Bu Lleti N Eleven

BU LLETI N ELEVEN

Member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science

IN Tl-IIS ISSUE . . 0.

Accurate and informative articles on caves including

ORIGIN HYDROLOGY SALTPETER SICKNESSES BREAKDOIWN SAFETY / MINERALOGY ECOLOGY

NOV M 8 E R 949 BULLETIN ELEVEN Published by THE NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY To stimulate interest in caves and to record the findings of explorers and scientists within and outside the Society

THE. NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCmTY IN THIS ISSUE ". Nov., 1949 was organized in 1940. It now has mem­ bers scattered throughout the United States, and also has many members in PREFACE ...... 1 foreign countries. FRONTISPIECE ...... 2 THE SOCrETY is a non-profit organiza­ tion of men and women interested in the ORIGIN OF CAVES ...... Ralph W. Stone 3 study and exploration of caves and allied phenomena. It is chartered under the law HYDROLOGIC INVESTIGATION OF CAVES ...... Dan K. Hamilton 8 of tlle District of Columbia. Its energies are devoted to me unlocking of me secrets SPELEOLOGY IN SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA, Robert J. Hackman II of the netherworld. THE SOCmTY serves as a central agency THE FORMATION OF SALTPETRE IN CAVES ...... Burton S. Faust 17 for me coliection, preservation and publi­ cation of scientific, historical and legend­ GEORGE A. WHITE ...... ~, ...... 23 ary information relating to Speleology. It arouses interest in the discovery of new SALTPETER MINING IN AMERICAN CAVES, George F. Jackson 24 caves and encourages tlle preservation of me natural beauty of all caverns. LIST OF GROTTOES ...... " ...... 27 THE AFFAIRS of the Society are admin­ CAVE SICKNESSES ...... W. R. Halliday 28 istered by a Board of Governors elected annually. The Board appoints the nation­ IF You FIND A BANDED BAT ...... 30 al officers. The Board also appoints com­ mittee chairmen-who are chosen not only SOME UNUSUAL FORMATIONS IN SKYLINE for meir proved ability in a particular CAVERNS, VIRGINIA ...... E. P. Henderson 31 field, bu t also for their activity in me work of the Society. FEATURES OF CAVE BREAKDOWN ...... William E. Davies 34 OFFICERS FOR 1949-1950: Ralph W. Stone, President; William J. Stephenson, A REPORT ON SOME FLUORESCEIN TESTS Executive Vice-president; J. S. Petrie, AT STARNES' CAVE ...... joe Lawrence 36 Membership Vice -president; Charles E. Mohr, Vice-president; Ellen Moffet, Secre­ SAFETY PROCEDURES IN SPELEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION tary; LeRoy W. Foote, Tl'easurer; Betty John Dyas Parker 37 . Yoe, Financial Secl·etary.

THE CAVE RESCUE ORGANISATION OF BOARD OF GOVERN ORS: Ernest Ackerly, Robert P. Carroll, William E. Davies, J . YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND ...... Norman Thornber 42 Robert Dunn, Duane Featherstonhaugh, James A. Fowler, Ethelyn Fusselie, Em­ THE ORIGIN OF THE MARKINGS IN PIG HOLE mons Graham, George F. Jackson, Jerome John W. Murray 44 M. Ludlow, John S. Petrie, G. Alexander Robertson. A PICTURE STORY OF SCHOOLHOUSE CAVE ...... 45 LOCAL SECTIONS of the Society are called MINERALOGICAL DATA IN SPELEOLOGICAL WORK Grottoes. They serve to stimulate and co­ William Foster 51 ordinate activity and increase the interest, J. enjoyment and productiveness of caving. A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF CAVE ECOLOGY LIBRARY: An excellent speleological Th~mas C. Barr, Jr. 55 library is owned by the Society and is being co nstantly enlarged. Items Oil hand CAVES IN EASTERN CANADA ...... Harold B. Hitchcock 60 may be borrowed by NSS members. Ex­ ~ensive collections of cave maps, photo­ A STORMWATER CAVERN IN THE LOST RIVER graphs and slides are being gathered and REGION OF ORANGE COU TY, INDIANA .... Clyde A . Malott 64 are available on a loan basis.

SPELEOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS Membership helps to support me pub­ lications, special investigations, and the Edward F. Moore and Krinitzsky E. L. 68 operation of the Society. WHO'S WHO ...... " ...... 72 Associate ...... $ 3 Commercial or R egular ...... $ 5 Institutional ...... $10 Sustaining ...... $ 10 Life ...... $75 EDITOR: Jerome M. Ludlow; EDITORIAL COMMITIEE: William E. Davies, James A. Fowler, William S. Hill. John D. Parker. PUBLICATIONS include the BULLETIN pub­ PUBLISHED intermittently, at least once a year, by the National Speleo­ lished at least once a year, and the NEWS logical Society, 510 SCar Building, Washington, D. C. appearing monthly. All members receive COPYRIGHT, 1949 by The National Speleological Society. the BULLETIN and the NEWS. Preface to Bulletin Eleven

The Bulletin is one of the most effective forces which we have to increase the stature of our Society among the nation's scientists and scientific organizations. The Editorial Committee, to which responsi­ bility for its preparation has been entrusted, believes that the Bulletin, as one of the two present publications of the National Speleological Society, should not become so highly technical that it loses its appeal to the layman as a source of interestingly written articles on caves. At the same time, however, it believes that it should emphasize the scien­ tific aspect of the study of caves so as to be looked upon by the scientist and layman alike as a publication which is both of general interest and one which is thoroughly reliable as a source of information in regard to all phases of speleology . . Under present conditions the Bulletin is published intermittently (at least once a year) as a voluntary effort. It is the Society'S goal, of course, that it will some day become a publication with a periodic publication date. It is obvious that the preparation of a single issue of the Bulletin entails countless hours of w'ork on the part of many persons who contribute toward the final result. Its success or failure to achieve its goal is in direct proportion to the efforts of those who give their support when called upon to assume responsibility for any part of the necessary work. Each task, regardless of its size or the skill required to perform it, is important to the total result, whether it be wTiting manuscript for publication or atraching postage stamps for the final mailing to our members. To give credit to each one of the many individuals who gave their time and talent in the preparation of Bulletin 11 would run the risk of inadvertently leaving out the name of some person who would quite naturally be offended by such omission. Most of the credit for this issue, however, rightfully belongs to the Editorial Committee consist­ ing of William E. Davies, James A. Fowler, William S. Hill, John D. Parker and, as ex-officio member, Philip A. Livingston, Publisher. Two other persons to whom especial credit should be given are Eva Keller of Trenton, N. J., who spent many hours typing manuscript so that the printer could have uniform copy, and May Ludlow, my wife, who contributed numerous evenings of her time in reading proof.

-J. M. L.

Trenton, N. J. October 25, 1949 Georg€' F. J czchso n

"THE PILLAR OF CO:'\S'fl'l'UTrO:'\" in Wyalulottc COl ve, Jlldiltlla, This is onc of the lal'gest stahtgmites in thc

\\'ol'ld, ~I'II C fOl'lll ation is i5 fe et in circulIlfcl'cncc and 35 feet in h cight, ORIGIN OF CAVES By RALPH W. STONE

Guides in com mercial caves commonly tell and joint planes in the rock it slowly dissolves visitors that the cave was formed by a stream of the calcium carbonate and enlarges the opening. water. In many instances evidence to the con­ ' '''here a joint and bedding plane meet, more trary is a t hand. Most visitors might be puzzled surface is exposed to attack and a larger opening if the guide sa id the cave was formed by differ­ is made. As these openings increase in size they ential solu tion of nonhomogeneous limestone give easier passage LO the water and where the below the water table in the zo ne of saturation. water flows fr eely it may further enlarge the So the simpler but in many cases erroneous state­ opening by corrasion. m en t tha t a stream of wa ter washed ou t the rock. As a passage is enlarged, water is withdrawn M embers of the National Speleologica l So­ [rom the roof and concentrated on the floor ; ciety have an opportunity to test the various consCquently most soh'em action on the roof theories of cave origin by observational studies ceases. A passage excavated by running water underground. vVhen many studies of many cav­ should have smooth, rounded walls, and must erns have been made by man y observers, we have certain relations to the direction of flow. should have a successful theory of cave origin. It should in a general way increase in size down My observations, almost exclusively in Pennsyl­ stream and also from top to bottom, except vania caves, have res ulted in the conclusions ol where constricted by less sol u ble or less easily this paper. corraded rock. T he floor of such a passage The author was spurred on in his study of should be graded; it may have abrupt descents caves by 'l\1illiam Morris Davis, his professor at but only minor depress ions. The roof also Harvard University in 1899-1901 , whose essay' should be fairly regular and, in a long passage, on The Origin of Limestone Caverns has been a should descend less than the fl oor. guide. A cave produced by solution and corrasion Most caves are in limestone. All limes tones in running water wou ld be expected to have a arc soluble, some more read il y than others. In somewha t branching, though angular, pattern the same formation so me beds yield more readily d e\'eloped on joints and bedding, but should than others, and one part of a single bed m ay not have loops and dead-end passages. O f course dissolve quicker than another. This fact is well an opening produced by solution or con-as ion Illustrated where stripping the soil reveals a may be further enlarged by blocks [ailing [rom most irregul ar surface of channels and pits sev­ the roof from lack o[ su pport. eral feet deep where the limestone h as been dis· On the other hand, solution in standing solved. This co ndition has been produced by water na lUrall y produces irregular rou nded differen tial sol u tion wi thou t aid of corraslQn forms because the limestone is not everywhere by run n ing wa ter. similar in compos ition and not equally soluble. Limestones in general arc dense and not All parts of a chamber being excavated below permeable to water. However, along two princi. the water table are subject to solution and the pal surfaces, bedding planes and joint planes, roof as well as the fl oor is continually attacked. water ca n penetrate and a ttack the rock. T herefore irregular depressions in the roof and It is commonly stated that the solution of floor alike are normal ; the floor need not be 1im estone is accompl ished by ra i n wa tel', wh ich graded with res pect to any surface level; the roof picks up a little ca rbon dioxide in passing m ay be exceedingly irregular in its relation to through the a ir and perhaps a little humic or the fl oor of a long passage; returning lops, out­ other acid in passing through the soil. ' '''here going branches, and dea d-e nd galleries are this slightly acid wa ter seeps along the bedding natural. By these and other criteria the origin of caves 'DAVIS, W. ~ I. , Origin of li111 cslone cavcrns: BIII/. Ceo/. SOl'. II Iller., vo l. 'II , pp. '175-G28, 1930. is determined. v" 11. Y. OUJcn U PPE R PH01'O s ho\\"s a, scene in 8at Cave at Vinson, Oldaholl1a" Dill"crential solution is in.llic!tted by iJ.T e ~ lIlar I"Centnlllts 011 both sides of main channel. 8ELO\ V: E II tran('e to En

4 NATIONAl. SI'El.E:OLOG ICAL SOCIE TY Unlike the cavcs in Indiana and Kenlucky As rainwater descending through the zo ne of where thc limestone beds arc nearly flat, the acration can dissolve limes tone, so when it caves in Pennsylvania and the Virginias are reaches the zone of saturati on and becomes slow­ mostly in tiltcd bcds, bccausc most limestones in moving ground water it has m ore time to exert these States havc been subjccled lO crustal fold­ its sol vent action a t a given spot and can do ing and arc inclined. Bcca usc of lhis folding it more work. That caverns are developed beneath is probable tha t thcy havc morc joints and fi s­ the water table has been demonslra ted repeated­ sures than fl a t-lying beds. ly by drill h oles . In exploratory drilling for d am sites caverns have been fo und deep below All rocks arc morc or less fi ss ured and m ore lhc channels of streams that are fl owing on bed­ or Icss porous [or considcrabl c deplhs below lhc rock. Therefore they cannot have been exca­ surfacc o[ lh c la nd. R a illll"a lcr, soaking in lo \'ated b y running wa ter. Deep-lying caverns in the gTOu nd, fill s lhc fi ss urcs and porcs up lO a limes tone ha\'e been found in mining operations flu ctua ting hcighl. Thc water lhcrc accumulated when the water table was lowered b y pumping. is call ed ground walcr ; and the part of thc Con-as ion played no part in lheir developmenl. u ndergrou nd rock mass lh us ,,·a ler-fill ed is called Ground ,,·ater, however, is a competent and thc zo nc of sa lUra li on. Thc ground watcr forms e\'er- prese nl agent, and, gi\'en lime and slow cir­ a curiously tanglcc! , skcleton-like bod y. A.n cu l'liion lO carry away the dissoh'cd rock, will imagincd surfacc marking its lOp is called thc form ca \'crns. Variations in the solubility of the water tabl e . .- \bo\"C thc ,,·a lcr tabl e the spaces rock res ult in irregul arilY in shape and distribu­ in the rock are fill cd \I"ith air. This part of the ti on of the openings. underground rock mass is ca ll cd the zo nc o[ aeration. Knowing, then, that caverns are excavated in limestone beneath thc water ta ble, some of the Distinguished [rolll ground waler is that distinctive fealures should be pointed out. Wha t much smaller bod y called vadose water, which is shall we say of a ca\·e that has a generally level in thc zone o f aeralion and pres umably on ils Hoor, perha ps now occu pied by a small strea m, wa y from the lalld surfacc to lhc zo ne of sallll·a­ but lhc roof in places is wilhin reach and else­ lion. lvVh cn \·adose watcr reaches lhc water table " 'here 50 to 80 fee t abo\'e the fl oor? ' '''hat if the it becomcs ground wa lCr. roof is a se rics o r domes o[ u neq ual sizc, se pa­ In lhc densc limcs toncs wilh \I"hi ch this dis­ rated by partilions of solid rock that extend al­ cuss ion is concc rncd , groulld ,,·a ter is not con­ m OS l to the Hoor? 'Wha t i[ the flo or likewise is lained in the rock bUl mcrely fill s thc more or not graded ? In m any caves not only is there no less minule inlcrsti ccs along the bedding and general level bu r all son s of holes, pits, shafts, joint plancs. It is, lhen, mcrel y a nClwork. and entrances to lower Je\'e ls. T hese features are diffi cult to explain as the res ult of running­ When one studics I imes lone G 1 \·cs it bccomcs water. a pparcnt that Jll a ny of them ha\·c galleries ex­ hibiting forms and rclations lhal sccmingly ca n­ Likewi se, h ow ca n an inverted pit the size not bc cxpla incd as thc result of corras ion b y and shape of a nail keg or barrel be excavated fl owing walcr or by solulion by dcscc nding in a caye roof by running water? Or short dis­ wa ter. continuOliS roof channcls a foot or more deep? Or similar h oles in the side walls? Long, narrow Rainwalcr dcsccnding lhrough thc zo nc o E slabs of limes tone bedrock projecting from wall s acration slowl y widcns crc\'iccs by solulion o[ thc and roof are familiar to ca ve cxplorers. In some calcium ca rbonalc. "Vhq l an opcning bccomcs Gl\'C S the limes tone bedrock has projecting- edges so large that vadosc wat.l1· docs not span it, fur­ of thin shaly layers so soft that they can be ther enlargcmcnt is rcduccd lO solulion on thc broken or rubbed off with the fin g-e rs. To m y side kcpl wel, and lO con·asion whcn h ea vy prc­ mind nonc oC lhese features can bc ascribed lO cipitati on fill s the holc. For this reason lhc dc­ the work of running water. These forms are vclopmcnl of largc opcnings in thc zo nc of acra­ easil y comprehended , however, i[ it is ass u'med lion is a very slow proccss. lhat they arc thc work o[ solution by ground

B ULLETIN N U MBE R 11 , N O VE MB E R 1949 [) A. Y. Owen

A scene in Blac l< Hollow Cave, Lal

6 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY wa ler of rock of unequa l composition and so of air to th e caves. Thus brough t above the level unequal solubility. of ground water, the ca \'es were drained and their enl argemen t by solu tion ceased , Since the The walls o[ a cave may not have conclusive elevation of the land th at brought the caves evidence as to the mode of origin, for smoothly above the level of ground water, surface streams rounded CUlTes are produced bo th by corras ion have fo und their way into some of them and of running wa ter and by solution in standing probably have lowered the fl oors by slow solu­ water. If the fl oor bears evidence of con'asion, tion and con-asion. lhe wall s and roof may show incontrovertible evid ence of origin by solution. In such a case The elevation of the land initiated a new lhe natural co nclusion is that corrasion of the cycle in the life history of the caves. In the first fl oor is subsequent to the excavation of the cave cycle they we re being excavated and were filled because the stream did not have access to the wi th wa ter. In the second or presen t cycle they cave ulllil th e lowest level was above the water are fill ed wi th air and some o[ them are slowly lable. T h al a stream now flows through a cave being cl osed by deposits of travertine. A complete is no t conclusive e\'idence tha t the cave was change has taken place, a reversa l of processes, eroded by running water. Running water should from remova l of limes tone by dissolving the cal­ produce a graded channel, but suppose over the ciunl carbonale, to the deposition of calcium graded channel is a roof from 5 to 75 fee t above carbonate in the form of travertine. the wa ter, and the cavern se \'era l hundred feet Prof. W'illiam Morris Davis concluded his long is nOl one but several great ya ults se para ted exhaustive essay on the sa me subject: by low-hanging walls, and the strea m disappears at a "duck-under" or emerges to the surface "Before it (the nl'o-cycle theory of caves) is through a low hole. To have excava ted such a either accep ted as true or rejected as un true, ca ve rn the Slream would have lO fl ow uphill. It much more observa ti onal study of caverns, is much easier to beli eve lhat the great open especially in inclined strata, should be made ' paces were formed by solution in ground water, by obselTers who shall bear in mind all pro­ and lhat subsequently the stream fo und its way posed theories of G1 yern origin and all the in to them. consequences deduclible from each lheory. Care should be taken not to be distracted Beli eving tha t caverns are fo rmed below the h-o m the study of cave excavati on by the fas ­ waler table, a poss ible difficulty is ended if it cina ti ons of dripsLO l1 e ornamentation. "" hat­ can be shown how th e GI\'es come to be in the ever theory of excava ti on an obsen 'er may zone of aeration, hml' it is lha t they are now prefer, il will be his scientific duty to wel­ fill ed with air instead of water. T his changed come all theories hos pitably and to make co ndition wo uld res ul t fr om lowering of the himse lf equally res ponsible fo r the im partial ground-wa ter table, either by general eleva lion discussion of everyone of them. Only when of the la nd or by deepening of adjacen t drainage he is thus mentall y equipped for cave ex­ channels. If earth movements raise a cavernous pI Ol'

B ULLETIN NUl\IBE R 1] , NOVEMBE R 194,9 i Hydrologic Investigation of Caves By DAN K. HA MILTON Pmf. of Geology, University of K entucky Cave inves tigations supply the h ydrologist The description of a cave location involves with first hand information on the occurrence far more than the name of the state and county of undergTound water in limestone terrains. Fre­ in which it occurs. It must be so precisely de­ quently, the location of water supplies in such scribed that any interes ted party can find the areas is a mos t uncertain and often unsa tis­ cave from the description. It should indicate all factory form of "educated guesswork". The known entrances to the cave as well as their hydrologist frequently refers to such terrains as location with regard to topography (top of hill, areas of cavernous limestones. In this terminol­ side of hill, foot of hill, bottom of sink hole, and ogy, however, the largest "cavern" may be no other characteristi cs). Obviousl y, the bes t meth­ more than a few inches in width or height. od of describing a cave location is by means of T hese potential water conduits represent an a map. On a location map the speleologist may embryonic stage in cavern developmen t. On the perform great service to the hydrologist by add­ other hand, the term cavernous limes tone may ing to it a few more essential hydrologic [acts. be a pplied in a more familiar manner to denote The stream or drainage pauern should be indi­ limes tones characterized by labyrinthian p as­ ca ted. This frequently involves more than a sages suffi ciently large to allow human explora­ brief sketch of stream courses and necessitates ti on. In either case, the success of 'wells drilled a generalized description of the topography in for the purpose of water supply depends first, the cave vicinity. ' '''ith a little extra effort or 1I pon the drill entering some type of cavernous artistic skill the addi ti on of these details to the opening; and second, upon the characteristics of location map may enormously increase its va lue th at opening as a water conduit. In most in­ to the h ydrologist. stances, the opening encountered in drilling is In describing the fl oor plan of a cave it must small-belonging either to an embryonic cavern always be kept in mind that the cave system is a sys tem, or a minor connection to a fully devel­ three dimensional rea lUre. In order to properly oped cavern sys tem. In either case, accurate describe the fl oor plan and its orienta tion in prediction as to the whereabou ts of such open­ space a sketch may again seem to provide the ings, the amount and ch aracter of water which most graphic description. Such a map, however, is likely to be encoulllered, and other h ydrologic must indicate the third dimension of the cave co nsiderations can be made more dependable by cross sections made at in tervals through the only through a greater understanding of those cave system. T he accuracies in cave mapping cavern systems which in themselves are large vary from guesswork to measurement by transit. enough to afford areas of first hand personal "'There no better information is available, even observation. the roughest estimate is a va luable b it of in[or­ 'We know so little of the hydrology of caves mation. Speculation, however, should not be th at it is no exaggeration to say that any infor­ all owed in th e description except where cl early mation which lTI ay be acquired by th e speleolo­ labell ed as such. gist would fil l a definite need and be a real con­ A thorough investiga ti on should show th e tribution to our present limited knowledge of accurate dimensions of th e length and width of the hyd rology or limes tone terrains. ' '''ith a little corriclors a nd a cl etailed description of the verti­ cfTo rt and ca re the speleologist ca n materially ca l dimensions. R elationship of the different co ntribute to th e growing fund of hydrologic cave levels to one another should also be shown. knowl edge. For instance, no cave investigation Frequently the inclination of the various cave wi ll be of much va lue unless it establishes an levels brings co nvergence of one or more of the exact description o[ the cave location ' and in­ corridors. To indicate such a fea ture it is often cl udes some description o[ the general lI oor plan. necessa ry to include 10ngilUdina l sections as well

8 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOC IETY as cross sections on the map. In such sections the It is necessary also to consider the behavior fea tures of the land surface above the cave of water inside the cave after it has entered. W e should be shown. T he relationship between find, for instance, that some cave streams fl ow these ex ternal features of the land surface and the length of the cave with no appreciable addi­ the in ternal features of the cave are frequently tion or loss of water. This observation may be most important. For this reason, if possible, the actual or only apparent. It is possible that loss sketch map of the cave should show the location and addition balance one another so that the of the cave features with regard to sink holes, volume remains co nsta nt. In such cases, temper­ streams, hills and other surface features. ature or chemical changes may give evidence o[ , l\T herever possible the elevation of the cave with this loss and addition. Thus it may be possible reference to nearby streams should be deter­ for the volume to remain constant in passage mined, and indica tions of flooding of the cave through the cave while the water characteristics by such streams should be sought. If fl ood de· change. It may be that several streams enter the posits or water lines are detectable their presence cave, join together in moving through the cave, should be indicated on th e map. To assemble all onl y to iss ue to the surface again from several of this information accurately is the ideal con· apparently discrete openings. The stream may tribu tion by the speleologist but with informa­ appear a nd disa ppear several times in its cour e ti on so badly needed descriptions fa r from the thro'fgh the cave. There may even be some ques­ ideal are priceless contributions. It is hardly tion as to whether or no t this condition repre­ possible to overemphasize the need for these se nts the sa me stream appearing and disappear­ maps in hydrologic inves tigations. ing. To determine th e accurate picture of water To the hydrologist, however, such informa­ movement through a cave, extremely careful tion is just the beginning, and he must add in­ observati on is necessar y. formation and evidence co ncerning the pas t and The gradient of caYe streams should be ex­ present behavior and distribution of water. amined and described. Some streams flow Many fea tures of the cave may gi\'e clues to its smoothly down gentle or steep, but regular in­ pas t history while direct observation provides clines. Other streams move through caves in the information on present conditions. In those irregul ar profiles, pouring over waterfalls and caves which are so dry tha t no direct observation moving sluggishly through pools. These water­ may be made on the behavior of water indirect fall s and pools sometime afford excellent hydro· information co ncerning the location of the areal logic evidence of past stages in cave formation water table is afforded by the very fact that th e and should be ca refully noted and described. cave is dry. For those caves which contain water 'Wherever poss ible, the water table should be as much informa tion as possible should be as­ found and its altitude recorded. Its changes sem bled . through the year should be carefully noted. T h e The method by which wa ter enters into a problems of water table in limes tone terrain is cave should be carefull y noted. For instance, in still one of the most difficult fi elds of study in some cases all of the water enters through the hydrology. bottom of a sink hole and in effect comes down U nder many conditions, muddy water pours through the roof of the caye. It may enter the into a cave and clear water flows out. This may cave in one large strea m, or several small be due to filter acti on, or more likely res ult streams, or simply seep in from numerous from se ttling of sediments in ar eas of low ve­ minute or large openings. It may enter the side locity. " \T here this feature is apparent the correct of the cave, or rise up through the flo or of th e explanation should be sought. cave. It may en ter by different means at differ­ Many of the characteristics of the channel ent times of the yea r, m,onth, or day. It may cross section have been produced by the water enter through round or angu lar openings, Peo­ moving through the channel. Conversely, the ple long fam ili ar with th e ca \'e may tell of water moving through the channel is greatly changes in the method of entrance. In any event, affected by the characteristics of the ch annel whatever its form and time of entrance, careful wa ll. Some a ttempt should be made to de cribe studies should be made and the in formation the nature of this channel and its composition. duly recorded. Frequently, this ca n be t be shown on the cros

