PREMIER CURRICULUM SERIES Based on the Sunshine State Standards for Secondary Education, established by the State of Florida, Department of Education
WORLD HISTORY
Author: Caroline Y. Grant Copyright 2009 Revision Date:12/2009 INSTRUCTIONS
Welcome to your Continental Academy course. As you read through the text book you will see that it is made up of the individual lessons listed in the Course Outline. Each lesson is divided into various sub-topics. As you read through the material you will see certain important sentences and phrases that are highlighted in yellow (printing black & white appears as grey highlight.) Bold, blue print is used to emphasize topics such as names or historical events (it appears Bold when printed in black and white.) Important Information in tables and charts is highlighted for emphasis. At the end of each lesson are practice questions with answers. You will progress through this course one lesson at a time, at your own pace.
First, study the lesson thoroughly. (You can print the entire text book or one lesson at a time to assist you in the study process.) Then, complete the lesson reviews printed at the end of the lesson and carefully check your answers. When you are ready, complete the 10-question lesson assignment at the www.ContinentalAcademy.net web site. (Remember, when you begin a lesson assignment, you may skip a question, but you must complete the 10 question lesson assignment in its entirety.) You will find notes online entitled “Things to Remember”, in the Textbook/Supplement portal which can be printed for your convenience.
All lesson assignments are open-book. Continue working on the lessons at your own pace until you have finished all lesson assignments for this course.
When you have completed and passed all lesson assignments for this course, complete the End of Course Examination on-line. Once you pass this exam, the average of your grades for all your lesson assignments for this course will determine your final course grade.
If you need help understanding any part of the lesson, practice questions, or this procedure:
Click on the “Send a Message to the Guidance Department” link at the top of the right side of the home page Type your question in the field provided Then, click on the “Send” button You will receive a response within ONE BUSINESS DAY
WORLD HISTORY
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About the Author…
Caroline Grant earned her Bachelor of Arts [B.A.] degree in Psychology and her Master of Science [M.S.] Degree in Social Studies Education from Florida International University. She is also a certified therapist for dyslexic students. Miss Grant has had considerable experience teaching in public and private high schools. She has taught students of varying abilities ranging from the gifted to the academically challenged. Since 2003, she has been working as an Instructor in English at Broward Community College and as a General Education Instructor in Social Sciences and Humanities at Coastal Educational Institute. Miss Grant resides in Plantation, Florida.
World History by Caroline Grant
Copyright 2008 Home School of America ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
For the Continental Academy Premiere Curriculum Series
Course: 2109310
Published by
Continental Academy 3241 Executive Way Miramar, FL 33025
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WORLD HISTORY COURSE OUTLINE
LESSON 1: THE PREHISTORIC ERA (1,000, 000 B.C. - 4000 B.C.) 7 ¾ The First People ¾ The Neolithic Revolution and the Ages of Humanity
LESSON 2: EARLY CIVILIZATIONS (4000 B.C. - 500 A.D. 13 ¾ The Fertile Crescent ¾ Ancient Egypt ¾ Early Cultures of India ¾ Early Cultures of China ¾ Classical Greece ¾ The Roman Republic and Empire ¾ The Rise and Growth of Christianity
LESSON 3: THE MIDDLE AGES - EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST (500 - 1450) 25 ¾ Feudalism and the Manorial System in Europe ¾ Role of the Church ¾ Byzantine Empire ¾ The Spread of Islam and the Muslim Empire ¾ The Crusades
LESSON 4: THE MIDDLE AGES - ASIA, AFRICA AND MESOAMERICA (1000 - 1450) 33 ¾ Kingdoms of Africa ¾ Mesoamerican Civilizations ¾ The Mongol Empire
LESSON 5: THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION (1450 - 1750) 39 ¾ The Renaissance ¾ Age of Discovery and Exploration ¾ The Reformation and its Effects ¾ The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment ¾ Absolutism and Enlightened Monarchies ¾ The Slave Trade
LESSON 6: AGE OF REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS (1750 - 1914) 49 ¾ The American Revolution ¾ The French Revolution ¾ The Industrial Revolution and its Effects ¾ Age of Imperialism and Nationalism
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LESSON 7: WORLD WARS AND DICTATORSHIPS (1900 - 1945) 57 ¾ World War I ¾ The Russian Revolution ¾ Rise of Totalitarian Governments ¾ World War II
LESSON 8: CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL RELATIONS (SINCE 1945) 65 ¾ Cold War Politics ¾ The Changing Modern World
COURSE OBJECTIVES 71
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LESSON 1
THE PREHISTORIC ERA (1,000, 000 B.C. - 4000 B.C.)
The First People
The Neolithic Revolution and the Ages of Humanity
The bone fossils of the earliest hominid or humanlike creatures known to have walked on earth have been found in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Kenya in East Africa. Scientific evidence indicates that they lived about 3 million years ago and were characterized as humanlike because they had sizable brains and the ability to walk upright. There are five distinct periods that mark the development of man from his earliest stage of primitive existence to his ability to successfully live in and adapt to his environment. These periods are the Old Stone Age, the Middle Stone Age, the New Stone Age, the Copper and Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. The Stone Age or Prehistoric Era covers the earliest periods of human existence before written records were made.
During the Old Stone Age, or Paleolithic Age (1,000,000 – 8000 B.C.) many types of humanlike beings, existed in Europe, Africa and parts of Asia. The earliest and best known type of humans that resembled modern man was the Neanderthals. They had large brains, were low-browed, short, stocky and strongly built. They lived in caves and made the earliest forms of knives and spears by fastening wooden handles to chipped flint and stone. They were nomadic which meant that they did not have permanent communities but moved from place to place gathering food and hunting large animals. When the Ice Age ended and the earth’s climate warmed, many of the animals they hunted died. As a result, the Neanderthals gradually disappeared.
The Cro-Magnons were taller than Neanderthals and were the ancestors closest in mental ability and physical appearance to modern man. They were also nomadic and hunted animals, but were more socially and culturally developed. They lived in small groups and made artifacts and weapons from wood, bone and stone. They knew how to make fire and how to make clothing by using bone needles to sew animal skins together. Cro-Magnons also created the earliest art which was painted on the walls of their caves. These paintings are mostly of animals such as bison and deer that these people hunted, and also of their everyday activities.
It is believed that modern humans or Homo sapiens emerged between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago. Scientists believe that they originated in Africa and later migrated to the Americas, Australia, Europe and Asia. Many factors determined this worldwide movement, the main ones being the need to find new sources of food and to adapt to different climates and environments.
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THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION AND THE AGES OF HUMANITY
THE EVOLUTION OF MAN
Neanderthal Man Cro-Magnon Man Modern Man
Howell, F. Clark, (1965) Life Nature Library: Early Man, 45. New York: Time Life Books.
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THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION AND THE AGES OF HUMANITY
The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age lasted from about (12,000 to 10,000 B.C.) This period was the transition from the Old Stone Age to the New Stone Age and was marked by the development of early man’s tool-making skills and his ability to adapt to his environment. Some of the major inventions were the fishhook, small boats, bows and arrows, sharp knives, spears and clay pottery.
The Neolithic Revolution (10,000 to 4,000 B.C.) was a significant period of social and cultural development for early man, which led to the emergence of civilization. This revolution began in the Near East and later spread to other parts of the world. During this time the lives of early people changed in many ways. Early man developed a higher level of technology through his invention of the wheel, the plow and metal tools. People had now learned how to sow seeds and plant crops which directly changed their living patterns. The development of farming led to the domestication of animals like the dog and the herding of pigs, sheep, cattle and other animals. Some of these animals increased the supply of food and clothing. People also built dwellings that were more sophisticated and durable than those built during the earlier ages.
The introduction of farming and the raising of animals in many parts of the world increased the food supply which in turn led to an increase in the world’s population. Some of the earliest crops planted were corn and rice. This practice led to the development of farming villages and permanent settlements. These early people also learned how to knit and weave plant fibers to make cloth. These skills helped them to make superior clothing and blankets instead of using animal skins. There were also improvements in pottery-making which facilitated the proper storage of food.
As communities developed, there was a greater need for protection and cooperation. The establishment of permanent settlements facilitated the establishment of traditions and lasting social institutions. The earliest forms of formal government came into existence with officials and laws. Permanent sites of worship such as temples and shrines for religious practices and ceremonies also became a part of the early cultural development of Neolithic societies. Another important development that came about as a result of the agricultural revolution was the expansion of trade and the growth of cities.
The Copper and Bronze Age (4000 to 1000 B.C.) was the period when the earliest world civilizations built the first cities and made advances in the art of metallurgy, the ability to extract and refine metal from raw ore. Metals such as copper and bronze were used to make more advanced, serviceable tools and weapons. This period was also the beginning of the Historic Period because writing had been developed and early civilizations were able to leave written records of their history and culture. The Historic Period marked the end of the Prehistoric Period in which there were no written records of early cultures. The Iron Age (starting 1000 B.C.) was a continuation of the technological advances in metallurgy. During this time most societies moved away from making bronze items and used iron because of its greater strength, for weapons, utensils, artwork and parts of buildings.
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STUDY QUESTIONS FOR LESSON 1
For Questions 1-5, answer T if the statement is true and F if it is false
1.______The art of metallurgy began when early humans learned how to refine metal from raw ore to make weapons and tools. 2.______The ability to weave fibers made life easier for people during the Mesolithic Age. 3.______The earliest forms of formal government came into existence during the Bronze Age. 4.______The development of domestic utensils and basic tools by early man was a characteristic feature of the Middle Stone Age. 5.______The development of farming also led to the domestication of animals like the dog and the herding of pigs, sheep, cattle and other animals.
6. Which era marks the highest level of cultural development of ancient people?
a. The Paleolithic Age c. the Bronze Age b. The New Stone Age d. The Mesolithic Age
7. What historical period led to the greatest changes in the social life of early man?
a. The Paleolithic Age c. the Bronze Age b. The New Stone Age d. The Mesolithic Age
8. The earliest humans have been traced to:
a. África b. Europe c. Australia d. Asia
9. The early ancestor that was closest to modern man in intellectual ability was the:
a. Hominid b. Neanderthal c. Cro-Magnon d. Homo sapien
10. The earliest period in which humans began to express themselves in art was:
a. The Mesolithic Age c. the Neolithic Age b. The Bronze Age d. the Paleolithic Age
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Answers for Lesson 1 Questions
1. T 6. C 2. F 7. B 3. F 8. A 4. T 9. C 5. T 10. D
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LESSON 2
EARLY CIVILIZATIONS (4000 B.C. - 500 A.D.)
The Fertile Crescent
Ancient Egypt
Early Cultures of India
Early Cultures of China
Classical Greece
The Roman Republic and Empire
The Rise and Growth of Christianity
THE FERTILE CRESCENT
The first people to develop complex societies and distinct cultures after 4000 B.C. were the societies that developed in the Fertile Crescent. This area is in the Middle East and is a crescent- shaped area of land that begins at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea and curves northward and then southward, ending at the Persian Gulf. The earliest civilizations began in Mesopotamia, which is modern-day Iraq, and in Egypt. Many factors led to the rise of these ancient cultures, the most significant being the climate and physical environment, the availability of food and contact with other societies.
In Mesopotamia, the first civilization to develop was Sumer and its people were the Sumerians. Sumer developed in the fertile valleys in the southern regions of Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In this region there was little rainfall but the rivers flooded every year, and when the flood waters receded, a thick bed of fertile soil remained. In this wet soil, the Sumerians were able to plant large quantities of barley and wheat. The main environmental difficulty they faced was finding ways to overcome the floods in the fertile regions where they planted their crops. The need to find ways to adapt and change their environment to ensure their survival led to the development of new technologies. They created irrigation canals to bring river water to crops during the dry seasons and dams to regulate the flow of water.
The growth of agriculture served to stabilize these new societies. People lived together in permanent village settlements. The Sumerians were the first civilization to invent and use the wheel for transportation. They also built city-states, each of which comprised the main city, flanked by the villages and farms around it. Many cities had roads, and brick walls for protection. Within the cities, extensive trading systems developed by means of barter, which is the exchange of one commodity for another. As the population increased, government and class systems developed. Sumer was ruled by kings and high priests who had the highest social positions. The Sumerians were polytheistic, that is,
13 WORLD HISTORY they believed in many gods, and religion played a very important role in their daily lives. High priests controlled the government. They determined the farming cycle such as what areas should be irrigated, the time periods when crops should be planted, and when they were to be harvested. They also demanded portions of all farmers’ crops as taxes. The desire to worship their gods caused the Sumerians to develop great skills as architects and they built elaborate pyramid-shaped temples called ziggurats that are still in existence today.
The Sumerians made significant contributions to the development of civilization. They developed one of the earliest forms of symbolic writing called cuneiform which was as old as the writing of the ancient Egyptians called hieroglyphics. The Sumerians also created a number system based on the Lesson 60 that is used today to measure time. The Sumerian civilization declined due to invasions from foreign armies and continuous fighting between the city-states.
Around 2300 B.C., another empire called Babylonia emerged in the city-states of lower Mesopotamia. The most important ruler was Hammurabi who ruled from 1792-1750 B.C. This civilization was more advanced than Sumeria in that it was the first society to produce written codified laws. These laws were called Hammurabi’s Code and consisted of nearly three hundred laws. The Code provided rules and punishments for Babylonians in all areas of life. The Babylonians also developed a lunar calendar. They created a system of arithmetic based on the number 60, the 60 minute hour and the 360 degree circle. The rulers after Hammurabi were weak and were easily defeated by another powerful civilization, the Hittites. One significant reason why the Hittites were successful was that they were one of the first ancient civilizations to make their weapons out of refined iron ore while the other civilizations were still using weapons and tools of less sturdy bronze.
The Hebrews lived in ancient Israel and unlike the other advanced civilizations they did not acquire a large empire, but their religious ideas and beliefs changed the world significantly. The Hebrews were the first civilization to believe in monotheism or one God. This belief later replaced polytheism, which was the belief in many gods, held in many parts of the ancient world. From around 1200 to 600 B.C., the Hebrews established an advanced civilization with many magnificent buildings and temples. Hebrew teachings related to monotheism, the ethical principles of right and wrong, and justice which provided the foundation for their religion, Judaism. The sacred scriptures of the Hebrews are contained in the Torah. One of the greatest kings of the Hebrews was King David who built the great city of Jerusalem and made it the capital. Jerusalem continued to thrive until the Romans conquered the Jews and destroyed the city around 135 A.D.
