Approaches to Dating and Duration of Fluid Flow and Fluid-Rock Interaction

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Introduction: Approaches to dating and duration of fluid flow and fluid-rock interaction

JOHN PARNELL

School of Geosciences, Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast BT7 INN, UK

A wide diversity of techniques is now available to homogenization temperatures can be extrapo- help constrain the timing and duration of fluid lated to the time of fluid emplacement. The flow events and fluid-rock interactions in sedi- more complex basin modelling can be used to mentary basins. Dating methods in rocks tradi- predict the timing of expulsion and migration tionally focus on the use of minerals that of fluids from compacting rock units. Basin mod- contain radiogenic isotopes (U-Pb, Pb-Pb, elling is beyond the intended scope of this K-Ar, Rb-Sr in particular). I do not intend to volume, and readers are referred to Illiffe & Dup- dwell on this approach as it is covered adequately penbeker (1998) for further details. elsewhere (e.g. Faure 1986), but it is worthwhile emphasizing that certain phases that are commonly precipitated during diagenesis in sedimentary basins are suitable for such techniques (see Isotopic dating of authigenic phases in below). The range of techniques summarized sedimentary basins below were mostly presented in a Queen's Uni- versity Geofluids Group International Seminar A good review of progress in isotopic dating on Dating of Fluid Flow, incorporated within techniques applied to the dating of fluid flow the Geofluids II conference held at Belfast in events is given by Halliday et al. (1991). In sedi- March 1997. mentary basins, two common authigenic mineral There is a limited range of parameters within phases contain large components of potassium rocks or minerals which change with time, and that allow K-Ar or Ar-Ar dating of their preci- which can therefore be used to deduce an age pitation: illite (Hamilton et al. 1989) and potas- of formation for epigenetic mineral phases. The sium feldspar (Girard et al. 1988). Zwingmann processes of radioactive decay yield predictable et al. report K-Ar ages for illite in Permian sand- quantities of daughter products (radiometric stones in northwest Germany that vary, spatially, dating) and particles whose pathways can be from margin to centre of a small basin. The data observed and whose annealling behaviour is pre- are interpreted to represent the timing of an illi- dictable (fission track analysis). In addition we tization front that is a consequence of fluid can measure the effects of movement over the migration, and the variations in age allow calcu- Earth's surface relative to her magnetic field lation of the rate at which this fluid front moved along a well-known polar-wander curve (palaeo- through the basin. The precipitation of illite in magnetism). In some cases we can measure a sandstones has been related to either porewater record of contemporary seawater chemistry geochemistry (Liewig et al. 1987) or to high that can be related to a well established database rates of fluid flow (Hamilton et al. 1992). of changing stable isotope composition. Further- Recent evidence from the North Sea led Darby more, in young rocks we can measure the conse- et al. (1997) to infer that the illite represents quences of other physico-chemical reactions that changes in hydrogeological history, which in are kinetically controlled (electron spin reso- some cases increased solute transport rates (i.e. nance). Less direct approaches are also possible. supply of K) and in others decreased the We can predict the thermal history of rocks to water-rock ratio when overpressuring inhibited varying degrees of sophistication, from simple pore fluid flow rates. Spiitl et aL obtained Ar- burial-depth curves to complex computer-based Ar step-heating ages from authigenic potassium basin subsidence models, and hence use measure- feldspar in Permian carbonates of the Northern ments of palaeotemperature to infer where Calcareous Alps. Two distinct age populations (when) on a time-temperature curve an event may reflect a minimum age of feldspar growth occurred. In terms of fluid flow, this is most in the Jurassic when closure of the Meliata-Hall- applicable to fluid inclusions in minerals, whose statt ocean drove fluid circulation, then reheating

PARNELL, J. 1998. Introduction: Approaches to dating and duration of fluid flow and fluid-rock interaction. In: PARNELL, J. (ed.) 1998. Dating and Duration of Fluid Flow and Fluid-Rock Interaction. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 144, 1-8. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 27, 2021