BULLETIN NUMBER II .. NOVEMBER 1949 sections of the floor plan. In other cases separate made. Fluctuations of this volume of flow should diagrams may be necessary. be assembled under various climatic conditions. As is the case with the entrance of water into In addition to these direc t observations of a cave, the exit of water from a cave is likewise the behavior and characteristics of cave waters an important consideration. In some caves the many observations of the features attributable water disappears into the floor, or through the to the action of water will afford needed in­ walls of the cave, to issue a t some point other formation. Much attention has been focused on than that entered by the exploring party. Effort the dripstone deposits of a cave. This paper is should be made to find and describe these exits far too short to go into details and problems of in a manner similar to the descriptions of water dripstone pattern and formation, but any cave enterino' the cave. III the case of water entering o . exploraLion makes possible recorded informa­ and leaving a cave, tascinating cave studies may Lion needed for the further understanding of be extended beyond and outside a cave through these fea tures. "\Then the speleologist encounters the tracing of water courses by the use of dyes. features within a cave which are mysterious to The relationship of various cave systems to one him, sketches or photographs make it possible another have been well defi ned by this method. to bring such features before those who might By adding dyes to possible sources contributing explain them. In assembling information for water to a cave, valuable data may be gathered the hydrologist there are many questions which in regard to the speed of water movement, the should be answered concerning dripstone de· path of movement, and the size and shape. of posits. Are both stalactites and stalagmites pres­ the underground drainage area. In such studies, ent? v\Thich is present in greater size? Greater it should be remembered that negative results quantity? "\That is the relationship between size might have ex planations other than the lack of and quantity? Are the dripstone features located connection. in any discernible pattern? These are but a few "Vater Lemperatures in various parts of a leading ques tions 'which should be answered in cave and at various times of the year frequently the report of a cave ilwestigation. o'ive information on the behavior of under- o . Blankets of travertine and their location oTol1l1d water. Temperature observatlOns are should be recorded as well as their location with ~ne of the simplest types of observations which regard to the water source responsible for their can be made by the cave explorer. In addition deposi tion. to temperature studies the h ydrologist fre­ In most cases the cave itself is testimony to quently acquires much information fro~ the solvent action of water. Other less conspicu­ chemical analyses of the cavern waters. This ous clues to this solvent action may be found in type of study is beyond the means of m~st spele­ the development of scallops on the walls, ceil­ ologisLs, but they might in some speCial cases ings and floors. Abandoned or active stream render great service by collecting samples for courses may show ey idences of soluLion or depo­ analyses in those areas of particular interest to sition or both. Block falls from the 'Nalls and the hydrologist. roof should be examined for traces of solu tion I have seen springs iss uing from cavernous or deposition on the blocks since their fall. limestones which have definite cycles of How Debris, such as logs a nd trash, should be corresponding closely with the daily barometric noted for the indication they give of free con­ cycle. Such variations from the normal How may nection to th e surface. Similarly, great care su"gest unusual reservoir conditions feeding ~he should be taken in mapping stream deposits of pring within the cave system. The explana tion mud, silt, sa nd or even gravel. The explanation of such conditions frequently leads to much of these deposits frequently furnishes excell ent speculation and interesting theory. Perhaps evidence of past stream behavior. theory and speculation can be replaced by fact Although olltside the scope of most cave in­ through careful cave investigations of these vestigation the hydrologist may find his most im­ puzzling springs and their associated cavern ~ys­ pOl-tant data in the relationship of a cave to the Lems. In such investigations careful tabulation enclosi ng rocks. In bedded form a ti ons the rela­ of the volume of water moving through the cave Lion of the cave to the bedding i a most import- at different Limes of the day and year must be (co ntinI/eel. on page sixteen)

10 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Speleology in Southeastern Alaska By ROBERT J. H A CKMAN

The Alexander A r c hip e l ago~' of Southeastern Alaska offers co nsiderable material for the spele­ ologist, ranging from Indian burial caves to giant sea caves and caves with petroglyphic marki ngs. AI though the location of only a few of these caves is known, there is every indication that a considerable number exist. Not only is a greater portion of these islands partly or completely of a limes tone nature, bu t also in traveling through the m any waterways between the islands one sees a great ma ny si nk holes and depressions on the islands themselves, while along the shore line an occasional sea cave is visible. This is especially true on the western fringe of the island group where the high rocky coast receives the full effect of the pounding Pacific waves. T here arc three good reasons why the dis­ covery and ex plora ti on of caves in this area is difficul t. T hey are as follows: muskeg, dense underbrush and bears. In regard to the first men tioned, nea rl y all the sink holes are fill ed with muskeg, a sort of bottomless ooze over­ grown here and there with pa tches of thick moss Pictlll'e of authOl' after foUl' m ont hs in the Alaslian and gnarled shrubs with ponds of shallow water b.·lIs h. in b etween. T his material would tend to fill up any caves or cave en trances tha t might exist in the sides or bottoms of the sink holes. T he las t reason, and although it is of a differ­ Next comes the underbrush , and a formid­ ent nature from the two rnentioned above, could able obstacle it is. T he grea tel' portion of this well prove a menace to the cave expl orer. The area is covered with a dense forest of spruce and few caves that one does find in this area (a nd heml ock, intermingled with the small er brush this is especially true of the higher drier ones) and thorny devil's club. U nder all this are the give every indica ti on of present or recent habita­ ro tted fallen logs o( past genera tions of trees. tion by bears. T here are two general types of As if this were no t enough to m ake the finding bear in this area, the black bear and the brown of a cave entrance difficult, Mother Nature has bear. The latter, although fou nd onl y on the gone a step further. A dense thick moss grovvs northernmost islands of the grou p, belongs to over everything,-[aJl en timber, stumps and that species tha t is the larges t in the world, so me­ even rocks. T his verdant growth has a h abit of times weighing over a thousa nd pounds and arching across openings of any kind whether standing upright to eigh t and nine fee t. T he e rotted stump holes, crevices or cave entrances. bears would prove a formidable adver ary to any U nder such circumstances, one would have to speleologist. T he black bea r, on the other hand, practi ca ll y [all into a cave before being aware exists in co nsiderable numbers throughou t the of its existence. area and ca n usually be scared away by yelling, or waving one's arms, except when it is cornered .. Sec 'nap , page 72. B ULLETIN NUMBER 1] , NOVEMBER] 949 11 or is with cubs. They are then fierce fighters. summer, "Are there any caves around this area?" ''''hat their reactions would be when met in a Joe then told me of a ledge cave on a small cave is difficult to determine. The author at­ island not far from Craig that contained the tempted to find this out by crawling into a cave skeletal remains of about twenty Indians, and into which a black bear had been seen running referred me to a person named Slim ''''ilder who only a few minutes before. After going in about lived on a small island nearby and who could sixty yards down a winding, twisting passageway show me the loca tion of the cave. H ere was one with a thirty-O-six rifle in one hand and a flash­ cave that was close to Craig, and plans were light in the other, the quarters became rather made to visit it as soon as extra time permitted. cramped, the smell of bear rather strong, and Several days later, with Norman Dennis, one with speculation on what the effect of firing a of the fellows with whom I was working, I took rifle in such closed quarters would have on the a small boat and motored over to Slim "Vilder's ear drums, he decided to give up the experiment place, and, after receiving directions from him, until another time. proceeded to the burial cave. The cave is on the middle of the three northernmost islands in the Mummified Indians Alberto group. This very small cluster of islands There is considerable Indian lore tied up is located off the southwest corner of Wadleigh with many of the caves in this area, and my first Island, and is about three and one-half miles clue to such a find came early in the summer from Craig. The island is about half-a-mile long while I was in Craig, Alaska. Here I heard of an and almost as wide. There is a small beach on Indian burial cave that was discovered by two the southwest side of the island where a landing trappers about ten years ago. The cave is located can be made, and about four hunch-ed feet up on the sou th side of a small inlet not far from a heavily wooded ravine is the cave. It is a hori­ the northern end, and on the west side, of Dall zontal ledge cave running into the fa ce of the Island. The story goes that the two trappers cliff in a wedge-shaped manner for about forty found two mummified Indians in this cave. The feet, the ceiling at the entrance being about five remains were in a sitting position, wrapped in feet high. woven cedar mats and res ting in hewn cedar It appeared that the bodies were originally boxes whose sides were held together by twisted placed in a jackknife position, wrapped in bark rope of the same type of wood. woven cedar ma ts and placed in cedar boxes. Although I was unable to visit the cave, the The majority of these boxes were joined to­ same .story with little variation was heard many ge'ther by a lacework of twisted cedar bark, run­ times during the summer from various people, ning in and out of small holes drilled into the giving it considerable authenticity. It seems wood. A few of the boxes, however, were h eld that the bodies were removed, but here a certain together by small carved wooden pegs. The amount of vagueness sets in. Some say they were sides of the boxes themselves showed no carvings sent to a museum in the States, while others of any kind, but some of the lids, which were claim they were kept in Alaska. made to fit snugly on top of the boxes, had In regard to the possible age of these re­ carved grooves and flutes on them indicating an mains, the absence of nails or other implements attempt at artistic design. One top had a border­ that would show a contact with the white man line of inlayed shell running around the edge. would indicate the burials were at least a hun­ Although the place was dry and protected dred years old, possibly much more. from the weather, the boxes gave evidence of Another Indian Burial Cave considerable decay. Several pieces of what ap­ T he next clue to a burial cave came to me peared to be some kind of skin, dyed green, were later in the summer. On one of our weekends in mixed in with the scattered bones and were Craig, Alaska, I struck up a conversation with probably remains of the burial clothing. a local Indian, Joe Demrit, of Tlinket descent In referring to the burial material as scat­ and a prominent citizen and fi sherman of the tered around, that is exactly how it was when town. During our conversa tion I asked the fa­ we came upon the sight: bones, boxes and other vorite question of a speleologist and one that I material in a disarticulate hea p. ''''hen we had asked and was to ask many times during the agall1 talked to Slim "Vilder, who showed LIS

12 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Robrrt J . Hackman

UPPE R PHOTO s hows NonlllUl Dennis of the U, S, Ge ological SlIl'vey h olding two slmlls found in burial c:we, BELO"V: Grollp or fOUl' slw\ls in hlLl'iltl c:we showing r emains of bl'ol,en boxes,

BULLETIN N UMBER 11 , NOVEM BE R 194q 13 where the burial was located, he told us that he been two-and-one-half feet in diameter. In re­ first came across this cave while hunting eagles garcl to the lodge holes, they all h ad trees grow­ some years ago at a time when there was a ing in them. In the center of one was a hemlock bounty on eagles in Alaska. Slim, by the way, tree which had a diameter of twenty inches and is one of those hermit souls who lives alone and was es tima ted by Slim to be about one hundred likes it; he is nevertheless an interesting person. years old. If this is true and the burial did come "Vhen he found the cave, e\·erything was in an from this old village site, which is the closes t one orderl y manner, appearing to be as yet in an to the burial cave, and since the village has been untouched state, and since Slim is one of those deserted these hundred and possibly more years, persons who believes in letting the dead lie, he it would appear that the burials date back to a left the burial in the same condition in which time when the village was occupied. it was found. H e did, however, in the days to Folklore Cave come, tell a few people about his find, and in a The folklore of the T linket Indians gives the very short time some of the fi shermen got around raven as the principal deity and ances tor of their to investigating the place. It was n't long before race. The story goes that 'way back in the days lhese "pot hunters" had really messed things up of creation, and before he started his line of de­ -brea king open th e boxes and stirring up the sce ndan ts, the raven wished to make the seas place. "Vhether they ever found anything of safe for his people. T herefore, selecting as a value or interest, I am not aware. mee ting place a cave on the island which later In es timating the age of this burial there is was named Coronation Island, he invited all the again an absence of articles that would indi­ terrible monsters of the deep and when they had cate cont(l ct with the white man or early trader. all assembled in this cave, he cast a spell on lhem Sometime previous to this discovery the author that they might never be free to moles t his peo­ had examined a surface burial on a small point ple. And today when one visits this cave the of land overlooking a whirlpool and about ten monsters are all there to be seen. miles north of this burial cave. This surface This story was told to me by Joe Demrit, the burial consisted of a wooden shed, in a very local Indian 'w ho told m e of the burial cave. rundown condition, surmounted b y two very Joe is part T linket and has visited the cave. He weathered totems. The interesting point regard­ states that there are considerable formations in ing the burial, which by the way was that of a the cave and that it was probably the shape of T linket witch doctor, was that the wood used in some of these that inspired the imagination of the construction was joined together by square the early Indians to associate them with terrible nail s. These nails, the local people told me, monsters of the deep. The author did not have were of the type that were first used in trade an opportunity to visit this cave since it was with the Indians and they date the burial as a considerable distance from where we were being at least seven ty- fi ve to eighty-fi ve years working at the time. old. Since no nails were used in connection with the burial cave, it would be logical to assume Petroglyphs In Cave that the remains are at leas t ninety years old. Biting far inland and on the northwest side Now to some further evidence that gives an even of the rugged Kosciusko Island is Shipply Bay. greater age to the remains. Located on the southside of the bay is a cave and About half-a-mile from this small isla nd on upon its walls are petroglyphic markings. This which the cave is loca ted is the si te of an old was told to me by the forest ranger of the area. T linket Indian village of considerable age. Un­ H e had never seen the cave himself, but another less the spot were pointed out, one would have man in the forestry service had visited it some diffi culty in finding it, since a thick gTow th of years back a nd in formed him of its existence. lrees has covered the place. Bu t there again our Likewise in the bay itself and just offshore is a friend Slim "Vilder, who appeared to be well­ large rock which is covered with petroglyphic informed on the Indian lore of the area, pointed markings. Many such markings h ave been fo und ou t the old lodge holes, some of them ten feet in Sou theastern Alaska, and are believed to be deep and some almost completely unrecogniz­ of great age, since the prese nt day Indians have able totem poles that at one time must have no knowl edge as to what these markings mea n.

14 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY The ma jori ty of them are found along the shore­ gerous because of the many sinks, caves and pits. line and face seaward. By some they are believed OYES ISLAND. Along the rocky Cape to have been used as informative landmarks. Addington tha t juts out into the Pacific are T his is a fi eld tha t is open for further study. several caves. One consisted of two caves which This again was a cave tha t the author was un­ have a talus slope in between them and when able to visit beca use of its distance and lack of viewed from out at sea gives the appearance of available spare time. a large wolf head. Ano ther cave nearby is at the base of a high cliff and has a picturesque lake Other Caves On Other Islands in it. Farther to the north and up the coast is Although the author was able to visit only a cave that runs through the cape, which at this a few islands other than the ones on which we point is about a quarter of a mile across and worked, considerable information concerning high and rocky. One can look in one end and

Larg'e elevated sea cave on the west",rn shOl'''' of Noyes Island. caves on other is lands in the near locality was see light at the other end. There are other sea obtained through conversation with the fi sher­ caves along the western shore of the island men who trolled for sa lmon up and down the proper. wa terways, and trappers who ran traplines on WHITE CLIFF ISLAND. Running into the the va rious islands during the wintertime. Below fa ce of a vertical limestone cliff and about ten are listed some o( th e islands and their spele­ feet abo\'e the wa ter's edge is a small cave that ological possibilities: runs about fifty ya rds into the face of the cliff a nd ends up in a series of small chimneys. BAKER ISLA TD. T his island has a large ORR ISLAN D. On the central eastern side blow-hole cave on a point to the northwes t and of this island and behind a small offshore island shoots spray high into the air. The island is is a cave that runs into the face of the cliff and almost completely of limestone and a mining has a small stream in it. engineer that made a sllldy of the deposits on KOSCIUSKO ISLAND. Near Cape Pole and the island sta ted that traveling on it was dan- on the homestead of one "Pike Pole Slim" i a

BULLETIN NUMBE R 11. NOYE1\'IBER 1949 small cave which runs about seventy-five yards great is the number that by the time the first into a low bluff. The cave has a small stream in portion of the flight has completed a half-mile it and the owner has dammed up the entrance circle over the water and begins flying back into and uses the cave as a reservoir for his water the cave, some of the rear section of the flight supply. are still coming out of the cave. This island gives every indication of a great HECET A ISLAND. This island is mostly number of caves. The author visited about six of limes tone and h as a considerable number of while camped in the vicinity of Edna Bay. The sink holes on it, some of them fill ed with water location of one of these six was described to me and forming picturesq ue lakes . There is a large by the superintendent of the now temporarily cave entrance in a sink hole about half-a-mile closed Juneau Spruce Mill Logging Camp. Upon inland from the east side of Port Alice. The looking for this cave I found fi ve more in the cave has an underground stream in it and is be­ sa me general locality. All are along the east face lieved to drain a sink hole lake farther up the of a ravine and appear to belong to a chainwork way. And just offshore, seen at low tide a large of caves and undergTound channels that catch spring gushes out of the ground anel is about the overflow from a lake about a mile up the eighteen inches across. It is believed to be a part ravine. The ravine itself is dry at present but of the same drainage system. The author talked at one time must have bee n the main drainage with some geologists who were working on the of the lake before the caverns were hollowed island and they sa id they had seen some cave ou t. Although the underground channel me­ entrances but h ad not investigaled them any anders some, it does run roughly parallel to the further. ravine but at a slightly lower level. Conclusion A t the time I visited the cave, which was The information for preparing the preceding during an unusually dry spell, there was no paragraphs was obtained through spare time ex­ visible running wa ter. There were, however, ploration and conversation with some of the some dee p pools in the cave, some over ten feet local inhabitants while spending four months deep, and in one of them I chanced to see a in this area doing map work. On the whole, the twelve-inch fish swimming around. Whether area is uninhabited except for a few isolated high water had carried this fish into the pool, settlements. The few caves I have attempted to or whether it was a blind cave fish was not de­ describe are probably but a [raction of the ones termined since upon a return trip with a net that exist, and I am sure that future inves tiga­ the fish was nowhere visible. The back part of tion in these parts will turn up some rich cave the pool was a duck-under and the fish was material. either back there or had moved on to another part of the cave through some non visible chan­ Hydrologic Investigation• nels. of Caves CORONATION ISLAND. This island be­ (co lltjnl/ eel from page ten) ant co nsideration. The inclination of the bed- longs to the extreme westerly group, and has considerabl e limes tone on it. It is high and ding and stratigraphic section must be deter­ rocky with sheer cliffs dropping off into the sea mined. Evidences of diastrophic activity and the and, bes ides the folklore cave already men­ prese nce of faults and joints should initiate a careful study of their rela ti onship to the cave. tioned, has many giant sea caves along the coast. One fi sherman to ld me that on a calm day h e The lithology, poros ity, permeability and chem­ ical composition of the rocks must be studied in ra n his fi shing boat into one of the larger caves. T hese lrolling boats are usually about fifty to detail. Careful h ydrologic inves tigations must sixlY [eet long and about as high. include painstaking geologic mapping of the A ve ry interesting fact about these large sea area involved on large sca le maps, with the cave caves is the abundance of bird life in them. features well located on such maps. Thousands of wild ducks and other types of sea Speleology is a qualitative type of hydrology. [owl use them [or nesting places . One can fire By applying some ca re and observation much a g'un near the enlrance of one of these caves, quantitative information may be assembled on and lhousa nds of birds will fl y out. In fact, so lhe hydrologic characterislics of limestone ter­ rams. 16 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Formation of Saltpetre in Caves By BURTON FAUST

From a vast fund of material it appears pos­ It appears self-evident from the above tha t sible to draw some conclusions concerning the the recovery and refining of saltpetre, the inci­ phys ics, chemistry and bacteriology involved in dent trading in and transportation of the prod­ the formation of saltpetre in caves. T here seem u ct, as well as its utiliza tion and consumption to be grea t differences of opinion between geolo­ resulted in a large amount of activity in the com­ gis ts, bacteriologists, agricultural chemists and mercial, military, and industrial world during others who, by profession or avocation, have a the middle ages. degree of interest in the problem. The sta te­ Our present concern is not with these phases ments and co nclusions which follow comprise of the problem or with the world wide distribu­ a par tial discuss ion of the facts and opinions tion of saltpetre, but is directed to such deposits upon which those co nclusions are based. in caves, particularly those fo und in the Appa­ T he instant problem is to ilwcs tigate some lachian R egion of this country. of the methods and processes whereby cave ni­ Of the nitra te minerals only nitrocalcite is ll-a tes are formed and d epos ited . The prese n t of prese nt in teres t. T his nitrocalcite, nitrate of interes t is in the chemical or non-sy mbiotic lime, or calcium nitrate is often found in the bacteriological processes by which nitrogen is fo rm of white or grayish tufts, or masses, or as fi xed in the fo rm of ni trates. crystals interspersed with cave soil. In many in­ Only sO l1l e of the theories and ideas that h ave stances calCite, aragonite, g'y psum and certain been adva nced will be discussed to a limited other mineral crys tals are found mixed with the degree. The au thor will indica te points of weak­ nitre crys tals in the cave earth. ness, and will promulgaLe a theory to explain Some au thors have stated tha t th e accumu­ the presence of nitrates in caves. It is recognized lati on of saltpetre in caverns is the result of the that this is a con troversial subject and anyone action of putrify ing bacteria in the decomposi­ who a ttempts to interpret such facts as are tion and oxida ti on of excreta and other animal known sometimes finds himse lf in a position by-products and remains. similar to tha t of the astronomer who theorizes It is not necessary or desirable to co nsider the about the apparent ca nals on Mars. T he mere chemistry or bacteriology involved in this fact that different ideas haye been adva nced to process as it has been discussed a t gTeat length explain the sa me or similar deposits must be ac­ by many writers, but there is another phase of ce pted as evidence th at the subject is controver­ this problem tha t has a slightly different aspect sial. to which a tte ntion is now direc ted . FrOl~ about Saltpetre is fo und in Yery widely distributed 1300 to about 1700 a great share of the world's natural depos its. Among the earliest known de­ supply of sa ltpetre was obtained [rom rotting posits and those from wh ich usa ble and commer­ compost heaps. These artificial nitrate beds were cial quantities were obta ined are as follows: made by a mixture of any and all kinds of or­ plains in Spain ; chalk deposits near Eureu x in ganic waste material kept moistened with urine Fra nce; the ni tre caves of Ceylon; grottoes of or wa ter and maintained in an alkaline state by Mont Hamberg, in German y. T he calcareous adding avail able limestone, plaster, or any other soil of Molfetta, Italy, T urkestan, H ungary, the material of similar bas ic nature. An excellen t U kraine, and Podolia furnished Europe large discussion of this method of ob taining saltpetre amounts of the sa lt. It was obtained from the has been prepared by Lea ther. 1 A further con­ valley between Mount Sinai and Suez in Arabia. sidera ti on of this topic will be found in a Persia and India both co ntribu ted this import­ resolution ~ passed by the Continental Congress ant material. July 28, 1775.

B ULLETIN N UMBE R 1] , N OVEMBER] 949 17 Certain writers go so far as to make the more of enemies rather than seeking shelter. Animals, or less broad and sweeping statements as fol- in general prefer the burrow or small grotto 10ws: type of shelter. Furthermore, no appreciable "There is no doubt that the nitrates in the amount of evidence of the past or present pere­ caves originate in an exactly similar way_ grinations of animals in the vicinity of saltpetre Caves or cavernous ledges are the natural bed deposits has been found. refuge of all sorts of animal life, including insects, birds, reptiles, and many of the larger ~n the Appalachian region practicall y no animals. In these recesses they leave not only evidence has been found that the aborigines excrementa but bits of their food, hair, used any saltpetre cave as a burial place. Nu­ bones, flesh, and even grains, mixed in a soil that is often light and porus, and may be merous cave burial places have been studied but fill ed with twigs and dried leaves. This is there appears to be no correlation between such probably stirred by the coming and going of and the presence of saltpetre. the cave denizens. Parts of these recesses are often damp with ground moisture or with No instance is known to the author in which wind blown storm water, or mist, and when any cave stream, whether it had an underground damp, and at the same time warm, they are or surface source, has or does flow through or in an ideal condition to promote the activity immediately close to a saltpetre bed. There are of the nitrate-forming bacteria. Thus it is easy to account for the accumulation of salt­ several reasons for this fact. First there very petre or nitrate salts in caves and in caver­ probably would be no soil in which the saltpetre nous recesses of rock ledges." ~ might lodge since a flowing stream would have The superficial way many persons have of washed such dirt, or, as some writers call it, the dismissing any serious discussion and taking for caput mortum, out of tlle cave or piled it in granted a preconceived idea of the manner in compact layers in some lower section of the which the saltpetre deposits get into caves is cave. Second, the nitrate mineral compounds illustrated b y the following remarks which ap­ are so soluble that they would be carried, from parently are based on casual observation: any clay beds, completely out of the cave; this "It is generally known that the earth in these was the manner employed, under control, of caves contain the nitrates of lime, potash, extracting the calcium nitra te from the petre­ and other salts. The numerous caves which dirt. Third, all saltpetre deposits that have been have been found in the Cumberland Moun­ observed, inspected, and studied by the author tains and other parts of Tennessee, have been have bee n deep undergToLll1d, a considerable very productive of the nitrate of potash. In the inves tigation of the causes which have distance from the surface and free of any evi­ given origin to these salts, it may be recol­ dence of running or percolating water for many lec ted, that wild animals burrow in these years. Thus running water seems to have had a caves; that 'when pursued by the hunter, they negligible part to play in the production or de­ make them places of their retreat, and prob­ posi t of the saltpetre." ably die there; that the aborigines have made them a place of burial; and that streams of From the above brief analysis it may be seen water which flow through them in wet how superficial observation and lack of consid­ weather, carry with them not only great quantities of leaves but many other vegetable eration of all the factors involved will often lead productions." .J one to erroneous conclusions. No evidence of the presence of any potash As may be seen from the above quotations it salts in any cave has come to the attention of would appear that the decomposition and oxi­ the author. As is well known, calcium nitrates, dation of organic remains has bee n given great calcium sulphates, magnesium sulphates, and weight in attempting to account for the forma­ calcium carbonates comprise the greater bulk of tion of nitrates . However, it is believed a brief common cave minerals. res ume of other processes whereby nitrates are vVhile wild or predatory animals do use formed would be in order. caves to a very limited extent, no amount of Another known natural process of nitrogen evidence has been found to substantiate the con­ fix ation occurs when the nitrogen oxide base of tention of wide use. It is believed the prese nce nitric acid is formed in the air as a result of of animals in caves may be attributed to fear lightning discharges . Generally there is sufficient