The Assyrians conquered the people of the Fertile Crescent and Egypt around 800 B.C. They were extremely warlike and were the first civilization to outfit their armies with iron weapons. The Assyrians divided their empire into provinces administered by governors and built a great library at Nineveh. Clay tablets from this library have provided accurate historical records of life in the ancient Middle East. Assyria lasted until around 612 B.C. when it was destroyed by the Persians who conquered the region.
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ANCIENT EGYPT
Another civilization that developed around the same time as Sumer was that of Ancient Egypt in northeast Africa. Climate and geographical factors also contributed to the rise of ancient Egypt. The warm climate and water from the Nile River led to the development of agriculture in this region. Each year, the Nile overflowed and deposited rich soil in the surrounding lowland areas. This fertile soil encouraged early nomadic settlers to establish permanent farming settlements along the Nile. Egypt also developed into a great civilization because the early inhabitants were naturally protected against invasion from foreign enemies by the Mediterranean and Red Seas, the vast deserts, and mountains that surrounded the lands around the Nile.
Before Egypt became a great civilization it was a collection of small independent agricultural villages along the banks of the Nile. Eventually a system of local government made up of village leaders was developed. From this amalgamation of leadership, the people were able to build canals to irrigate dry farmlands and dikes to restrain the waters of the Nile when it flooded annually. Egypt eventually developed into two kingdoms, Upper and Lower Egypt. Around 3100 B.C. Menes Lessoned both parts of Egypt to become one country. He also became the first king or pharaoh and began the first dynasty. A dynasty is a succession of rulers from the same family. For 3000 years, dynasties flourished as one pharaoh passed power to another.
Like the Sumerians, the ancient Egyptians developed into a centralized society in which the pharaoh had the highest social position followed by the nobles who were advisors to the king, and the priests who managed the temples and conducted religious affairs. The majority of the population was made up of merchants, artisans, peasant farmers and slaves. The pharaohs were the absolute rulers and were worshipped as gods. They also made all decisions related to taxes, laws, land ownership and the construction of public buildings and irrigation canals. At their direction many huge statues and temples were built. The pharaohs contributed significantly to making Egypt a great civilization by engaging in trade with other countries. They also maintained huge armies and conquered many other neighboring territories, extending their culture and influence in these territories. The period (1580- 1150 B.C.) was marked by the growth of Egypt’s military power as it conquered Israel, Syria, Phoenicia and other territories. They also forced the conquered people to pay taxes in the form of jewels, gold and silver. Others were taken as slaves.
The Egyptians worshipped many gods and religion played a very important role in their lives. They believed that each person’s soul lived on after death and that the individual could only be given immortality by the gods if he or she had led a good life on earth. When the pharaohs died their bodies were mummified, which was a method used to preserve them. They were buried in huge tombs called pyramids. The rooms and chambers in the pyramids were filled with all the objects and treasures that it was believed the pharaohs would need in their life after death.
The Egyptians made many significant contributions to world civilization. They excelled in the fields of architecture and art. They built gigantic pyramids, temples and statues to honor their kings and high officials. One of their greatest achievements was the invention of one of the earliest systems of writing called hieroglyphics. This writing was made up of pictures and symbols that expressed words, sounds, and ideas. They invented the earliest form of paper from papyrus reeds. They were
15 WORLD HISTORY highly skilled in astronomy, mathematics and science and they invented the first calendar that divided the year into twelve months with 365 days.
Increased warfare in foreign lands and at home weakened Egypt’s control over her empire and around 667 B.C. the country was conquered by the Assyrians. Eventually other invaders from Persia, Greece and Rome gained control of the region.
REGIONS OF THE FERTILE CRESCENT AND ANCIENT EGYPT
Peiser, Andrew, Serber, Michael. (1995). Our World: A Global Studies Text, 93. Amsco School Publications Incorporated.
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EARLY CULTURES OF INDIA
The first Indian civilization appeared in the Indus River valley in India about 2500 B.C. As with Mesopotamia, the main rivers, the Indus and Ganges, flooded every year providing fertile soil. The people of the Indus valley began as a farming society that later developed features of a more sophisticated culture. They developed highly productive farms with extensive irrigation canals and domesticated animals. They were the first society to grow cotton and weave it into cloth. This led to the development of trade and the growth of cities. The main cities that developed were Harappa and Mohenjo–Daro. These cities were laid out in grid patterns with many homes and temples made from brick. In the cities, skilled people made gold and silver jewelry and pottery. Others worked as merchants and artisans, and many traveled to other civilizations such as Sumer were they traded and exchanged cultural information. They also had a form of pictographic writing that was made on clay seals. Around 1500 B.C. the major cities were destroyed by invaders and the population declined for unknown reasons.
Around this time, a group of warriors and herdsmen from central Asia called Aryans conquered northern India and the Indus valley. They established farms and villages and built great cities. They developed a system called the caste system to prevent the different social classes from assimilating with one another through marriage. Society was divided into four main social castes and each person born into a specific caste had to remain in it for life.
The Aryans influenced the fundamental aspects of Hinduism, one of the main religions practiced in India. Such principles were recorded in the Hindu language, Sanskrit, in special books called Vedas. Hindus believe that an individual can only be happy if his soul is united with Brahma who is the most important of their gods. This can only be achieved through reincarnation or the rebirth of the soul. The deeds a person performs in his lifetime determine his karma or what caste or animal form he will assume each time he is reincarnated on earth.
The second great religion that developed at a later date in India was Buddhism. This began with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama who lived between 563 and 483 B.C. His major purpose in life was to search for the reason for so much suffering in the world. After years of thinking and wandering, he found the answer to his question and formed the central philosophy of Buddhism. This revelation earned Gautama the title of “Buddha” or the “Enlightened One.” He taught that one must live a life based on good conduct in all areas, practice meditation and serious thinking and give up all pleasures of the body. The ultimate goal of this religion was that one could avoid reincarnation and the cycle of death and rebirth and enter nirvana, a state of total union with the universe, and find perfect peace. Much of ancient India’s art and architectural forms revolved around Hinduism and Buddhism. This is evident in the construction of domes and conical shaped temples, animal and human statues, and temple paintings.
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EARLY CULTURES OF CHINA
The earliest Chinese civilizations developed in the fertile valleys of the Hwang Ho, Yangtze and Hsi rivers between 3000 and 2500 B.C. The main activity was farming and the main crops that were planted by these early people were wheat and millet. To protect their fields from the frequent flooding of the rivers they built dikes to keep the rivers in their banks. They also dug irrigation canals to take water to their fields during the dry seasons.
About 1750 B.C. the first ruling family, the Shang dynasty, gained control of northern China. This Shang dynasty brought many cultural changes to China. The earliest form of Chinese writing comes from the Shang times found in pictographs and oracle bones. Shang writers later developed a written language which was a type of ornamental calligraphy by which characters and symbols were used to express ideas and words. The rulers built large city-states, huge palaces, religious shrines, tombs and government buildings. They excelled in the making of bronze vessels and weapons. They also mastered the art of weaving thread into silk cloth. The population consisted of noble warriors, merchants, craftspeople and farmers. Eventually the Shang rulers were conquered by a group of people called the Chou.
The Chou rulers established the second major dynasty that lasted from 1028 to 256 B.C. Under this dynasty many cities and towns developed. Money in the form of coins was used to pay for goods, instead of bartering. The rulers were also viewed as gods by their people and the king was called the ‘Son of Heaven.” A just ruler who was fair and showed good judgment was given divine approval which was known as the Mandate of Heaven. If he proved to be an unjust ruler his people had the right to overthrow him.
Art, philosophy and literature developed under the Chou dynasty. The greatest Chinese philosopher was Confucius, who lived between 551 and 479 B.C. He became China’s most influential thinker and developed the principles of Confucianism. His beliefs are regarded by some as a code of behavior and by others as a religion. He taught that an individual could achieve the ideal way of life through the belief that all people were naturally good, proper conduct, self-control, respect for ancestors and dedication to education. Confucius emphasized that each individual should humbly accept his place in society.
The Chou dynasty was eventually defeated by the warlike rulers of the Ch’in family. These rulers took control of China and established the Ch’in dynasty. The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Shih Huang Ti who was given the title “First Emperor.” He built a huge empire by occupying all of the southern regions of China. He established a strong central government and a standardized currency. His most significant achievement was the completion of the Great Wall of China which was built to protect his people from the wandering and warlike tribes that lived on the plains north of China. After the death of Shih Huang Ti in 210 B.C., the Han Dynasty was established.
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING IN ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
DATE AREA FORM OF WRITING
2700 B.C. Mesopotamia Cuneiform
2500 B.C. Egypt Hieroglyphics
2000 B.C. India Pictograph
2000 B.C. Crete Hieroglyphics
1750 B.C. Asia Minor Hittite Cuneiform
1750 B.C. China Pictograph
Leinwand, Gerald. (1986). Teachers Guide and Resource Book: The Pageant of World History, S3. Allyn and Bacon Incorporated.
CLASSICAL GREECE
Greek culture began on the Greek islands in the Aegean Sea south of the Greek mainland. The earliest advanced civilization was established by the Minoans on the island of Crete around 1750 B.C. The Minoans gained many new ideas and technological skills from their contact with the civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia. They became rich from their extensive trade with other countries and islands in the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. There was a high demand for their products which included gold, silver, swords and jewelry. The Minoan civilization was very advanced and the king lived in an elaborate palace in the capital city of Knossos. Minoans worshipped animals especially the bull and had many gods and goddesses. The reasons for the decline of the Minoan civilization remains a mystery, but historical and scientific evidence states that a volcano or a large-scale invasion by the Hellenes from the Greek mainland totally destroyed the cities of Crete.
The Hellenes lived on the Greek mainland for many centuries and around 2000 B.C. the Mycenaeans also settled there. The Mycenaeans were extremely skilled in metallurgy which they learned from the Minoans, and they made many magnificent weapons, vessels and jewelry from gold. During the following centuries the warlike Dorians invaded the Greek mainland and conquered the people that they found there and laid the foundations for the beginning of the classical age of ancient Greece.
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Greek civilization reached its highest point of cultural development during the Classical Age which began around 500 B.C. In spite of these achievements the Greeks did not develop political unity even though they shared a common language and religion. They created a number of city-states which were ruled by kings and later by landowning aristocrats. Each city-state or polis had homes, theaters, public areas and marketplaces and engaged in trading activities.
The two most powerful city-states were Athens and Sparta. The city-state of Athens allowed all male citizens to participate in the organization of the government and selected men from all classes to govern it. Pericles ruled Athens from 460 to 429 B.C. and during this time, this system of government became known as democracy. The only people who could not participate in the democratic process were women and slaves. Athenians valued learning and boys were educated in liberal arts and sciences. The city also became the cultural center for many artists, dramatists, scientists, philosophers and thinkers. Some of its greatest philosophers were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
Sparta on the other hand was a society of warriors who cared little about democracy or cultural education. The Spartans elected two kings every nine years. In Sparta all citizens were trained to serve the needs of the state. Spartan men were trained to be warriors from early childhood. They were also taught to be patriotic and courageous. They were not allowed to read and be influenced by foreign literature.
By 300 B.C. Macedonia conquered Greece and built a large empire under the rule of Alexander the Great. This expansion spread Greek culture to other parts of the world and also blended it with Egyptian, Persian and Indian cultures. Ancient Greece developed the concept of democracy which is an influential political system still practiced in the modern world. Greek culture has also significantly influenced modern civilization in the areas of drama, mathematics, especially geometry, art, architecture, astronomy, medicine, the Olympic games, philosophy and the development of historical literature.
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC AND EMPIRE
While Greece was experiencing a high level of culture during the Classical Age, a number of civilizations were developing in Italy. A group of people called Latins settled in farming commLessonies near the Tiber River in central Italy. By 500 B.C. the villages Lessoned to become the first city-state of Rome which later became a republic.
The city-state of Rome was first ruled by kings but the Romans later overthrew them and established a republic which was a new type of government. In the republic there were no kings. Instead, elected officials held positions of leadership and made laws. The most powerful governing body was the Senate because it proposed laws, controlled public finances and handled all matters related to foreign affairs. Other important officials were administrators called consuls and judges known as magistrates. The ancient Romans had many laws that became written legal codes which were unified into the Roman Law of the Twelve Tables which emphasized that all citizens, regardless of their class, should be treated fairly in the Roman state and that an accused person had the right to trial by jury.
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The political system also had a strong influence on the social structure. The patricians were the upper classes and many senators were chosen from this class. They usually owned the best lands. The rest of the population made up the working class called plebeians and these people were farmers, merchants and craftsmen. The plebeians had a measure of political power through their representatives in the republic’s tribunes. However, the upper classes had more power and influence. Women and slaves also had limited rights.
The Roman Republic rapidly expanded due to the military strategies and the power of its strong army. All adult male citizens were required to serve in the army or navy. Gradually, the Roman army conquered most of Italy, and Latin became the main language that was spoken. In a series of wars called the Punic Wars between 264 and 146 B.C., Rome defeated its greatest rival Carthage, a city in North Africa. The results of this war gave Rome control of North Africa, Sicily and Corsica. By 64 B.C., the Romans had conquered the Macedonians and had taken control of Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor. The extensive wars that took place for territory directly led to the development of technology in the form of road building to connect the territories and in the building of aqueducts to provide valuable water sources throughout the empire.
The many conquests also led to changes in Rome that caused the decline of the Republic. Trade was expanded throughout the empire and this brought many slaves and riches to Rome from the conquered lands. The increase in trade led to the rise of a new middle class made up of business people called equestrians. It also caused the patricians to become wealthier and more powerful. They preferred buying slaves rather than hiring free workers. Many acquired more lands which they turned into latifundia or large agricultural estates worked on by slaves. As a result, many plebeians lost their lands and farms and had to move to the cities and others could not find employment. These events led to widespread riots and a number of civil wars between the patricians and plebeians.