2 JOHN PARNELL in some localities during mid-Cretaceous stack- phases by palaeomagnetic analysis can therefore ing. record the duration of the migration event There is some potential in uranium-rich authi- through a carrier bed, in addition to a timing of genic phases for U-Pb or Pb-Pb dating. The migration (Perroud et al. 1995). The methodol- unique manner in which hydrocarbon fluids ogy is now also applied to the timing of minera- interact with uranium-rich fluids, through radia- lization processes. Elmore et al. identify tion-induced precipitation of uranium-rich solid magnetizations of different age associated with bitumens, means that dating of the solid product haematite and magnetite in a sandstone aquifer gives a date of hydrocarbon migration. A case in the Arbuckle Mountains, Oklahoma, which study at the margin of the Irish Sea gave a reflect Palaeozoic fluid flow events. Geochemical Pb-Pb date for hydrocarbon migration consis- alteration and remagnetization affects not just tent with other geological evidence (Parnell & the aquifer but also underlying rhyolites. Swainbank 1990), and the technique has subse- Symons et al. use palaeomagnetic data from pyr- quently found commercial use. Chemical age rhotite and galena in the Viburnum Trend Mis- dating of uraninite within uranium-rich hydro- sissippi Valley-type lead-zinc ores to deduce carbons, based on the U/Pb ratio determined both an age for mineralization, which is consis- by electron microprobe (Bowles 1990), can also tent with regional models for fluid flow, and the give apparently meaningful ages (Parnell 1995), duration of the mineralizing event. although this technique is more susceptible to errors due to element migration. Element migration is a major problem in the dating of sediment- Fission track analysis hosted uranium mineralization. An example of the use of stable isotope data in Fission track analysis, which relies on the forma- constraining the timing of fluid flow events is in tion of radiation damage zones by fission measuring the sulphur isotope composition of products of uranium and their subsequent beha- sulphides or sulphates in mineralized zones, and viour, is now widely used in the reconstruction of deducing whether seawater sulphate of a certain burial and uplift histories, both in sedimentary age could have been the source of the sulphur. basins and orogenic belts (e.g. Green et al. Thus, several studies have concluded that some 1989; Miller & Duddy 1989). Combination with instances of mineralization in Palaeozoic rocks vitrinite reflectance data allows thermal history in northern Britain probably involved Permian reconstruction (Bray et al. 1992). The recognition seawater sulphate, and were therefore younger of heating by fluid flow depends upon the analy- than the Carboniferous age often attributed to sis of palaeotemperature profiles (Duddy et al. such mineralization (see e.g. Jassim et al. 1983; 1994), the shape of which may also give informa- Crowley et aL 1997). tion on the duration of heating based upon models for transient temperature effects (Ziagos & Blackwell 1986). Duddy et al. show that Palaeomagnetism dating of fluid flow events by apatite fission track analysis (AFTA) is possible where tem- Studies of palaeomagnetism are no longer just peratures were sufficient to cause vitrinite reflec- oriented towards the dating of rock units and tance values (R0 max) above 0.63%, when most diagenetic reddening or construction of the chlorine-poor apatites are annealled. Even at polar wander path. Since the recognition that lower temperatures, constraints on timing are magnetite may be precipitated within hydro- possible by kinetic analysis of the fission track carbon migration pathways and in the vicinity length distribution. Integration with fluid inclu- of hydrocarbon reservoirs (Elmore et al. 1987), sion studies can help to assess the duration of numerous studies have made use of this to heating by hot fluid required to achieve the attempt to constrain the timing of hydrocarbon measured AFTA and reflectance values. Case migration (e.g. Kilgore & Elmore 1989: Elmore studies which yield anomalous palaeotempera- & Leach 1990). Geochemical processes, some of ture profiles indicate lateral injection of hot which are microbially induced, can precipitate fluids. Similarly, Pagel et aL present data on magnetite and pyrrhotite in the presence of fluid evolution and thermal history at the hydrocarbons, with concomitant breakdown of Ardeche palaeo-margin of the Tethys in southern haematite. Renewed oxidizing conditions may France, integrating fluid inclusion data, fission cause secondary haematite precipitation in track analysis and isotope techniques. Some cases where hydrocarbon migration through a fluids are in thermal disequilibrium with the rock, with associated magnetite/pyrrhotite preci- host rock, implying the injection of fluids from pitation, ceases. Measurement of each of these deep levels. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 27, 2021