18 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ammonia in the air or dissolved in rain to com­ the decomposing rocks. For in the case of bine with all the nitric acid so formed . The some caves producing Petre din, the sur­ amlllonlUm nitra te which res ults eventually rounding li mestone contains only a trace of such ingredients. We must, therefore, refer reaches the earth. the formation of the ni tric acid, and ulti­ Another phase of this lightning discharge mately the nitrates, to mutual chemical re­ theory has been advanced by some authoriti es. actions between the porus calcareous earth It has been sugges ted that the nitrogen oxides and tb e contiguous atmosphere." formed by li ghtning disc harges that are changed Mr. J ohn A. Myers' in speaking of the work to nitric or nitrous acids and not neutrali zed by ]VIr. S. ' tV inogradsky has done states in part: atmospheric- borne or rain-dissolved ammo nIa "Winogradsk y has devoted a large amount will act directly with limes tone and thus form of time and attention to the study of the the calcium salts. nitrifying organisms which convert ammonia salts in to nitrates . . .. H e has succeeded in Another natural source of nitrates is the isolating and preparing a pure culture of a great quantities of ammonium salts in the Im ­ group of organisms, ca lled by him 'Nitro­ media te vicinity o[ an active vo lcano. For ex­ monas' which he is disposed to consider ample, nea rl y all reports of the eruption o[ rather as a group of bacteria than as a single Parieutin in Mexico mention the great deposits species whose special function is the oxida­ tion of ammonia . ... H e also found that the of ammonium chl oride [ound close to active 'ni tromonas' developed normall y either in fumeroles. the ligh t or in the darkness, and that they U nq ues ti ona bl y the organic processes are ca n assimilate the carbon from carbon di­ important in the fi xation of nitrogen and the oxide in entire darkness. T hey are able, in production of nitrates insofar as the well-being entire darkness, to appropriate this carbon from carbonates or from carbon dioxide and of the world is concerned. cause it to combine with the nitrogen to '''' hat appears to be one of the most plausible form organic matter, without the aid of theories and one which is somewhat generally sun's rays. H e believes that some sort of an accepted by authorities is based on combined amido compound is produced at the expense bacteri ologica l and chemical processes . It has of the carbon dioxide and the ammonia. T hese chemical changes developed b y the been discovered that ce rta in kinds of bacteria n itromonas, differ materially from those not associated with plants have the property of which occur with chloroph y!. In the action being able to fix ni trogen. of chlorophyl, carbon dioxide is decomposed An abstract [rom one of the earlies t state­ by the su n's rays, the oxygen liberated, and ments ad va nci ng this bacteri ologica l theory is the ca rbon united with the h ydrogen and the oxygen to fo rm carbohydr ates, but the given below:" inves tiga ti ons of ' tV inogradsky indicate that "Professor \'Villiam B. R ogers remarked that the nitro-bacteria, instead of decomposing from his observa ti ons in the caves of the the carbon dioxide and setting oxygen free, Middle and Southern States, he was satisfi ed effects its union with ammonia and makes that the earthl y deposit contall1l11 g the use of the ox.yge n of the air to oxidize the nitra tes, known in some places as Petre din, nitrogen to nitrous and nitric acids, the was chiefl y derived [rom the overhanging energy for this change being supplied to and ad jacen t rocks, and not from sedimen t them ~,r o m the oxidation which they bring brought into the cave by existing or former abou t. streams... . As to the production of the Another phase of this problem is discussed in nitra tes with which the Petre dirt is more or a summary of additional studies by \t\' inograd­ less im pregna ted, Professor R ogers though t it could not, in any large degree. be referred sky and Omcliansky and is reported as follows: S to the excretions and other remains of ani­ "The activity of the ni trifying organism is mals occasionall y found in these caves since retarded or e\'en en tirely stopped by th e pres­ the quantity o( nitrogen required ror this ence of slII ali quantities of organic matter; purpose fa r exceed such a means of supply. the n'ilrous bacilli is more se nsitive in this Besides this, the nitrates are found in the respect than the nitric. No doubt this re­ earthly mass while it is still adhering to the tardation p lays an important part in the­ roof or walls and far remO\'ed from the or­ transformations of th e nitrogen in the soil. ganic matter supposed to be buried in the T he denitrifying organisms convert nitrates fl oor. Nor ca n we regard the nitrogen as int.o am l1l onia and then into free nitrogen, chiefl y derived from orga nic substa nces in bllt they ca n act onl y in the presence of

B ULLETIN NUMBER ] I , NOVt::MBER 1949 19 sufficient organic matter. So long as organic ser ved facts. ' ,Vhile they might not have known matter is present, the organic nitrogen is con­ why the saltpetre dirt would revive itself, they verted into ammonia, and nitrification can­ did utilize that property to their own advantage. not take place; but when the organic matter has disappeared, nitrification begins, and The studies of H eddon and others seem to in­ the denitrifying bacteria cannot destroy the dicate the early saltpetre men might not have nitrales produced. The nitric organism does been too far mistaken in speaking of the salt­ not come into play until all the ammonia petre dirt renewing itself as spontaneous syn­ h as been converted into nitrite; ammonia is thesis. fatal to the activity of the nitric bacillis." "Vhile the above is not meant to include all In some of the studies9 conducted by Mr. the natural processes whereby nitrates are \I\' m. P. Headden some very startling conclusions formed, the most important, insofar as the in­ are offered. The study will not be reviewed since stant problem is concerned, have been men­ it is easil y obtainable. tioned. It is thus self-evident that here are sev­ An interesting sidelight on this bacteriologi­ eral possible sources from which cave nitre de­ cal theory and more than a hint that early men posits might have been derived. of science suspected that some strange phenome­ At one time the attempt was made to explain non was transpiring is evident for Dr. Samuel the production of nitrates in the soil on lhe MitchelI'D reports in a discussion of saltpetre bas is o[ oxidation of organic ma tter. T he theory caves the following conclusions: was held that the nascent nitrogen, released by ....When the earth (from the caves) has been the action of pu trifying bacteria, was oxidized letched with the vegetable alkali (potash) by the oxygen of the air and which in turn by and deprived of its acid; it is common for the men to r ep la c~ it. For experience has taught interaction with the nitrogen of the organic them that if put back again into its former matter formed nitrates. This theory was soon si tua tion, it renews its sal t-petrous quality in discarded for the more plausible idea that the abou t three ye,u-s. Being impregnated after action was more complex than implied. The lying that dura tion of time with another sup­ theory of the in teractionary rela tions, almost ply of acid, it is fit to be treated once more with wood ashes, for the purpose of forming communal in nature, of putrifying, denitri[ying, a second portion of salt-petre. There seems and nitrogen-fi xing bacteria was accepted and to be no end to the possible repetition of appears to have withstood the tests of time. On these processes, of extracting and regenera­ the basis of these reactions every com post heap, ting the acid ingredient of the salt." every artificial nitrate bed is a home for these re­ "Men of science may theorize and speculate on these remarkable facts. It seems difficult, actions. This process has been utilized for many in the present state of our knowledge, to ex­ ce nturies to produce the nitrates necessary to plain how either the acid or the alkali should meet the demands of trade and war. ''''hether be spont~neously formed by synthesis, in the nitrates are thus 'produced; or produced by those dark and rocky caverns. But before the action of nitrogen fixing bacteria in legumes this can be done, we must acquire a know­ ledge both of the acid and alkali which con­ as host plants; or by the tiny amounts res ulting slitute salt-petre, much more intimate and from the discharge of lightning, or by volcanic, profound than the modern chemists possess." or mineral sources, there is a tendency [or them The presen t day chemist, bacteriologist, to accumulate in the soil unless they are washed physicist, engineer or other scientists are often­ away by rain water. The accumulation o[ the limes prone to regard some of the early men of nitrates in a cave thus became a mechanical science as freaks, alchemists, astrologists or just problem. The mechanics of accumulation have plain charlatans. They seem to disregard the been discussed in considerable exten t by Ross, 11 fact that many of those early scholars had just as Nichols,l~ and H ess' :! and will not be considered high a degree of intelligence as the man of today. at prese nt. The only difference was in extent of background Since all nitrates are water soluble such ac­ and a much lesser fund of knowledge and infor­ cumulated material is bound to be found in per­ mation from which to draw. Those men as illus­ colating water. This property is well known and u-ated in the above extract from Dr. Mitchell's certain authoritiesl:l have advanced theories writings must be given credit for keen powers based on this fact to explain the occurrence of of observation and the ability to so govern their nitra tes in caves. Now, if as advanced, the water procedures and conduct as to utilize the ob- as it percolates through the soil is intercepted by 20 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY an open cavern, and the air movemen ts within 1. If bat droppings have furnished the nitro­ the cavern are such tha t the water transported genous matter why is it tha t bat rookeries III i nerals wi II be left behi nd, deposi ts wi ll be ac­ generall y are highly localized in the cayes cumulated on the cave fl oors and walls. On this and the " beasties" do not appear to roost basis it a ppea rs reasonable that nitrates should in large numbers in all parts of the cave? occur in all ca ves in which the proper balance It does not seem reasonable to ass ume of humidity and air movement are main ta ined. bats haye changed their roosting habits Ana lys is, observation, and past history have through the years. shown a wide distribution of such depos its but 2. If the bat-roosts are local arrangemen ts, the presence of sa ltpetre is not u ni ' ·ersa l. as appears to be the case, why are the T he above so unds very simple, plausible and sa ltpetre deposits spread so uniformly workable. H owever, there are a nUIl1 bel' o[ argu­ as analys is and pas t collecting experiences men ts tha t may be presented against such a seem to indica te? theory. Some o f the questions that must be an­ 3. If bats and/ or other animals were the swered satisfa ctorily before such an ex planation source of cave ni trates h ow is the prese nce can be accepted are as foll ows: of nitrates in substantially closed passages I . IE the sa me water tha t dissolves the ni­ and tigh tl y packed grottoes, niches, cracks trates will concurrently d issoh'e lime­ and crevices to be explained? stonc, why are there not ni trate- bearing 4. If anima l b y- products provide the source stalactites, and why is there not ni trate­ of the saltpetre how is the great paucity hearing Aowslone [ound 111 sa ltpetre of ani1ll ::t 1 re1l1 ::t ins Sti ch as bones, hair and caves? skin in or about the beds .to be explained? 2. H the nitra tes are brought into Gt\'es by Since the theory of the [ormation of caYe ni­ percola ting water h ow ca n one ex plain tt-ates from bat guano, the decomposition of the [act tha t the distribu tion of sa l tpetre animal remains, oxidation and neu trali zation, in the " petre din" a ppears substantially has been given wide circulati on and is accepted uniform in both area l ex telll and "eH ical so unquestionably by m an y writers it is proposed d epth? to brie fl y examine some of the arguments that 3. J[ percolating water se lTCS as a "ehicl e have been advanced in its favor. [or nitra tes how ca n onc explain the [act Some cave depos it ha"e been worked [or tha t pctre dirt was 1I1 ined from passages saltpetre at great distances from the surface en­ and grottoes so fill cd as to prevent a ir trances. For example, the tremendous deposits circulation which is necessary [or con­ in T he H all o[ the Mounta in King, in Sinnit tinued evaporation? Cave are over 1,200 feet from the entrance. 4·. If ground water senes as a mea ns of 'W hile there probably is a shorter route as the transport [or surface produced nitra tes bat fli es, the author has never been able to see how ca n one explain the fact that the any evidence th at bats had a t any time roosted a uthor has never discovered or observed in the immediate vicinity of the petre deposits. a petre-dirt bed that shows any evidence R eports indicate that Nfammoth Cave was o[ water percolation through the cavern worked a t a distance of oyer fi ve miles from the roof above the depos its? Such evidence m outh of the cave. Other instances might be o[ past water aClion as has been observed cited of g-reat distances from ca,'e entrances to apparently took place before the petre­ nitre depos i ts bu t the a bove are considered Sll ffi­ dirt beds were deposi ted. cient to m ake the point. Analys is and reports Ccnain au thorities have stuck to the theory seem to substantia te the statements that the con­ of the decomposition of animal excreta and re­ ce ntration of the nitrates is substan tially uni­ mains as a source o[ nitrates in the cave soil. form over the " 'hole of the beds. 'The numbers of In this instance also there are certain questions bats that have been observed at any 'great dis­ that must be answered satisfa ctorily before this tance from the entrances of saltpetre caves have theory can be accepted. For example: been compara ti vely mall. H owever, that in itself

B ULLETI N NUl\fBER 11 , NOVEMBER 1949 2 1 does not necessarily imply anything of particu­ all the popular theories combined. This method lar significance since the bats could have mi­ is discussed below to a very limi ted extent. grated or changed their roosting places. Further­ As one reads the older literature, in which more, it does not appear reasonable to assume the procedures in mining, recovery, refining, and Lhat all the hair, toenails, bones and other stable utilizing saltpetre are described, statements re­ remains would have become so completely dis­ pea tedly appear describing the return of a integraLed that much smaller amounts o[ organic leached soil to the caves where after a period of remains are found than would reasonably be about three years it could again b e treated and expected. Nichols'" has an excellent discussion additional sal tpetre recovered from the same of this phase of the problem. soil. Craig'·' reports that such procedure was The nitrates are found in so me insLan ces in not unknown and suggesLs that dirt be carried Lhe earthy masses still clinging to the ceilings in to caves, spread, and left to become charged and walls of passageways that were originally, with nitrates. from all appearances, completely fill ed to the ce iling with the petre dirt. For example, certain As stated above ''''inogradsky discovered that passages in Breathing Cave and Clark's Cave certain nitrifying organisms are capable of pro­ and almost the entire intermediate level of pass­ ducing organic matter from the carbon dioxide, ages below The Hall of the Mountain King in ammonia and water vapor in the air without the Sinnit Cave are instances the author has particu­ necessity of having sunlight present. It was fur­ larly studied and observed. The material cling­ ther discovered very early (circa 1860) that it ing to the ceiling is far removed [rom any was necessary to actually have soil present in organic: substance that might be in the soil order to produce the fix ed nitrogen. Such re­ underfoot. The author has seen many instances actions appear not to have been possible with­ in old saltpetre diggings in which pockets, small out the mysterious catalytic action of the soil. grottoes, cracks, crevices, crannies, shelves and The possibility that nitrogen fixing bacteria fill ed passage-ways have been scraped clean to exist which have the ability to produce fix ed recover petre dirt. It is considered safe to assume nitrogen in the form of nitrates directly from the early miners were not going to carry non­ inorganic elements and compounds is a question producing dirt from the caves. It is not believed to which it appears very little attention has been possible to explain such deposits by the bat­ gi ven. Based on the observations and reports of guano theory. early scientists, such as Dr. Mitchell, ''''m. Bar­ Another minor angle of this problem seems ton Rogers' :; and studies such as those conducted LO be involved in the matter of the capacity of at the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Sta­ the bats to do the job with which they have been Lion, to which reference is made above, it ,,,ould credited. The task of providing the vast amount appear that this method of fixing nitrogen must of raw material from which the thousands of be considered very important. Of course, the tons of saltpetre obtained has been recovered main reason so little attention has been given to would have bee n a tremendous job for the bats. the deposits of cave saltpetre during recent years This seems to approach too closely to harboring is probably due to the fact that the economic Lh e belief and expectation that the family pet need of the product has not warran ted the neces­ dog could have built the Panama Canal by sa ry expense involved. The fact that the action scratching for squirrels. of these non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria There is no question, in the mind of the are fairly well understood and that the circum­ author, that all the above outlined processes stances under which they will live and function whereby nitrates are formed might have entered approximate very closely the ambient conditions into the picture. The magnitude is impossible in a cave make it necessary to consider this very to determine and no intention to belittle or dis­ pertinent source of nitre. The necessary con­ parage any theory is intended. ditions which seem to promote the growth and The author is of the opinion, however, that activity of these bacteria are found in every salt­ Lh ere is anoLher method, to which too little at­ petre cave the author has visited. These are: a tention has been given, that might account for a uniform temperature, good air circulation, rela­ much greater volume of nitrate deposition than tively low humidity, heavily alkalized loose and

22 NATIONAl. SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY porous or semi-poro Ll s soil , and [reed om [rom 3H . S. GALE, "O rigin of Nitrates in Cliffs and Ledges", Min. and Sci. PTess, Vol. 11 5, pages 676· running, dripping or fl owing water. 678, Nov. 10, 1917 . '( K A I ', A m. ]. of Sci., 1: 65, 1819. T here is no intention to disregard any of the 5 Since the above was written info rmation has come theories ad va nced to ex plain the occurrence of to the author tha t certain saltpetre caves such as Julian 'S and McFerrin's do have at the present sa ltpetre depos its in the limes tone cave areas of time ru nning wa ler cl osely adjacent to the old the country. It does not appea r that the presence workings. W m. E. Davies has reported that he has inspected certain caves in which the sa ltpetre of sa llpetre in any cave is explainable by any deposits are relatively close to the entrances. one theory. R a th er it seems tha t each method H owever, it appears safe to assume such deposits were not affected to any extent by ou tside ra ins, may have played a greater or lesser role in this sno \\' , or \\'ind-blown water. natura l phenomenon. T here are many things G Pmceedillgs of BostOll Society of Natural H istory, Vol. 5, page 334 , 1856. about caves that have not been full y ex pl ained. 7ProC. Am. Ch elll. Soc., 21: 464 plus, 1899. T his problem is one of those whi ch has been in­ S]ollrnal Soc. Ch em. Ind., Sept. 20, 1900: 835. completely solved . H owever, this las t theory is n Colorado Agri. Exp. StaL BIIII ., 155, February 1910. presented to the rea der in a sketchy and incom­ 10M ed. R ef). 9:86, 1806. plete m anner o nl y as another face t in th e whole 11 "Origin of N itrate Deposits", POl). Sci. Mo. 85: 134 -1 45 , Aug. 1914. picture. Ic"Nitrates in Cave Earths", Proc. Soc. Nat. H ist., Boston 5: 334, 1856. !':"O rigin of N itrates in Cavern Earths", iI'f ill. 6- R EFER El\CES Sci. Press, 11 5: 19. 1917. H "R eport o'n Nitrification", Smithsonian Instilllte I LEAT II ER et aI , "The Indian Sa ltpetre Industry". R eports, 186 1. . 2 "Several methods of making sa ltpetre recom­ ]C' R OGERS, "A reprint on the Geology of the Vi r­ mended to the illhabitants of the Ullited Col­ ginias", 1884. onies by their representati\'es in Congress."

GEORGE A. WHITE

George A. '''' hite, a T oledo member of when additional Kentucky caves were ex· the National Speleological Society since plored, including the treacherous "jug" in 1942, died suddenl y at his home on July the old Doyle Cave near Diamond Caverns. 24, 1949. H e was 58 yea rs of age at the Mr. \,Vhite was greatl y interested in the time of his death. work of the Society and his death will be a distinct loss to many of the Society's mem­ A lifelong res ident of Toledo, Mr. bers and to his many friends in Toledo and White was employed by the City of Toledo throughout the State of Ohio. H e was as an Engineering Es timator in the Division President of Local 7, City Employees ngineering and Construction. of E U nion, AFL., Chairman of the Public Em­ Mr. "Vhite was a member of several fi eld ployees Legislative Committee of the State parties [rom T oledo, exploring va ri ous Retirement Sys tem, a member of Euclid caves in the Mammoth Cave region of Ken­ Avenue Methodist Church, an Odd Fell ow tucky. One of these trips was described in and a member of various CI VIC groups in Bulletins No. 6 and 7, as reported by L. E. Toledo. Ward. The fo ll owing year Mr. ' ,Vhite was Surviving are his wi fe, Eva Belle; a member of a similar group, which was daughters, Mrs. T heone Meyers and Mrs. joilled by .J. S. Petrie, Wm . .J. Stephenson Virginia DuFour; sister, Mrs. Bertha Casey, and three other "Vas hington speleologists, Adrian, Michigan, and three grandchild ren.

B ULLETI N N UI\I BER ] I , NOVEM BER] 949 23 Saltpeter Mining in American Caves By GEORGE F. JACKSON

NOTE: A shorter Ve1"S lOn of the following to all patriotic Americans to make themselves article appea1'ed in the Field A rtille1} ] ollnwl independent of foreign sources of supply, sta ting f01' SejJtembe1'-Octobe1' 19-18, unde1' the title tha t the domestic sa l tpeter was far superior to " Caves and the Wm' of 1812". th at imported from India and Spain. Prompted by this report the owner of the R ecent specula ti on regarding the possibility largest gunpowder plant in the country pre­ o[ using the caves of the United States as under­ pared, in 1807, to make arrangements for a trip grou nd workshops, factories and places of refuge through the sa me region to investigate the sa lt­ in case of an Atomic "Var brings to mind the peter deposits. It is not now a matter of record lilLI e- known fact that some of our caves co n­ that he ever found the time 1. 0 make the trip, but tribuled greatly towards our winning an earlier history shows that his itinerary was ma pped out conflict-the War of 18 12. and that he rea lized the importance of securing This war might have ended in disaster for nitrates from a home so urce. lhe United States had it not been for the abun­ Today, in both Mammoth Cave, Kenlllcky, dance of sa ltpeter, one of the principal ingredi­ now part of l\Iammoth Cave Nati onal Park, and ents of gunpowder, furnished by some America n in ' Vya ndotte Cave, Indiana-two of the largest caverns. known caves in the world-may be seen the re­ At the start of hOSlilities we were completely mains of the old saltpeter " mines". In Mam­ cut off from foreign sources of supply by Eng­ moth the relics are perfectly preserved and may land's embargo, and for a number of years after be seen in almost their entirety just as left by th e start of war enormous quantities of the then the old miners, more than 136 years ago. T he precious mineral were "mined" in various sec­ ancient wooden pipes, leaching vats, wooden tions of Kentucky and Indiana. hoppers, and their supports, the aC lllal lracks of T he fact that sa ltpeter, or potassium nitrate, the ox-carts and the hub marks worn on the co uld be made from the ni trous dirt in some of sides of the narrow tunnels by the creaking th e caves was among the many enterprising' dis­ wagons are still in a remarkable state of preser­ coveries of the pioneers who followed in the vation. These are all that are left to tell the story footsteps of Daniel Boone during the earl y part of hard labors in dim subterranean workshops­ of the nineteenth cenlllry. Since gunpowder was labor that ca nnot be applauded too highly be­ one of the absolute necessities of li fe and its im ­ cause it contributed grea tl y toward our successes pOl-ta ti on through wilderness trails and over in the second conflict with England. loft y mountain passes was a long, hazardous and At ,,,rya ndotte Cave, in southern Indiana, complica ted operation, this was an important the remai ns of the sa ltpeter mines are not so well miles tone, preserved, since they were abandoned nearer the As earl y as 1806 the Ameri ca n Philosophi ca l outer air, and temperature and moisture changes Society of Philadelphia had in its possession a have ca used the wooden equipment to disappea r report of the resources of certain Kentucky and almost entirely. Had they been left back in the Virginia caves which said that they would be cavern the dry even temperature would have quile valuable in time of war. T his report was kept them in perfect sha pe [or ages. prepared by a Dr. Samuel Brown of Lexington, P robab ly the first published accoun t o[ the Kelltucky, and described in detail a "great cave" sa ltpeter deposits in the U nited States-and also where, in one spot, workmen dug' for fi ftee n fe et the first printed account of any cave in the co un­ through sol id niter on the Ooor of the cavtrn. try-appeared in 18 19 in William McMurtrie's D r. Brown's report co ntinued with an appeal "S ketch es of Louisville and its Environs" and

24 NATIOI AL SPELEOLOGICAL SOC IETY {"ho / p.'. cO (lr/l'sy .\'a/ionerl Pari, Srrcia. U . S. /Jeparrm l'nt of the I nterror

l ' I'J'E lt: ~al t I' .. tn' !'('al'lIing' Yats in iU:lInlllotll (':t n ' , 1\,\'" lI SI' d in ,':\:II'a <'ling' Salt P e ln~ 1'01' the Ill a llllf:tl'f llre o f g'lInpo\nlpl' ,III1'in g' til .. \"al' of l X I ~, LO\"Elt: 0"1 wHod(' n pipt's lI sl'd ill Ic:tl'lIing' S aH J'c tre solll t ioll frolll lilt' lIill'Oll S t':trlh in :U:tIlIlIlOlh (':tn', Ii:y,