During this period of civil and social disturbance, many military leaders ruled Rome not as elected officials but as powerful dictators. The dictator whose rise to power marked the beginning of the end of the Roman Republic was Julius Caesar. He came to power because he was popular with the plebeians and led many military conquests for Rome. He had conquered Gaul (modern France), England, Belgium and parts of Germany. By 46 B.C., Julius Caesar was the absolute ruler of the Roman Empire. He made the Roman army more efficient and powerful, expanded the Senate to represent the people in the provinces, created jobs and improved the tax system. In spite of these achievements Julius Caesar had many enemies who were afraid that he would become too powerful and make himself king. In 44 B.C., a group of his enemies led by Marcus Brutus assassinated him. The death of Julius Caesar led to another civil war and ultimately the emergence of a new ruler, Octavian, who was appointed emperor by the Senate and was given the title of Augustus or “exalted one.” This marked the end of the Roman Republic.
Emperor Augustus ruled from 27 B.C. to 14 A.D. and his reign led to a long period of prosperity and peace that lasted for an additional 200 years. This period was known as the Pax Romana. Under Augustus, Rome enjoyed a Golden Age. This came about due to the Romans’ conquest of Greece and contact with Greek culture. Roman and Greek art forms blended and appeared in architecture, painting, sculpture, literature and drama. Many educated Romans also chose to speak Greek rather than Latin.
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Ancient Rome made many significant contributions to modern civilization. In the field of engineering, the Romans invented aqueducts to transport water from the rural areas to the cities. They invented cement which helped them create a new way of building roads and bridges to move troops and goods. One of their greatest achievements was their system of laws. These laws have provided the basis for many present day systems of justice. The Romans produced great works of art as well as many poetic, philosophical and historical works in Latin. They built extensive trading networks that extended to China, Africa and India and spent vast sums of gold to import Chinese silks and spices into their empire.
By around 400 A.D., the western half of the Roman Empire declined due to increased slave uprisings and the fact that the empire had become too large for the rulers and the army to control effectively. Higher taxes had also lowered the living standards of thousands of people throughout the empire. In addition, the Germanic people from northern Europe made frequent attacks on the empire. The empire came to an end when a Germanic general Odoacer invaded Rome and made himself ruler in 476 A.D. The eastern half of the empire continued to develop as the Byzantine Empire.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Billings, Henry, Billings, Melissa Stone. (1986). World History Workbook, 36. San Diego: Coronado Publishers Incorporated.
THE RISE AND GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY
Christianity began around 30 A.D. with the teachings of Jesus Christ in Palestine. He taught that he was the son of God, the messiah and the savior of the Jews and that his coming had been prophesized in the Old Testament of the Bible. His main mission on earth was to bring eternal life and
22 WORLD HISTORY salvation to anyone who believed in him and followed his teachings. He also taught that all people were equal in the eyes of God and that people should show mercy and compassion to one another.
In order to spread his beliefs, he chose twelve men as disciples or apostles to help him teach. The Romans who controlled Palestine considered Jesus and his apostles to be dangerous insurgents who would cause the people to revolt against Roman rule. They therefore executed him by crucifixion in 33 A.D. After his death, his disciples claimed that he had been resurrected and had ascended to heaven, which proved that he was the son of God. This belief in the resurrection of Christ fulfilled an important role in the development of Christianity.
Jesus’ apostles continued to spread his teachings in different parts of the world although they were persecuted. At the same time, Roman emperors regarded this religion as a threat because it emphasized the importance of one God and the Romans believed in many gods. As a result, thousands of Christians were killed or persecuted and many had to worship in catacombs which were underground cemeteries. In 313 A.D., the Roman Emperor Constantine I ended the persecution of Christians in the empire and issued the Edict of Milan which made Christianity equal to all other religions. By 395 A.D. Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the main religion of the Roman Empire
STUDY QUESTIONS FOR LESSON 2
1. Which of the following is an important invention of the Babylonians? a. Iron weapons and tools c. The wheel b. A system of arithmetic based on the number 60 d. Irrigation
2. The type of government that existed in ancient Egypt was: a. a theocratic dictatorship b. a democracy c. a city-state d. a republic
3. From the map on the following page which information is true about the Fertile Crescent? a. It was completely surrounded by mountain regions b. It lies in the middle of the desert regions c. Most of it was between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers d. All of the above
4. The Hindus belief in reincarnation emphasizes that each person: a. Should give away all his worldly goods b. After death is at one with the universe c. Has a soul that will experience many rebirths d. Will experience suffering on earth
5. Chinese people were encouraged by Confucianism to: a. Seek all knowledge from nature b. Use the principles of science to resolve problems c. learn guidance from other civilizations d. respect the family and traditions
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6. The city-state that became the cultural center of Greece around 450 B.C. was: a. Macedonia b. Athens c. Sparta d. Knossos
7. Julius Caesar was made absolute ruler of Roman Empire because: a. He had conquered many parts of Europe b. He had made the Roman army more efficient c. He had the support of the majority of the Roman people d. All of the above
INDICATE “T” FOR TRUE AND “F” FOR FALSE FOR QUESTIONS 8-10.
8. ______In the social structure of Rome, the patricians were the lower classes and the plebeians the upper classes
9. ______The city-state of Sparta trained their male citizens in cultural education
1O.______The Shang excelled in making weapons and vessels of bronze
ANSWERS
1. B 6. B 2. A 7. B 3. C 8. T 4. C 9. F 5. D 10. T
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LESSON 3:
THE MIDDLE AGES - EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST (500 - 1450)
¾ Feudalism and the Manorial System in Europe
¾ Role of the Church
¾ Byzantine Empire
¾ The Spread of Islam and the Muslim Empire
¾ The Crusades
FEUDALISM AND THE MANORIAL SYSTEM IN EUROPE
The Middle Ages started after the collapse of the western Roman Empire. It began in the 5th century and ended in the 14th century. In Europe, society was organized under feudalism which was a political system devised to protect the property of landowners and to maintain a class system that provided a continuous supply of laborers. This system placed all citizens into appropriate social classes for social and economic reasons. The nobility was comprised of kings and queens, nobles and knights. The peasants and townspeople worked on the land, served the nobles and made up the lower classes. The nobles owned large portions of land which they divided into estates which were given to lesser lords called vassals or knights who in return, pledged their military support and loyalty to them.
The manorial system developed for economic reasons. This system represented the relationship between the lords and the peasants or serfs who worked on their estates. The serfs lived on the lord’s estates, worked in the fields, reared the animals and produced all the food for the estates. In return for these services, the lords gave them protection during war and small plots of land for farming. Apart from this, peasants had no other benefits. They had to have the permission of their lords if they wanted to marry or leave the estates.
THE ROLE OF THE CHURCH
During the Middle Ages, the Christian Church was divided into two branches: the Roman Catholic Church in the Western European countries and the Eastern Orthodox Christian Church in Eastern Europe. In 1054, the division between the two churches became permanent. The Roman Catholic Church became the central stabilizing force in Western Europe. The head of the church was the Pope in Rome. He was assisted by bishops and cardinals who supervised the priests. During the Middle Ages, just about every manor and town had a church. Church officials advised kings and lords. They also provided leadership in religious, secular, political, judicial and educational matters.
25 WORLD HISTORY
The Church also had great economic power. In many parts of Europe it was the largest landowner and this source provided it with great wealth. It also collected money from the local citizens in the form of tithes or taxes. In addition, church officials took money for giving pardons to people who wanted to repent of their sins. This practice was referred to as the sale of indulgences.
The Church’s political power was evident in the fact that it had its own set of laws called canon law, and its own courts of justice. Under this law, any person who disagreed with the teachings and rules of the Church would be convicted of heresy. This was regarded as a serious crime and the most common punishment was excommunication, which meant that the person’s soul could not go to heaven and he or she was barred from attending all church services.
The Church did much to spread Christianity and knowledge by establishing monasteries throughout Europe. During the Middle Ages few people could read and write and church officials possessed these skills. They wrote letters and legal documents for their members, educated children, copied ancient texts and wrote literary works. They also took religious vows of chastity and poverty and looked after the sick. Some important missionaries who helped to spread the message of Christianity were St. Patrick who established the Catholic Church in Ireland and St. Augustine who brought Christianity to the Angles and Saxons in England
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
In 325 A.D., Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople which is now the city of Istanbul in Turkey. This change also split the Roman Empire into eastern and western regions. When the Western Roman Empire eventually declined, the eastern region continued to develop as the Byzantine Empire. Differences in religious doctrines also developed between the Western Catholic church and the Eastern or Orthodox Church.
One of the greatest Byzantine emperors was Justinian (ruled 527-565). He had absolute power over all affairs relating to the empire. He established a large army and a centralized government. He codified a collection of Roman laws and writings, known as Justinian’s Code. This code was the basic law for medieval rulers and the Roman Catholic Church. It has significantly influenced the development of the modern legal system in western Europe and other parts of the world.
Justinian also expanded the empire to include southern Spain, parts of Italy, and northern Africa. The Byzantine Empire grew and became rich and culturally diverse due to its extensive trading with other regions. Merchants brought in luxurious products from the Far East such as spices, raw silk and precious stones. Byzantine artisans made and exported silk cloth, gold and silver jewelry and other luxuries to cities in Italy, Russia and Eastern Europe.
The Byzantine culture maintained many of the characteristics of classical Greece, such as literature, language, music, architecture and art. These elements were transmitted to other cultures outside of the empire through trade, and further influenced the foundations of their civilizations. Byzantine art and architecture were highly developed. Churches were built using Roman and Greek designs and were adorned with paintings and brilliant mosaics. In 1453, Seljuk Turks captured Constantinople and ended the rule of the Byzantine Empire.
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THE SPREAD OF ISLAM AND THE MUSLIM EMPIRE
Islam was founded by the prophet Mohammed (570-632) in Saudi Arabia after a spiritual vision in which he received a message that it was his duty to convince Arabs to worship one God instead of many. Mohammed became a prophet and teacher and traveled throughout Arabia converting people to his beliefs. His followers are called Muslims. He developed the principles of Islam which state that there is only one God called Allah, and that all individuals should follow strict codes of conduct related to religious practices, human equality, morality, family, business practices and all other aspects of life. Islam teaches that those who die in battle are assured a place in heaven. Believers are also expected to make a yearly pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed. Mohammed wrote the Koran which is the sacred book of scriptures, or the Muslim Bible, containing fundamental principles of Islam. Its precepts of monotheism, a highly moral lifestyle and life after death were taken from Judaism and Christianity. Since the death of Mohammed, many of the teachings in the Koran have been used by spiritual and political leaders to improve or change political, social and legal conditions in their communities and countries.
The rapid spread of Islam soon became a threat to the Christian world. The promise of paradise after death encouraged many Arabs to want to be great warriors and provided a strong motive for them to wage war with other regions. This ultimately led to their acquiring a great empire during the 7th and 8th centuries. By 750 the Muslim Empire included all of the Middle East, Spain, northern Africa, India and Southeast Asia. In these territories people of many diverse cultures lived under the rule of the Muslim caliphs who were both religious and political leaders. These caliphs created strong governments that encouraged learning and trade throughout the empire.
Two outstanding dynasties developed during this period, the Umayyad dynasty that lasted from 661 to 750, and the Abbassid dynasty that existed from 720 to 1250. The central capital for the empire was in Baghdad, in present-day Iraq. Throughout the empire, the Muslims spread the Arabic language which helped to culturally unify the different territories that made up the Muslim world. The Muslim empire made outstanding contributions to European culture in many areas including education, science, and art. In education, it made advances in classical literature and in mathematics in which it furthered the study of algebra and geometry. In medicine, Muslims developed anesthetics and performed complex surgeries. They developed calligraphy and produced great artwork. In the area of architecture they designed magnificent mosques (temples with rounded domes) throughout their empire.
By the 10th century the Muslim empire had been divided into a number of independent kingdoms. During this time, the Turkish tribes of central Asia had adopted Islam. During the following century they invaded the Middle East and captured Baghdad.
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EXPANSION OF ISLAM
CAUSES
The desire for new lands and wealth
Religion and desire to spread the teachings of the Koran
Weakness of the Byzantine and Persian Empires
Krieger, Larry S., Neill, Kenneth, Jantzen, Steven L. (1992). World History: Perspectives on the Past, 192, 446. D.C. Heath and Company.
EFFECTS
Spread of Islamic civilization
Arabic becomes the main spoken language throughout the Empire
Arabs control major trade routes
Preservation of ancient Arab culture and knowledge by Islamic scholars
Krieger, Larry S., Neill, Kenneth, Jantzen, Steven L. (1992). World History: Perspectives on the Past, 192, 446. D.C. Heath and Company.
28 WORLD HISTORY
THE BYZANTINE AND MUSLIM EMPIRES
Leinwand, Gerald. (1986). Teachers Guide and Resource Book: The Pageant of World History, T19. Allyn and Bacon Incorporated.
THE CRUSADES
During the Middle Ages, it was a traditional practice for European Christians to make trips to Jerusalem to visit the place where Jesus was crucified. However, after the Turks invaded the Middle East, they began to interfere with the Christian visitors in the Holy Land. The Turks posed a threat to the Christian Church because they were Muslims, not Christians, and they considered Jesus to be a prophet, but not the son of God. The spread of the Muslim faith threatened the power and influence of the Christian church in Jerusalem and in the remaining portions of the old Roman Empire in the East, which was then the Byzantine world.
In 1095, the Byzantine Emperor asked Pope Urban II for help against the invading Turks in Jerusalem. The pope called for a crusade or religious war to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. Many people ranging from knights to peasants answered the pope’s call. They came primarily from England, Germany and France. Between 1095 and 1291, there were seven crusades. After many battles the Christians captured Jerusalem in 1099 and ruled the city for about fifty years. In 1187, Jerusalem was recaptured by the Muslims. By the end of the last crusade in 1291 the Turks had complete control of the Holy Land.
The Crusades changed European cultural, economic and social life forever. The Europeans who traveled to the Middle East came in contact with the advanced cultures of the Byzantines, Arabs and Turks. From their exposure to these civilizations, the Crusaders gained knowledge about building cities, trade and industry, arts, science, and geography. Many of these ideas were taken back to
29 WORLD HISTORY
Europe, introducing a new age of learning as well as new products such as silk, glassware, precious stones, sugar and spices.