INTRODUCTION 3

It has been proposed that radiation damage in deduce precise timing for mineralization and quartz produced from alpha particles could also hydrocarbon emplacement events in the Derby- have dating potential, for example in dating shire Platform. Wayne & MeCaig assess isotopic quartz cementation in sandstones. Owen (1988) techniques for dating of fluid flow in shear zones shows that the magnitude of radiation halos in in the Neouville Massif in the French Pyrenees, quartz should depend upon radiation dosage using both fluid inclusions and mineral separates. from radioactive mineral inclusions and the Rb-Sr data yield an Alpine age for deformation time of irradiation. and fluid flow,but Pb-Pb data do not have age significance due to a lack of homogenization during vein formation. Fluid inclusions Qing interprets stable and radiogenic isotope and fluid inclusion data in Pine Point dolomites Over the last two decades several analytical tech- to constrain the timing of cementation in the niques have been directed at the contents of fluid Western Canada sedimentary basin. The isotopic inclusions, liberated by mechanical or thermal composition of inclusion fluids is best interpreted techniques or by in situ excitation using lasers. as including a primary component of meteoric Of relevance to dating, Rb-Sr analysis of water during the Columbia to Laramide oroge- quartz, in which the Rb and Sr are assumed to hies, indicating a Jurassic to early Tertiary age. be located in inclusions, produced meaningful Morris & Nesbitt similarly have used isotopic results (Shepherd & Darbyshire 1981; Shepherd data, combined with field observations, to distin- 1986) which encouraged much further effort guish a series of fluid events in the Rocky Moun- using Rb-Sr, U-Pb and Ar-Ar analysis on a tains of Western Canada. The events range from variety of minerals. The resultant dates are ages brine expulsion onto the Lower Palaeozoic sea- of fluid entrapment, which in some cases are floor through to hydrothermal veining associated also ages of precipitation of the host mineral (pri- with the Laramide Orogeny and other minerali- mary inclusions), and in other cases are ages of zation effected by meteoric water. later episodes of fluid flow which have become entrapped by deformation and rehealing of the host mineral. Walshaw & Menuge review the Other constraints on timing of hydrocarbon use of Rb-Sr dating of sphalerite. They emphasis migration advances in understanding of the residence of Rb and Sr in crystallographic sites in sphalerite, Several studies have assessed the use of noble including inclusion fluids. Comparison with gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe) in groundwaters to dates obtained by other techniques justifies the constrain models of hydrocarbon migration use of the technique, which has helped to date a (Ballentine et al. 1991; Ballentine & O'Nions number of Mississippi Valley-type mineral 1994; Pinti & Marty 1995). Noble gases are deposits. Further details of recent isotope studies more soluble in oil than in water, so oil-water on inclusion fluids are given in Wayne et al. mixing involves preferential partitioning of the (1996). gases into oil, and their relative concentration The use of fluid inclusion data to deduce the in oil reflects the degree of water flow in oil reser- timing of fluid flow through intersection of voirs. Noble gases cannot be used to date oils measured temperature conditions with a burial directly, but can impose constraints if the resi- history curve has become commonplace (e.g. dence time for ambient groundwaters is known. Horsfield & McLimans 1984; Walderhaug 1990; Pinti & Marty (1995) have shown that in the Jur- Karlsen et al. 1993; McNeil et al. 1995), although assic aquifer of the Paris Basin, the duration of the potential errors through not applying a pres- oil-water interaction is consistent with an early sure correction to the temperature values are Tertiary age for secondary oil migration. In this sometimes overlooked. Wilkinson et aL use volume, Pinti & Marty show that a contrast coeval aqueous and hydrocarbon fluid inclusions between helium water ages, based upon the accu- in Brent Group (Jurassic) sandstones from the mulation rate of radiogenic 4He in water, and northern North Sea to determine trapping condi- hydrologic ages in the Paris Basin reflect mixing tions which can be related to burial history of different types of water with different resi- models for the area, and used to determine dence times, i.e. a mixing of the Jurassic and both the time of fluid migration and the duration Triassic aquifers. of the fluid flow event. Hollis uses paragenetic Some attention has been given to the dating of data for ore minerals and oil residues relative oil field brines because understanding the age to cements, from which geochemical data can relationships between petroleum and ground- be extracted and tied to a burial history, to waters can be important to tracing the migration Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 27, 2021