13 l l 1.1 , ETI i'\ l'\ U i\ IB E R II , NOV E i\ IB ER 19-1-9 25 described W ya ndo tle Cave, R derring Lo it as in 18 11. H e kepL it just about long e no ugh LO Lh e "Mammo th Ca\"C of India n a" M cMurtrie sell it to a Mr. G a tewood , thaL genLleman selling qlloLes Genera l " Villiam H e nry H a rrison as say­ it almost immediaLel y to M essrs. G ratz and \Vil­ ing ,IL the time he yi siLe d Lh e cave ( IS06) ", , , kins a t a bout Lh e time the \IVar o f 1812 sLarled . Lh ere were , , , e normous lumps o f some saline IvJost o f the old accounts arc quiLe \'agu e, bU L all m a ller sca Ltered o\'er Lh e fl oor , i ndi vidua l pieces seem LO agree LhaL l\Jr. A.rchibalcl Miller, acting o( which, , , would have ,,'eighed (rom on e LO as agent (or Gratz a nd "Vilkins, m ad e a " (0 1' ­ LWO hundred pounds, " T his is undoubLedl y a n Wne for them [rom the saltpeLer business" dur­ exaggeration and w hat H a rrison pro ba bl y h ad ing the "Var o f 1812. rdere n ce to ,,'ere Lh e huge piles o ( (allen rock U ndoubLedly, sla ve labor was used for nlln­ tha t still d OL Lh e p assageway h ere a nd Lh ere, ing wiLhin the cave and a ll h eavy work o ULside, Continuing, Mcl\[unrie says thaL Lh e eanh T he nitro us dirt was pro ba bly gaLh ered up in in th e cave " , , , con ta ins abouL fi\ "C po unds o f sacks in the slll a ller and m ore rem ote ch a nnels the nitra Le o ( lime or m agnesia , Lo the bushel, a nd carried LO the large pass;weways where it a nd is composed of d eca ying animal a nd \'ege­ was dUlllped in great piles, From th ese supply La ble m a Lter. " dumps ox-carts aga in Lr; ll1 spon ed the din LO Lh e ,'\ L Lh e Lim e o( M d 'vlurtrie's re port \ Vya ll ­ leaching va lS, or ho ppers, M a rks o f the huge d Olle was in Lh e possessio n o ( a Dr. Salllue l hubs o f Lh e unwicldl y carlS a rc pla inl y seen LO ­ Adams wh o had secured the cave a nd Lh e la nd d ay o n som e o [ the lilllesLo ne ",;dls. su rro u nding i LS m o uLh (ro m the governmen t (or T h e vaLS were from eigh L LO Le n fee l ",ide, Lh e purpose o f m a king sa ltpeter. T he onl y por­ fo ur or fi ve feet lo ng , a nd a b o uL the sa m e de p Lh , Li o n o r th e cayern the n known was Lh e pan now with hotto 11l s 0 1 slll a ll Jogs, spli L in h alves, T hese ca ll ed the " Old Ca\'e R o uLe" and LO it Dr, were ro ug hl y groO\'CeJ and placed in two layers, Ada ms ga \'e Lh e name " India n a Sa lLpeLer Cave" Lh e firsL res Lin g on wood en suppon s WiLh cun'eel a lLh oug h h e laLer rderred to it as his " Epsom surfaces d own, the second \\'i t h cO ll\'ex surface Sa i LS Ca\'e," up, a nd fiLting inLO grooves in those be nealh , The neX L accounL or Ame ri can sa ltpeLer d e­ The waLe I' need ed for the leaching process was posits a ppeared in Volume I , " Tra nsacti o ns a nd piped , also in wood e n pipes, (rom the o utside Coll eClions o ( the American ,-\l1liquaria n So­ a nd a (Ler pass ing thro ug h the fin e din in Lh e (" ieL y", wh ich was p ri nLed in IS20, The report h o ppers was made LO fl ow inLO Lh e slTlall pits a ppeared in a n a ppe ndix entitled "A ccount o f ncar the va ts, fronl \\'here iL was conducLed lO a G rea L a nd Very EX Lr aordina ry Ca\'e in In­ a larger resen 'o ir to be pumped LO Lhe surface, dia na, in a le LL er from Lh e O w ner to a Gentle­ T h e leached a nd discarded din \\'as Lhrown inLo m a n in Fra nkfort, Ke n tucky," T he le LL er was large piles LO o ne side, well o u t o( the wa y o ( wrillen b y Dr. Adams o n February 27, ISIS, but op era ti ons. was not publish ed until IS20, U po n reaching Lh e elllra nce Lh e concel1lrateel H e referred LO Lh e cave' as his "E psom Sa I ts wa tel', or " beer " as Lh e workers called i L, was Caye" a nd m e nLi o ned Lh e am o unL o ( tha L min­ run thro ugh h o ppers fill ed \\'i th wood ashes, era l a bounding in Lh e ca vern a nd a lso s LaLed Lh e n bo il ed and cooled in Lh e ,," ood e n Lr oug hs, Lh aL " T h e neX L productio n is the nitra Le o( lime Abo ut 2 1 ho urs later the crys tals o ( pOLassium or sa ltpe LtT eanh , There arc vaS L qua l1liLi es o r niLra Le which fornled \\' el'C relll oved , p acked a nd this eanh and equal in sLr eng Lh to a n y Lha t I shipped to Lh e EasL- pro ba bl y Philadelphia­ h;l\'e e \'er seen ." by p ack mules and o Lh er primilive m e thods of Dr. Adams carried o n Lh e business o ( m a king Lran sponaLion , i\liller is quo Led as h a ving to ld s; dLpeLer on a ve r y eX Le nsive sca le, H owever, his employers Lhat they "could supply Lh e whole with Lh e war o yer the business becam e less pro­ p o pula ti on o ( Lh e g lo be wi Lh sa ILp e ter fro m fiLab le a nd h e gaye u p his cla im on Lh e cave for M a mmo Lh Ca\'e alo ne, " In ore lucra ti\'e fi elds. ?vJeanwhil<.:, down in cenLral Ke ntucky, re­ One o ld \\'ri Le I' sa ys tha L Lh e a ve rage da i IY pon s b y early explorers o ( Mamlllo Lh Cave o ( iLS yield was from Lhree LO fiv e hundred po unds of nit roll s dirl. led to i LS purch ase by a i\ Jr. M c Lean sa Ilpeler, "wonh from six teen to lwe n ty-fi ve

26 NATION AL SPELEOLOG ICAL SOC IETY ce nts a pound" and tha t the cost of making was LIST OF GROTTOES about four cents a pound. vVherever sufficient interes t in speleologi­ Although a number o( other caves were cal research or other activi ty exists members mined for sa ltpeter during the early part of the of the National Speleological Society are en­ nineteenth ce ntury, apparently at none of them couraged to form "grottoes". These localized were the workings as extensive as at Mammoth units generally select their own officers, or­ and \IVya ndotle caves, or i( so, the caves not ganize fi eld trips, carryon self-inspired rec having become fa mous as have the two cited, they have been fo rgotten, in mos t cases, even by search projects in a particular cave or series local histor y. Scattered throughout the cave of caves, and otherwise implement the efforts section of ~ h e country there are many caves of the parent bod y. Following is a list of such known today as "Saltpeter Cave" or "Salt Cave" local uniLs, with the names and addresses of because of this ea rly industry, but all of them persons to co ntact for info rmation: were worked on a compara ti ve ly small scale.

Dixon's Cave, sa id by so me speleologist to I . A di'rondack 13. New England W illiam E. Barnes , Kenyon L. Sweitzer have been the origina l mou th of Mammoth, was 38 Ch urch Street, 26 So , Mountain Road, well worked by the peLer miners and its fl oors L ittl e Falls, N. Y. Pittsfield, Mass. 2. Ch01'leslon 14. Nitlany completely overturned by them. T he rocky piles Sarah McFarland, 506 Taney Street, Morris J a rrett, of discarded material within it give some idea Sigma Ph i Alp ha, Charleston, "\T. Va. o( the amount of labor involved fo r many are Sta te College, Pa, 3. Cha rloll,esville (rom thirty to fo rty feet in heigh t and forty fee t Lou is H errink, 15. Philadelphia through the base. Law School, Margaret Loye, University of Virginia, 625 Fordham R oad, Saltpeter Cave, loca ted one-q uarter mile Charlottesv ille, Va. Bala-Cynwyd , Pa. 4·. Cleveland from \IVya ndotte, was also mined during the Betty Yoe, 16. Pillsbw'gh \IVa r o[ 1812, but since the cave is fairly short 28923 Westwood R oad. J. R. Fisher, Bay Village, Ohio 1700 Crafton Blvd., it co uld have furnished only a sma ll amount of 5. Dislrict of Columbia Apt. 7, Lh e nitrates mined in these parts. Nancy Rogers, Pittsburgh 5, Pa. 184 1 R Street, N .W., 17. Rensselaer Washington, D. C. Donaldso n's Cave, in what IS now Spring Arthur H. Fieser, 6. Elhills 634 Magenta Street, M ill State Park, may have been worked during Robert L. L utz, Tew .Yo rk 67, N. Y. 302 Center Street, Lh e peter-mining era for Professor J ohn Collett Elkins, W. Va. 18. R ich mon d - in the Indiana Geological R eport fo r 1873- 7. £ 111 0 ') ' Unive rsily Betty V. Loyd, George l\ r. GOla, R .D. 2, says that "abou t the year 1800, gunpowder was 2230 Stephen Long Drive, ' Vay nesboro, Va. here made [rom the great supply of nitrous earth N.E., 19. SOltth em California in the upper chambers of the cave, remains of Atl anta, Georgia Dr. W. R . H alliday, 8. H elderberg Naval Sh ipyard Lh e powdermill still being visible." W hat he Kenneth O. Stra ney. Dispensa ry, may have referred to, however, is the grist mill 44 Vley R oad, Long Beach, Cali f. Scoti a, N. Y, thaL stands near the cave entrance and which 20. SOI/. l "west NTi ssou,l'i 9. [n diana Shirley Bridgeforth, was erected by the first pioneer se ttlers oE the George F. J ackson, Box 520, R oute 3, Box 170, R .D. 5, Sp ringfield , Mo. region. Evansv ille, Ind. 10. [alVa City 2 1. Sianford T hus it may be seen that the caves of Amer· W illiam L. Petrie. J ohn Funkhouser, 4 11 North Duhuque Sr. , Beaverdam, Va. ica had their day of glory in helping us to win in 10ll'a City, Iowa 22. T ri-ColLtlt)' a wa r and it is quite possible that some o( our II, Lexinglo n Charles J . H anor, Richard R . i\ [cDonald, 84 Elm Street. greater caves, with their thick protecti ve layers 52 1 J ackso n Ave., O neonta, N. Y. Lexington, Va. of rock and soil , may aga in do their sh are in 12. Metro/JO lilan N. Y. 23. V. P'!. serving as shelter and factory sites if there is a Ronnie Moorse, J . D. Lawrence, 214 1\1 errick R oad , Box 5453 Va. Tech. Sta., fu ture one in SLore E(H us. Bellmore, L. 1., N. Y. Blacksburg, Va.

B ULLETI N N UMBE R 11 , N OVEMB ER 1949 27 CAVE SIC KNESSES By W. R. HALLIDAY, B.A., M.D.

In recent months there has been marked 10- The symptoms of this previously unrecog­ teres t and m ore than a little apprehension nized condi tion somewhat resemble those of vi­ among cavers who have heard of the recently rus pneumonia,' with chills and fever begi nning published report entitled "CAVE SICKN ESS­ suddenly after a head cold, fo llowed by chest A NEW DISEASE ENTITY ?".' · ~ There has pain, headache, vomi ting, marked nervous ir­ been co nsiderable confusion fr om hearsay on ritability and 'weight loss. Cough is only mild. the subject, and an evalua tion of the topic in Prostration was usually marked, and one patient terms of its application to speleology would lapsed into coma for L18 hours. Severity of the seem in order. W e will in this paper discuss this co ndition va ried markedly, bu twas roughly pro­ disease of unknown cause, and a few diseases to portional to the length of the exposure. All which cavers are known to be exposed. recovered wi thin a week or two, bu t were left At Foreman, Ark., on a bluff 9verlooking the with shortness of breath and easy fa tigueability R ed River, there is a small limes tone cave which for a period of several months. X-ray showed is locall y sa id to contain treasure buried by J esse far wider infectious spread than was expec ted J ames, DeSoto, or someone else, depending on from examination of the chest, with a pattern the source of the story." Abollt 50 years ago the indicating uniform diffuse involve ment of both outermost room was enlarged in an unsuccessful lungs, but clem'ed paralleling the clinica l course, attempt to develop commercial limestone pro­ and reverting to normal within two months.' duction. It is described by Dr. T uohy, who co n­ A great multitude of laboratory tests were ducted the studies alluded to, as being: "com­ carried out in an attempt to determine the cause posed of many small cells co nnected in sequence of this illness. The air and dust of the cave were by ap·ertures low to the ground through which also carefully examined. No definite conclusions one must wriggle from room to room . .. The were reached, but the researchers strongly sus­ opening ... is roughly 5' x 10' and as far as we pect Histoplasma, a little-known fungus-like or­ co uld ascertain, furnished the only source of ganism.4 Attempts to rule out of consideration ve ntilation for all the subsequent chambers. Monilia, a yeast-like fungus, were unsuccessful. T hese rooms varied in size from 5' x 8' X 20' (c) This las t organism is the known cause of several to 20' X 10' X 40' (c). We explored eight in se­ reported cases showing similarity to those de­ quence and had not followed the cave to its scribed above, and is suspected as being the etio­ end ... ·' logical agent in two somewhat similar epidemics, On Sep t. 12, 1947, a party of 25 local persons one of which ce ntered around a storm cell ar." ranging in age from 11 to 55, the average being There are a number of co nditions prevalent · 19.5, began to excavate the cave in search of the in caves which predispose to illness of one kind fabled treasure. Flashlights served as illumina­ or another. These include agents of trauma, in­ ti on, and extremely crude equipment and tech­ halation, exposure, and the micro-organisms, nig li es were used throughou t, a pparen tl y thor­ not to men tion disturbances of psychogenic ori­ oughly disturbing the cave floor. Four days la ter gin like claustrophobia, the discussion of which sickness began to appear among the workers and has no place in this paper. In any event, it may by the thirteen th Cia y after even a brief ex posure, be seen at the onset that the problem is a com­ all who h ad entered the cave became ill. No one plicated one. with whom they were otherwise in co ntact de­ veloped this unusual sy ndrome, indicating that T he questions of trauma, as from falling the co ndition was one resulting from exposure rocks or wildcat bite, and of physica l exposure in th e cave and not transmit1.ed frol11 one perso n can be dispensed with quickly. Most cavers are to another. well aware of the dangers of thorough wetting

28 NATIONAL SPE LEOLOGICAL SOC IETY and cold over a period of time, and no one has \IVyoming and California, but are not common ever demonstrated a higher incidence of pneu­ in limes tone ca verns, due to the excell ent cross­ monia among members of the NSS, suggesting ventilati on typical o f their geology. that normal precautions in this regard are rou­ Other gases are not common in caves. Meth­ tinely followed. Ice-containing lava caves are in ane, or coal damp, has never to our knowledge general not suffi ciently large enough to m ake bee n repon ed in a limestone cave. Ammonia, fros tbite a major cave problem. however, occurs in irrita ting quantities in wet The sources of poten tial danger, it lll ay then guano ca ves and is not filtered out by all gas be see n, lie in the fi elds of bacteriology and the masks. H ydrogen sulfide is encountered in many mechanica l inbalents, and it is not poss ible to \'olcanic regions, in some locali ties in deadly full y separate these factors. a mou n ts, bu t the typical odor of rotten eggs, There are many chemical substances which if no t m as ked by that of ca rbide, serves as warn­ may be considered as toxic occurring in ca ves . ing. It is al50 produced as a byproduct of im­ Silicosis, fortunately, is not the probl em in caves pure ca rbide", and from this can concei\'ably that it is in lllining, due to their primary occur­ build up to a dangerous concentration in a lo­ rance in limestone, the dust from which is rela­ ca tion with poor ve ntilati on. Long-continued tively chemically inert in regard to reaction with inhala ti on of even a low concen tration of this bod y ti ss ues compared with th at of similar silica gas can produce chem ical bronchitis and p neu­ dust. Nevertheless there haye bee n reports of monitis, as well as eye, m ou th and other symp­ transien t moderately severe lung disorders fol­ tOlns'''. lowing inhalation of any type of conce ntrated So much for the so-called nonspeCi fi c mala­ dust, limes tone included.G. ' dies. There are a number of anima l vectors of Cave dust also contains particles of ba t gua­ micro-organisms that have predilections fo r no and ra t droppings in most instances, along caves and should be a\'oided as at least potential with other organic m a tter. -While no studies of so urces o[ disease. Bats are well known carriers the cfIect of inhalation of these agents have been of ticks, fl eas and mites, 11 and a t least the former made, it seems unlikely that it would prove ben­ two are \'ectors of such conditions as relapsing e fi cia l. These particles ca n cause direct in-ita­ [ever, Q [eyer, tularemia and R ocky Mounta in ti on and allergic responses, a nd ca rry bacteria spotted fever. Birds also are h os ts [or these para­ and fungi even more than d o those of ordinary si tes, a ld also serve as a theoretical source of dust. From perso nal ex perience in Bodfish Cave, ornithos is. Cave rats, like those outside, can Ca lifornia, the author ca n state that inhalation transmit rat bite [ever directly, "Veil 's disease for a period of two minutes of a high conce ntra­ (a type of jaundice) through the urine, and all tion of cave dust with a little powdered bat gu­ the fl ea-borne diseases including plague. Actua l­ ano will produce a noticea bl e shortness of ly, however, the occurrance o[ potential rattle- breath and, on deep 'respiration, pain for a cou­ nake bite in so me T exas caves'" is probably pl e of days. Students of archeology routinely more importa n t. Not to be neglected are the wear dust mas ks wh en stratigraphing cave sites, diseases transmitted by mosquitoes, which a p­ and we would do well to emulate them in dusty parently hibernate extensive ly in ca ves.' :: caves. It is use less (or one wh o has never seen a case ] n a discussi on of th is na lUre, the ques tion of of "cave sickness" to speculate on its ca use when gases always arises. In the 19'18 Bulletin there well trained researchers with all the resources was a reference to phosgene forming' in cave or modern science avail able on the scene were mud.' This would be a major probl em if con­ unable to reach any conclusion. R egardless of firm ed. Until chemical ana lys is is available, the ultimate etiology, h owever, some" 'definite judging from the symptoms. it would seem bet­ co nclusions ca n be reached. Ass uming that the ter to ass ume these particul ar bubbles to consist three similar epidemics mentioned actually rep­ of ca rbon dioxide, which, in contradistincti on resent the same entity, disturbed dust was mark­ from phosgene, is readily formed under the cir­ edly present in two, and probably inhalabl e in cumsta nces descri bed . Da ngerous conce n tra tions the third. The incubation period of the m alady 111 of CO 2 arc known in some limestCln e fi ss ures and its general nature suggest that it is m ore

B ULLETIN NUMBER 1] , NOVEMBER 1949 29 likely some low grade infecti ous agent carried in the dust rather than a direct chemical pneu­ monitis, which usua ll y develops promptly and disappears within a few days. vVhether "cave sickness" represents an in­ fection, an allergic res ponse to some organic fac­ tor inhaled, or a n aC llte direct chemical inflam­ mation, it would seem tha t speleologists ca n re­ main reass ured. In onl y one cave h as this con­ dition been reported, and there under quite un­ nalUral circumstances. R epea ted ex pos ure of Clamping m etal hanrl 011 wing of bat. men and tes t animals in these localities at o ther times under more normal circumsta nces h as re­ sulted in no illness whatsoever. Concerning the IF YOU FIND A BANDED BAT other diseases disc ussed, al though lrom this arti­ Many hundreds ol bats have been banded cl e it might seem diffi cul t to emerge from a cave within the pas t lew years. Some of them have in reasonable health, cavers ca n from their own been banded in caves, during hiberna ti on, experi ence rea lize that the dangers are more po­ and others else where during the SU1l1m er ten ti al than actual. mon ths. T he banding has bee n d one to en­ Des pite all this, the subject remains of abl e the bander lO discover various things marked interes t to all cavers, and is deserving about these animals. (-low long do they live? 01' r1os(' study in an attempt to determine the Do th ey a lways go to the sa 1l1 e cave? Do they ca usa ti ve ageIll of the "sickness." All cases re­ migrate? H ow lar d o they travel from their sem bli ng those described should be reported to summer home to reach the cave? T hese are the Society as soon as poss ible in hopes that a some ol the questions the ba t bander hopes to sllldy ca n be made under the conditions pro­ get answered by banding. ducing the illness, if another outbreak is found Speleologists ca n render a grea t service to to occur. Only thus can it be d ecided if "cave science by reporting all banded bats encoun­ sickness" is actuall y a sickness of caves. tered . Examine the band carefully, and re­ cord the lull number. T here is always a series REFERENCES number and spec ifi c number on each band, I \ 'VAS II JlUR N, A . i\f., TUO HY , J. H., a nd DAVIS, E . L. for example 48-87652. Note also the date and Cave Sickness, a New Disease Entity? A III. ./. Pub. H ellllh, 38 (II ): 152 1-1 526, (Nov.) 191B . place where found. R eport yo ur finds to " R OCERS, N. Cave sickness. D . C. S/J cleogra/Jh , H : 12, pp. 2-3, ( Dec.) 19·18. Fish ancl \IVi ldlife Service

=< A no n . Cave ickness, a new disease. A r /wlIslI s U . S. D epartmen t oE In terior H ealth Bull. (Nov.) 19·17, p. 3. vVashington, D. C. ., TUO II Y, J. H . Pel son'l l cO lllmunication. ,; CA IN, J. C ., ll F. \·INS, E. J., a nd DOWNI NC, J. E. A n The Fish and Wildlife Service will notify the Unusual Pulmo nary Disease. A reh lil t. M ed., 79 (6): 626-641, (.J une) 19·17. bander of yo ur discovery, and will also in form GBL UF. , J. ,\. Dust, Its Elfect o n Man. So . M . ./ ., yo u as to when and where and by whom the 3 1 ( 10): 1101 - 11 06, 1938. bat was banded. ' KNUCKE Y, C. T. R espirato r y Conditio ns in the Dust Bow l. R Olli), Mill. M . ./ ., 35 : '166--16B, 193B. N ever remove the band unless the ba t is ~ WII ITF. , P. J. Phosgene in the Dark. NSS Bullel.ill, found dea d, and disturb th e bats as little as 10: lI B, 1948. !l KOIILS, G. i\f., and J EL LI SON, "V. G . ECLOpa rasites necessary during yo ur explora ti ons. Bats are and other Arthropods O ccurring in Texas Ba t benefi cial animals, des troyi ng great q uan ti ties Caves. NSS Bllllelill , 10: 11 6- 11 7, 194B. of objec ti onable insects every summer. They ' OSO LUI AN , W. A M IIIIIIIII of P/wnllllcoiogy, (6 th Eel.) Sa unders, Philadelphia, 194 -1. p . 766. ca n be handled without danger with gloved II IIl id, pp. 140-1'11. hands. Your reports of banded bats may be ' " FOWU-:R, J. A. A Texas Snake Den. NSS BILllelill, 10: lI B, 19·IB. of es peciall y great value if they happen to be '" CU NN I NC II A~ I , J. ,v. a nd BURR iLl ., A. C. i\ l os­ made where the ori ginal bancler is unable to Cjui LOcs O verwintering in Caves. NSS Bullelll1 , visit himse lf. 9: 5-1-56, 19-17. 30 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Some Unnsnal Formations in Skyline Caverns, Va. By E. P. H ENDERSON

Associate ell ra tal', M i nerology and Petro logy, Un ited States National j\tlllsellll1

Early in 194 8 the aUlhor experienced lhe pleasure of a vi sit to Skyline Cavcrns near Front Roya l, Va. The excursion was especially inter­ esting as it was made during the season when the Caverns were closed to the public and bccause VV. S. Amos of Skylinc Caverns pcrsonally con­ ducted the to ur and provided ample timc to enjoy it. At the time of this visit to the Caverns somc new rooms were explored. Finding a chamber is a slow a nd difficult task and requires c1caning mud from long narrow channels until a room is found. In order for us to ga in entrance to onc room it was nccessary to crawl or wriggle in a Fig". 1. A cius tel' of s lllall tubuhu stalactites 0 11 the prone posi tion for abou t 50 feet and then to ceiling' or a rool1\ . These fO I'mations lU-e described by squeeze through a sma ll porlhole-like opening t he ofricials at ,'I{yline Ca \'el'II S as "a,nthodites". into the chamber. Once inside we could easil y move about beca use there thc roof was about Thc cavern offic ial ha\'c gi\'en thesc com­ 3 fect above the level of the mud. plexly branching tubular formati ons (Fig. I) a The upper surface of the mud was firm and new name, "anthodites" [rom the Greek word where the cntra nce had bee n cut through, stra ti­ "anthos" mea ning fl owers. With a little imagi­ fi ed la yers were secn. As we crawled over the na ti on some resemblence to a fl ower ca n be mud numerous wide shrinkage cracks were recogni zcd. It appears that cavern gu ides are noticed indica ting that thcre h? d been consider­ a lways alert to their duty of stimulating the able vo lume reduction. These shrinkage cracks imaginati ons of their visitors. may have been formcd since the room was Thus they make a distinction between antho­ opened beca use the author was not present when dites and h e l ec tit e~. They limit helectites to thc the actual opening was made but the evidence distorLcd twig like latera l projections of calcium of layers in the clay and the firmness of the clay carbonatc which are found on a stalactite and cl early indica ted it had bee n consolidated to a anthodites to the small cluster of complexly considerable degree. Probabl y thesc wide shrink­ branching tubular sta lactites o f about eq ual age cracks represen ted cnlargemen ts o f some length. This ncwl y coined name Ill ay or may not sma ll cr oncs that had developed prior to the have been needcd, however, as it is not the pur­ opening of this room. posc o[ this pa per to disc ll ss problems of nomen­ They informed me that this chamber is about clature or defi ne the charactcristi cs which each 25 feet in diamcter and that the thickness of the namc implies. mud o n the Aoor has not been d ctcrmined . A [c\\· The formations are confined to the ceiling broken fragments of fa ll en stalaclites were found and upper side-walls of this room and the major­ on the surface of the mud. On the roof and ity of them seem to be cl usters of slll all tubes higher parts of the side walls thcre werc numer­ originating nea r a common point, radia tino' out­ ous clusters of slender branching tubular forma­ ward and downward. A number of peculiar ones tions. None were sec n tha t were longer tha n were seen which are worthy of special mention. about 18 inches and I\lost of lhcm averaged Some were seen which had grown downward for aboul fi inchcs. severa l inches and thcn developed a gTowth near

B ULLETIN NUMBER 11. NOVEl\fBER 1949 31 the lower end of the tube which extended out­ Assuming this to be the case there then exists ward and diagonally downward. A few were a room which has mud on the Hoor, covered over found where the long tube extended downward with water and si nce the ceiling is domed, air is for several inches, branched and grew back up trapped above the water. A room blocked off in towards the roof. (Fig. 2) such a manner may later be reopened if the mud consolidates and shrinks below the level of the opening'. Evidence that this has happened exists because some of the longer tubes suspended from the roof had several inches of mud on their lower ends indicating th at the water level had raised subsequent to their growth.

' Nhen a pendant extending downward, CO I)­ tacted the wa ter on the Hoor of the cave, growth would stop. If the water level is raised above the tip of the stalactite a ,;v ater mark will occur on it. The distance th e discolorati on extends up from the bottom may not be the exact level of the water because there is a chance that some of the muddy water wi ll be pulled up on th e tube. T he cavern officia ls say th a t when a colorless tube is dipped into muddy water it discolors some dis­ F ig'. 2. An unus ual stltlactite at Sllyline Cavem s, Va. tance above th e level of th e water. This may be Ono delicate t ubo extends dowllwa.nl about 5% inches, due to the fact that the tube th ey are tes ting h as hranch es and has extended itself almost to t he ceiling'. an empty channel in it through which water ca n As we Ill oved abou t exam i ni ng these deli cate rise by capillary action, but the tubular forma­ fo rma tions one of the workmen sa id that these tions still attached to the roof more than likely seemed to have grown in a vacuulll. On question­ contain water inside of them, hence these are not ing him he said that his hat was sucked off his likely to be discolored very far above the level head when th e opening was made into this of th e water outside the tube. chamber, which to him indicated that the room had been sealed sh ut.