Trade developed between Europe and the Middle East as the demand for eastern goods increased. The number of towns and cities increased as a result of the growth of this international trade. Townspeople created more commodities that could be traded with the eastern empire. These businesspeople became the new middle class of Europe.
The Crusades increased the powers of the kings of Europe and decreased the powers of the nobles and lords. The manorial system also declined as many serfs joined the Crusades to escape the manors or left the estates to find work in the new towns.
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LESSON 3 STUDY QUESTIONS
1. The Roman Catholic Church helped to spread knowledge across Europe by:
a. Writing literary texts b. Using excommunication c. Establishing courts of justice d. Encouraging the building of churches
2. The Byzantine Empire was made up of: a. Spain and Italy b. Turkey c. North Africa d. All of the above
3. A significant contribution from Islamic culture to western European civilization was:
a. The importance of waging warfare to achieve spiritual salvation b. Advancements in mathematics and literature c. Giving women superior positions in society d. All of the above
Indicate “T” for true and “F” for false in questions 4-10.
4.______The Crusades began after the Turks in the Middle East began to interfere with the Christian visitors in the Holy Land.
5.______The main principle of Islam is that there is only one God called Allah.
6.______The Justinian’s Code was the basic law for medieval rulers and the Roman Catholic Church.
7.______The differences in religious doctrines did not affect the unity of the Western Catholic church and the Orthodox Church.
8______The canon law gave the Church considerable political power in Europe.
9.______Church officials had the authority and power to advise kings and lords.
10.______Feudalism was a political system that was made to provide knights with more land.
ANSWERS LESSON 3 STUDY QUESTIONS
1. A 6. T 2. D 7. F 3. B 8. T 4. T 9. T 5. T 10. F
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32 WORLD HISTORY
LESSON 4
THE MIDDLE AGES - ASIA, AFRICA AND MESOAMERICA (1000 - 1450)
¾ Kingdoms of Africa
¾ Mesoamerican Civilizations
¾ The Mongol Empire
THE KINGDOMS OF AFRICA
For many centuries, the people of Africa remained mysterious to the rest of the world. Most of what is known about early African history and culture comes from the reports of traders and travelers from Europe and the Middle East. Between 300 and 1500 A.D. three empires arose in western Africa. They were the kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhai.
The kingdom of Ghana was the first highly civilized western African empire because it had a number of extended territories and was established around 800 A.D. It began when a number of small agricultural communities unified under one king who organized a centralized government. Its capital was Kumbi Saleh. The people of Ghana had mastered the art of ironworking which made them a powerful society because they made weapons of iron for their large armies.
Ghana became a wealthy kingdom due to its trade with the Arabs in the north. The kings of Ghana had control of the gold mines of the region. The Ghanaian traders exchanged gold, ivory, jewelry and slaves for salt, cloth and copper from the Muslim traders of northern Africa. The Muslims that settled in the region introduced their language, methods of government and religion into the culture of the people of Ghana. Some of the cultural influences that became a part of Ghanaian society were Arabic writing and Muslim architectural styles.
By the middle of the 11th century North African Berber warriors called Almoravids, conquered most of western Africa and made many of its citizens Muslims. In Ghana the power of the kings weakened and the capital city of Kumbi Saleh was destroyed in 1076. Eventually the kingdom of Ghana disintegrated and became absorbed into the kingdom of Mali.
A Mandingo warrior named Sundiata conquered the area that used to be Ghana and incorporated it into the kingdom of Mali. This kingdom was situated on the left bank of the Niger River. By the thirteenth century, Mali was ruled by kings who had converted to the Islamic faith. This significantly influenced the kingdom’s system of education, justice and administration. This kingdom also became rich due its control of the gold mines of western Africa. Its trade in gold extended beyond the borders of Africa as much of Europe’s gold came from Mali. Its merchants also traded in cattle, cotton and ivory. The most powerful king was Mansa Musa who spread Islam throughout the region. He had a large army and greatly expanded Mali’s empire. In 1324, he made a pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca and brought back many intellectuals, architects and artists to Mali. He made the city of Timbuktu the capital and the center of trade, Muslim learning, and the arts.
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However, after the death of Mansa Musa, the empire declined. By 1450, another great empire, Songhai arose in western Africa and conquered Mali.
The kingdom of Songhai became the most powerful and had the largest empire of all three kingdoms. It reached its peak at the end of the 15th century. Its wealth was also strongly based on the gold trade. The Moslem warrior king Sunni Ali captured Timbuktu and added it to the empire. Askia Mohammed was the most powerful king of Songhai. He established a system of taxation, built Muslim schools and made Timbuktu a center of learning where many books were written and sold. Eventually, the kings of the Songhai empire were not powerful enough to fight the armies of the sultans of Morocco and the empire fell in 1591.
MESOAMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
Historians and scientists believe that the first inhabitants of North America came from Asia during the Ice Age when the northern hemisphere was covered with large sheets of ice called glaciers. With so much water trapped in the form of ice, the ocean levels dropped and the higher parts of the ocean floor appeared, forming a land bridge from Siberia in the northeastern part of Asia to North America. These early inhabitants were nomadic, that is, they moved from one place to another. They probably migrated from Asia across this land bridge for thousands of years. They were Paleo-Indian hunters because their pattern of migration depended on the movements of the animals they hunted and because they used stone tools and weapons. They gradually spread out over North, Central and South America and were the first humans in America.
The Indians who migrated to the Americas developed different ways of life based on the geography and climate of the areas in which they settled. The most highly developed Indian cultures existed in Central and South America. Architectural evidence indicates that one of the earliest advanced Indian civilizations was that of the Maya. They established settlements in southern Mexico and in the hot rainforest regions of Guatemala. Their civilization flourished from 300 to 900 A.D. It began as an agricultural society as farmers made up most of the population. The main crops were maize, beans and squash.
The settlements later developed into city-states ruled by chiefs. As the social and economic system became organized, the ruling chiefs and nobles demanded taxes in the form of food from their citizens. These taxes were used to maintain the central cities and temples. The cities also developed a wealthy economy based on their trading system in which Mayan traders sold and exchanged agricultural products for other commodities across Central America. Religion played an important role in Mayan civilization. They believed in many gods and priests had great power and influence.
The Mayans made many significant contributions to world civilization. Their architectural and artistic skills were highly developed. Within the city-states, huge flat-topped pyramid-shaped temples were built for religious purposes. The tombs of many rulers as well as paintings and carvings of their history were found inside these temples. The Mayans developed a system of writing that used ideographs or symbols that represented ideas, dates, numbers and sounds. In mathematics, they were the first civilization to use the number zero and they created a number system based on 20. They also developed an accurate calendar containing 365 days per year based on astronomical observations. For unknown reasons, the Mayan civilization declined and the inhabitants abandoned their city-states.
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In the 1200’s a nomadic warlike group of people called the Aztecs migrated into central Mexico and established the dominant culture. Their capital, Tenochtitlan, which occupied the site of modern day Mexico City, was a city built on an island in a lake. In their social hierarchy, they were ruled by an emperor who was chosen by the nobles and priests. There were many warriors who made up a class of their own. They waged frequent wars on their neighbors to expand their empire, to acquire slaves, and to collect tribute in gold and silver from the people they conquered. By the 1500’s, the Aztec empire had about 30 million people. The Aztecs believed that human sacrifice was an important ritual to keep their society from being destroyed by the gods. The main victims who were sacrificed by the priests were their prisoners of war.
The Aztecs made many contributions to history. They were highly skilled in architecture and engineering. Within the city of Tenochtitlan, they built wide causeways to link the city to the surrounding land. They constructed aqueducts to bring fresh water into the city. The city had palaces, gardens, and markets. The city was the religious center of Aztec society. Huge pyramid-shaped temples were built for worshipping their many gods and performing human sacrifices. They contributed to the development of agricultural technology by building artificial islands on which they produced corn, squash and beans. The Aztecs eventually lost their empire when the Spanish colonizers under the leadership of Hernando Cortes arrived in the 16th century. The Spanish eventually conquered the Aztec empire and destroyed Tenochtitlan.
In South America, a number of complex societies known as the Incas first developed in the Peruvian Andes mountain ranges on the western coast of the continent. The mountainous and harsh environment made it difficult in the beginning for the early civilizations to establish permanent settlements. However, they were able to survive by developing an irrigation system and an efficient method of farming known as terracing, by which the flat surfaces of the mountains were carved into farming areas. They planted corn and potatoes. The Incas were ruled by emperors who had absolute power over all lands as well as their people. The capital city was Cuzco. The emperors had large armies and conquered many other territories. As a result, the Incas had large empire. They were highly skilled and built magnificent cities with elaborate temples and highways that connected all the regions in the empire. The Incas were very religious and worshipped many gods. They contributed to the development of world civilization in the areas of agricultural technology, art and craft using gold and silver, road engineering, architecture and science. They possessed much knowledge about diseases and were able to perform many successful surgeries. By 1572 the Spanish had conquered much of South America and the Incas lost their empire to Spain.
THE MONGOL EMPIRE
From the 8th to the 18th century, significant cultural and historical changes were made in India and East Asia by the Muslims from the Middle East, the Mongols from western Asia and the Manchus from northeast Asia.
In the early 11th century, a Turkish Muslim named Mahmud conquered territories in India from the Indus Valley to the Ganges river. He destroyed Hindu temples, looted rich cities, and enslaved Hindu natives. By 1200, Turkish Muslims had destroyed the Hindu armies and conquered large portions of northern India. They made Delhi their capital and their main objective was to convert the
35 WORLD HISTORY
Hindus to Islam and further expand their territory in the region. The Turkish Sultans who were the rulers tried in many ways to convert their Indian subjects to Islam. Converts were offered tax benefits while Hindu adherents were persecuted. In spite of the fact that the Muslims gained many new converts especially from people in the lower castes, Hinduism survived as the main religion for the majority of the population in India. The main reason for this was that the Muslim Turks did not have enough troops to coerce all Hindus to become Muslims. In 1398, the Mongols from central Asia invaded India after conquering Mesopotamia, Persia and Afghanistan. They eventually conquered Delhi and defeated the Turks.
The Mongols were nomadic hunters and herders who lived on the grasslands of central Asia. They were fierce warriors, skilled horsemen and skilled bowsmen. From 1200, the Mongol empire grew to become the largest in the world under the leadership of Genghis and Kublai Khan. The Mongols significantly influenced the cultural and political life of the people they conquered. Genghis Khan established himself as a supreme ruler. He formed and commanded a well organized and disciplined army. His armies captured territories throughout most parts of Asia. These areas extended from the Caspian Sea in the west to Korea in the east. They also conquered India, Persia and northern China. Under Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, the Mongols invaded Russia, Hungary and Poland. In 1279 Kublai Khan, another grandson of Genghis Khan, conquered and ruled Tibet and China for many years. In India, Akbar the Great established another Mongol empire.
Within the empire, Mongol rulers had absolute power but they were tolerant of their subjects and encouraged cultural exchange of goods and ideas between the eastern and western regions of the empire. Products from the east such as silk, gunpowder and paper were exported to the west. Genghis Khan respected the scholars, priests, artisans and artists throughout his empire. Conquered people were allowed to practice their own traditions as long as they paid tribute to their rulers. In China, Kublai Khan built magnificent cities and established a Mongol dynasty with a Chinese name, the Yuan dynasty. This dynasty established political stability and peace. However, it encouraged cultural alienation as only Mongols could hold high government positions. Eventually, the Chinese rebelled against this system.
In India, Akbar the Great established a strong centralized government and treated Hindus and Moslems fairly. He also encouraged cultural development in the areas of art, literature and architecture. In Russia, Mongol rule had long-lasting effects. The system of absolute power that had been established in Eastern Europe by the Mongol rulers served as a model for the later Russian rulers who assumed power after Mongol rule. The rule of the Mongols also deprived Russia of experiencing the many cultural advances in the arts and sciences that took place in Western Europe during the Renaissance.
Mongol rule eventually declined because the empire was too large to be governed effectively. In many cases corrupt officials were given government positions. Finally, resentment against Mongol rule led to open rebellion and its overthrow by its subjects in China and Russia.
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STUDY QUESTIONS FOR LESSON 4
1. The king/s that did the most to make Mali a great society was:
a. Askia Mohammed b. Sundiata c. Mansa Musa d. all of the above
2. The first settlers in America came from:
a. Northeast Asia b. India c. the East Indies d. Alaska
3. Human sacrifice was practiced most often by:
a. the Maya b. the Inca c. the Aztec d. All of the above
4. The Mongol empire included:
a. India b. China c. Russia d. All of the above
INDICATE ‘T” FOR TRUE AND “F” FOR FALSE IN QUESTIONS 5-10
5.______Mongol rule brought many of the cultural advances of the Renaissance to Russia.
6.______Under Genghis and Kublai Khan, the Mongol empire became the largest in the world.
7.______The Aztec and Incan Empires were both destroyed by Spanish colonizers.
8.______The Mayans were the first civilization to use the number zero
9.______The kingdom of Ghana conquered the Songhai Empire and captured Timbuktu.
10.______Askia Mohammed made Timbuktu a center of learning
37 WORLD HISTORY
ANSWERS TO LESSON 4 STUDY QUESTIONS
1. C 6. T 2. A 7. T 3. C 8. T 4. D 9. F 5. F 10. T
38 WORLD HISTORY
LESSON 5
THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION (1450 - 1750)
¾ The Renaissance
¾ Age of Discovery and Exploration
¾ The Reformation and its Effects
¾ The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
¾ Absolutism and Enlightened Monarchies
¾ The Slave Trade
THE RENAISSANCE
The period from the 1300’s to the 1500’s was known as the Renaissance or “rebirth of learning” in Europe. During this time, Europeans sought to revive the culture of ancient Greece and Rome. In reviving old culture, new ideas were also developed that transformed literature, art, architecture, and science. A major literary movement called humanism also became a part of the Renaissance. It emphasized that more attention should be placed on the needs of all people and on literature. This helped to move attention away from the power of the church and focus it on the individual accomplishments of man. There was a rapid surge of learning and the discoveries made during this period expanded the power and influence of the European countries in the western and non- western world. The Renaissance also marked the transition period in history from the medieval to the modern era.
