and English through video conferencing classes needs to be investigated further.
Hard of hearing NESB adults Hard of hearing NESB adults who prefer to be placed in mainstream classes, should be taught in English, with support from TESOL teachers who are sensitive to learners’ needs and difficulties. Notetakers, oral interpreters, hearing aids and FM systems could also be provided.
A training kit A training kit needs to be developed in order to ensure flexible delivery. The kit would prepare TESOL teachers and language assessors to deal with their Deaf and hard of hearing NESB clients.
Bilingual methodology Bilingual methodology should be employed in the classroom. Such methodology promotes and models the culture and language of the Deaf and shows how learners should be assessed as Deaf NESB adults. Language learning experiences, social skills and cultural development are all included in this bilingual model.
Chapter 5 Recommendations 27 Key terminology
Associations of the Deaf Lobby groups in every state run by Deaf people of the Deaf community who are given the opportunity to have greater say in decisions that effect them such as education, employment, health and general wellbeing of the Deaf.
Auslan A visual/spatial language, created by the members of the Australian Deaf Community, which has its own grammar and vocabulary. Under the Federal Government’s National policy on language, Auslan is recognised as a legitimate, complex and full language.
Code switching Describes the situation in which a speaker uses a mixture of different languages, particularly different modalities; for instance, switching from Auslan to contact signing and from contact signing to oral.
Contact signing A mixture of Auslan and Signed English which basically follows the English word order. English words are fingerspelled when they do not have equivalent Auslan signs. Contact signing is traditionally known as Pidgin Sign English (PSE).
Day Schools Special schools where deaf children do not live but attend classes during school hours and have some interaction with Deaf residential children.
Deaf The capitalised ‘Deaf ’ is used when referring to cultural aspects, as in the culture of Deaf people.
deaf Lacking or deprived of the sense of hearing, wholly or partially unable to hear. (Macquarie Dictionary)
Deaf societies Non-profit organisations in every state which have been working with their state’s Deaf community to provide a range of services and programs, especially welfare and interpreting.
Hard of hearing This word replaces the term ‘hearing-impaired’, which education systems for the hearing-impaired frequently use. The alternative term ‘hard of hearing’ is preferred in this project report.
Iconical (adjective) The relationship between an object and a representation of that object when the representation physically resembles the object in some
28 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia way, eg a picture, or a gesture which physically mimes the object represented.
Mainstream class Fully mainstream programs which have few or no support services for Deaf or hard of hearing children, who are integrated fully with hearing children.
Residential Schools Special schools where deaf children live during the school week. Not all of these schools allow deaf children to use sign language.
Signed English A sign system representing English and essentially an educational tool, used to help Deaf and hard of hearing students develop their English language.
Key terminology 29 Acronyms and abbreviations
AAD Australian Association of the Deaf
ACE Australian Communication Exchange
AMEP Adult Migrant Education Program
AMES Adult Migrant Education Services
ASL American Sign Language
ATRAC Australian Training Recognition Accreditation Council
AUSLAN Australian Sign Language
CAT Certificate of Auslan Teaching
CESOL Certificate of English for Speakers of Other Languages
CGEA Certificate of General Education for Adults
CISS Comité International des Sports des Sourds
CODA Children of Deaf Adults
CSWE Certificate of Spoken and Written English
DRA Deafness Resources Australia
dB HL Decibels hearing loss
DEN Deaf Education Network
ELLS English Language and Literacy Services
ESB English Speaking Background
ESL English as a Second Language
HZ hertz
ILO International Labor Organisation
LOTE Language other than English
NDIS National Deafness Information Service
30 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia NESB Non English speaking background
NSL Natural Sign Language
SOA Statement of Attainment
TAFE Technical and Further Education
TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
TTY Telephone Typewriter
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
WEA Workers Education Association
WFD World Federation of the Deaf
WHO World Health Organisation
Acronyms and abbreviations 31 References
Branson, J and D Miller 1993. Sign language, the Deaf and the epistemic violence of mainstreaming. Language and Education, La Trobe University. Commonwealth of Australia. 1991a. Australia’s language: The Australian language and literacy policy. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. Commonwealth of Australia. 1991b. Companion Volume to the Policy Paper Australia’s language: The Australian language and literacy policy. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. Cresdee, D V 1990. ‘The survey of literacy and deaf adults in the Australian Deaf community’. Royal South Australian Deaf Society, Inc. (unpublished paper). Davis, S N 1991. ‘Bilingual education of deaf children in Sweden and Denmark: Strategies for transition and implementation’. Sign Language Studies, 71: 62–72. Duffy, A, L Warby and J Phillips 1993. Nothing for my mind: Key issues in literacy and numeracy for adults who are Deaf or hearing impaired. Sydney: Adult Education Centre. Hyde, M and D Power 1992. ‘The use of Australian sign language by deaf people’. Sign Language Studies, 75:169–183. Johnston, T 1989. Auslan dictionary: A dictionary of the sign language of the Australian Deaf community. Sydney: Deafness Resources Australia Ltd. Kannapell, B 1980. Personal awareness and advocacy in the Deaf community. In C V Baker and R Battison (eds). Sign language and the Deaf community: Essay in honour of William C Stokoe. Washington DC: National Association of the Deaf. Keswicki, 1980. Teaching English as a second language to Deaf students. Gallaudet University. Komesaroff, L R 1994. ‘Bilingual Deaf adults: Acquisition and use of language and literacies’. MEd dissertation, Deakin University, Geelong. Lane, H, R Hoffmeister and B Bahan 1996. A journey into the Deaf-world. Dawn Sign Press. Limbrick, E A, S McNaughton and M M Clay 1992. ‘Time engaged in reading: A critical factor in reading achievement’. American Annals of the Deaf, 137, 4: 309–314. Lucas, C and Valli (ed). 1989. The sociolinguistics of the Deaf community. San Diego: Academic Press. Olsen, W O 1987. Gallaudet Encyclopedia of Deaf People and Deafness. Audiologic classification 1 A–G, p.40. NY: McGraw-Hill Inc.