Explanation for the Reduced Air Pressure T hese rooms and narrow passage ways be­ twee n them ori gin ated from the so lution of the country rock, li mestone, in the ground water. The impurities in the li mestone, such as ferrous iron wi ll oxidi ze and a brown h ydrous iron oxide wi ll form which will be mixed with the clay like m aterial from the limestone. T his materi al is mecha n icall y tra nsported by the moving water ~hr o u g h these channel ways until the velocity of th e wa ter is checked and the sediments precipi­ ta ted. After a large cham ber has been Form ed along a channel way its outlet may become partly Fig. 3. The la"'gcst shllactite in this room in Sll yline d ammed and a lake formed. T he sediments car­ Ca.ve,·ns, Va, 'This is ahuut 18 inches long and allOut ried by the water will then be deposited in this ~ of an inch in diameter at the lowe,' end. A symntett'i­ la ke. T here may come a ti me when the ou tl et of cal tube has gTown out f"om It complex cIuste,' of s pines a.nd a, thidle.· tuhe. This c1uste,' of stalactites the chamber is completely stopped up by sedi­ a,re \flcfLte d nea,,' a- fnl(,hll'o in the coiling' whero t he ments and th e level of the mud which has been "ate of How of the ",ato,· must IHWO beon gTeate.· tlmn froll1 t h e small pO"es in the "oof a"ound whidl t he carri ed into the lake could cl ose off the entrance s ll1all "anthodit es" forme (1. to the room. 32 NATIO NAL S P ELEOLOG ICAL SOC IETY \IVhen a room is sea led shut the press ure on fl ow of wa ter permits random crystallizati on to the trap ped air might even be increased to take place across the opening at the end of the sligh tly above the norlll al air press ure if the tu be. Growth of a single crys ta l across the open­ water table in the surrounding rocks is raised ing, but not completely obstructing it, will make above the entrance o[ the room. Hut this is not two new openings which in turn will have likely to be the case [or more than a bri er interval crys tallization across them. T his growth of crys­ of ti me. tals develops a sort of a porous crys talline screen Once the entrance and ex it o[ a room is sealed which further retards the How of solution as well off by sedilllen ts there remains two ways in which as diff uses the sol u ti on through a larger area. the air press ure can be reduced to less than Hence the diameter of the tubular stalactite is norma I. a ne· is [or the llIud on the Hoor to be­ increased. come consolidated thus taking up less volume. Several broken fo rmations were collected T he other way is fo r the ,,·a ter above the mud to from the Hoor of the cavern. W hen these were diff use through the pores in the wa ll rock when again broken and the cross secti on of the struc­ the wa ter table in the surrounding rocks is ture (found on the thicker end) was compared lowered . T he loss of wa ter and the consolidati on with that of the narrow tube, near the poin t of o[ the Illud will give the air a chance to expand, attachment, a difference was observed . A rather hence its press ure Ill ay be lo,,·e r. symmetrica l arrangemen t o f crys ta lline structure surrounds the open channel in the tube at the Explanation for the Formation narrow portion of the stalactite and the crysta ls of Some Tubes with Unusual Habits radi ate out from the ce ntral cavity. A cross sec­ vV hen the air press ure ,,·ithin a scaled roolll ti on of the thicker porti on of the stalactite usual­ is reduced there Ill ay be a tendancy [or the wat:' r ly shows several small and poorl y defin ed chan­ to be sucked frolll the pores o[ the ex posed rock nels and an open mesh work of deli ca te crys tals. within the roolll . T he water that exudes from If for some reason the press ure on the wa tel' these pores may start to depos it its dissolved ca l­ in these stalacti tes is increased, which is the same cium ca rbonate and make a stalacti te. T hese thing as saying the Aow of wa ter becomes more grow by a process known to all speleologists, rapid, then each of these deli ca te openings which e.g., thro ugh water being ca rried down through exist in the mesh of open crystals becomes a point the ce ntra l opening in the tu be and depos iting where a new tu bul ar growth ca n develop. its sa lts around the open end of the tu be. T hus T he long tubular formati ons usuall y show llI ore or less normal growth \\·ill continue as long considerable vari ation in their d iameter and be­ as the wa ter fl ows rather rapidly through the come ·ncreasingly more and more delicate as tu be. But o nce the Aow is ·retarded the tube grows their length is increased . T heir we igh t may then under a di ffe rent set o r co ndi tions. exert a greater pull than the bond which binds vVh en the solutio n Il o" ·s rather fas t through the particles in the sidewall s together; hence they the tube, drops form at the opening, the salts may break off a nd fa ll or minor ruptures will depos it around the drop, and the crys tals tend to occur through which some solution may seep. A form a radiating crysta lline pattern outward new latera l arm may fo rm or the crystalline from the ce nter o[ the tube. Si nce the com posi­ depos it may sea l the fracture shut. ti o n of the solution rellla ins rather constant and T he secondary growth on a suspended stalac­ as long as the rate of (1 0 \\· continues at a fi xed tite which extends ou t in a more or less hori zo n­ rate, a tube with a rather constan t diameter will tal directi on will exert leverage and fa ilure of a form. T hese formations occuring within thi s hori zo ntal arl1l is more likely to occur on the room in Skyline Caverns usua ll y have a more or upper side of the tube than on the lower beca use less sy mmetri ca l cy lindrica l tube near the place leverage places the upper side wall s u ncler o[ attachnlent but as the tube increases in length tension. there is a tendency [or its diameter to increase to O nly a fe w o[ the tubes attached to the ceil ­ severa l times its fo rmer di 'l111 eter. ing in this room were longer than the general T he reason the tubes tend to increase in average and only a limited number of these diameter after they have gro\\·n for some d istance longer ones had a com plex habi t. Since there is explained by the in creased fri cti on the sides is a te ndency fo r the shorter formati ons to offer to the llI ovemen t of water. A ve ry sluggish branch and form very complex habits, the ab-

B U LLETI N NUl'vf BER 1] , NOVEi\fBE R 1949 33 sence of the longer complex tubes is explained by the fact that their weight may cause them to break off. Features of Cave The unusual stalactite shown in Fig. 2 first grew downward as a long tube with a small cliam­ Breakdown- eter. There are several places where the side­ wa lls are thicker like nodes of a plant stem. The By WILLIAM E. DAVIES downward portion of this formation must have grown faster than the arm which reaches towards Of all the features in caverns, the most awe the ce iling because the solution could in all inspiring and fearful are the huge masses of probability, move faster when it descended in the [allen, broken rock known as breakdown. Such tube. '!\Then the tube turned and growth started rockfalls are found in most caves and are an up the rate of flow of the solu tion through the interesting phase of their development. tube would decrease as the upturned arm would Breakdown ~a n be classed into several groups contain water and this acts as a check on the rate according to the mode of origin. The simplest of flow down the other arm. T he diameter of the Lype is Lhat resulting from solution work along walls of the upward arm is considerably larger joints. Most rock when subjected to forces caus­ than the downward arm. This would indicate ing uplift or folding develops microscopic fis­ that as the movement of the solution through the sures known as joints. T hese joints are most tube is slowed down the thickness of the walls abundantly developed along vertical planes with tend to increase. subordinate ones along horizontal planes. ' !\Tater, in utilizing the small joint openings in its sub­ L. C. Huff 1 in some cleverly devised experi­ terranean movement, removes material and in­ ments in which he made artificial helectites creases the size of the joints. The removal of fou nd that when the flow of solution was suffi­ material continues until such a time that the cient a stalactite like tube formed but when the block surrounded by the joints is so wea kened va lve controll ing the supply of the solution was that it fa lls from its position in the ceiling of the closed the growth rate was not only slower but cavern. However, joints se ldom confine a single th e habit of the formation became more com­ block but extend in such a manner that they cut plex. Huff produced a branching complex forma­ a number of blocks. In such cases the weakened tion which in some respects resembles that shown rock extends for considerable distance both hori · in Fig. 2 by decreasing the rate of flow of the feeding sol u tion. zontally and vertically and the resultant col­ lapse is of enormous size. The fa llen rock is uni­ Some of the largest and best formations in form in size and tends to be cubical in shape_ this room have grown along fractures in the ceil­ Brea kdown of this type may well be designated ing through which the ground water co uld move as Ceiling Blochs. more rapidly. Some of the shorter and highly r\ similar type of coll apse that is designated complex formations cover large areas of the roof Ceiling Slabs has a somewhat different origin. and even occur on the upper sides of some shelf In limestones that are horizontal in structure like ledges which extend into the room from the water travels along the bedding planes in such a sides of this chamber. Some of these formations manner that it removes soluble materials from appear to have gTown upwards as easily as others the upper surface and deposits a thin film of in­ have grown downwards from the ceiling. soluble residues along the lower surface thus The officia ls of Skyline Caverns have kindly confining the solution work to the bedding offered to present to the U. S. National Museum plane. Water in such cases wi ll travel along the some of these unusual formations when the prob­ bedding plane for considerable distances . Joints lems related to both their removal from the cave by which water could migrate verticall y are and their display in the Museum have been more sea led off by the insoluble coating on Lh e bed­ carefully studied. ding plane. vVhen the solution work has re-

I Lyman C. HlIff, Artificial Helictites and Gypsllm Flow­ · R eprinted from D.C. StJe/cografJII , Vol. III, No.3, March ers , Journal of Geology, V 4H , p.G4 1, 1940 19'19.

34 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY moved the cemellling bonds along the bedding plane, brea kdown occurs in the form of flal , larg'e slabs. In some cas~s, as in Poorfarm Cave, ' Ves t Virginia, the slabs m easure up to 25 fee t by 25 feet in area a nd 2 feet Lhi ck, extending along the passages for over 100 yards. Unlike Lh e Ceiling Blocks, lhe Ceiling Slabs are limiLed verticall y to one or two beds although they ex­ tend over gr~a t e r areas. Although not as common as breakdown re­ sulting from ceiling coll a pse, that res ulting [rom the collapse of passage walls aCCO UlllS for a large amoun t of rock debris in caves. In horizontall y bedded rock it La kes the form of blocks similar in shape a nd origin to ceiling block brea kdown. T he ex tent, however, is limited to a depth of a few blocks from the fa ce of the wall. In general, it is in the form of huge blocks that tilt a nd ro­ tate in Lh eir fall Lhus locking togeLher and form­ ing va rious levels in a passage. After such a [all Lhe blocks are stable eve n though they are wedged above the passage fl oor. In vertica l beds the brea kdown is in the form of large slabs th aL peel from the wa ll and collapse in a form similar to ceiling slabs. Limestones o ften develop closely spaced joinLs. T he jOilllS may be normal, close ly spaced , structural Lypes or may be polygo nal in nature. T hese conditions are found mos t commonly in thin bedded , impure limes tones or in sa nd­ stones. Solu tion work opens the joints surround­ ing the blocks a nd the rock fa ll consists of isola ted pla tes of rock measuring up to a fOOL in leng th and width a nd several inches in Lhi ck­ ness. T his type of breakdown is des ignated as Scaling Plates. Sca ling Chips are the smallest fragments of rock fa ll. The chips are thin, flat pieces of rock, generally of a crumbly nature. T hey res ulL from the fall of clayey ma Lerial Lhat remains when Ihe more soluble parts of the limestone have been removed or from minute layers of rock tha t scale off beca use of the release of compres­ sion at the ce iling face. Scaling Chips are seldom noticed 111 caves because of their insignifica n t Slze. T he me thods of recogl1l zlll g poten tial areas of breakdown are of viLa I interest LO the spcle­ ologist. To provide positive information will UPPER,: HIOI'I, III'ealillo\\,II , Laur'e1 CI'eel, ('a \'0, \Y. \'a. require considerable swdy. H owever, the fo llow­ i\IIUOLE: Slab bl'('alillo\\,n, Po u ...· a 1'1 II Ca,\' e, \\r. Va. LO\,VEH.: P()ln:'ollal joints \\'hich pl'odlll'e hreal,d()\\'11 uf ing conclusions ca n be drawn now: st'aling plates, Rapps Caw" \\'. Va. (('on/inlier! 011 j)(lge S(>pt:III )'- twv)

B ULLETIN NUMBER 11 , NOVEM BE R 1949 3:) AReport on Some Fluorescein Tests at Starnes' Cave

By JOE LAW RENCE

Starnes' Cave, which has been visited fre­ Strea m runs into a small crack in the fl oor. T he quently by the V.P.I. Grotto, has held stubborn­ [all stream fl ows through the main passage in the ly to its secrets. In two visits this summer some opposite directi on. T here is no visible co nnec­ of the cave's secrets were revealed. Li on between the fa ll SLrea m and any other stream in the cave. ' '''hen the fa ll stream was T he first of these two trips was made on checked it was also green. T his indicated that July 30, 1948 when Earl Thierry and Joe Law­ even though the fall strea m and Va nishing rence spent ten hours in the cave surveying and Stream ran in opposi te directions they both get . checking the res ults of a flu orescein test. The a t least part of th eir water from the sa me surface survey ing was done in the portion of the cave stream. None of the water in the left hand pass­ known as "The Left H and Passage". In order age was affected by this test. T he party was too to complete the survey in this portion of the cave small to check wa ter below the fa lls. it was necessary to descend a forty foot drop on a rope ladder. T he second flu orescein tes t was started a t 7:30 P.M., .-\ugust 21 when 100 grams of d ye T he second summer trip was made on were put in Va nishing Stream at the point where August 22 by J ames McClary, Marvin Parks, it enters the main passage. A.bout eighteen hours Brooks Gilmer, J oe Lawrence, Joe J efferson, later, when the survey party reached the lowest Bill Briggs, Don Lemon, Bill Miller and H ayden level below the fall s, they fo und that the stream Hannabass. T his trip was also devoted to survey­ here (which is independen t of the fa ll stream) ing and stream study. A part of the most diffi­ was green. This proved that this stream was par t cult portion of the cave was surveyed. T he sur­ of Vanishing Stream. Between the point where vey party worked below a fifty foot waterfall. Vanishing Stream disa ppears in the main pass­ T he gorge at the wa terfall was descended on a age and reappears at the lower level additional rope ladder. that -had bee n se t up the day before. water joins it. T he stream is noticeably larger Once below the fa lls the survey party had to when it reappears. All of the res t of the water in rig ladders a t three other short drops before they the cave was checked on August 22 for traces of could reach the lowest level. T he survey party flu orescein. As was expec ted, neither the wa ter worked alI day· below the falls, but surveyed less in the left hand passage nor the fa ll stream than half of the passage in that portion of the (which was checked at its lowest point where it cave. flo ws into a deep pool) showed signs of co loring. T he mos t interes ting aspects of these two trips T hese two flu orescein tes ts have revealed a were the flu orescein tes ts. T here are two streams grea t deal about the streams in Starnes' Cave. in Starnes' Cave. In addition there are four or T hey have shown that both streams in the main fi ve trickles too small to call streams. T he flu or­ passage (the fa ll stream and Vanishing Stream) esce in was used to determine the source and des­ get at leas t some of their wa ter from the same tination of some of this water. surface stream. T hey have also shown that wha t T h e first tes t was started at 7:00 A.M. July 31 appears to be two separa te streams are really two wh en 100 grams of flu orescein was placed in a parts of the sa me strea m (Vanishing Strea m). surface stream. T his stream fl owed underground T hey have shown further tha t the water in the ncar th e cave entrance. An hour and a h alf left hand passage is independen t of the streams later green water showed up in the fi rst stream in other parts of the cave. ' '''hile these tes ts have encountered when one wa lks through the main been quite revealing, there are still mys teries passage. T his stream has since been named Van­ co ncerning the Starnes' Cave streams which it is ishing Stream. After fl owing through the main hoped additional Les ts and additional explora­ passage fo r several hundred fee t, Vanishing tion will a t least paniall y cl ear u p.

36 NATIONAL S PELE OLOGICAL SOCIETY Safety Procedures in Speleological Exploration

By JOHN DYAS PARKER

"With the Speleological Society ye t in its fi rs t two deaths occuring in fo reign co untries this year and with interes t in caves growing apace, it year. Several countries maintain rescue groups, seems appropriate that one of the first problems such as the Cave R escue Organisation of Eng­ that should be dealt with is sa fety"- so stated land, and th ese find plenty of work to do. H ow­ W illiam J. Stephenson in th e first iss ue of the ever, in our en tire existence, we h ave ye t to re­ N.S.S. Bulletin.' cord a fa tality of an I.S.S. member. T his is d ue Since that arti cle was written the Society has primarily to a very comprehensive safety cam­ come a long way, but thanks to the ceaseless war paign as follows: against accidents we have es tablished an excel­ T he National Speleological Society h as a len t safety record, in fac t a record that would Safety Chairman and under him each organized ca use any insurance co mpany to revise its opin­ grotto has a chairman who is in charge of all ion of explorers. T his has not been a haphazard accident prevention in his group. Besides enforc­ thing but rather th e res ult of co nstant study and ing safety rules such as having tlLree sources of practice in the fi elds of r igging, mountaineering, light, never going into a cave alone, and other psychology, and first aid on the part of those common sense rules he must se t up an fl dequate responsible for the trips 51 on50recl hy t. he Ifltion­ flcc:icl ent prevention program. al Speleological Society and its fl ffili ated Grottoes. Accidents are stud ied for their causes and H owever, though we have tra ined many members then a sincere attempt is made to eliminate the in safety engineering we need more safety men conditions which might cause them. A li st of and a more expanded safety program than ever some basic causes of acciden ts fo llows: " before, if we are to maintain our fin e record, for A: Smoke, gas, or lack. of oxygen resulting our membership is growing by leaps and bounds. in unconsciousness. Although safety articles have appeared in this B: Falls from ropes, improvised ladders, loss journal several ti mes before, ~ we feel th a t these of footing, etc. articles fire not flva il abI e at this time to at least C: Immersion. half our mcmbership. 'vVe \I'iII , th erefore, once D : Injury from fa lling stones, debris, form- aga in delineate our sa fety program. ations, equipment. Safety work, as in a ll p ursuits, ca n be divided E: Phys ical ill health or limitati on. in to two pha.scs. T he first phase, or acciden t­ F : Failure of illumination. preventio n ca mpaign, is the common type of G: Burns and explosions. sa fety program in whi ch rules of behavior are set H : Claustrophobia. fo rth in an effort to preven t acciden ts. T he sec­ Not long ago the Philadelphia Grotto took. ond phasc, or disaster ca mpaign, is the plan that a visiting spelunker from another group along is put into operati on after all accident strikes . on a cave trip. H e looked amazed when he saw Naturally, we must be 1Jreprn ed fo r any type of ropes, winches, crow bars, blocks, bl ank. ets and accident bef01'e it does strike. other safety paraphernali a being unloaded . I n­ Most grati fy ing res ults have been achieved side the cave he said, "v"hy, this isn' t diffic ult. from our accident prevention cam paign through My bund l would swarm all over this place wi th the years. It is guarding and will continue to save no trouble at all." We replied that we could do our li ves even though we Ill ay not reali ze it. Al­ the same thing but an experience of the Grotto's most every country where spelunking is a bes t climber at this same "easy" cave had give n us recogni zed sport reported at least one fata lity reason to always proceed with caution. The las t year and we have already bee n notifi ed of climber was hit by a fa lling rock, but due to proper training he sw ung his body when he

1 Slephenson, W illia m .J., (I) ~ Stephenson , W m . .J. ( I). (2) and Chamberlill, J o. (3) " Mohr, Charl es E . (4)

B UL LETIN N UMBER 11 , NOVEMBE R 1949 37 COrl'ed tl'catment in an undergnlulII] e lm'r ,~' e nc 'r, 1. Examination or injlll'ed person fOi' brol(en bacl{ or rihs. This is done prior' to moving t he victim. 2. The r escuel' removes his olltel' C'l cthing and places it umll... the vietim ami if necessal'y, he li es on top of the hody to I{ eep it WlH·m. :J. As soon as )ossible the in,jUl'ed per· son is wl'apped in blanl{ets and Wltl'med with heat bloc l{ s. To pl'event blll'ning the body, place the blocl{s in g'loves. It is ill1)lol·t.ant to l. The extent of injUl'y is then ascer·tained. 6. Fil'st aid is render'ed. 7. 'fhe plttient is eVltCU­ ated to the sUl'faee in 11 bhlnl{et sh'etchel' or otllel' converance :\.1ul g iven 11100'e formal treatment. H e I'emltins wal'lnly wra))lctl all the WIlY to the su..race. Pictur es posed by Philadelphia Grotto Fir'st Aid Squad and taken h~ ' William Hm·H. heard the rock falling and received only a glanc­ used up the sca nt oxygen supply. \,Vhen' he final­ ing blow on th e head . His helm et was pierced ly entered the cave he fell to his death when he and a small sca lp wound necessitated one stitch. lost co nsciousness from lack of oxygen." Thus However, had he not been wearing a hard hat when we say watch out for smoke, gas or lack of and a safety line he could easily have been oxygen it is because we know it ca n result in killed .· unconsciousness and death. Then we told this spelunker about some other " Four boys betwee n the ages of ten and four­ actual incidents. For instance about the case of teen went to an abandoned quarry .. . for the one owner of a cave property who decided to en­ first sw im of the summer. . . Two of the boys large a fi ss ure- like entrance by building a fire on who undressed more quickly dived in but fai led the limestone to expand the entry. H e raked the to come up. The other two boys wa i ted several fire into the cave where its co ntinued burning minutes then beca me frightened and ran scream-

., Parker, J ohn D. (5) :; Ch a miJerlin, ]0. (3)

38 NATIONAL SPELE OLOGICAL SOCIETY ing for help. Men arrived who entered the water, man. Each spelunker should help prevent acci­ found and recovered the bodi es; both boys had dents by obeying his safety rules whether he likes gashes in their scalps. Artificial respiration them or not. failed to revive them." " Inves tigation revealed Last summer we se nt out fifty letters, to each that during the winter boulders had rolled across grotto then in existence as well as to many in­ the lake bottom and reduced tb e depth from ten dividual cavers within the .S .S. Each was asked to four feet. to give his own safety regulations and to tell why Profiting by tbis lesson one safety Ill an refused they were selected . The replies were many and to let his party clive into a quarry hole near Wil­ varied, the stories of accidents were appalling, liamson, Pa., until he inspected it. When he had and the suggestions were excellent. These have climbed a high overhanging cliff he spotted a been weighed pro and con by three safety experts large pipe about eigbt feet under the surface and fin all y co ndensed into the following rules: right where the party wou ld dive. The group A. EQU IPMENT: went sw imming but everyo ne stayed cl ear of the I . H ard h a t ~ are mandalOry. pipe. 2. Gloves will be "'om inside caves except while A yo ung engineer prospecting in the Mojave engaged in certain rope work. Desert l~egion was descending a shaft. Abou t 30 3. \/inimum personal equi pment to be carried by feet down he was told to "freeze" and after he did each indiddual: so his helper shot a rattles nake just above th e a. At least three sources of light other than matches. engineer's head! b. \ Va terproof matches. \IVe have never seen a rattles nake in a cave c. Spare parts for light so urces. entrance (they are not too cOlllmon near the d . Spare supplies for light sources (water, carbide, author's home) but common se nse made him ba lleri es, etc.). inves t in a snake bite kit and ca uses him to care­ .1. Optional per onal equipment: fully inspect each cave entrance. a. Light nylon line of fai rl y short length. A group of students at a mining college were b. Extra change of socks. having a "keg" party in an old quarry. A large c. Personal first aid kit. d. Concentrated foodstuffs. bonfire was built agai nst the toe of one of the e. Halazone tahlets for "'ater purification. walls as the temperature was well below freezing. f. Spoon. The fire thawed and split the rock permitting' 5. Minimum equipment fo r the party: a large section of the bank above to cave sud­ a. First aid equipment. denly. Fortunately no one was hurt. S Safety (I) Mine Safety Appliances Company water· chairmen will do well to remember this lesson proof first aid kit or equivalent. (2) T wo or more fSA R ediheat blocks with when they pitch camp or build fires. charges. The examples given above illustrate the desir­ (3) Two or more chemical heat pads. ability of a continual accident prevention cam­ ('1) Two blankets and a waterproof cover. (5) Snake·bite kit. paign and the necessity of advance planning to (6) L. L. Bean ca nvas stretcher or equivalent. preclude a possible repetition of the sa me type U. R ope and tackle (latter with snap eye, not a of accident. For this reason all accidents, no mat­ hook). ter how slight, should be reported to the Safety c. afety line. Chairman of the N ational Speleological Society, d . PilOns and ca rabiners. e. Rock lOols: 510 Star Bldg., vVashington 25, D. C., so that we (I) H eavy hammer. can take precautions against them in the future. (2) Star drill. Each group of spelunkers has its own prob­ (3) Pinch bar. lems, and it is imposs ible for us to formulate a E. E ntrenching shovel and pick. se t of rules that will hold good everywhere. How­ g. At least one timepiece in the party. ever, each safety man should formulate his own h. Shatterproof containers for carbide, gasolene, a lco hol , etc. NEW PROGRAM, then pass it on to his District Governor as well as to the National Safety Chair- B. BEHAVIOR: I . Everyone should be phy ica lly cap able. r. Reprinted from Bureau of Mines Information Circubr a. Epilepsy, drunkenness and other physical in· 7·179, p. 2. 19·18 capabilities are not to be lO lerated in a caving 7 Look, Van Fleet, and Walker (7) party . • ibid. B ULLETIN N UMBER 11 , NOVEMBER 1949 39 A . Y. Ow,,,,

EX)Jlul'ing ('a\'es litH' this ill Alahastcl' Ca\'c, FI'ccdum, Oldahoma, is lots of fun I.Hl t ill equi)pel1 cavel's HI'e aslting' 1'0 1' tl'ollble, T he sens ihle ea vel' we at'S his go eat' whf'thcl' he thinliS h e will need i t tH' not,

40 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCI ETY i> . No o ne sha ll exert himsclf beyond his limit of endura nce. c. Those sufrering from heart tro uble o r other in­ capacita ting a ilmen ts shall no t placc a burdcn o n o thers by o vertax ing themselves. d . Nevel' explorc a lo ne. c. If lig ht source fa il s JIIA fT I N PLACE. f. Avoid jumping . g. Do n 't camp under or climb o n unsealed cliffs (unsea led m eans o nes which h ave no t been cleared of loose rock within a t least two days p rio r to the climb). h . Foll ow the a d vice of a uthorized leaders. i. Do n 't build a fire a t the base of a cliff. j . Do n 't build a fire o r use a fl are in a cave wh ere the oxygcn su pply is no t suffi cient to keep the a ir purc. k. Firearms will no t he used indiscrimina tely. I. When exploring in a commercia l cave avoid a ll wires a nd electrical outlets.