The Renaissance began in Italy. In Florence, the wealthy merchants and bankers in the Italian city-states took great pride in their own personal achievements based on their individual efforts in business. Many of these wealthy families gave money to artists to create works of art. Merchants spent great sums of money promoting the arts and sciences.
By the fifteenth century, these ideas had spread to northern Europe and were evident in places like Holland, France and England. The Renaissance transformed the cultural, scientific, political and economic life of the people of Europe. From a cultural perspective, this period produced some of the greatest artists, as well as works of art in the form of sculptures, paintings and architecture, in the history of the world. In the field of architecture, many spectacular buildings, palaces and churches were constructed. An example of this is St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome. Some of the most famous artists were Leonardo da Vinci who achieved fame for his paintings, “The Last Supper,” and the “Mona Lisa” and Michelangelo who is best known for his sculpture of “David” and his mural paintings
39 WORLD HISTORY in the Sistine Chapel. Renaissance architects revived the classical building styles of ancient Greece and Rome.
There was a significant development in literature with the invention of the printing press. Around 1450, paper-making and printing technology reached a high level of development. A printing machine with movable type was invented by Johann Gutenberg. The invention of a quicker form of printing made it possible for information to spread rapidly throughout Europe and for more people to become literate as more books were available to the public. Some of the greatest writers of this time were William Shakespeare who wrote dramatic plays, Moliere, who wrote French plays and comic drama, and Machiavelli who wrote about ethics and the ways in which rulers gain and maintain government.
AGE OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION
By the 1400’s, many European rulers, explorers and merchants were influenced, by the various changes that were taking place as a result of the Renaissance, to make voyages of exploration. One significant economic reason for such ventures was that the Italians had a monopoly on the Asian spice trade and controlled the major trading routes between Italy, the Middle East, and Asia. They therefore controlled the prices of imports throughout Europe. As a result, Portugal and Spain were anxious to find new routes to Asia so it could break the Italian monopoly. Many European rulers were also hoping to find new territories that would supply them with sources of wealth and power such as land, gold and silver. They also became curious about the unknown regions of the world and felt that it was their duty to explore them and convert their people to Christianity.
There was development of technology in the areas of science and navigation. New improvements in mapmaking and inventions such as the magnetic compass made it easier for ships to steer in the right direction. The astrolabe helped sailors determine their location north or south of the equator. Better shipbuilding improved the quality of oceangoing vessels. The larger sizes of the sailing ships or caravels made it easier for them to weather storms than for earlier designed ships and enabled Europeans to navigate ships more competently.
European voyages of exploration began when Prince Henry the Navigator set up a school of navigation in Portugal and used his wealth to finance expeditions to the west coast of Africa. These expeditions ultimately led to an expansive trade as the Portuguese developed a profitable trade in gold and slaves with the west Africans and Arabs. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias sailed around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa. This proved the existence of a sea route through the Indian Ocean and established a new trade route to Asia. By the 1500’s the Portuguese had captured the port of Malaca on the Malay Peninsula in the Indian Ocean. This was the most important Arab trading city on the east African coast. The Portuguese therefore gained control of the Arab spice trade between Asia and Europe.
The success of the Portuguese in exploration and trade encouraged other European countries to try to gain a portion of the profitable Asian spice trade and discover new territories. Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator, believed that the world was round, and that by sailing west, he would eventually reach Asia in the east. In 1492, he made his first voyage to the west with the support of the Spanish monarchy and discovered the Caribbean islands and South and Central America. This region
40 WORLD HISTORY was called the New World. He made three more voyages between 1493 and 1504 and brought many Spanish settlers to the Americas. The Spanish settled in Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola in the Caribbean as well as in Central and South America. In North America, they settled in Florida in 1565, and later in New Mexico, Arizona, Texas and California. The Spanish were mainly interested in finding gold and converting the Native Indians to Christianity. They established large farms called plantations and used Native Indians, and later, Africans as slaves to work on these plantations. Ferdinand Magellan also sailed on behalf of Spain and was the first explorer to travel completely around the world. This voyage lasted from 1519 to 1521.
The English, French and Dutch also engaged in exploration of North America on a large scale. In 1497, John Cabot, a Frenchman, explored parts of Canada now known as Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. In America the first successful permanent British colony was Jamestown, in Virginia, which was founded in 1607 by the London Company and established by John Smith.
The English settled in the thirteen colonies along the northern Atlantic seacoast of America. They settled for religious, political and economic reasons. In England, during the middle of the sixteenth century, nonconformist religious groups such as the Puritans and Quakers suffered continued persecution by the Church of England. These groups wanted religious freedom and migrated to the New World. The colony of Massachusetts Bay was founded in 1630 by Pilgrims and Puritans, who had left the Church of England because they did not agree with its policies. By 1682, seven colonies had been founded in the New World by people desiring the chance to be free to practice their chosen religion.
Other settlers wanted to escape from the political unrest of the Civil War in England between 1642 and 1645. Economic factors also played an important role in the flow of migration. During this time, there were many unemployed, landless farmers who wanted to leave England and work as laborers in America. Many criminals and debtors were given the choice of imprisonment for their crimes or migration to the New World, and chose migration.
Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, explored the St. Lawrence River and eastern Canada between 1534 and 1541. The first permanent French settlement was established in Quebec, Canada in 1608. The French settled along the St. Lawrence and Mississippi rivers and the Great Lakes. They were also interested in converting the Indians to Christianity but their main reason for settling in these regions was to engage in fur trading.
The Dutch were the first Europeans to challenge Portugal’s domination of the Asian spice trade. By the late 1500’s Dutch traders had established their own trading links with Asia through the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch built powerful ships that surpassed the Portuguese vessels. In 1641, they seized Malaca from Portugal and began trading with China and soon dominated the market for Asian goods.
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VOYAGES DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION
Foresman, Scott. Western Hemisphere Latin America and Canada: Social Studies, Workbook, 76. Scott, Foresman and Company.
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THE REFORMATION AND ITS EFFECTS
The development of new ideas brought on by the Renaissance influenced many Christians in northern and central Europe who protested against some of the policies and practices of the established Roman Catholic Church. In western Europe the religious revolt split the unity of the church and led to greater Christian diversity.
There were a number of religious and social issues that were questioned concerning the power of the Catholic Church officials. Many believed that the leaders of the church acted more like kings than representatives of God. They were also perceived as corrupt as they demanded fees to perform marriages and baptisms. In addition, they sold indulgences or pardons for sins.
The religious Reformation began in the 1500’s. There were many Christians who were tired of the excessive power and greed of the church. Prominent among them was a German monk named Martin Luther. In 1517, he posted on the door of the church in Wittenburg 95 arguments or theses against the practice of selling indulgences. This event marked the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, when Europeans broke away from the main Catholic Church in Rome and the Eastern Orthodox Church in Constantinople and formed new Christian churches. Luther believed that Christians could reach heaven only through faith in God and that the Bible was the only source of religious truth. He also stated that the Pope did not have the power to grant pardon for sins. Another significant reformer was John Calvin. He established his Protestant church in Switzerland. Its members lived disciplined, frugal and strict lives. Calvin and his followers believed in predestination, which was the idea that a person’s salvation was determined by God at the time of birth and that it was not possible for a human being to gain admittance into heaven if his fate had already been determined. Calvin’s teachings spread rapidly throughout Europe. Other religious reformers were Huldrych Zwingli in Switzerland and John Knox in Scotland.
Another effect of the Reformation was that religious unity in western Europe came to an end as some countries and territories remained Catholic and others became Protestant. A major result of the Reformation was the increase of religious conflict between and within countries and nations. In the 1500’s Spanish Catholics were continuously at war with British Protestants. There were also religious civil wars in France and Germany. The Reformation also led to the persecution of several non- orthodox religious groups, especially Jews.
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THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND ENLIGHTENMENT
The developments in science during the Renaissance came about as a result of new discoveries made by scientists that made them question the writings and teachings of medieval religious leaders and scholars. These changes became known as the Scientific Revolution. Scientists developed the scientific method which is a way by which observation and experiments are used to make scientific conclusions. This method uncovered much knowledge about the physical world and gave people greater opportunities to control their environment. It also led to revolutionary advances in physics, chemistry, medicine and astronomy. For example, in Italy, Galileo presented scientific information about the solar system. He built an improved telescope to observe and study the stars. As a result, he was able to prove the theory that had been put forward before by Copernicus that the earth was one of many planets that revolve around the sun. In England Issac Newton developed calculus and the theory of universal gravitation which explained how gravity kept the planets orbiting around the sun. Some other significant scientific achievements of the period included the work of Andreas Vesalius who founded the science of anatomy. William Harvey also improved the study of medicine as he demonstrated how blood circulates in the human body.
During the Scientific Revolution, scientists used certain principles to explain why things happened in the physical world. This success inspired other writers and scholars to develop confidence in man’s power to reason. This new way of thinking led to the Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason which was the period from the late 1600’s to the 1700’s in which people rejected traditional beliefs and accepted the ideas related to the power of human reason. The Enlightenment led scholars in other fields to question what had been taught in the past in relation to politics, government, economics and history. New philosophies relating to political science questioned existing social structures. One influential Enlightenment philosopher was Voltaire who advocated free speech and religious toleration for the people of France. John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed in the idea of a social contract that would change the governmental system of the Middle Ages which viewed rulers as having “divine rights” to a system in which the individual took precedence over the state and retained “natural rights.” In other words, governments should function to meet the social and economic needs of the governed.
ABSOLUTISM AND ENLIGHTENED MONARCHIES
During the Middle Ages, feudal lords and nobles had a great deal of power and the kings of Europe had little control over them. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the kings of England, Spain, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria had assumed more power because many of the feudal nobles had been killed in the Crusades and other wars. In addition, the emerging middle class supported the monarchs to ensure their continued protection of their property and their trade. The Reformation transferred some of the powers formerly held by the Catholic Church to the monarchs. The power of the monarchs was also strengthened by the theory of the “divine right of kings.” This theory stipulated that the king ruled by the divine authority of God and had unlimited royal power.
In England, during the Renaissance, the most successful absolute monarchs were the Tudors who ruled from 1485 to 1603. They were very popular and they transformed England into a leading world power and encouraged nationalism. The Tudors contributed to the expansion of overseas
44 WORLD HISTORY settlement and the economic prosperity that resulted. The first monarch was Henry VII and the last was Elizabeth I.
In France, Louis XIV who ruled from 1643 to 1715 was the most outstanding absolute monarch. He considered himself the “Sun King” and claimed to rule by divine right. Louis XIV brought the cultural developments related to art and architecture to France. As a result, French culture became much admired and emulated throughout Europe. His economic policy brought prosperity to France. It included improved methods of farming which increased production and the introduction of tariffs to protect French business interests. In relation to foreign policy, Louis XIV expanded the country’s economic resources and political influence in Europe by acquiring territories and establishing trading posts in North America.
In 1469, King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castille were married, making Spain a Lessoned Christian kingdom. They ruled as absolute monarchs and had control over the church, high officials and the nobles. Their financing of Columbus’ four voyages led to the discovery and settlement of the New World. The acquisition of a large colonial empire in the New World made Spain a powerful country and encouraged other European countries to acquire territories around the world. In addition, Spain became wealthy from the resources such as gold and silver that were gained from the colonies.
The ideas which developed during the Renaissance and Enlightenment and which questioned and challenged the divine rights and absolute power of kings had a significant impact in a number of European countries during the 17th and 18th centuries.
One of the rulers who were influenced by the Renaissance and Enlightenment was Peter the Great of Russia who ruled from 1689 to 1725. Peter wanted Russia to be like the other countries in western Europe that were advancing in technology, arts and science. He increased trade with other European countries and brought intellectuals, artists, engineers and architects from other parts of Europe to teach the Russians new ways and set up centers of scientific research.
Catherine the Great who ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796 continued the process of bringing European culture to her country. She encouraged art, literature and science. She also instituted a number of social, governmental and legal reforms for her people.
Frederick the Great who became king of Prussia, an independent German state, in 1740, was considered to be one of the most enlightened rulers of Europe. He opened new avenues for trade with other European countries. He also gave equal status to Protestants, Jews and Catholics in Prussia and made dramatic improvements in agricultural technology which significantly improved the lives of the serfs and peasants.
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THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ABSOLUTISM Leadership Principle The monarch rules by divine right and makes all decisions that are considered best for the state. Political The ruler has unlimited power and all subjects must show obedience and loyalty. Economic The ruler encourages activities to strengthen the economy such as trade and industry. Social The ruler directly dominates the upper classes, which in turn dominate the activities of the lower classes. Cultural The ruler has total domination of all aspects of cultural life either by censorship or as a patron of the arts Krieger, Larry S., Neill, Kenneth, Jantzen, Steven L. (1992). World History: Perspectives on the Past, 446. D.C. Heath and Company.
THE SLAVE TRADE
Before the rapid colonization of the New World by Europeans, Africans were sold as slaves to Arab traders in North and East Africa and traded slaves amongst themselves. Many were resold and ended up working for Europeans in Spain, Portugal and other Mediterranean countries.
As European settlement in the New World increased, there was a greater need to utilize the natural resources of the region to provide wealth for the European countries that were in control. Europeans wanted workers for their colonies in North, South and Central America as well as the islands in the Caribbean. In the Caribbean, the most profitable crop was sugarcane which was used to produce molasses and rum. In North America, it was tobacco and later cotton. In other regions, workers were needed for the gold and silver mines. The first laborers that the Europeans used were the Native Indians. They were mistreated and abused and died in great numbers from European diseases against which their immune systems had no resistance. As a result of the decline of the Native American population, the Portuguese, Spanish and French began searching for new sources of labor and began enslaving West Africans. During the 1500’s, the Portuguese were the first to buy slaves in large numbers and ship them to their plantations in Brazil. They were soon followed by the Spanish, French and Dutch. The British also participated as the number of their sugar, tobacco, rice and indigo plantations grew. By the early 1700’s the British dominated the transatlantic slave trade.