4 JOHN PARNELL

history of the petroleum fluids. Brines have sig- A schematic summary of approaches to con- nificantly higher concentrations of the iodine iso- straining the timing of hydrocarbon migration tope 129I than seawater. This isotope is probably and entrapment is presented in Fig. 1. released from organic matter during the maturation of hydrocarbons (Fehn et al. 1990). As it has a half-life of 15.7Ma it may be useful for dating Quaternary groundwater flow over a range of about 80Ma using the ratio 129I/t~ and attempts have been made to The dating of Quaternary flow events is impor- apply this to oilfield brines (Fehn et al. 1990). tant in providing information on the conse- Although the resolution of dates may not be quences of climatic change, the validity of high, they may still provide valuable informa- waste disposal models, and as potential resources tion: Moran et al. (1995) showed that source of potable water. Metcalfe et al. show that miner- ages for brines in the U.S. Gulf Coast basin alogical data is a valuable source of information were much older than the present host rocks, to date Quaternary groundwater flow events, and indicating vertical migration of the brine from a can be usefully integrated with hydrogeochem- deeper, older source. Future developments in ical data. this technique may yield data on the residence The chlorine isotope 36C1 is useful for tracing times of subsurface fluids, and expulsion times old groundwaters, as it has a half-life of 0.3Ma from brine source rocks (Moran et al. 1995). and passes through hydrological systems with Iodine age dating also has some potential in con- only minimal chemical interaction. The isotope straining the timing of hydrothermal fluid activ- is produced by processes in the atmosphere and ity (Fehn et al. 1992). near-surface, at predictable rates, hence sampling Lisk et al. describe how the proportions of at distances from the recharge area in a ground- mineral grains containing oil-bearing fluid inclu- water system can be used to assess the age of the sions change markedly across the oil-water con- groundwaters and the velocity at which they have tact in oil fields (e.g. Krieger et al. 1996). As the moved (Bentley et al. 1986). In a case study in the inclusions are retained when oil is lost from the Great Artesian Basin, Australian, as expected the pore spaces of the rock, palaeo-oil columns can oldest waters are in the central part of the basin be recognized and constraints imposed on the where it is deepest, but data also showed that timing of oil charge into reservoirs. The recogni- the northern margin of the basin had been a tion of oil charge distributions which must pre- more active source of water over the last 0.5Ma date fault displacements in turn allows the than had been predicted (Torgersen et al. 1991). effects of faulting on trap integrity to be clarified Increasing geological use is being made of the (O'Brien et al. 1996). short-lived nuclides in the uranium decay series.

Fig. 1. Schematic summary of approaches to constraining the timing of hydrocarbon migration and entrapment. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 27, 2021

INTRODUCTION 5

Several of the isotopes in this series have half fluid flow events recorded in pebbles can in lives of a magnitude (101 to 105 years) which most cases be attributed an age between the age makes them useful in bridging the gap between of the rock which forms the pebbles and the radiocarbon dating and long half-life isotope sys- age of the rock in which the pebbles occur. For tems. Parent and daughter isotopes are leached example, sulphide-mineralized boulders can from rocks at different rates, leading to isotopic quite tightly constrain the age of ore mineraliza- disequilibrium in groundwaters (Scott 1982). tion in the Irish Midlands (Ashton et al. 1992) Combination of this data with parent/daughter and oil-bearing pebbles in the Early Cretaceous ratios of the water upon entering the rocks can indicate that hydrocarbon migration from Juras- be used to calculate water residence times sic source rocks had commenced quite rapidly in within the Quaternary (Edmunds et al. 1984; Dorset, England (Selley & Stoneley 1987). Andrews et al. 1989). In Quaternary systems, it may be possible to use the Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) tech- Duration of fluid flow events nique, which counts charges which have accumu- lated in lattice defects in minerals (Grun 1989). There is an increasing focus on the duration of Natural irradiation causes electrons to become fluid flow events. There are two, gradational, excited and transfer to higher energy levels, aspects to this. In one sense, we may simply be then recombine with the holes. However some considering how long a process continues to deficit sites (ESR centres) develop, to a degree occur, such as up-dip fluid expulsion and asso- proportional to radioactive field (dose) and ciated diagenetic effects at the margin of a sedi- time of irradiation. ESR centres may be reset mentary basin. Estimates of the duration of by fault shearing under low confining stress diagenetic processes could come from the (Lee & Schwarcz 1993). Hence ESR analysis of spread of values of, for example, K-Ar ages of clay minerals in fault clay gouge can directly illite (Scotchman et al. 1989; Darby et al. 1997) date movements, including fluid flow, in fault or fluid inclusion temperatures in cements con- zones (Fukuchi 1992, 1996). Fukuchi & Imai verted to age of burial (Robinson & Gluyas have applied electron spin resonance isochron 1992). Similarly, spread of data can be significant dating to determine the age of the earliest move- in palaeomagnetic analysis. Lewchuk & Symons ment on a fault active during a recent earthquake (1995) show that when data from North Ameri- in Japan. This was done with the help of minor can ore deposits are plotted on the polar element concentration data, as element adher- wander curve for the North American continent, ence to the surfaces of clay grains depends on the dispersion of data tends to be oriented paral- electrical charges caused by aluminium substitu- lel to the curve, indicating a real spread of ages tion for silicon. Selection of ESR centres asso- (i.e. a duration of mineralizing activity) rather ciated with certain types of lattice defect may than uncertainty in measurement. In another allow dating of quartz over a much longer time sense, we may consider the time taken by a dis- scale than the Quaternary (Odom & Rink 1988). crete event, such as emplacement of a simple mineralized vein, or movement of a hydrocarbon charge from one point to another. Assessing this Fundamental geological relationships may mean measuring the rate at which a fluid moves. Sylta et all. show that secondary hydro- Finally, it is important not to lose sight of some carbon migration tends to be extremely focussed of the most basic approaches to constraining within the carrier beds, and calculate from mod- the timing of fluid flow events, which are often elling studies that the velocities of migration forgotten in the reliance on advanced techniques. commonly exceed 100km/Ma. Flow rates for In addition to time relationships with geological oil are related to oil-rock contact volumes. Car- features whose age can be measured quite pre- ruthers & Ringrose show that oil-rock contact cisely (intrusions, deformation events, deposi- volumes are a function of the heterogeneity of tional age of host rock), relative relationships the threshold pressure field of the carrier lithofa- are often useful. Thus, Burruss et al. (1983) cies, as well as the orientation of the sedimentary used the relative timing of hydrocarbon-bearing fabric relative to that of the migrating oil. fractures and cross-cutting stylolites, which Rowan & Goldhaber (1995) show how it is could in turn be related to burial history, to possible to combine fluid inclusion data and deduce a timing for oil migration in the Oman organic geochemical maturation data to con- Foredeep. One can also impose constraints strain the maximum and minimum duration of from the history of material which has been a mineralizing fluid flow event. Biomarker matu- reworked by erosion into younger rocks, i.e. the rities, determined from hopane and sterane Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 27, 2021