C. PROCEDU RE I. Use a cave map a nd comp ass if a va ila ble. 2. M ark all p assages cl early.

3. L ook back frequently, esp eciall y a t each turn a nd Duane' Fea rherslonhaugh side passage. Emest Acl,el'ly and Bnlllfoni VanDiver TIT, m a n­ .1-, If possihle fo ll ow o r consult someone who is ning the s af e t~ r I'upe 1'01- a nother m embel' to descend fa milia r with the cave. the I'ope laddel' into the sinl

B U LLETI N NUMBE R 11 , NOVEMBE R 1949 41 The Cave Rescue Organisation of Yorkshire, England

By NORMAN THORNBER, Hon. Sec.

The North of England, a region of varied Mountain R esc ue U nits also co-operate with the caverns and potholes, has its own cavers first aid C.R.O. and have provided portable radio tele­ scheme. I t was form ed fourteen years ago and is phones, Lh e "walkie-talkies" o[ the war, Verey based on Settle, a small Yorkshire market town. light pistols, hot food co n ta iners, and waterproof Its formation was the res ult of an accident in sleeping bag and blankets. It might seem strange Gingling Hole, when twenty-two hours were that a rescue unit designed primarily [or crashed spent bringing out a man with a broken leg. air crews should work hand in hand with a cav­ The Cave R escue Organisa tion is not merely ing unit, but each are intended to help the other. a team of vo luntary rescuers. It is a plan by which In the event of a crashed plane the W ardens of speleologists who are fit enough to undertake the C.R.O. undertake to organise local rescue long spells of h ard work underground are avail­ parties to comb the moors and mounta ins for th e abl e in an emergency. In short it is th e means of crew of the plane. getting a club or caver who is trapped in touch The committee is anxious to add se lf-heating with those who wi ll release the injured. There tins of soup to the emerge ncy stores th ey hold. have been many minor accidents in the Yorkshire Prior to the war they were able to obtain food caves, and three fatalities, which have needed quite easily, but in post-war Britain this is a the a ttention of the Cave Rescue Organisation. problem at prese nt. From experience it has been In addition a concise Caving Code h as been found th a t most rescuers rush out without giving issued and the whistle signals used in caving and a thought to fooC!. This is a wrong idea, and potholing have been standardised. nowadays rescuers are urged to have a good meal The se t up is primarily of clubs who operate before they leave home. Some form of emergency in the North of England. Practically all are mem­ rations, it is thought, would be useful to keep bers, and pay two guineas, the only fee asked of up the co ndition of the injured caver, and them. These clubs form the committee, or at would also be useful in providing hot fo oc! dur­ least two delegates plan round the table. They ing the rescue operations. This is of very great appoint fiv e Wardens, who are selected because importance if work has to continue throughout of their local knowledge, their previous pothol­ the night. All rescuers are told that they must ing experience, and their knowing the farmers bring lights, extra clothing and a tent with them. and local people who may provide help on the In the event of an accident, no matter to surface. The C.R.O. does not own any ropes or whol11 it is reported, word is immediately passed ladders. These are freely offered by the clubs, on to the District Police H eadquarters . They in­ who provide the secretary-organiser with a list form th e vVardens, have the rescue equipment of the various ropes and ladders and where th ey ready, have speed cars available and warn the are stored. Similarly those clubs who make out a first wave of rescuers of th e accident. They are fixture card send a copy to the Cave R escue told to standby, and do not move out until a Organ isa tion headquarters. second "call out" message is sent. The ' l\Tardens The Police Forces co-operate to their fulles t take with them the portable radio telephones, extent with this work. They provide storage for and leave one at the nearest house (w ith tele­ th e equipment, call out teams of rescuers, and phone) to the accident. Others move fonvard back up the rescue work generally. Rescuers are over the moors, taking with them what equip­ called out b y Lawns, rather than by clubs so that ment might be required immediately, along with in the event of a serious accident fresh waves of other radio sets. Communications are es tablished rescuers are sent down below. The rescue equip­ across the moor by radio, so that th e Warden in ment includes a Neil-Robertson naval type charge ca n kee p in close touch by radio and tele­ stretcher, ambulance first-aid bag, pulley blocks, phone with Police H eadquarters. A tent is sling, hot water bottles, kettle, primus stove and pitched, the primus set going, and a full picture hurrica ne lamps. The British Royal Air Force of th e accident and what steps are to be taken

42 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY is gathered. The \IVardens are at liberty to re­ Caving Code of the C.R.O. main on the surface or descend the pothole as they think fit. Their main object is to get warmth J. See tha t all tack le is in good order. to the injured caver, or cavers, and apply such 2. Leave word as to destinati on. first aid (including the administration of pain­ 3. In the case of open shafts, always leave a workman or obvious sign that people are below. killing drugs) ready for the stretcher men. A list 4. Use lifelines on all pitches. of caver doctors is avai lable, and each stretcher 5. Carry a whistl e and li se the standard signals: J bla ·t, party is designed to include a medical man. After stop; 2 bl as ts, baul in; 3 blasts, pay OUl. this every effort is to get out the injured. As each (i. Stand clear of a pilCh when someone is going lip or stretcher party comes into the district they have down. 7. Wear plenty of clothes LO keep warm, and a miner's to ca ll at the District Police Headquarters for helmet for protection. in structions and to co ll ect any extra equipment S. R emember preve ntion is ea ier than rescue. which might be required. Ambulances are avail­ able. Farmers have offered carts, sledges and IN THE EVENT OF AN ACClDE T tractors to convey the injured from the pothole IlI s/l'II r /ions to those in charge of the 1la /iellt or those to the waiting ambulance. Stress is made that the lJl'ese1/ t at the lilli e of accidellt. Police must be kept informed of the progress, so Send quickest person [or assistance. IE on a ~I oo r 'end the quickes t runner with mechanica l conveya nce. that if the accident proves fatal full protection SLOp a ll bl eeding first of all. is given to the rescuers and those in charge. Wrap lip patient and keep patient warm. Don't administer alcoholic stimulants. In addition to the rescue of potholers and If injllries are not of a serious nature, try to work patient cavers, the Cave R escue Organisation have tried fOI'l\·ard. IE possible plll some dry clothes on in· jured person. to prevent accident. Potholers are warned of any ))0 1I 0t aggravate any injuries; in the case o[ a broken leg special dangers, of loose and dangerous parts of fasten to other sound leg. IE both legs are broken, passages and pitches . A Caving Code has been do not move ulllil skilled attention is at hand. issued, and a full list of suitable telephone points j\lake ready in any way possible for the arrival drawn up. Clu bs are at liberty to deal with their of rescuers, and the speedy removal of the own accidents if the manpower is considered patient out of the pothole. strong enough, and have access to the rescue Illstruc/ions to those l'elllaillillg at the surface. tackl e. At the same time they are urged to give Get plellly of clean hot water ready for hot drinks and warnmg to the Po li ce and the secretary of the hot bottles. C.R.O. If a shooting hut is at hand arrange to secure its use, making a fire ready. There have been many accidents since the Pitch a tent at the entrance LO the pothole or cave [or use as a headquarters. Organisation was formed, three of which have See that there are plellly of good ropes ready fo r hauling been fatal. In addition the C.R.O. was call ed lip pitches. upon by the Police when two skeletons were A rrange for all gates to be open for re cuer" cars. IE a found in North of England potholes. These were long wa)' across a moor, please have so me a" i t" not skeletons of remains of early man, but were ance ready to carry equipment. subsequent to 1940. Their discovery and the Illstmetiolls / 0 persall Iroillg for help. problems attached are another article. One thing Go to the nearest Telephone point and ring up the near· is certain. The C.R.O. founders in 1934 never es t Police Sta ti on (if no Police Constable lives in the village.) thought they might be called upon to bring out Inform them that the Cave R escll e Organisa tion at ellle skeletons, or for that matter, have to deal with is required. any accident which would result in a dead body Gi\'e them the fo llowing particulars:- being brought out of a pothole. From what Telephone point YO ll a re speaking. What pothole and whereabouts in pot accident While also agreeing to help in searches for has happened. missing ramblers, the C.R.O. is regarded as the What injuries are known or surmised . R ed Cross of the cavers, and similar rescue organ­ How many in party are ca pable of giving assist" ance lInderground. isations have qeen formed or planned for other Are any ropes or ladders required. parts of England. 'Vhether a doctor or ambulance is required .

B ULLETIN NUMBER 11 , NOVEMBER 194·9 4 Do not leave the telepho ne until the Pulice have full particulars. Should the Pulice he unable to gct in touch with any of The Origin of the Markings thc \"ardcns, cither ask them to arrange for the equipmcnt to he se nt to the scene of the accident or alternatively scnd a ca r for it. In Pig Hole All the equipment is stored in the Pol ice Station, Settlc. By JOHN W. MURRAY TO THOSE RESC UE RS C \LLED TO AN ,\ CCIDENT. Car owners arc askcd to fix a "'hite pennant lO the front Associate Professor of Chemistry, Virginia of their car (handkerchicf will do). Under certain Polytechnic Institute cxceptional conditions a road to a potholc might be closed to cars which do not display any such The mys tery of the strange llI arkings dis­ sig n that thcy arc c:.R.O. cars. covered over a year ago by members of the V_P_I. Bring \\'ith yu u a tcnt, changc uf cluthing and food in thc Grotto has been discussed on several occasions casc of a prolo nged rescue. SlOp at Settle Police Station for any further informa tion in the columns of the N.S.S_ News (Volume G, unlcss told otherwisc. Nos. 2, 7, and 9). The opinion has bcen ex­ Lcavc yu ur ca r wcll clcar of thc road in casc an ambul · pressed in these writings that the markings " 'ere a'ncc is req uired . the work of "people of a by-gone day" rather T huse ,,·lt u want a lift hy car to thc scene of thc accidcnt than the work of natural forces. Attempts to arc asked to wear a white armlet on thc left arm so that rescuc car drivers can see thelll . decipher thc supposed inscriptions were unsuc­ (NOTE: At the cnd of the foregoing Caving Cudc appcars cessful. There seems to be a very preva lent hu­ a list uf abo nt '10 telephone nUlllbcrs of poli cc stations. man tendency to ascribe to thc hand or an in­ fi rc hunses, etc.) telligent being any rcsult (or which a natural • mechanism is not a pparen t. In the prcse nt casc, the explanation of these markings as artifacts Excerpt from "Some Observations on Mr. prcsents certain physical difficulties. Such an ex­ Penn's Theory Concerning the Formation planation seems to require an easier method of of the Kirkdale Cave" access to the cave than that used by thc V.PJ. "If I rightly apprehend Mr. Penn's ideas, Grotto in its earlier expl orations. This latter th ey are these: lll ethod involved a drop of about I fiO feet into Secondary limes tones were originally lI1 a a sink hole, accomplishcd with the aid or a bl ock soft sta te. and tackl e. The waters o( the deluge while eleva ted A survey of the ca \'c co upled with a corrc­ abo\"(: England, deposited on it a layer, or bed , sponding surface suryey suggested that another of 'a so ft and plastic' calcareous matter. easier enlrance may have once existed fr om a de­ On their departure from the earth, by flow· pression wh ich appears to be a filled in sink ing away towards the north, they 1I0ated over hole. As reported in the Septem bel' 1948 issue of England the carcases of a number of tropica l ani­ the N.S.S_ News, the V.P.I. Grotto has reccntly mals. c1ustercd together into grea t masses. dug a new entrance at this point. This dC \'e lop­ These masses became buried in the ca lcare­ ment shows that it Illight ha\'c been possiblc (or ous mud. prehistoric lll an to carve the markings but does 011 the sinking of the waters o( the deluge not indicate that he did so. below thc surface of England, the bed of the ca l­ Pig Hole, otherwise known as Earl's Caye carcous mud began to dry, and on doing so com­ or Porterfield's Cave, is located on the farm of pl etely, bccame the present Kirkdalc rock. Mr. A. B. Porterfi eld on the so u ther! y slope o( Thc c1ustcrcd animal bodies encl osed in the Johns Creek Mountain bclow the highway to calcareous pastc, by putrifying, evolved a great Mountain Lake. It is developed in a highly Fos­ quantity o( gas, which forced the limes tone pas te siliferous limes tone which has been id entificd ill all directions from them, and thus gencrated by Dr. B. N. Cooper, head or the Geology De­ the Gt\'C in which Mr. Buckland found their partment at V_P.I., as thc "Vard Creck (ormation .bones." of the Middle Ordovician. Thc cavc is notable Sourcc: Smithsollian \Iisccllanc()\i s Coll ectiuns, 327, T he for the extensive dcpos its 0 1' bat guano, es pecial­ Sc ientific Writin)!;s of .Jamcs Smithson. Edited by " ' il ­ ly in the passage whcrc the markings on the wall I ia III J. R InTs. I Hi9.

44 NATIONAL SPELEOl.OGICA L SOC IETY are found. T he nature of the rock suggests that ing large blocks of the limes tone and showing the markings may be due to the preferential no apparent relation to the supposed inscrip­ weathering of fossils or other structures differ­ tions. This also contained a soft white filling at ing in character from the main body of the rock. the bottom and scrapings of this were taken as If this were the case, the bottoms of the depres­ Sample C. The samples were examined with a sions which constitute the markings might be polarizing lnicroscope using the inln1ersion expected to contain a residue of the original method for refractive indices. Samples A and C, material or its alteration product which could representing the soft white fillings of the mark­ be differentiated from the main mass of the rock ings and the long crack respectively proved to bordering the depression. To test this hypo­ be a fin ely crystalline mass of gypsum-hydrated thesis, the fo llowing experiment was carried out. calcium sulfate. Sample B representing the wall The markings consist of a number of nearly rock a t the side of the markings proved [0 be linear depressions ranging up to about four ordinary limestone. inches in length and to about half an inch in A piece of limestone with one rounded and depth. There is some semblance of arrangement one fl a t side was found on the guano below a into lines resembling letters in a word. NIanyof relatively smooth light colored spot on the wall the markings were found to contain a soft white from which it appeared to have fallen. T his fragment had several markings on its rounded side similar to those on the wall. T he (ragment was broken open to reveal the relation between the markings and the underlying su·ucture. It was found that the limestone was intersected by a number of thin veins of ca lcite, presumably fill ed in fracture planes, and that the markings on the surface were located at the intersections of these calcite veins with the outer surface of the limestone fragment. These observations seem to indicate that the markings were formed by the replacement of the calcite in the veins with gypsum at the s.ur­ face of the rock and subsequent preferential weathering of the softer gypsum. .-\lthough all J. \V. Murray MARIHNGS on wall of Pig Hole Cal'e, Giles County, sa mples of cave waters examined by the author "irg'inia. contained traces of sulfate ion, a higher concen­ material at the bottom. Scrapings of this ma­ u-ation might have been deri\ ed from gases re­ terial were taken as Sample A. Scrapings of the sulting from the decomposition of the bat guaoo adjacent wall rock were also taken as Sample B. wh ich covers the floor of the passage. Hence About fo ur feet to the left of the markings was these markings might be ascribed indirect! ' [0 found -a long diagonal crack in the rock se parat- the work of ba ts rath er than humans. • A PICTURE STORY OF SCHOOLHOUSE CAVE Many a spelunker has encountered his Water­ night's rest, steady nerves and thorough familiar­ loo in Schoolhouse Cave, located in Pendleton ity with the techniques of the mountain climber County, ,,,Test Virginia. Its reputation for rug­ are three necessary considerations for safely ne­ ged, difficult and dangerous climbing to nego­ gotiating its slick walls and abysmal depths. tiate its depths remains as a challenge, how­ The pictures and map presented herein are ever, to the most experienced caver. The motto not intended to accentuate its glamour as mudl "Abandoned hope, all ye who enter here" ap­ as to show all who contemplate adding it to their pearing on the rock wall at the famous Jump­ conques ts tha t it is, indeed, an indication of ing orr Place is fitting ev idence that a trip to post-graduate caving to say "I have been throllgh Schoolhouse is not to be taken lightly. A good School house".

BULLETIN NUMRE R 11 , NOVEMBER 1949 4.1) /lo lua rcl \V a( hins

.John i\I eell ehan pl'l' pal'CS bl'(~ ald'ast outsille Schoulhuuse Cave, Sausag'c allil s(:l'amhle(l eg'g's a l'e ill the maldng',

46 NATIONAL S P ELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY H Otl'ord \\'urkin'i

UPPI';R PI-IO'],O tallen ltt t he JUlIlping -01'1' J' lace. 'Vel sh, 'Vil on, F is huUl"ll and Meenehan thou g- htfully ('011- template the long- dl'op into the {';tscade Pit. BELO'V: Lunch time on the J\ld~"II\ (' nt Sent. P etrie, Wels h, Mf'clwhan. "Vilson :tnd BClllwtts p:tuse f()\· ;t hot m cal be rm'" t;H"ldin _~ CIIII'II 's Climb.

B ULL ETI N N UMB ER 11 , NOVEM BER 1949 47 J-I ou.:urd Wurhins

M"/'III' hli li d" /1 "" llIlIlI /-:, It ll ll d /lv,'r Itll nd illlll lite /-:'f'/ltllJ be tHm llt t ilt, ,JIIIII"ill/.:' · O'1' Pla!'e. 'J'he blaclmess ill the

II sII' I< .I4 I'/1II 1I 1I h' Ils\I'" IIr filii Big H 11111 II , '1' 11 " ( ' II " , 'slIle J' it ill /lillI'/! tha n 150 fe,'t directly below,

4 NATrO ' AL S PELEOLOGICAL S OCIETY JA!ff§ ()'1iltPJ, P'i§"lIuffl Ulillll)§ III) ti lt! 1111111 (11' whkh !'Oll tlnues UIJ thl'(llI l;' h wed '\'(1 rod- .~ til 'W~ '§1t Mt§ I~ t IIlI} of tll @ 70 , ff)ol JIIl1 (J 1l101}(I 111111 JII'!'JIIlI' OH til "safoty" th n d IIltul up, ru~ IN't Imd til$i/t 111'(1 itlJlJl'tI ~ iJII II I (l I K IJ III'1I1I1l1 jf) til II lI'I'OUI)!l, HOlvarci \Va/him. " -,,Ish and J\let'llehall wait on balcony to h elp g-uide the next man acl"Oss the Nicl{-of-']'ime at I"ight cen tel'. In l'ig ht h:u-I{g rollllIl is t he North " ' ell which Smtl'S up out of s ig- ht ft-0111 this point and (ll-ops oil" into inl{y blacl{ ­ IH'SS helow. 1'he Cascade Pit is just out of the pictlll'e to the l·i !:-ht.

50 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Mineralogical Data In Speleological Work -

By WILLIAM J. FOSTER

The study of cave mineralogy constitutes one amples of the crystalli zation of this substance of the most fa scinating and important branches are sometimes fo und. The mineral aragonite, o f speleological science. As has been pointed out which is another crystalline form o[ calcium car­ by the late Dr. R . J. Holden, this subject is far bonate, may occur in similar fash ion, as well as from being a simple one and there are many as­ the double carbonate of calcium amI magnes ium pects conce rning it which are by no means cl earl y known as do/amite and the hydrous sulfate of understood at the present time. The des irability ca lcium termed gypsum or selenite. Si li con diox­ of obtaining all poss ible data in this respect wi ll , ide in th e dark-colored amorphous form, known therefore, be most apparent, and it is suggested as chert, very freq uently occurs either in ve ins that on each and every fi eld trip which may be or as separate rounded or irregular masses and, undertaken by members of the Society mineral­ in so me cases, crystals of quartz may be [ou nd ogica l observations and notes of as comprehen­ lining cavities in the rock. sive a character as poss ible, concerning the caves A lthough they are not met with as frequently visited, should always be made and that a proper as the species described above, many other min­ report should be drawn up fo r submission to th e erals occur in li mestone rocks, some of which are National Committee on Formations and Miner­ certain compounds of the heavier metals iron, alog-y [or permanent preservation in the fil es of manganese, copper, lead, zinc, and others. There the Society. It is with a view to ex plaining what is a possibility that deposits of these metals hav­ is required in this res pect, as we ll as a brief de­ ing a commercial va lue might be discovered dur­ scription of cave mineralogy general ly, that this ing speleological investigati ons. Such metals gen­ article has been prepared. erall y occur in the form of oxides, hydroxides, In making a mineralogical survey, some at­ carbonates, or sulfides, and the minerals which tention should be first given to the bed rock stra­ contain them may often be identified by a dis­ ta within which th e cave is formed . Although in tinctive color or luster. For example, a yellowish, most instances such strata are composed of sed i­ brownish, or sometimes reddish co loration usual­ mentary li mes tone of va rying degTees o[ purity, ly indica tes the presence of iron; manganese (the com ponent minerals of which are not read i­ minera ls are generall y black, although they may ly determinable in the fi eld) a general description be of a very distinctive light pinkish shade; a of the gross characteristics of such rock, [or ex­ greenish or bluish tone is commonly characteris­ ample its color, texture, and hardness, wi ll be tic of the compounds of copper. The brassy ye l­ o f va lue. In determining- these characteristi cs, it low-white metallic luster of iron sulfid e or py rite is important that a fresh/), frn ct'll1-ed surface o[ is very distinctive, as is th e similarly metallic the rock should always be examined, since sur­ leaden g-ray of lead sulfide or ga lena, while the fa ces th ereof which have been exposed to the at­ blackish, brownish, or occasionally ruby-red res­ mosphere for any length of time wi ll Ilsllally ex­ inous appearance of zinc sulfide or sphalerite can hibit a quite different appearance from that of hardly be mistaken. A very easil y detected char­ th e mass. acteristic which is C0111mon to practi cally all of In examining the bed rock strata, the occur­ these metallic compounds is their relati ve ly high rence of any recognizable mineral deposits in the specifi c gravity. forlll of vei ns, pockets, nodules, and the like, T urning now to those minerals which have should alwa ys be noted. L imes tone, consisting been depos ited by the action of water wi thin the as it essentiall y does of calcium carbonate, very actual cavern spaces proper in the form of stalac­ frequently con tains vei ns or masses o[ the pure tites, stalagmites, Oowstone, and the like, w!li ch crys ta lli ne material in the fo rm of the mineral are usually referred to as cave formations, the en/cite, and in these deposits very interes ting ex- presence or absence o[ sllch formations should ahl'ays be noted and, if present, their relative R eprinted from f). C. S/Jeieogra/Jh, Vol. III. No_ 'I, April 19-19. abundance and general overall character. The

B ULLETI N NUlVIBER 11 , NOVEMBER ]949 5 1 amount and character of activity taking place in carbona te o[ calcium and magnes ium. This ma­ co nnectio n with them, i. e., the relati·ve amount terial, like calcite, crys tallizes in the rhombohe­ of water fl ow thereover or therethrough, should dral cl ass of the hexagonal sys tem and is not be recorded ; if poss ible, it should be determined readily distinguisha ble from the latter by form whether material is presently being depos ited or cleavage alone. However, it m ay be easil y de­ from solution or whether it is being dissolved tected through the fact that, while either ca lcite away [rom such deposits. In this latter connec­ or aragonite will readily dissolve with marked tion, any evidences of rece nt or current solutional effervesence in a ny cold mineral acid such as h y­ action on the bed rock structure in which the drochloric, dolom i te will show very Ii ttle or no cave is formed will also be of interes t. The oc­ such acti on a t all un til the acid is hea ted . currence of any of the rarer and more unusual It should also be pointed out in connection types of cave forma tions such as helectites, antho­ with the stalactitic types of forma tions that, al­ dites, cave pearls, gypsum flowers, oulopholites though of more unco mmon occurrence than the and the like, should always be reported. substances mentioned above, many o ther min­ In making a survey of such cave formations, erals are known to ass ume the stalactitic form not only should their grosser characteristics be upon occasion. The various types of silica, fo r noted, but the identity of the actual mineral spe­ example, may sometimes form stalactites, as may cies which co mpose them should be determined if the h ydrous ox ides of iron kn own as limonite poss ible. It has already been pointed out that and goethite, 'while the bas ic carbonates of cop­ calcium carbonate, the substance of which by far per, m alachite a nd awrite, and th e hydrous sul­ the larger proportion of these objects are co m­ [ate of the same metal termed chnlcanthite, are posed, occurs in two disti nct fo rms which, al­ occasionall y to be found in very strikingly bril­ though they are identical in chemical co mpos i­ liant green and blue structures of this character. tion, are entirely different in cr ys tal structure. The coloration of cave formatio ns, which are ' '''hereas the more usual mineral form known as composed of the white or colorless ca lcium car­ calcite cr ys tallizes in the rhombohedral class of bonate, is due to the presence of impurities of the h exagonal sys tem, th e less common form these same metallic salts. The vivid yellows; o1'(woni fe crys ta llizes in th e orthorhom bic sys tem creams, buffs, and browns whi ch are so often seen and, in addition, aragonite is of a sli ghtly higher are ordinarily due to the inclusion of the hydrox­ hardness and specifi c gravity than calcite. H ow­ ides of iron. Ferric oxide, mineralogically known ever, the bes t method of distinguishing betwee n as hematite, sometimes produces a rich and strik­ these two substances is by their totall y different ing red colora ti on, while manganese oxides or type of cleavage. Calcite when broken will clearl y hydroxides will produce a dead bl ack if present show th e rhombohedral [aces which characterize in a suffi cient amount, or in a lesser co nce ntra­ it, while aragonite will rather exhibit an appea r­ tion will give a bluish-gray appearance. Copper ance of triangul ar surfaces and, ve ry frequently, salts may also be presen t at times, in which case a distinctly Hl dia ti17 g structure, as [or example in a very delica te pas tel blue or gTee n sh ade Ill ay be the case o[ a stalactite wh ich is broken across. Al­ imparted to th e oth erwise colorless carbonate. th ough many formations consist entirely of one T he banded appearance of Ill any deposits, e.g., or the other of these two substances, it is not the well-known "bacon rind" type and "cave" or uncommon to observe distinct bands or zo nes of "Mexica n" onyx, is obviously due to the alter­ both of them sid e by side in the same formation. nate precipitation of pure and impure layers of It should be pointed out th at while the crys tals the carbonate material. of calcite are usuall y of a more cO llpact and The sedimentary depos its of cla y, and other "stumpy" nature, those of aragonite tend to as­ materials which partiall y or wholl y fill the pas­ sume a more slender, elongated needle-like form sages and chambers of some caves, sometimes con­ and to develop radiating crys tal groups. T he pe­ tain recognizable depos its of minerals. For ex­ culiarly beautiful branching fl ower-like forms, ample, gypsum or selenite crys tals are more fre­ which are called antltodites, are comprised al­ quently to be found embedded in these cl ay fill s, mos t entirely of radiating clusters of aragonite although they may occasionall y occur upon ex­ crystals of this character. posed rock surfaces where they form "gy psum It has been stated that some cave fo rmati ons flo we rs" or "oulopholites". These crys tals, be­ are composed of dolomite, which is the double longing to the monoclinic sys tem, are easil y re-