The slave trade was also known as the triangular trade because it involved three separate voyages in three different geographic regions of the world. During the colonial period, there were many different triangular routes connecting America, Europe and Africa. In the first part of the journey New England slave traders or merchants traveled to the West African coast and traded rum, cloth and iron goods for slaves. The voyage across the Atlantic was called the Middle Passage and hundreds of slaves were packed into the cargo holds of ships in the most unsanitary conditions. Thousands died from disease and hunger before they reached America. When the ships reached the
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West Indies the slaves were sold mostly for sugar and molasses. The ships destined for the Lessoned States brought slaves and sugar to the colonies, where they were sold.
By 1700, slavery was firmly established in the southern colonies of the Lessoned States, eastern South America and the Caribbean islands. As the number of slaves increased, laws were imposed in all regions to restrict their behavior. They were severely punished and many slave families were broken up. They were not allowed to learn to read and write, gather in groups, testify in court, or strike their owners.
THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE AND ESTIMATED SLAVE IMPORTS: 1500-1800
Digilio, Karen Scott. (1988). GED Social Studies: Exercise Book, 7. Chicago: Contemporary Books Incorporated.
LESSON 5 STUDY QUESTIONS
FOR QUESTIONS 1-4 INDICATE T OR F FOR THE CORRECT ANSWER. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
1.______Humanism was a movement that emphasized that man should have a closer relationship to God and the Church.
2.______The Enlightenment was the period in the late 1600’s that brought back traditional values and philosophies to Europe
3.______King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain were considered absolute rulers because they had control over all matters of church and state
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4.______The first part of the slave trade in Africa began when slave merchants traded rum, cloth and iron goods for slaves
5. All of the following contributed to the spread of the Renaissance in Europe except for: a. Leonardo da Vinci b. Cortes c. Shakespeare d. Moliere
6. All of the following established settlements in North America except for: a. The French b. The Spanish C. The Portuguese d. The English
7. Which of the following did not play a role in the development of the religious Reformation? a. John Calvin b. Martin Luther c. Huldrych Zwingli d. Jacques Cartier
8. A direct consequence(s) of the Scientific Revolution was: a. The study of astronomy c. Humanism b. The Enlightenment d. All of the above
9. The “divine right of kings” meant that: a. The king was given authority to rule by God b. The king had unlimited authority c. The king was regarded as the supreme ruler by his subjects d. All of the above
10. Which geographical region imported the most slaves from Africa from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century: a. North America b. Central America c. The Caribbean d. South America
ANSWERS TO LESSON 5 STUDY QUESTIONS
1 T 2 F 3 T 4 T 5 D 6 C 7 D 8 B 9 D 10 D
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LESSON 6
AGE OF REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS (1750 - 1914)
¾ The American Revolution
¾ The French Revolution
¾ The Industrial Revolution and its Effects
¾ Age of Imperialism and Nationalism
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
The increase of global colonies and trade led to the development of a new economic theory that caused a change in policies toward settlement in the New World. This theory was called mercantilism. The colonies were expected to send raw materials for industrial use and precious metals such as gold and silver to the home country in Europe. The products that were manufactured from these raw materials were sold back to the colonies to raise profits for the home country. The colonists also had to pay higher taxes on goods that were not from their home country. These Navigation Acts restricted the rights of the colonists to trade with other nations. As a result, the royal governments in Europe became wealthier and had more control over their colonies.
Between 1753 and 1763, England and France had been engaged in a war which was called the French and Indian War, for control of territory in what is now Ohio and western Pennsylvania. After the war, Britain had gained more territory but was severely in debt, and needed to find a way to finance this huge war debt. As a result, the British government imposed greater tax restrictions on the colonists in North America to raise revenue to restore its economy. The Stamp Act was passed in 1765 and the Townshend Acts in 1767. The Stamp Act mandated that all official documents in the colonies should bear only British stamps. The Townshend Acts stipulated that the colonists had to pay duties on tea, lead and glass. These taxes outraged the colonists who decided to stop buying British products and rebel against British rule. On the night of December 16, 1773, the Sons of Liberty, the men who wanted independence from England, dressed as Indians, boarded the British ships in Boston Harbor that brought tea from India, and threw 342 cases of tea into the harbor. This became known as the Boston Tea Party and inspired further revolts in the colonies.
In retaliation for this defiance, the British government stationed more troops in the Boston area and passed new laws in 1774 to make the colonies respect its authority. By these laws, the people of Massachusetts were deprived of the right to trade and conduct business through the port of Boston, and prevented from appointing their own local government representatives. The colonists regarded these acts as unacceptable and called them the “Intolerable Acts.” The passing of the Intolerable Acts strengthened colonial resistance instead of suppressing it. Virginia and the other colonies decided to show support for Massachusetts by sending them food and supplies. In September 1774, at the First Continental Congress, delegates from all of the colonies demanded that the Intolerable Acts be
49 WORLD HISTORY repealed and that all colonists should have the same rights as British citizens. However, the British Parliament and the King refused to change these laws.
By 1775, many battles between British soldiers and colonists had taken place in Massachusetts and other regions. In 1775, a Second Continental Congress assembled to find a solution to the conflict with Great Britain. The representatives were inspired in 1776 by Thomas Paine’s pamphlet, “Common Sense” which justified the claim that separation from England was necessary. The main reason was England was now a separate geographic region because their rights as Englishmen in America were continually violated. As a result, the delegates decided to formulate a Declaration of Independence which was written by Thomas Jefferson. The Declaration stated that “all men are created equal,” and that all Americans were entitled to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” They argued that the British government had denied them these rights and that it was their prerogative to institute a new government. The Declaration of Independence was adopted by Congress on July 4, 1776 which marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War. The Congress issued a nationwide boycott or refusal to buy British products. However, the Lessoned States, as an independent country, still wanted to maintain peaceful relations with England, but the King and Parliament refused to negotiate. As a result, the Lessoned States cut off all ties with England and formed its own navy to attack British ships at sea, and an army to protect the colonies by land. George Washington was made commander in chief of the Continental army. All colonies were expected to provide troops and money for the war.
The British made a strong attempt to regain their control over the radical town of Boston. However, the British soldiers, or “Redcoats,” were eventually defeated by the Continental Army. In the Middle Colonies British forces captured New York and Philadelphia and forced the American army to retreat. A major turning point came in 1777 when the Americans defeated the British in Saratoga, New York. The final phase of the war then took place in the South where the British had control of the Carolinas and Georgia. By forming an alliance or union with the French, the American army was able to defeat the British. The final American victory was on October 19, 1781 at Yorktown, Virginia. For the Americans, the War of Independence had been won. Nevertheless, the war was not declared officially over until the Treaty of Paris was signed in September 1783 when the British acknowledged the independence of the colonies.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Many social, political and economic factors led to the French Revolution that began in 1789. The country was ruled by an absolute monarch, Louis XVI and a body which was known as the Estates-General which represented the interests of the people. This representative body was made up of three estates or classes. The First Estate was the clergy, the Second Estate was the titled nobility, and the Third Estate was made up of the middle class and peasantry. This political system however, did not equally represent the majority of the population which was in the Third Estate. In matters of voting, the First and Second Estates would usually vote together and overrule any opposition from the Third Estate. In addition, the first two classes had special privileges, owned great wealth, and paid no taxes. The burden of taxes was placed entirely upon the poorer citizens in the Third Estate.
The economic situation in the country deteriorated in the late 1780’s. The government was in a state of severe debt and increased the tax burden on the Third Estate. In addition, bad harvests led to
50 WORLD HISTORY widespread food shortages especially among the peasant class. They were also faced with high food prices. This ultimately led to riots by the peasants. The Third Estate refused to pay additional taxes and rebelled by forming the National Assembly, which was a political body that represented all people of France. On July 14, 1789, the middle class and the peasants joined together to remove the privileged classes from power. They stormed a prison called the Bastille and freed a number of political prisoners. This event marked the beginning of the revolution against the existing political system.
The revolution was also inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the American Revolution. The National Assembly abolished the privileges of the First and Second Estates and adopted and passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man which was very similar to the American Bill of Rights. In 1791, the Assembly wrote a constitution that stated that the government should protect the rights of citizens, and that the Church should be under the control of the state and its land and wealth confiscated. In the following year, the National Assembly ended the reign of the monarchy and the national slogan was “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”.
The revolution was marked by much bloodshed and terror as the extremist leaders of the Revolution, the Jacobins, guillotined anyone who did not agree with their political philosophy. In 1793, the king, Louis XVI and his queen, Marie Antoinette were executed. After this period of instability Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself emperor of France in 1802. He increased the power and influence of France by conquering many regions and building a large empire.
The events of the French Revolution spread the ideals of democracy, equality and fraternity throughout Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean. In France it gave the people a strong sense of identity and national pride. It also shifted political power from the nobles to the bourgeoisie or middle class. In Latin America Simon Bolivar organized a rebellion that freed Venezuela from Spanish rule in 1821. On the island of Hispaniola, which was a French colony, an ex-slave Toussaint L’Ouverture organized a successful slave revolt that drove the French forces from the island. The island became the independent country of Haiti in 1804.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND ITS EFFECTS
The Industrial Revolution began in England around 1750. It was influenced by the developments of the Scientific Revolution. It was the period in which the method of producing goods changed from manual labor to using complex machines. The result of this was that people began to manufacture goods on a large scale in factories rather than on a small scale in their homes. These changes caused great social transformation in England and the rest of the world. They also resulted in larger quantities of goods being produced for lower prices which ultimately made more goods available to more people worldwide.
The vast supply of natural resources like coal and iron contributed to the growth of industrialization and the growth of factories. England’s many navigable canals and rivers provided water power and transportation for raw materials and finished goods from factories. In addition, England had many natural harbors that facilitated trade from within the country and overseas.
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Machine technology and the growth of factories were significantly enhanced with the invention of the steam engine, which was invented by James Watt in the 1760’s. Prior to this invention, factories could only be located along the banks of rivers or streams in order to harness water power. With the invention of the steam engine, power was produced by burning coal, and since England had large reserves of coal, factories could be located in areas that were far from rivers and streams. Steam power was used in all types of industry as well as transportation in which it was used to power locomotives which led to the growth of the railways. The steamboat which was invented in 1807 by Robert Fulton, an American, increased the speed by which people and goods could be transported across water. This also led to the construction of more canals and waterways in England and later America, to facilitate transportation. Steam power made it possible to travel, settle, farm and explore new territories especially in England and the Lessoned States where formerly there had been limited access and agricultural development.
From an economic perspective, during the 1800’s, England’s economy was strong due to the wealth that was coming from its overseas empire. It was therefore possible for many wealthy people and large business interests to invest capital into developing technology, factories, mining excavations, roads and railroads.
The growth of the factory system also transformed British society. The textile industry in England was the first to use the inventions of the industrial revolution on a large scale. The invention of the spinning jenny increased the output of cotton threads by spinning cotton fibers at a faster pace. The power loom gave workers the opportunity to weave cloth more quickly by using water power. These advances in the factory system required a large labor force to mass produce huge quantities of textiles for the British public and its overseas markets.
The factory system caused many people to migrate from the rural villages and towns where there was little work to the cities where there were more opportunities for employment. This led to rapid urbanization and the growth of a class system. A new middle class developed. As a result of industrialization, their standard of living rose as they gained better living accommodation and stable jobs. Most of them were merchants, doctors, inventors and investors. The growth of the middle class ultimately led to changes in the British political system. In 1832, the Reform Bill gave more males the right to vote without having large amounts of property and wealth as their main form of qualification.
The working class consisted primarily of the people who left the farms to work in the cities. These people faced the greatest hardships as they usually lived in overcrowded disease-ridden tenements, worked 18-hour shifts, handled dangerous machinery and received low wages. The increase in urban crowding and poverty encouraged the British parliament to pass laws to reform society. The Factory Act of 1833 limited children to working only eight hours per day. Other laws prohibited women and children from working in mines and set safety standards for factories.
The Industrial Revolution spread to France, Belgium, northern Germany and other regions. It caused the countries of the world to become more interdependent because more goods were produced which resulted in more international trading in different products. By the end of the 19th century the United States had replaced England as the world’s leading industrial nation. By the twentieth century the impact of the Industrial Revolution had spread worldwide.
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MAJOR INVENTIONS DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
INVENTOR YEAR INVENTION PURPOSE
James Hargreaves 1764 Spinning Jenny To spin many threads at the same time. James Watt 1769 Steam Engine To be the main power source to run machines. Eli Whitney 1793 Cotton Gin To separate seeds from cotton fibers. Edward Jenner 1796 Smallpox Vaccine To prevent death from the smallpox disease. Richard Trevithick 1804 Steam locomotive To move goods and people across land. Robert Fulton 1807 Steamboat To move goods and people across water. Alexander Graham 1876 Telephone To provide Bell immediate communication between two parties. Thomas Edison 1879 Electric light bulb To provide light for factories, homes and businesses. Bernstein, Victoria. (1997).World History and You, 18. Steck-Vaughn Company.
AGE OF IMPERIALISM AND NATIONALISM
During the nineteenth century the United States and the major industrial countries in Europe all acquired new territories. The areas that were taken over were mostly in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The Industrial Revolution contributed to the growth and expansion of imperialism which was a policy devised by the strong countries in Europe to gain political, social and economic control of weaker countries. With the abundance of manufactured goods, industrial nations such as England needed new markets and trading locations to sell these commodities. The rulers and industrialists also wanted to find new sources of raw materials to manufacture products to increase their power and industrial wealth. Many of these resources were available in Asia and Africa and many European countries used this economic motive to occupy territories and govern the people in these regions.
In North America and Europe there was also a strong sense of nationalism or loyalty to one’s own country which inspired the rulers to colonize other countries to make their own countries appear strong and powerful. They also believed that their civilizations were intellectually and culturally superior to the people in colonized countries and wanted to bring their knowledge and Christian beliefs to these territories. This was also used as a reason to justify imperialism.
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The British owned the largest number of colonies in Canada, India, New Zealand, Australia, Africa, the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, Central America and islands in the Pacific and Mediterranean. France had a large empire in northern and western Africa, the Caribbean, Indochina and French Guiana in South America. Germany claimed territories in East and South West Africa. Italy had territories in north and eastern Africa.