32 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia Wilbur, 1987. Gallaudet Encyclopedia of Deaf People and Deafness. Reading and writing 2 H–R, p.146. NY: McGraw-Hill Inc. WFD resolution. 1992. Resolution presented at the 6th WFD congress. July 1992, Tokyo. Woodward, J 1982. How you gonna get to heaven if you can’t talk with Jesus: On depathologising deafness. Silver Spring, MD: TJ Publishers.
References 33 Appendix 1
Questionnaire distributed to AMEP providers and other institutions
Appendix 2
Letter regarding the questionnaire sent to AMEP providers and other institutions
Appendix 3
Letter of request sent to Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults
Appendix 4
Consent form given to Deaf and hard of hearing NESB interviewees
34 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia Appendix 1
Appendix 1 35 36 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia Appendix 2
To Whom It May Concern,
I would like to introduce myself, my name is Donovan Cresdee. I am profoundly deaf from a Deaf family background. I have been working for English and Literacy Services in S.A. (Adult Migrant English Service) since 1995. I have extensive experience in teaching and counselling Deaf Auslan clients and Deaf NESB clients. I am involved heavily in the Deaf Community, where the Deaf use Auslan (Australian Sign Language) as their primary language. Apart from working with these people, I am also responsible for co-ordinating an Auslan/Deaf Studies program for hearing and hard of hearing students at the Adelaide Institute of TAFE. In addition to these courses, I teach advanced classes for highly motivated students.
You may be aware of a paper presented by David Doherty, DIMA who emphasised the need for providers to determine and meet the needs of NESB migrants by offering greater flexibility in language learning modes, methodology and opportunities. Bearing this in mind, we have decided to accept the responsibility of identifying needs and trying to meet the needs of this particular group. Specifically, Deaf and hard of hearing NESB clients who suffer from a degree of hearing loss that hinders their attainment of English language competence.
Recently we obtained a small grant from NCELTR to prepare a survey report and guidelines for TESOL teachers and language assessors. This project hopefully would assist tertiary institutions such as AMES, Deaf Education Network and so on, to be aware of recommendations on specific modes of course provision for meeting the learning needs of Deaf NESB clients. Thus I am asking you to support us by completing the attached questionnaire.
If you need further information relevant to the questionnaire or learning needs of Deaf NESB Learners, please fax me on (08) 8276 9495. We look forward to receiving your questionnaire.
Many thanks in anticipation for your support.
Yours sincerely, Donovan Cresdee Project Officer
Appendix 2 37 Appendix 3
ESL/Auslan training for d/Deaf and hard of hearing NESB Learners
Dear
My name is Donovan Cresdee and I am also Deaf. Currently, I have undertaken a research project, proposed by NCELTR and ELLS, S.A. The purpose of the project is to investigate the most appropriate provisions available, to date and for the future, so that d/Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults who wish to attain greater skills in their Auslan and English language competencies. I am interested in interviewing d/Deaf NESB adults, like yourself and asking people about their language learning experiences concerning ESL/Auslan programs.
Therefore I would like to invite you to be involved in this project. The interviews should take approximately half an hour. I shall also video tape the interview in order to enable me to transcribe and review the proceedings. I will use a private room at the Deaf Education Network where you should feel comfortable and at ease.
During the interview, I will ask you to tell me about your educational background and your experiences related to accessing your education (post secondary).
To protect your privacy and identity your video tape and transcript of the interview will be coded and your name kept separately from these resources. I will avoid referring to you specific personal details, so that your identity will remain unknown.
If you have any questions or concerns, please contact Judy Harwood who will advise you further. I look forward to talking with you.
Yours sincerely, Donovan Cresdee
38 Improving services for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults in Australia Appendix 4
CONSENT FORM
I,...... of......
......
hereby consent to be involved in a research project to be done by Donovan V. Cresdee, and I understand that the purpose of the project is to investigate the appropriate provision available for Deaf and hard of hearing NESB adults who may wish to attain greater Auslan and English language competencies.
I acknowledge that:
1. the video tape and transcript of my interview will be coded and my name kept separately 2. any information that I provided will not be made public in any form that could reveal my identity to an outside party 3. individual comments will not be released to any person except at my request and on my authorisation
Date the ...... day of ...... 1997
Signature ......
The project consulted extensively with two professionals who have experience in teaching English as a second language and are currently pursuing PhD research relating to deaf education (bilingualism for the Deaf) and linguistics in signed language. A third professional consulted is the literacy manager at the Deaf Education Network. Informal, one-to-one discussions have taken place with these professionals on many issues relevant to this project. The discussion about teaching methodologies, training for TESOL teachers, and language and literacy issues has been summarised in this report.
Appendix 4 39