52 N ATIONAL SPE L E OLOGICAL S OCIETY , "" " ,IT " 0,H , '\ ,, , 00 ,, ''-8------

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CIlUiPI [L[VATION TI-IROUGI-I STATIONS 8-25 wru

------:::G:R:-:'H::O:-::C::..:::N · : BIG ROO M

ELEVATI ON nlROUG~ DOM~ ROOM AND ~NTRANCE ROOM. cognized from their distinctive glassy appearance In the matter of collecting generall y, it is be­ and by the [act that they frequently exhibit a lieved that a word of caution is ve ry much in curved habit of growth. N itrates too, and more order. The policy of the ational Speleological particularly the calcium nitra te which is min­ Society which frowns upon the breaking and dc­ eralogically known as nitJ"Ocalcite, may occur in struction of the natural decorations in caves, and su ch cl ay depos its where there is a marked ab­ more particularly upon such breaking and de­ se nce of water. In fact, the researches of Burton struction in a wanton and indiscriminate fas hion, Faust regarding cave saltpeter would seem to in­ should be kept well in mind at all times . It is dicate tha t there is some relati onship between the believed that the rule in this respect should be occurrence o[ the gypsum and the nitra te al­ that no formation of any type ,which is discov­ though the nature of such rela ti onship is not ered in situ, should ever be taken u nless it very cl ear at the present time. It is suggested that clearly app ears that the cause of scien ce will be samples of the cl ay from likely situations might se11Je d by such removal. Eve n more important well be collected for subjecti on to microscopical perhaps is the point that no specimen should examination and chemical analys is, even though ever be coll ected without the express co nse nt of lhe nitrates appear to be dispersed through the the owner of the property upon which the cave clay of the depos it in such a fin ely divided con­ is situated. As to the collection of mineral speci­ dition as to be very difficult to recognize upon mens from the nati ve rock strata in which the gross examinati on. cave is formed ,and the picking up of already Another type of surface deposit which is to be broken formations ,of course, this is for the mos t fo und in caves, and more particularly in the part entirely unobjectionable; however, in this drier portions thereof, is that black, powdery, case also the rights of the owner of the property dust-like substance ma ting all th e ex posed sur­ should always be given paramount co nsider ati on, faces, which was formerly believed by many (in­ and his permission to remove them should be cluding the wri ter )to be the residue of smoke obtained. and smut produced by the pine torches of the early sa ltpeter miners. However, it is reported • by 'I\Tilliam E. Davies that this material has re­ Glossary of Minerals and cently been subjected to spectroscopic and X-ray Mineralogical Terms for analysis by the W es t Virginia Geological Survey and it has been determined to be a form of man­ Speleological Work ganese dioxide which, although it very closely re­ ANTHODITE ... A type of cave formation sembles the mineral pyrolusite, is not identical comprising a cluster of complex, branching with it in structure. needle-like crystals and tubes of aragonite. In making a mineralogica l survey, of a cave, AR AGONITE . . . A mineral form of calcium the collec ti on of specimens fo r permanent preser­ carbonate ( C a CO ~ ) crys tallizing in the or­ vati on as a part of the record may be desirable thorhombic sys tem. It is somewhat harder and, a lthough there is little use in coll ecting th e and heavier than calcite and frequently more ordinary and well -know n types with which shows a radiating structure. (Cf. Calcite.) the muse ums of the country are [or the mos t part well supplied, the acquisition of the rarer and AZURITE . .. A bas ic copper ca r bon a t e more unusual forms will not infrequently be (2CuCO".Cu ( OH )~) characteri zed by its indicated. This is more es peciall y true in the brilliant to dark blue color. (Cf. lVfalachite.) case of those formati ons which are not cl early CALCITE . .. A mineral form of calcium ca r­ understood, either in their mode of formati on, ) bonate (CaCO:l crys tallizing in the rhom­ structure, chemical compos ition, and the like, bohedral cl ass of the hexagonal sys tem. It and would also hold true for such things as rare is characterized by its well-marked rhom­ mineral species or those of which the occurrence bohedral clevage. (C f. Aragonite.) in co nnec ti on with a cave is in any res pect un­ usual. Anything which is suspected of being CH ALCANTHITE . .. H yd rous copper sulfate either a wholl y new type of formati on or a new ( CuSO . , .5 H ~ O ) . Naturally occurring blue mineral species should, of course, always be col­ vitriol, characterized by its brilliant blue lected. color and its so lubility in water.

B ULLETIN N UMB ER] ] , N OVEM BER 1949 53 CHERT ... A dark colored to black amorphous 'metallic luster, quartz and gypsum h ave a form of silicon dioxide (S iO") freq uently vit1'eo'lls (glassy) luster, etc. occurring in limes tone. J'vIALACHITE . ..A bas ic co p p e r carbonate Cl.L-\ V AGE ... The tendency of cerLain mlll­ CuCO",Cu (OH)J characterized by its bright ends to break along definitely related plane to dark green coloration, (Cf. Azurite.) surfaces due to their internal structure. MIN ERAL . .. .-\ naturall y occurring compon­ CRYSTAL ... A d efinite p lane-sided geometrical ent of the earth's crust, of inorganic origin form which may be assumed by minerals and having a definite chemical composition and other chemi ca l compounds due to their reg­ (usual ly) capable of assuming a definite u lar in terna I molecular structure. crys talline form. DOLO J'vfITE ... A double carbonate of calcium N ITROCALCITE .. . H ydrous ca lcium nitrate and magnes ium (CaMg (COJJ which crys­ or "cave saltpeter" (Ca (NOJ",nH~O), Some­ ta lli zes like calcite in th e rhombohedral class limes in silky eff lorescent tufts, but usually of the hexagonal system. Distinguished detectable in cave deposits on ly by chemica l from the latter by its lesser solubility in acid. analysis. FRACTURE . .. In minerals ,a breaking which PYRITE .. . Iron sulfide ( F eS~), crys tallizing in is usuall y irregular in character, and does th e isometric system. Characterized by its no t depend upon internal structure. brassy white or ye ll owish metallic luster. GALENA ... Lead slilfide (PbS) crystallizing in PYROLUS ITE .. . Manganese dioxide (M nOJ: the isometric system. Characterized by its characterized by its dead black coloration. leaden-gray metallic luster and its cubic cl eavage. Q U.-\RTZ ... Crys talline silicon dioxide (SiOJ; occurs either mass ive or in definite crysta ls; GOETHITE .. . A h Y d I' 0 U s oxide of iron characterized by its hardness. (FeO (OH )) crys tallizing in the orthorhom­ bic sys tem. Characterized by its ye llowish to ROCK ... Any solid structural component of bl ackish brown color and its crystalline the earth's crust. Although a rock Ill ay con­ structure. (Cf. Limonite.) sist almost entirely 01' a single mineral, it

- more usually comprises a mixture ot: several GYPSU I\f ... Hydrous calci um sulfate (CaSOI 2H "0 ) crys tallizing in the monoclinic sys­ minerals. tem. Characterized by its vitreous (glassy) SELENITE . .. A (orm of gypsum (q.v.) ex­ Ili ster and its tendency to form curved crys­ hibiting distinct crystal forms. t,tl s. (Cr. Selenite.) SPHALERITE .. . Zinc sulfide (ZnS); crystal­ HELECTITE . .. An erratica ll y developing type lizing in the isometric system and character­ of cave formation characterized by its ran­ i/ed by its res i nous luster. dom habit of growth with entire disregard of gravitation. STALACTITE .. . A dependent mineral forma­ HUvfATITE ... Iron sesquioxide (Fe"O,) char­ tion deposited in an open space by down­ acterized by its reddish coloration in fin ely wardly flowing mineral bearing solution. d i v ided (orlll . ST.-\LAGMITE ... A mineral deposit built up Ll l'vrESTONE .. . A sedimentary rock which is upon the floor of a space by mineral bearing composed principall y of calcium ca rbona te. solution falling from above. LIlvrOKITE ... A hydrous oxide of iron (ap­ VEIN ... A joint or crevice in a rock structure proxi ma tel y 2 Fe"0,, ·3 H "0 ). Characterized which has been wholly or partiall y fill ed by its brownish ye ll ow to ocher ye ll ow co lor­ with mineral material. ati o n and distinguished from goethite by its VUG ... A n enclosed cavity In a ve lll or other lack of crys tal structure. (C L Goethite.) rock Slructure which Ill ay be lined with LUSTER . .. The surface appear;lnce of a min­ mineral matter, and frequently with well­ eral: lor ex ample, galena and pyrite have a formed crys ta Is.

54 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY APreliminary Study of Cave Ecology " 'itl, Special Referellce to T~,,"essee Ca"erlls By THOMAS C. BARR, Jr.

We reprint below the essay which won for the author it substa ntial scholarship as a result of a nation-wide competiti on among high sc hool student s conducted by the Eighth Annual \.yestinghouse Science T alent Search. Though !v[r. Barr desired that we use a later-submitted manuscript it was the opinion of the Editor and of the Ed itorial Committee that this one more nearly meets the tastes of our readers.

For untold ages caves have been of great in­ T he environment of truly troglobious biota lerest to m ankind, but it is onl y recently that is wh at Eigenmann calls the cave pm' exce llence. they have been studied sc ientifically. The first I t is characteri zed by (I) absence of li ght, (2) significa nt publications on cave biology in the relative co nstancy of climatological conditions, U nited States appeared al the turn of th e ce n­ and (3) abse nce of food production within the wry and were written by such men as Eigen­ troglo bi ous biocenose. mann, Banta, and Packard. In the twenties im­ T he fl ora of this zone is limi ted to fungi. portant studies were made by Europeans­ ,ros t species, especially the polypores, are ster­ J eannel, Morton, and R acovitza. T here have il e, although certain agarics may produce viable been numerous papers of a minor nalure since "pores". and during that time, bu tit was 1938 before another major work on the subject-Pea rse's Troglobious fauna are generally character­ Fauna of the Caves of Yucatan-made iLs ap­ ized by ( I) more slender bodies, (2) longer ap­ pearance. At present there are in England, pendages, (3) a retrograde development in pig­ France, and the U ni ted States active speleologi­ menL and organs of vision, and ('1) an increase ca l organizations engaged 111 many lines of re­ in se nsitivity to slimuli other than light". They search. are poikilothermic. T here are lWO cl asses of troglophilous biota. T here are two chief reasons [or a sLUd y of Class I includes forms living in that portion of cave ecology. One is that the speleologica l en­ caverns reached by sunlight, direct or indirecl. vironment kee ps many ecological factors rela­ tively constant, resulting in optimum co nditions for the field study of those which f1u cLuaLe. T he other is that many hypogean fauna prese nt en­ vironmental adaptations which make the species of va lue in evo lutionary and paleogeographic study. An examination of the principal literalllre of cave b iology and observations in approxi­ mately 50 caves in Kentucky, New York, Ten­ nessee, and Virginia during 1947 and 1948 have been used as a basis for hypotheses drawn in this pa per. Cavernicolous organisms have been divided l into three categories : (1) troglobies, primary biota usually found only in the recesses of cav­ erns, (2) troglophiles, secondary species [ound GROTTO ill milliat\ll'e ill Apple's Cave, Goodletts ­ in the twilight zo ne, or as in the case of some ville, Telllu'ssep. At t.h e hase of these formations fauna, passing freely between hypogean and lie s hallow pools of watet·. On January 3, 1918 7 -111111 lonl.!· lat'\'ae of t he cave sal!ullander "E urycl/:\ and epigean , and (3) lrogloxenes, or accidentals. 11I 1'i1'1I g-a" were found ill t.hese I}ools.

B ULLETIN NUMBE R 11 , NOVEM BER 1949 55 Class II consists of animals, predominantly birds taken as an index of the chronological progres­ and mammals (e .g., the Slealornilhiciae, Pmc­ sion of the cave in which it Occurs or fails to )'01/ , Neotema, and especially the chiroptera), occur. which fulfill the biocenologica l function of im· I sho uld like to propose such a classification, poning food into the recesses of the cavern. which would embrace three main divisions: (I) The environment o[ Class I , the twilight the hydrospoele, or wet cave, (2) the mes03poele, zo ne, is characterized by (1) variable light in­ or damp cave, and (3) the xerospoele, 01 dry tensity [rolll normal epigean sunlight at the cave cave. Under normal conditions cavern pro~rcs­ mouth to zero candle·meters at incipience of the sion is in the oreIer shown, [rom hyeIrospoclc to l.ota l darkness zone, (2) a tendency to less vari­ xerospoele. This geologica l progress ion is rela­ able cl ima tological condi tions than the immedi­ tively slow compared to most biological pro'C.NS, ate epigean, a nd (3) more easily ava il abl e food, and the three hypogean environments 111 <. )' be which may be produced by troglophilous flora considered separately. and may be readil y introduced from the ex­ Three type caverns in Middle Tennessee were terior. chosen for intensive investigation and studies be­ gun in the late Fall of 1948. The xerospoele is characterized by dry, dusty corridors and rough, weathered formations. The example of this type of cave chose n for study was Hubbards Cave, near Irving Coll ege, "Varren Coun ty, Tennessee. It is in the St. Louis lime­ stone". The en trance is a pi t-li ke hole 70 feet in di­ ameter and 30 feet deep. There are two branches, the' west and the sou tho The wes t branch is an exam pIe of the ex treme xerospoele. Dead, desic­ ca ted specimens of Myotis and Ceuthophilus were the only evidence of life in this passage, and they seemed acciden tal to this portion of the cave.

STAL,\ C'J' ITE !,:Totto in Apllle's ClLve, Goodletts­ 'V ill e, Tennessee. Bats, cave sailLITI !L ndm's a nd cave cl'iel{l'ts ent(· .. this cave tiwough lL long' cl·awlwa)'.

Aigae, li chens, an.d bryoph ytes intergrade as dominants in this zone with "shade-loving" pter­ idophytes .and spermatophyt.es in inverse pro­ portion to light in-tensity, with edaphic and lemperatlll;e factors _at a co nditional optimum. Troglophil ous vascular plants·l.are ~I e li ca t e, with long shoots bearing large, thin leaves whi ch ha ve enlarged epidermal cells, fewer stomata, aneI lack palisade pare-nchyma.. _. Twilight zone troglophilous fauna arc char­ acterized by ( I) natural pigments, (2) nega tive phototropism (in some cases possibl y stereotrop­ ism ), anel (3) poikilothermism. Ecologica ll y it is co nvenient to group caves on a moisture basis for two reasons: (1) of the IhiTe major climatic fa ctors moisture in the na­ tural cavcrn is most variable; (2) its presence or BAT COLOl\" V on t.he walls of Huhhanl's Cave, Mcl\iillnville, 1'ennessee. These !w e J IllliamL hats, rclati\'C abse nce in yaryin g amounts may be "l\I yotis sodaHs."

56 NATIONAL SPE LEOLOGICAL SOCIETY T he relative humidity o[ the south branch is T he hyd rospoele chose n was Mill Creek Cave, higher than that of the west passage, and little near Antioch, Davidson County, Tennessee. It is dust is present. The entrance to the south branch in th e lower Car·ters li mes tone of the ashvi ll e is ve ry large and in April and ovember, 1948, group, Ordovician sys tem. The entrance, about a thin Slream o[ water was fl owing into it but 8 feet high by 25 feet wide, opens in a low bluff sinking into the floor of the passage; the Collins on th e nOl:th bank of M ill Creek, and is sur­ River, dra inage strea m [or the area, is far below rounded by second or third growth trees. A exp lored sections of th e cave. 0 water was seen stream, varying in depth from one to 25 inches, in la te December, 1947, or May, 1948. M yo tis flows throughout the quarter-mile length of the sodn /is is found in lhis branch in great numbers. cavern, and empties into j\'[ill Creek. T he main T housands were see n hi bernating in December passage, draped with large and numerous stalac­ of 194-7 and ovember o[ 1948. tites, averages 5 feet wide and 6 fee t high. W ithin the pit-like hole, formed by the col­ Epigean crayfish, some of them very large, are lapse of lhe passage roof eons ago, were mosses, very abundant in the stream at all points. On liverworts, pteridophytes, a few scattered grasses, August 28, 1948, lVlyotis lucifugus, E1l1"ycea 11I ci­ and chance dicotyledons. Several araneid a which fu ga, R ona sy lva tiea, Ceutlt oph ilus gmci II i pes, h ad erected webs in sheltered crevices and a large and u niden ti fi ed di ptera, stream isopods, and Spirobollls were noted . nder near-by logs were cy prinid fi shes were seen in this cave. On Octo­ captured Ewycea longica'llda, Plellt odon glu lin­ ber 3 fi sh, crayfish, isopods, Celllhophilus, and a OS II S, and Pseudolrito17 Tub er. spider Lycosn were observed. By December 9 In th e mesospoeJe small pools of water or in­ th e number of species seen dwindled to cyprinids, termittent streams may be present during the wet crayfi sh, and Cell thoph i Ill S. season, and water dripping from th e ceiling orten W ith each bit of data accumulated the my­ gives rise to much secondary formation. Selected riad ramifications of such a study become more [or study as a mesospoelic environment was God­ and more apparent. In the future I hope to con­ wins Cave, near Columbia, Maury County, T en­ tinue study along the outline presented in th i nessee. It is in the H ermitage limes tone of the paper, especiall y in th e quantitati ve aspects of Nfohaw ki an series; the drainage stream for the the subject and contribute toward making the area is the Duck Rive r, 1.8 miles southeast of the cavern one of the bes t known ecological environ­ cave. T he entrance is apout 5 feet high by 15 ments. feet wide and is at the bottom of a sink in a strip T hanks are due to IIrs. G. R. ifayfi eld, Mr. of woods in an open fi eld. In Godwins Cave the S. F. Boyd, and Mr. John Koen, of Hillsboro fl oors of the labyrinthine passages are damp and Hi0'o'h School as hvi ll e; Dr. .J esse M. Shaver, of in some places muddy, but no formati ons occur. George Pea body College for T eachers, Tashville; On June 5, 1948, ElIrycea lli cifuga, R CI17CL pa­ Dr. R . ' fV . Stone, pres ident of the National Spele­ lush·is, CeutllOjJh ilus gra cillipes, and ti puloid ological Society; Dr. Fred Wolf, of Vanderbilt fli es were found in this cave near the entrance. U niversity; and es pecially to Dr. J ames l Friauf, Two of the Eu:rycea were gravid females. The of Vanderbilt, without who e advice and criti­ stomachs of the amphibians contained tipuloids, cism I should have accomplished very little to­ coleoptera, unidentified diptera, a minute gastro­ ward the prepara tion of an outline of study. pod, and bits of rock and plant material. On November 28, 1948, a light rain had been I JE,\ NNE L, R ENE: Faune cavernicole de la France ·avec une etude des conditions d'existence dans le falling for 24 hours, and a stream was fl owing do m aine sou terrain; 334 pp., 15 p I., 74 fig .; 1' . into the cave. Animals had moved back into the Lech evalier: P aris, 1927 "MAH EU, J ACQUES : La m ycologie obscu ricole SO lller­ recesses, but as a rule did not proceed much far­ raine america ine; BIIIl. Trill/ est. Soc. M yco l. F r. ther than 200 ya rds [rom the entrance. Fauna -12 (\1'2) : 130· 138; 1926 (abslr.) "BANTA, A. M.: T h e fa una of Mayfi eld's Cave; Car­ observed included tipuloids, CeuthojJhilvs, and Ileerie fllst . of Wasil. Pllbl. No. 67; 1901i Pipistrellus slluf/avus. A dead bat had been at­ . IM ~RTON, FR ., und E LI SE H OFMAN: okologie d er assimilierenden H bhlenp nanzen. Mi t einem Beit­ tacked by fungi and saprophyti c arthopods. rag liber H b h1cnpna nzen an atomie; Forschr. d. A fi brous ascomyce te was fo u nd on wood de­ Nalur\\,. Forschung 12 (3): 15 1·23·1; 3 p I. , 12 fig.; bris along the stream bed on both of the above 1927 (abstr .) :; BAIL EY, T. H .: R eport o n the caves of the (',,~I (: rn dates. Highla nd Rim and C umberla nd M O ~lI1l ain ~ R e· sO llrces of T elln essee; Tenn. Geo!. Dlv.; 1911

B ULLETI N NUMBE R] 1, NOVEMBER 1949 57 Table I

CLIMA TOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS I N THE TYPE CAVES

Ai?" R ei. D ew Vapor .'ila. DescrijJ lio l1 of Station Time T emp. Hu.m . Pt. P·ress.

GODWINS CAVE November 28, 1948

I. R oom by intermittent stream ; 100 yd. 5:35 100% 0.473 fr om entrance. p.m.

2. N . end of main passage, no stream, 200 5:40 91 % 0.482 yd. fr. ent. ; biotic extension limit. p.m.

3. S. end of m ain passage, by stream; 200 5:'15 99 % 0.468 yd. upstream [r. ent., 100 yd. by shortest p.m. route.

MILL CREEK CAVE December 9, 1948

1. Entrance of cave. Air press. 29.51" by 5:05 77 % 0.266 US dep't Comm. W eath. Bur. p.m.

2. Around curve about 50' fr. ent.; dry 5: 10 90· 8- / 0 0.310 ledge on left, str. 6 ft. wide. p.m.

3. 1st room, about 150 yd. fro ent. ; str. 4' 5:35 99% wide. p.m.

4. 2nd room, 250 yd. fr. entr., much How- 5:40 94% 0.499 stone; stream 3' wide. p.m. '-'a Z

5. Large stalactite over stream; H"O fr. · 5:50 97 % 0.499 ce il. a t 5 gal/ Ill·.; ent. 300 yd. p.m.

6. Flowstone, S-curve, silt ledge 40 ft." 6:00 91 % 0.490 p.m.

" H,O tClIlp. Oct. 3 was GO °F. a t No. I, Mill Creek Cave, and borc almost a straig ht line relatio nship at G1.5 ° in the interi or with dista nce from the entrance.