After the American Revolutionary War and the early national period, the new government wanted the country to expand to include more territories in the west. The third president, Thomas Jefferson, believed that all obstacles to further expansion should be removed. In 1802, Jefferson admitted the state of Ohio into the Union. In 1803, he doubled the size of the country when he purchased the Louisiana Territory, a large area of land from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, from France. This historic purchase was called the Louisiana Purchase. Between 1804 and 1806, Jefferson appointed Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the northwestern regions of the country and provide information about future settlement in these territories.
In the 1840’s, Americans were also encouraged to move further west by the popular phrase “manifest destiny.” This phrase meant that the Lessoned States had the divine mission to continually expand its territory in order to spread the ideals of democracy and freedom for all. During this time, a number of territories had been taken from England and Spain and added to the American Union of States. After a war with Mexico, and a payment of 15 million dollars to that country, the territories of New Mexico and California were added to the states in 1848. Oregon was taken from the British and became a state in 1859.
In 1867 the United States purchased Alaska from Russia and later bought the island of Hawaii in 1898. In 1903 President Roosevelt encouraged the people of Panama to rebel against the Columbian government. In return, the Americans gained control of the Panama Canal Zone. From this time, the Lessoned States dominated the governments of other Latin American countries through a policy of Dollar Diplomacy. By this policy, American companies invested in the development of the countries and if outside influences or other nations threatened the safety of American property and the people, American troops would be sent in.
Ultimately, many of the dominated people were also influenced by nationalism and rebelled against being dominated by European powers. In India, the Hindus formed the Indian National Congress in 1885 and the Muslims formed the Muslim League in 1906 to propose ways by which India could achieve independence. In China, around 1900, there were open rebellions against European and American foreigners. The most notable one was the “Boxer Rebellion” which resulted in the rebellion being crushed by the Chinese government and the foreign countries receiving financial compensation for their losses.
In Africa, the richest British colony was South Africa because of its vast gold and diamond resources. Britain’s domination of these resources and its expansion into other parts of southern Africa were resented by the Boers. These people were Dutch farmers who had moved to South Africa in the early 1800’s. In 1899, they revolted against British rule and demanded more political power. By 1910, they were able to combine their own areas to become the Union of South Africa.
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Ultimately, by the second half of the twentieth century, the effects of war and the rise of nationalism throughout the world led to a decline in imperialism and many countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean gained their freedom from European and American domination and became independent nation states.
FOR QUESTIONS 1-6, WRITE “T” IF THE ANSWER IS TRUE AND “F” IF THE ANSWER IS FALSE. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS . 1.______Military aid from France played an important part in the American victory at Yorktown in 1781.
2. _____ The storming of the Bastille marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
3.______The Industrial Revolution began when the production of goods changed from hand-made methods to using complex machines.
4.______The invention of the spinning jenny increased textile production by using water power.
5.______The steam engine made it possible for factories to be located at many different places.
6.______Nationalism is a strong feeling of loyalty to one’s own country.
7. The most important decision that was made by the Second Continental Congress was:
a. To close Boston Harbor b. To sign the Declaration of Independence c. To ignore the Intolerable Acts d. To attack the British at Yorktown
8. The people who gained the most from the French Revolution were:
a. The clergy b. The aristocracy c. The middle class d. The peasantry
9. The Industrial Revolution in England led to:
a. The factory system c. The growth of cities b. The class system d. All of the above
10. By the nineteenth century, the nation that had the largest overseas empire was: a. Germany b. England c. Spain d. France
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ANSWERS TO LESSON 6 STUDY QUESTIONS
1 T 2 T 3 T 4 F 5 T 6 T 7 B 8 C 9 D 10 B
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LESSON 7
WORLD WARS AND DICTATORSHIPS (1900 - 1945)
¾ World War I
¾ The Russian Revolution
¾ Rise of Totalitarian Governments
¾ World War II
WORLD WAR I
There were a number of factors that led to the outbreak of World War I which took place in Europe from 1914 to 1918. By the end of the 1800’s, many European countries were in competition with one another for colonies, trade and natural resources in Africa, Asia and South America. This was particularly evident in Africa between 1870 and 1914 when a number of imperialist European nations almost went to war over ownership of the territories of the region.
Another cause of tension in Europe that led to war was the growth of nationalism. This is a strong feeling of loyalty to one’s own nation and the desire to be an independent state. In France, nationalists wanted to regain two territories, Alsace and Lorraine, that had been taken by Germany as a result of a war in 1870. The situation was the same in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire which contained many small states with minorities from Serbia, Poland, Croatia and Czechoslovakia. These states wanted to be independent.
The growth of imperialism and the threat of nationalism led to the buildup of larger armies with superior weapons in Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary. In addition, a system of opposing military alliances developed, which indicated that Europe was in a state of unrest. One alliance was the Triple Entente consisting of Britain, France and Russia. The other was the Triple Alliance which consisted of Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary.
The immediate cause of the war was the assassination of the heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, on June 28, 1914, by a Serbian nationalist. In response to this, Austria declared war on Serbia and Russia came to the defense of Serbia by sending military aid. This led to the other members in the Triple Entente joining the war. By 1914, all of the countries in both alliances were involved in the war. The Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey and the opposing Allied Powers were Russia, France and Britain.
After remaining neutral for some years, the Lessoned States was drawn into the war for a number of reasons. The first was the fact that the majority of Americans sympathized with the Triple Entente countries, Britain, France and Russia, because many Americans had cultural and family ties with these
57 WORLD HISTORY countries. There were also economic reasons. Trade with the allied countries had increased significantly since the beginning of the war. American industry, agriculture and businesses increased as more goods were exported to Europe. The government also lent over $ 2 billion to the allies by 1917.
The allies used effective propaganda in the Lessoned States to highlight the virtues of American democracy and the evils of the German monarchy. Germany’s use of submarine warfare was the main reason why the Lessoned States decided to enter the war. In 1915, the Germans sank the British passenger ship Lusitania which caused the death of 1,200 people including 128 Americans. Germany had destroyed many American merchant ships and had tried to form an alliance with Mexico to attack the Lessoned States if that country decided to join the war.
On April 6, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson declared war and America entered the war on the side of the allies. The Central Powers were also undermined by the position of Russia on the side of the allies. The Russian Revolution had taken place in 1917 and the new government wanted to become an ally of the democratic countries. The war ended on November 11, 1918 when Germany signed an armistice, or agreement to stop fighting. The war had taken an enormous toll. A total of 10 million people had been killed and many more had been wounded.
After the war, the leaders of the major allied countries wanted to implement a peaceful settlement to restore social, economic and political life in Europe. In 1918, the “Big Four” President Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of England, Premier Vittorio Orlando of Italy and Premier Georges Clemenceau of France attended a peace conference known as the Paris Peace Conference. Of the four leaders, President Woodrow Wilson wanted a peace settlement that would be fair to all nations. He proposed his “Fourteen Points” which put forward a plan to bring about a reduction of weapons, freedom of the seas for all nations, self-determination, and independence for the nation-states of Europe. He also proposed the creation of a joint council of nations called the League of Nations to prevent future wars by finding peaceful solutions to international conflicts.
The other leaders however, wanted Germany to be treated harshly and punished for causing the war. Their views superseded Wilson’s proposals. They wanted Germany to relinquish as much land and territory as possible to the Allied countries. In 1919, the representatives of the allies went to France to impose peace terms. The Treaty of Versailles was made and included a “war guilt clause” which directly stated that Germany was responsible for starting World War I. Germany also had to pay reparations, or payment for war damages and disband its armed forces and military vessels. In addition, the Allied countries divided Germany’s overseas colonies and European territories among themselves. Portions of Germany’s major industrial areas were also taken away or occupied by allied forces. In general, the Treaty of Versailles ruined Germany’s economy and increased political tensions in that country. It also did little to solve the other major problems caused by the war.
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EUROPE BEFORE WORLD WAR I
Rakes, Thomas A., De Caprio, Annie. (1979). Twentieth Century America, 15, 74. Living in America Series.
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
At the beginning of the 20th century the king of Russia was Czar Nicholas II, who ruled as an autocratic or absolute ruler, and was not inclined to include any other lawmaking bodies or democratic ideologies in his policies. He however, attempted to industrialize and modernize Russia. An example of this was the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1904, which connected the European regions of Russia to the Russian ports on the Pacific. Apart from these improvements the government had little interest in the welfare of the majority of the people.
Most Russians still lived in conditions similar to serfdom. They experienced great poverty and survived by sustaining themselves on small plots of land. For the upper classes the effects of the Industrial Revolution had led to the growth of industry but working conditions for laborers were very poor and wages were low. Also, trade unions were considered illegal and there was little social and industrial reform. On January 22, 1905, many reformers marched to the czar’s palace to protest and present their demands for food and better living conditions of the masses. The result was that many were killed by soldiers who fired on the marchers. This event was called “Bloody Sunday.”
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The events of 1905 were further aggravated when Russia entered World War I on the side of the Allies. Russian soldiers suffered many defeats and thousands died at the front. Also, food shortages became worse and the number of people starving and living in poverty increased as a result of the war. In March 1917, the Russian Revolution began when rioters protested in the streets of St. Petersburg demanding bread. However, this time the royal soldiers of the czar refused to take action against the protesters. This marked the end of the reign of the Russian monarchy as Nicholas II abdicated, having lost control of his army and the support of his people.
A provisional government was established but was unable to resolve the many social and economic problems or take Russia out of the war. In November 1917, a second revolution organized by Leon Trotsky, took place. The result was that the government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin. The Bolsheviks were also called Communists based on their ideology of a classless society, with all means of production and all aspects of societal operations being under the control of the state. One of their first acts was to take Russia out of the war in 1918 by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. This removed Germany as a threat to Russia. However, in exchange for this, the Russians had to give the Germans a large portion of Russian territory. The Bolsheviks also executed the czar and his family.
From 1918 to 1921 the Bolsheviks seized control of all lands and redistributed them to the peasants. The Bolsheviks were also engaged in a civil war with anti-communist groups. By 1922, the communist government had gained complete control and had created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which consisted of diverse subjugated European and Asian states under communist domination. In 1924, Joseph Stalin took absolute control of the Soviet Union and established a totalitarian state.
RISE OF TOTALITARIAN GOVERNMENTS
After World War I, many Italians and Germans were angry about the terms of the peace treaty. The Italians believed that they should have received more territory as compensation for the large number of Italian soldiers killed in the war. In Germany, the majority of the population blamed the German democratic Weimar government for agreeing to the degrading terms of the Treaty of Versailles. In both countries, the postwar problems were similar. In Italy, there were severe economic problems, widespread unemployment, land shortages, high taxes and slow trade. In Germany, the Weimer Republic was politically weak, there was widespread unemployment and the burden of the huge war debt caused resentment and led to rising inflation. These conditions of social and political unrest led to the rise of totalitarian governments in both countries. This type of rule was characterized by complete government control of all aspects of life, as well as autocratic leadership.
In the 1920’s, the Italian democratic government was unable to resolve the mounting economic and social problems. As a result, many Italians lost faith in their traditional government and decided to support the Fascist party led by Benito Mussolini. The Fascists were very nationalistic and believed in using military action to gain and maintain power. In October 1922, Mussolini and his army of Fascist soldiers gained control of Rome. Mussolini was made premier by the king and appointed head of the Italian government. He established a Fascist dictatorship, ended free elections, freedom of speech and the free press. All opponents to the system were either killed or imprisoned. Mussolini’s main goal
60 WORLD HISTORY was to gain more land for Italy, end unemployment, remove all threats of communism and make Italy a powerful country.
In Germany, there were many extremist groups who were looking for a stronger government to improve the conditions in Germany. Many were drawn to the Nazi party led by Adolph Hitler. Hitler was an accomplished public speaker and an extreme nationalist who believed that the German people had been unjustifiably humiliated by the allied forces and that they were a superior race destined to rule the world. In his speeches, he claimed that the communists, democrats, socialists and especially the Jews were responsible for all of Germany’s problems.
The Nazis became popular in the 1930’s because they seemed to have solutions for the many problems that the country was facing. In 1933, Hitler became chancellor of Germany when the Nazis gained a large number of seats in the legislature. Hitler used this opportunity to end democratic government and establish a dictatorship known as the Third Reich. As dictator, he established a totalitarian or one-party state. All businesses were placed under government control especially those related to industrial and agricultural production. The Nazi government also controlled the educational system and all forms of the media. As a result the rate of unemployment declined, the standard of living rose, and the military expanded on a large scale, which was a direct violation of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
The Third Reich enforced extremely brutal measures against all opposition or any person or group of people who were believed to be against the progress of the German people. There were no individual freedoms as all policy was made for the glory of the Nazi party and the state. The main people who were persecuted were the Jews and political opponents. Millions of these people were killed in concentration or prison camps.
WORLD WAR II
A number of international events led to World War II. During the 1930’s, Italy, Germany and Japan formed an alliance to expand their spheres of influence by gaining more territory to build new empires. The formation of this alliance was in direct violation of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. However, the League of Nations was too ineffective to take action against it. In addition, the Lessoned States and some of the western European nations could do nothing because they were recovering from the effects of the Great Depression. This was caused by the American stock market crash that began in 1929 and led to widespread unemployment, and closures of banks, businesses and industries. Its effects were also felt in Europe and international trade was greatly affected.
The alliances between Italy, Germany and Japan resulted in Japan’s seizure of territory in Manchuria in 1931 and the invasion of China in 1937 where the Japanese set up a puppet government in Nanjing. The Italian army also invaded Ethiopia in northeastern Africa in 1935.
In 1938, Hitler rebuilt the German army and sent troops into France. He also made Austria a part of the German empire. The rebuilding of the German army as well as Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939 caused Britain and France to declare war on Germany. This marked the beginning of
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World War II. By 1941, the Germans had fully occupied Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands and France. England was also attacked by bombings and air raids.
In the United States, President Roosevelt had passed the Neutrality Acts of 1939, which kept America out of the war, because the country was in the process of economic and social recovery from the depression. In spite of this, the government engaged in a profitable business of selling war supplies to Britain and its allies. The attack on Britain by Germany alerted the American government to the threat posed by that country.