6 JOHN PARNELL ratios, are achieved through a range of time- CROWLEY, S. F., BOTTRELL, S. H., MCCARTHY, M. D. B., temperature combinations. By determining the WARD, J. & YOLrNG, B, 1997. 634S of Lower Carbo- temperature range of mineral precipitation niferous anhydrite, Cumbria and its implications from inclusion homogenization data, the time for barite mineralization in the northern Pennines. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 154, needed to achieve the measured maturity level 597-600. can then be calculated, where the fluid tempera- DARBY, D., WILKINSON, M., FALLICK, A. E. & HASZEL- ture was above ambient levels. As heat may be DINE, R.S. 1997. Illite dates record deep fluid transferred from deep levels to the shallow mar- movements in petroleum basins. Petroleum gins of sedimentary basins by hot fluids (e.g. Geoscience, 3, 133-140. Deming et al. 1992), this approach may have DEMING, D., SASS, J.H., LACHENBRUCH, A.H. & widespread application. DERITO, R. F. 1992. 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INTRODUCTION 7

GREEN, P.F., DUDDY, I.R., GLEADOW, A.J.W. & MCNEIL, B., SHAW,H. F. & RANKIN, A. H. 1995. Diag- LOVERING, J. F. 1989. Apatite fission track analysis enesis of the Rotliegend Sandstones in the as a paleotemperature indicator for hydrocarbon V-Fields, southern North Sea: a fluid inclusion exploration. In: NAESER, N.D. & MCCULLOCH, study. In: CUBITT, J. M. • ENGLAND, W. A. (eds) T. (eds) Thermal History of Sedimentary Basins - The Geochemistry of Reservoirs. Geological Methods and Case Histories. Springer-Verlag, Society, London, Special Publications, 86, New York, 181-195. 125-139. GRUN, R. 1989. Electron spin resonance (ESR) dating. MILLER, D. S. ~r DUDDY, I.R. 1989. Early Cretaceous Quaternary International, 1, 65-109. uplift and erosion of the northern Appalachian HALLIDAY,A. N., OHR, M., MEZGER, K., CHESLEY,J. T., Basin, New York, based on apatite fission track NAKAI, S. & DEWOLF, C.P. 1991. Recent develop- analysis. 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