The entry of the United States into the war was brought about by Japan’s bombing of the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941. This attack killed more than 2,400 people and destroyed many planes and ships. The day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Lessoned States declared war on Japan. A few days later, Italy and Germany declared war on the Lessoned States. America entered the war on the side of the allies which were England, France and Russia and employed its army, navy, and marines. In the same year, Germany invaded the Soviet Union.
In 1942, the allies defeated the Germans in North Africa. In the following year, the allied forces invaded Italy and German forces were defeated in the Soviet Union. In 1944, the allied troops freed France from German control. After this, they moved into Germany and declared victory over the Germans on May 8, 1945, thus ending the war in Europe. In August 1945, the American military bombed the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan using two atomic bombs. This was followed by Japan’s surrender and the end of World War II.
The war had a great impact on the world and international relations. In total 75 million people were killed of which 38 million were in Europe. Many people died in concentration camps in Germany and Poland. By the end of the war, over 6 million Jews were exterminated in these camps in what has come to be known as the Holocaust. There were devastating economic losses in Asia and Europe due to bombings. In order to prevent another war, Germany was divided into two zones. The allied nations occupied West Germany and Japan hoping to promote and spread democracy in these regions and the Soviet Union occupied and established communist governments in eastern Europe and East Germany. Another significant consequence of the war was the formation of the United Nations as an international peace-keeping organization. Its main purpose is to give its members the opportunity to discuss the world’s problems and develop solutions.
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LESSON 7 STUDY QUESTIONS
FOR QUESTIONS 1-6, WRITE “T” IF THE STATEMENT IS TRUE AND “F” IF IT IS FALSE. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS.
1._____ The Treaty of Versailles was the official peace treaty that ended World War I.
2._____ Two problems in Germany that led to the rise of Nazism were widespread unemployment and rising inflation.
3._____ World War II began when Germany invaded Poland in 1939.
4._____ The United States entered the war when Japan bombed the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
5._____ The Cold War was the period of hostility without war between the United States and the Soviet Union from the end of World War II to 1990.
6._____ The international incident that almost brought the United States and the Soviet Union to war was the Cuban Missile Crisis.
7. The country that was atom-bombed at the end of World War II was:
a. Berlin b. Japan c. Russia d. China
8. After the Revolution in 1917, the first Communist leader was:
a. Joseph Stalin b. Nicholas II c. Vladimir Lenin d. Leon Trotsky
9. Which of the following is not a system of totalitarianism?
a. Nazism b. Fascism c. Communism d. Democracy
10. The Korean War began:
a. When North Korea invaded South Korea b. When Japan invaded South Korea c. When China invaded North Korea d. When South Korea invaded North Korea
63 WORLD HISTORY
ANSWERS FOR LESSON 7 STUDY QUESTIONS
1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6 T 7 B 8 C 9 D 10 A
64 WORLD HISTORY
LESSON 8
CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL RELATIONS (SINCE 1945)
¾ Cold War Politics
¾ The Changing Modern World
COLD WAR POLITICS
In February 1945, shortly before the end of World War II, the leaders of the allied countries, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill of England and Josef Stalin, dictator of the Soviet Union, met at Yalta in the Soviet Union to make decisions about the future of Europe. The Soviet Union had already occupied a number of countries in eastern Europe such as Poland, Rumania, and Hungary and had turned them into communist states of the Soviet Union. The citizens of these countries had no individual rights and could not select their own governments. The Western allies wanted more freedom for these countries but Stalin refused to change his country’s policies.
The Allies decided that after the war Germany and its capital Berlin were to be divided into four zones of occupation controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, France, and the Lessoned States. There was however disagreement about the long-term future of Germany. The Soviet Union wanted Germany to remain weak and divided while the other allies wanted it to be united into a strong country.
When the Lessoned States, France and England tried to reunify Germany after the war, the Soviet Union rebelled by shutting down important services such as railways and water routes to the western zone of Germany. In order to avoid war, the United Nations decided that Germany should remain divided into two separate zones. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany or West Germany was controlled by the western powers. The German Democratic Republic or East Germany was controlled by the Soviet Union and had a communist government. This marked the beginning of the Cold War between the Lessoned States and the Soviet Union because the expansion of communism further into Europe greatly alarmed the democratic nations of Europe and America. The Cold War was the period of hostility and tension without armed conflict between the Lessoned States and the Soviet Union from the end of World War II to 1990.
In order to discourage the growth of communism in developing nations, the Lessoned States developed the Point Four Program that provided $400 million in aid for technological and social development programs in Latin America, Asia and Africa. Also, in April 1949, the United States and eleven other western European nations formed a collective security defense organization called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Soviet Union formed an opposing alliance called the Warsaw Pact with seven eastern European countries.
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The spread of communism had a great impact on international relations by the turn of the century. In 1949, China became a communist country under Mao Zedong and was renamed the Peoples Republic of China. This development alarmed the government of the Lessoned States because it wanted to contain communism within Europe and not have it spread throughout Asia. Fearing that communism would spread to Japan, the United States provided that country with assistance to rebuild the economy and a new democratic government.
In 1950, communist North Korea invaded South Korea with the intention of unifying the whole country under communism. The American public was outraged at the invasion and President Harry S. Truman, instead of pressing for a congressional declaration of war, went to the Lessoned Nations for approval and help, which was granted on June 27, 1950 (http://history.acusd.edu/gen/20th/korea.html, 01/09/2006.) The war lasted for three years and ended with an armistice, which is a temporary suspension of hostilities, between the North and South. The war cost over $15 billion, and more than 54,000 Americans and nearly two million Chinese and Koreans lost their lives.
The United States believed that the best way to resist communist aggression and occupation was through a system of alliances. In order to prevent communist aggression from spreading to Southeast Asia the Lessoned States organized the formation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954. Its other members included Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines.
In 1959, Fidel Castro became president of Cuba and instituted a communist regime. This angered the government of the Lessoned States because it brought communism and the Cold War so close to the United States. This situation was made even worse in 1961, when the CIA and Cuban exiles organized an invasion of Cuba. The invasion was defeated by Cuban troops and the incident was referred to as the Bay of Pigs invasion.
The failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion had a major impact on American relations with the Soviet Union. In the following year, the Soviet Union increased its military and economic aid to Cuba because Castro feared another military invasion. Nuclear missiles were placed at strategic points on the island pointing towards the Lessoned States. When this was discovered, President John Kennedy threatened to surround the island with a naval blockade if the missiles were not removed. This became known as the Cuban Missile Crisis and it brought the Lessoned States and the Soviet Union to the brink of war. The soviets withdrew the missiles and war was averted. Cold War tension was further aggravated in Europe when the Soviet communist government under Premier Nikita Khrushchev built the Berlin Wall in 1962 to prevent East Germans crossing over to West Germany.
In the 1970’s American and Soviet leaders tried to lesson the political tensions through a policy called détente, the relaxation of tense relations. In 1972 President Richard Nixon visited Moscow and signed a number of agreements with the Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev, to improve trade relations, cooperate in the fields of technology and science and reduce the use of nuclear weapons in both countries.
In 1987, President Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union and President Ronald Reagan of the Lessoned States agreed to limit the production of nuclear missiles by their countries. The result was
66 WORLD HISTORY less military spending for both countries. By 1989, the Soviet Union had relaxed its control over many of the countries in its political sphere, and many countries in eastern Europe began liberating themselves from communist rule. The most significant event that indicated that the Cold War had come to an end was the removal of the Berlin Wall and the reunification of Germany in 1990.
EUROPE AFTER 1945
Rakes, Thomas A., De Caprio, Annie. (1979). Twentieth Century America, 15, 74. Living in America Series.
THE CHANGING MODERN WORLD
The growth of technology in the latter half of the twentieth century has made communication between the world’s nations easier. People can learn more about other nations now than ever before. As a result of this the differences between the highly developed industrial nations and the underdeveloped nations have become more visible. The computer has also changed the nature of work and business. Many people now work via telecommunications, which means that all communications are carried out from a distance by cable, television, telephones or fax machines.
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Most of the world’s manufactured goods and services are produced in industrial nations such as the Lessoned States, Europe and Japan. A large percentage of the raw materials that are used to produce these items comes from underdeveloped countries. For example, trees from the rainforest regions in South America are used to make paper products in North America. This cycle has had the effect of making many countries in South America, Africa and Asia poorer as well as dependent on developed countries for their manufactured products that originally came from their own natural resources.
Another problem facing the world’s global community is the fact that many of the natural resources such as coal, copper and oil that are used on a daily basis worldwide are nonrenewable. Some day these resources will no longer exist. In the 1970’s, there was an oil crisis and many automobile companies had to make cars that used less gasoline. The Lessoned States was extremely affected by the oil crisis when a number of middle eastern countries stopped selling oil to this country. As a result, a great effort was made to find new energy alternatives that were safer for the environment such as wind and solar energy.
Another concern that is affecting the world is the threat of non-nuclear pollution that is a result of industrialization in the developed countries. One manifestation of this is the possibility of global warming which is the theory that the earth’s temperatures are gradually rising, and will ultimately have a devastating effect on mankind due to the increasing amounts of methane gases and carbon dioxide produced as a result of industrialization. These gases form a barrier that traps the heat from the sun’s rays on the earth, causing a greenhouse effect.
A related concern is the protection of the ozone layer, which is the layer of gas above the earth’s surface that protects living organisms from the harmful rays of the sun. Scientific research indicates that this layer is being gradually worn away by the extensive use of products like pesticides and aerosol sprays containing harmful chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons. In recent decades, the Lessoned States, Canada, and Western European nations have led movements to ban the use of these chemicals worldwide.
Another issue that has become a serious environmental threat is deforestation, which is the cutting down of the world’s forests for industrial or farming purposes. In the Lessoned States, only 5% of the country’s original forests now remains. In Brazil, the destruction of the rainforest has caused huge gaps in the forest areas and the loss of hundreds of plant and animal species. Continued deforestation on a global scale will also have a devastating effect for humanity because trees produce oxygen which is essential for life. The burning of trees produces the harmful gas, carbon dioxide, which destroys the atmosphere.
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STUDY QUESTIONS FOR LESSON 8. Write “T” FOR TRUE AND “F” FOR FALSE. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
1._____ A major problem facing the world today is the fact that many natural resources are non-renewable.
2._____ Continued deforestation results in the decrease of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and in an increase of oxygen.
3._____ The ozone layer is the layer of gas above the earth’s surface that protects living organisms from the harmful rays of the sun.
4._____ A result of the oil crisis was that greater efforts were made by the government to find new alternatives such as solar energy.
5._____ Many developing countries remain poor because they refuse to share their natural resources with the rest of the world.
6._____ The purpose of the conference at Yalta was to decide the future of Germany.
7._____ The Warsaw Pact was a trade alliance made after World War II between seven eastern European countries.
8._____ The Cold War was the period of hostility without war between the United States and the Soviet Union from the end of World War II to 1990.
9._____ The international incident that almost brought the United States and the Soviet Union to war was the Cuban Missile Crisis.
10.____ The United States believed in the “containment” of communism, which was the political policy that communism should not be allowed to spread outside of eastern Europe.
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ANSWERS TO LESSON 8 STUDY QUESTIONS
1 T 2 F 3 T 4 T 5 F 6 F 7 F 8 T 9 T 10 T
70 WORLD HISTORY
COURSE OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this course is to enable students to understand their connections to the development of civilizations by examining the past to prepare for their future as participating members of a global community. Students will use knowledge pertaining to history, geography, economics, political processes, religion, ethics, diverse cultures, and humanities to solve problems in academic, civic, social, and employment settings. Additionally, students will:
• Understand how ideas and beliefs, decisions and chance events have been used in the process of writing and interpreting history. • Identify and understand themes in history that cross scientific, economic and cultural boundaries. • Use chronology, sequencing, patterns and periodization to examine interpretations of an event. • Understand the early physical and cultural development of humans. • Understand the rise of early civilizations and the spread of agriculture in Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Indus Valley. • Understand the emergence of civilization in China and Southwest Asia. • Understand significant aspects of the economic, political and social systems of ancient Greece and the cultural contributions of that civilization. • Understand the significant features of the political, economic and social systems of ancient Rome and the cultural legacy of the civilization. • Understand features of the theological and cultural conflict between the Muslim world and Christendom and the resulting religious, political and economic competition in the Mediterranean region. • Understand the development of the political, social, economic and religious systems of European civilization during the Middle Ages. • Understand agricultural, religious, political and technological developments of civilizations in Asia and Africa. • Understand significant social, cultural and religious features of India, and India’s conflict with the Moslem Turks. • Understand significant cultural, religious and economic features of civilizations in Meso America and Andean South America. • Understand political and cultural features of the Mongol Empire and the empire’s impact on Eurasian people. • Understand the significant political and economic transformations and significant cultural and scientific events in Europe during the Renaissance. • Understand significant religious and societal issues from the Renaissance through the Reformation. Understand the significant economic, political and cultural interactions among the people of Africa, Europe, Asia and the Americas during the Age of Discovery and the European Expansion.
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• Know the significant ideas and texts of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism; their spheres of influence in the age of expansion, and their reforms in the 19th century. • Understand the significant scientific and social changes from the Age of Reason through the Age of Enlightenment. • Understand transformations in the political and social realms from the Age of Absolutism through the Glorious Revolution to the French Revolution. • Understand significant political developments in Europe in the 19th century. • Understand the effects of the Industrial Revolution. • Analyze major historical events of the first half of the 20th century. • Understand the political, military and economic events since the 1950s that have had a significant impact on international relations. • Understand how cultural and technological characteristics can link or divide regions. • Understand how social, cultural, economic and environmental factors contribute to the dynamic nature of regions. • Understand past and present trends in human migration and cultural interaction and their impact on physical and human systems. • Understand how the allocation of control of the Earth’s surface affects interactions between people in different regions. • Understand the global impacts of human changes in the physical environment. • Know how humans overcome “limits to growth” imposed by physical systems. • Understand the relationships between resources and the exploration, colonization and settlement of different regions of the world. • Understand the concept of sustainable development. • Understand the nature of political authority and the nature of the relationship between government and civil society in limited governments (e.g. constitutional democracies) and unlimited governments (e.g. totalitarian regimes). Understand factors that have led to increased international interdependence and basic concepts associated with trade between nations.
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73 Author: Caroline Y. Grant Copyright 2009 Revision Date:12/2009