58 NATIONAL SPE L EOLOGJCAL SOCIETY Table II Table III

PRELIMINARY LIST OF ORGAN [ S ~r S FOUND PAR T IAL LIST OF CAVES STUDIED IN T ENNESSEE CAVES I. Apple's Cave, Davidson Coullly, T ennessee (S pecies a re listed regardless of ecologica l cl assifi ca ti on) 2. Anderson Cave, Da\'idson County, T ennessee 3. Big Bone Cave, Va n Buren County, Tennessee A "iII/fils 'I. Bottleneck Cave, Davidson County, Tcnnessee Opossum Didelphis virginiana Lillie Brown Bat Myoti s In ci fu gus In cifugus 5. Bull Ca\'e, Blount County, Tennessce Indiana Bat l\Iyo ti s soda lis 6. Burton 's Cave, Dickso n County, Tennessec Say's Ba t Myo ti s keenii septentrionalis 7. Cave Sp rings Cave, DeKalb County, Tcnnessee Pipistrelle Pi pistrellus subAavus 8. Columhia Caverns, Dickson County, Tennessee LeConte's Big-ea red Bat Corynorhinus macroti s 9. Corynorhinus Cave, ' Va n-en Coun ty, Tennessee Alabama R accoon Procyon lotor va rius All egheny Wood R at Neotema magister 10. Cove Holl o \\' Cave, Smith Coun ty, Tennessee Eastern Phoebe Sayornis phoehe II. Craighead Caverns, \[onroe County, Tennessee Eastern Box Tunle Terrapene carolina carolina 12. Di xie Cavcl'll s, R oanoke County, Virginia Common T ree Toad Hyla versicolor versicolor 13. Di xon's Caye, Edmondso n CO UIllY, KeIllncky Wood Frog R ana sy lvatica Pickerel Frog R ana palustris 14 . Fi sher Caye. Smith Coun ty, Tennessee Long-tailed Salamander Eurycea longicauda 15. Flynn's Lick Cave, Jackso n CO UIll Y, Tcnnessee Cave Sa la mander Eur)'cea lucifuga 16. Gin Bluff Cave, DeKalb County, T ennessce R ed Salamander Pse udotrito ll rnber 17. Godwins Cave, Maury COUIllY, T ennessee Bronzed Sala mander Aneides aeneU5 Zigzagged Sal ama nder Pl ethodon cinereus dorsalis 18. Gregory's Cavc, Blount County, Tenncssee Slimy Sa lamander Plethodon glutinosus 19. Ha il e's Cavern, Albany County, New Yo rk Dusky Salama nder Desmogna th us fu scus 20. H ail e's Cave, J ackso n County, Tennessee Cave Blind Fish Forbesichth),s agassizii 2 1. Higgin botam Cave, ' Varren County, Tennessee ~ [ o th Scoli opteryx liba trix Cave Cricket Ceuthophilus gracillipes 22. Hubbard's Cave. ' Va rren Coullly, T ennessee Cave Crayfi sh Cambarus ban onii tenebrosus 23. Hudso n Cave, Dickson County, T ennessee Comm. Millipede Cambala annula ta 2·1. HUIll's Cave, Dickson CO UIllY, T ennessee WolE Spider L ycosa sp . 25. Las Cassas Caye, RlIlherEord CO UIll Y, Tennessee ~ [illi pede Spirobolus sp. 26. Leonard Cave, Macon Count)' , Tennessee Unidentified speci es 27. Lost Cove Cave, Franklin County, T ennessee Cyprinidae l\I innow 28. Mammoth Cave, Edmondso n County, Kentucky Gastropod T ipulidae 29. Mill Creek Cave, Davidson County, Tennessee Flies Culicidae 30. Nesbitt Cave, Smith County, Tennessee Stratiomyidae 31. Ove rall Cave, DeKalb County, T ennessee Asilidae 32. Petty's Caye, Marshall COUIll Y, Tennessee Carabidae 33. Pipcr Cave, Smith CG un ty, Tennessee G round Beetl e Lepismatidae 34. Po tato Hole Cave, Dickso n County, Tennessee T hysa nuran 35. Rich Mountain Caverns, Bloulll County, Tennessee Isopods 36. Rogers' Cave, "Va n en Count)', Tennessee l\I illipede (troglobious) 37. Robinson Cave, DeKalb County, Tennessee Araneids !IS . Scout Cave, Davidson County, Tennessee 39. Snow Hill Cave, DeKalb County, T ennessee Plan/s-Specimens are being sent to Ol uLl lO rities for identi­ 40. Williams' Cave, DcKalb CO llIllY, Tenncssee fi ca tion. O nly definite species is Call/jJ/oso rus 1'hizo­ ·11 . Ruskin Ca ve, Dickso n County, Tennessee phyllus, found a t Hubbards Cave; other fo rms in­ -12. J ewel Cave, Dickso n County, Tennessee clude DryolJ teris, PolYIJOd iulI/ , grasses, a few dico ty­ 43 . Judd's (13 urial) Cave, J ackso n County, Tennessee ledons, mosses, liverworts, fungi, algae, and lichens. 'I -I. Blowin g- Cavc, Sevier County, T ennessee

B ULLETIN NUM BER 11 , NOVE MBER 1949 59 CAVES IN EASTERN CANADA By HAROLD B. HITCHCOCK DepaTt ment of B iology, M iddlebuT)' College, M iddlebuT)', Vennon t

My introduction to the caves of Southeastern tured na ture of the rock, which collapses about Ontario and adjoining parts of Quebec ca me as fas t as hollowing out occurs. Commercialized through an in teres t in bats. In order to study caves near Collingwood are advertised, but I their life cycl e it was necessary to discover where have not seen them. R eports of them indica te they hibernate. ' '''hen I began my search for that they are not extensive, but are like others caves in 1938 I knew of none in the region, bu t found along the sa me escarpment, such as with the help of many individuals cave after Bruce 's Cave, near Oxenden. All caves I have cave was repor ted, the most interes t·ing of which visited in Canada are in limestone with the are listed below. T he list is not intended to be possible exception of one on the Bronte River, complete, but may serve as an introduction to where the rock removed seems to h ave been some of the caves, and furnish clues as to likely sandstone. I have included two mine tunnels spots in which to find others. since in their abandoned condition they have In 1860 Sir George D. Gibb published an become esse n tiall y caverns. article in The Geologist entitled "On Canadian Caverns". In it he described thirty formations Ontario Caves and Mines from Labrador to Lake Superior. Some of these FloweTpot Island, BTUce County, On tm·io. formations are listed as " probable" caverns, de­ The island is a na tional park and has paths tected by the hollow rumbling of coach wheels leading to the several caves. These caves are on passing over exposed rock, and others are forma­ the face of cliffs, and are open and dry for the tions believed to have once been a part of mos t part. In one the interior is much more caverns. N ine years later, when a large cave near moist than the others. A trip by chartered boat Ottawa was discovered, the Canadian Naturalist from Tobermory is well worth the cost, not only and Quarterly J our nal of Science summed u p beca use of the caves but also because of the the Gibb report 111 the fo llowing words: "fl owerpots", tiny limes tone islands near the "Though Sir Duncan Gibb has enumerated no shore, shaped like fl ower pots and growing less than thirty Canadian caverns, they are fo r spruce trees. T here is a pavillion fo r picnicking, the mos t part insignificant and scarcely deserv­ and a lighthouse as a further attraction. ing of the name". ' '''ith such an evaluation I kra1', A lbennaTle T ownshijJ, B nLce County, ca nnot vigorously disagree, so fa r as I h ave been OntCl.1·io. This is a small cave on the [arm of able to judge from the caves I have visited Archie Give n, about a mile east of the cross­ (which are but a few of those Gibb listed). Com­ roads. As it is in the woods, without trail , it is pared with caves in other parts of the con tinent difficul t to locate wi thout ass istance. It is en tered they are, with one exception, insignifica nt. T he through a narrow chimney ten fee t deep and is exception is the "Va kefi eld (now Lafl eche) Cave, chiefl y a circular chamber about fifteen feet in about 18 miles from Ottawa, in Q uebec. diameter with beau tiful white incrustations on "Much of eastern Ontario is underlain with the walls. limes tone belonging to the Niagara fo rmation, Bruce Cave, n ear TtVi Cl.1"ton and Oxenden, whi ch ex tends across the province from the KetJpler T ownshijJ, B mce County, On ta1·io. iagara Rive r to the Bruce Peninsula and Mani­ T his is a well known picnic spot on the face of toulin Island. Small caves have been reported the escarpment, abou t four miles east of ' '''iar­ throughout this formation, b ut only in a [ew ton. It is a high ceilinged sp acious room with a insta nces have caves of more than a few fee t in good view across Colpoy Bay. Along the base of ex tent bee n formed. T he apparent reason fo r the escarpment are countless small caverns into the small size of the caves here is the very frac- which one may crawl, but because of the loose

60 N ATIONAL S PEL E OLOGICAL SOCIE TY rock roofs and r ough fl oors are neither \'ery sa fe nor comfortable.

R ockwood.. Wellington County, On tario. T his Give is on the face of a limes tone cliff a few feet [rom the road, on the south-eas t bank of the Eram osa Rive r, near an old lime kiln. T he outer part is wide, high and exposed. From the rear wall a very narrow crawl way leads into some­ wha t less constricted passageways of limited ex­ tent, where the fl oor is muddy and the air stag­ nant.

Grand R iver and Gorge at Elora, Wellington Cou.nty, On ta1'1:o. Along the steep banks are sev­ eral small , exposed caves of modest proportions. T he area is scenic because of the gorge, and worth a visit. Lowville Bluff, Nelson Townshi/J, H alton County, O ntario. T here are several caves at the top of the esca rpment, facing north-east, on what is designated as Mount Nemo on the H amil ton topographic sheet. I was guirlerl to them by a M r. Lucckese, a residen t of the area, and pro­ prietor o[ a Canadian Yo uth H ostel. T he largest is a fi ss ure back a sh ort distance [rom the edge A CAGE uf bat s r eady 1'01' ba mling'. T yendina ga Township CIl " e. of the esca rpment. I t is wide enoug'h to walk in wiLh out scraping, and too high [or m y light to pick out the top. I went in over a hund red feet, fron t, with perpendicular walls r ising to a where wa ter stopped m y progress, Lh ough the heig hL oE Lw enty fee t. Midway down this passage, fi ss ure continued. on the righ t, where the floo r rises, is a narrow crawl way lea ding back almost parallel to Lh e Nl acf{ enzie Cave, nenr l\II ert ol1 , H alt on m ain passage, toward the sinkhole. Except for CO ll n ty, O ntan:o. T he cave is on the north bank the fir st ten or fifteen feet this passage is wide of the Bronte River, abou t a third of a mile and high enough to be walked Lhrough. Ice north-west of the Q ueen Elizabeth Highway. stalagmiLes form in the main passage d uring Lhe T he en trance is broad and low, but the height winter, but the smaller passage remains above increases toward the rear so that one may sta nd freez ing' Lhroughou t the year. erect. T here is a small pool a t the end, abou t 60 feet from the en trance. T his ca ve seems to Brochr1 il/e, L eeds Count)', 0I1ta1'l:0 . Nearly have been formed by the removal o[ sa ndstone opposiL e the gr ounds o[ the Ontario Hospital is beneath limestone. a cl eft in the precipitous rock wall that rises from the St. Lawrence River. One ca n penetraLe this c1ef L [or some d istance, and at times day­ FiJ t11 Concession, Tyelldillnga Townsllip, ligh t shows from far below. , ,\T hen I visited iL , H as till gs COU llty, Ontario. T he cave is on Lh e in _-\ pril, ice fi na ll y bl ocked the way, and I do north side o[ the cou n ty road tha t ru ns easLerly not know h ow far one may penetraLe when con­ [rom Corb yv i lI e, abou t a hal f m ile west of its diLi ons are norma l. O ne has the fe eli ng that the in tersec Li on wiLh the co unty road from Shannon­ rock on the river side of the cleft m ay topple ville to R oslin, It is en tered Lhrough a sinkhole oyer into the rive r i[ pushed . I must admit I W

B ULLETI N NUMBE R I J, NOVEMBER 194,9 61 trance forming an ice dam that ca uses flooding of the front part of the tunnel. Extensive ice columns also develop near the entrance, effec­ tively blocking the passage. Fa u l' t h Chute, Knighting/on, R enfrew Count)', Ontm·io. T he cave is in a knoll on the north bank of the Bonnechere River, just below the dam, near the highway bridge. 'Vater from the river fl ows through some of the passages. In several places large sinkholes have developed, through which entrance ca n be gained. Near the ri\'er, as well as in some other regions, the cave is unsafe beca use of loose rock in the ce iling, but the innerlllost part, entered through a small aperture from a sinkhole, is quite safe, consist­ COLLI.':CTTNG hats in C11ve in Tyendinaga Township. Ontal·io. ing of narrow passages in firm rock. A sizeable stream flows through the largest of these pas­ j'vI ye1"S Cave, Frontenac County, Onlcnio. sages, emerging on the opposite side of the knoll This name appears on road maps, but so far as [rom the ri ve r. This is th e most spectacular of I co uld discover there I S no true cave in the th e Ontario caves I have seen. Several of the neighborhood, merely a shallow excavation, passages are of grand proportions, and two sink­ obviously man-made. holes have fo rmed a natural bridge. The rapids Pu.zzle Lake, Sll efJi.eld T ownship, L ennox in the Bonnechere River beside the cave add to and Addington County, Ontario. This cave is the beauty of the place. Plans to commerciali ze betwee n Puzzle Lake a~ld Little Gull Lake, and the spot were afoot a few years ago, but have contains a stream flowing from the former to the apparently been abandoned. latter. I t is bes t approached from the Arden to Eri nsville roa d at the end of Gull Lake, fo ll ow­ Quebec Caves ing high ground along the east side of the lake, Lafleche (Wahefi eld) Ca ve, near St. PieH e de across the outlet [rom Puzzle Lake to G ull Lake, Wake{teld, Gatinea71 Counly, Quebec. T his cave, to the far side of a small va ll ey at the extreme about 18 miles from Ottawa and Hull, is the so uthern tip o[ Puzz le Lake. T he cave is a rough, only commercial cave in the province. It is by rock-s trew n passage, wet underfoot, and ca rpeted far the most ex tensive cave I have see n in Cana­ in places with porcupine clung, but passable da, and has the most interesting formations. Its from one end to the other. roomy entrance is on a steep hillside, above a Cop1Jer rnine at Eldomdo, Hastings County, small lake, and slopes downward to a chamber Onta1·io. At one time Eldorado was a booming from which several passages lead. The longest of mining ce n ter, but today nothing but a few mint: these terminates in a well, 90 fe et deep. Electric dumps and passages, mostly wa ter-fill ed, give a lighting has been advantageousl y employed to hint of its glamorous past. I have visited a 60 display stalactites, stalagmites and other forma­ foot tunnel of a copper mine about a half mile tions. The cave is thought to be on the old shore west o[ the settlement. Directions fo r reaching it of the ancient Champlain Sea, at an elevation of Illa y be obtained locall y. about 700 feet. R oads around Ottawa are sup­ Contndum m ine at Cmigmont, R enfrew plied with markers to the cave. T he proprietor, County, Ontario. This is a tunnel several hun­ Mr. Zephir Lafleche, is to be commended for dred feet long behind the mill buildings . During protec ting the bats which hibernate therein. \Vorld "Va r II the mill operated, reworking the L es Dalles, Montcalm County, Quebec. Near dum p piles [rom previous se parations, bu t the Les Dalles, a settlement which takes its name place is now abandoned. The tunnel itself has from a picturesque stretch of the Oureau River, not bee n used for many years. In it ca n be seen on the road between J oli ette and St. Jacques, is good crys tals of corundum. During the winter a small cave or, as it is known locall y, t1"OU de fee, water draining from the mine fr eezes at the en- which ca n bes t be located by inquiry among

62 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY local inhabitants. The cave is entered through Significance As Hibernating Places for Bats a 60 foot passage that slopes gently down to a small stream. At this point one ca n squeeze Until this investigation was started little was through a low passage at the rig'ht into a cham­ known of the bats hibernating in this part of ber abou t 100 feet long and high enough [or Canada. The following species have been regu­ standing erect in places. This appears to be the larl y found in certain of the larger caves: cave described by Gibb as Bouchette's Cave at Kildare. If so, an error was made in locating it, Myotis heenii setJtentrionalis, long-eared and the dimensions have shrunk co nsiderabl y, a little brown bat phenomenon not unknown to speleologists. Myotis l. lucifllgus, common little brown bat Caves in the Montreal Area Nlyotis sllblllatus leibii, least bat or masked bat St. Paul de Vincent. I have been only to the mouth of this tTOU de fee, not entering because Eptesicus f. fllscus, big brown bat inappropria tely dressed for such a narrow and PijJistreilus subflavlls obscu1"tls, northern wet passage. It is in the river bank, near the dam, pipistrelle bat and known to residents of the neighborhood. R ose1f1.e1·e, n em' Pont David. This cave is in Because the caves are of modes t proportions a fi eld, abou t a half mile from the beau tiful old and the numbers of bats in them limited, rather stone residence of a Mr. Garth, owner of the complete collections of practically all present property. 'When I visited it, on J anuary 15, 1944, have been possible. T he majority of them have the sinkhole at its mouth was completely fill ed been banded and released at the caves. From the with drifted snow, and it took tv"o of us a couple banding operations data have been secured re­ of hours to shovel our way in. ' l\Te penetrated garding their life span. A complete report of ~ h e about 80 feet, where water blocked further ex· ba t inves tigations entitled "Hibernation of Bats ploration. L eaves and other stream-borne ma­ in Southeastern Ontario and Adjacent Quebec," terial caught high on the walls and ceiling was printed in the March-April iss ue of the showed that the cave is flo oded periodically. Canadian Field-Naturalist, 1949, pages 47·59.

Rue Cote St. Michel. In Gibb's article this is listed as Gibb's Cave, as he first described it. To­ Appendix day, however, Gibb h as been forgotten, and the Geological fO 'rmations listed by Sir Geo1'Ue D. cave is just a tmu de fee to the people of the Gibb in the Geologist, 1860. '" neighborhood who are acquainted with i t. It (a) Tho e which at the present time are washed can be reached by following' a farm lane running by the waters of lakes, seas, and rivers, includina north from Rue Cote St. Michel, about a half arched, perforated, fl ower-pot, and pillared rock~ mile east of its intersection with Rue Pie IX. which have at one time formed the boundaries The cave is about 75 feet deep, with water at or walls of caverns, and all of them unquestion­ abl y the result of aqueous action: the end. T he entrance is narrow, but one can stand erect inside. 1. Caverns on the shores of the Magdalen Islands 2. Caverns and arched rocks a t Perce, Gaspe Summary

3. Gothic arched recessesJ Gaspe Bay These caves, though not imposing because of dimensions or formations, are interesting to 4. T he "Old '''Toman'', or Rower-pot rock, at Cape Gaspe a speleologist prepared to get his h ands and clothes so il ed. T h ey have the adva ntage, most 5. Little River Caverns, Bay of Chaleur of th em, of being in sce nic regions. No doubt 6. Arched and Rower-pot rocks of the m an)' more cavern ex ist and ca n be fo und b), Mingan Islands making inquiries locall y. (conlinued on page seveIIly-lwo)

BULLETIN NUMBE R 11 , NOVEMBER] 949 63 A STORMWATER CAVERN In the LOllt River Region of Orange County~ Indiana By CLYDE A. MALOTT, Indiana UniveTsity The caverns of the limestone belt of southern of the cavern and only a small number have Indiana are features of subterranean drainage, actually been in it. It is an unattractive, muddy though many of them are now above drainage cavern and in addition it may be considered level and are dry. All the longer explored cav­ dangerous. erns either have, or once had, definite sources Lost River, carrying waters from 53 square of water supply. The waters which are dis­ miles of drainage, sinks in various small and sev­ charged through them, or which once used them eral large swallow-holes along its middle course. as underground drainage courses, come largely The underground drainage is through a sink­ rrom areas of surface supply. Their phreatic hole belt some 10 miles in width and the course water drainage is relatively small. It is true that of the winding "dry-bed" is about 20 miles in most o[ the stream-coursed caverns get sorne of length. The waters reappear at the surface 8 their waters from seepage through the general miles west of the first sink of the stream, but th e overlying and contiguous bedrock which slowly underground course is undoubtedly much long­ feeds clear waters into them. Such a supply of er. The "rise" of Lost River is 120 feet lower waters to the cavern streams is relatively con­ than its first princi pal sinks. In periods of ex­ tinuous and uniform. But most of the stream­ ceptionally heavy rains the dry-bed channel is co ursed caverns of the limestone belt receive occu pied by stormwaters which desce nd from surface waters from definite places of intake, and east to west. During these periods the subter­ their stream volumes are subject to large fluctua­ ranean channels are fill ed to capacity. tions. The excess waters of rainy periods are Very little is known about the underground usua ll y charged with muds, silts, sands and course of Lost River. It is not a simple course, oTavels similar to the storm waters of surlace bu t is characterized by many channels developed o ' streams. Some of the stream-coursed caverns along rou tes hewed ou t of the join t system in the ca rry only stormwaters from surface areas and upper part of the St. Louis limestone in which have intermittent flows of water. Such caverns it is developed. The underground routes in the occasionally have higher levels which are subject region of the first sinks of the surface course are onl y to influx of storm-born waters that overtax but little below the surface channel, but they the lower routes, and occasionally they may descend as much as 40 feet below the dry-bed in have sections or levels completely above the in­ the vicinity of Hudelson cavern several miles nooding storm-born waters. down stream. During flood periods the under­ The stream-coursed caverns, especially those ground waters occupy levels much above the low that are thoroughly flooded with stormwaters water routes, coursing through routes as high gathered [rom the surface, offer little attraction as the dry-bed itself. Thus, the underground as sce ni c features and are seldom visited by the system has both low and high water levels, cor­ publi c. Only a few of them have been described res ponding to the low and high water levels of in deta il , and still scantier attention has been surface streams. Hudelson cavern offers a view given to them as subterranean drainage routes. of the characteristics of some of the varying II is th e purpose of this paper to present some levels of the underground system. o[ th e deiail s of a stormwater co urse of under­ Hudelson cavern takes its name from a for­ ground Los t River in Orange County, Indiana, mer owner of the [arm on which the sink hole loca ll y known as Hudelso n cavern. This cavern entrance is located. The land at prese nt is was entered and mapped by the author and owned by Austin Chastain. The entrance is in R obert Shrock in August, 1929, during a study the eastern part o[ the SW of NE ~ of sec. 14, o[ the underground features o[ the Lost River T. 2 N., R . I ''''., about midway between Orleans regIO n. f ew people know abou t the presence and Paoli, Orange County, Indiana. It is 360

6-1: NATIONAL SPELEOI"OGICAL SOCIETY yards north at the Chastain residence and 550 5 feet below its rim. The opening in the boltom yards south of the dry-bed channel of Lost River. at the sink hole is only about 2Y2 leet across. (See Fig. I) The Hudelson cavern is in the It ex tends vertically through 12 feet of rock to midst at the si nk hole plain through which the the ceiling of an expansive room 8 leet abO\'e dry-bed channel passes. The relief of the si nk a rather flat Hoar. The room is 4·0 feet across in hole plain is relatively small, though in about an east-wcst direction. T he Hoar is com posed o ne mile to the south of the cavern entrance the of blocks of mud-covered rock, indica ling that edge of the rugged Chester sandstone cscarp­ muddy storm"vaters rise upon it. Northward is mcnt rises as much as 200 feet above the sink a passage which was followed for a dislance of h ole plain. about ·400 teet. This passage, along with the en­ T hc cavern itself is developed at three levels trance room, constitutes the top Hoar of the cav­ bencath the sink hole plain. T he first floor im­ ern. T he p assage is a high-level escape route of mediately benea th the entrance is about 25 feet the stormwaters a t or near the level o f the dry­ down and extends northward at an altitude of bed channel of Lost River. Its Hoor and cei ling about 595 teet. T he middle floor is at an alti tude are irregular, and in places the passage is rather at about 575 feet, and was mapped lor a dis­ constricted. Everywhere the rou te indica tes the tance of ncarly 1,900 feet. The lowest floor is passage of muddy stormwaters. At 380 teet lrom at or ncar the permanent watertable at an alti­ the cavern entrance the passage was only 3 feet tude at 555-560 fe et. It was traversed through a high and 5 feet wid ~ and was not tollowed distance at about 625 feet. All the floors of the farther. on 'ern are developed in the St. Louis limestone, Sou thward from the en trance room the Hoar though lhc uppermost one is near the can tact descends slightly, and in about 75 feet descends with rh e Ste. Genevie\'e limes tone which co m­ a brllptl y into mllddy pits inro which storm­ poses the surface lands of this part of the sink waters d isappcar during highwater periods. Ir­ hole pia i n. regular pits extcnd also along the eastern wall Thc sink hole en trance to Hudelson cavern of the entrance room. The pits mark the termi­ is abou t ]5 feet across and depressed only about nus of the cxplorable part of the 575-foot Hoar

MAP OF HUDELSON CAVERN A STORMWATER ROUTE or UNDERGROUND LOST RIVER ORANGE COUNTY I NOlANA TRAVERSE BY Clyde A. Malott and Robt. R. Shrock AU9' 13, 192.9 ID O ;lIOO 400 ~"OD rf. S ca le of Foet

S ketch of [ntrance

.. .1.

C. A . M. " ••

Fig. 1. TI"ltl"e.·se ma,p of Hudelson C!LVe.·n and inset map showin,l;' its relation to the dry-bed dl"ltinag-e of Lost l'ti\'el', Orange County, lndia na.

BULLETIN NUMBER 11 , NOVEMBER 1949 65 level. Evidently the flo or of the entrance room mud-coated rock slabs adjacent to its right wall, is composed of fallen material which blocks the and in about 75 feet the mud channel was again down-end of the 575-foot level. T he floor of this entered. level is marked by a well defined stream channel T he mud channel continues northeasterly to cut in the mud floor of the cavern. Up-stream a large room 1,835 feet from the entrance to the it extends so uth-southeast for a distance of 575 cavern. The ceiling of the room is 15 to 20 feet feet and then turns northeast"ward. (See traverse above the floor ,and on the northwest the mud map, fig. I.) A little water trickles along on the floor rises to the ceiling in a distance of about narrow floor of the mud channel. This channel 40 feet. A hole above allows water to fall into is 5 to 10 feet in depth, and the cavern ceiling the room, and a ditch-like channel leads from is 5 to 15 feet above its narrow floor. T he cavern the plunge basin sou theasterly under the rock itselE is 12 to 25 feet in wid th. A small trickle ceiling to the holes leading to a lower level. Ap­ of water enters from the east (left side) at 320 parently surface waters en ter here during rains. feet from the cavern entrance, another at about At the southeast end of the big room, close 400 feet, and still another a t about 540 feet. under the ceiling, ragged holes in the rock fl oor Water drips noisil y from a hole in the roof at lead to the low-level route of the cavern devel­ 525 fe et and a shallow plunge pool is prese nt oped at an altitude of 555-560 feet. T hese holes in the mud Hoor here. are 1,905 feet from the entrance of the cavern. After turning northeastward, the narrow bot­ It is quite apparent that stormwaters fill the tom of ·the mud channel is directed into a small lower route to its full ca pacity and then rise hole in the Hoor at a distance of 675 feet from through the holes and flood the next level above. the cavern entrance. T he northeastward stretch The 555-560-foot Hoor level of the cavern is of the mud-fl oored channel shows little change. at or ncar the permanent water table of the re­ It turns slightly here and there, and the mud gion. It extends in a northwes t-southeast direc­ wall is first on one side of the cavern and then on tion. It is developed in the very cherty phase of the other. T he cavern ceiling is slightly uneven the St. Louis limestone and presents a rough in an undulating manner, but is not rough. It and ragged appearance as a cavern channel. is usuall y 6 to 9 feet above the mud floor of the R ough cherty masses ex tend from the walls and channel. T he cavern sides are 12 to 20 feet apart, ceiling, and the floor is strewn with loose chert averaging about 15 feet. T he rock everywhere masses. Excavated holes in the rock floor add is covered with mud. T he surface is minutely to the unevenness. The stormwaters appear to uneven, and locall y stands out in small , sem i­ pass through the cavern with great force in a globular, shiny masses resembling gTapes. An northwest direction. T he rugged route is 6 to occasional stalactite is present here and there, 10 feet in height and 10 to 15 feet in width, with also well covered with mud. Nowhere does rock occasional wider places. A mud coating is pres­ show on the fl oor of the cavern. ent on the walls and ce iling, but the flo or is rela­ A t uno feet from the en trance, the cavern tively free from mud. is so filled with mud that it is necessary to crawl After descending through the ragged holes for a distance of abou t 120 fe et. Here the roof to the lower level, the passage was mapped is 2 to 3 feet above the shallow mud channel northwest in a down-stream direction. At a dis­ of the fl oor. At 1,485 fee t [rom the entrance the tance of 70 feet, a pool of clear water was en­ Illud channel becomes double, one channel co m­ co u n tered measuring 5 feet or more in depth ing (rolll the left (nearly due east) and the other and with a low ce iling. Up-stream from the en­ from the right (so u theast). The cavern widens trance holes, the low-level cavern route was into a room abou t 60 feet across. T he chan nel mapped [or a distance of 550 feet and 2,425 feet on the right comes ou t of broken-down rock nex t [rom the entrance to the cavern. Here the tra­ to the right wa ll of the cavern. It did not appear verse was stopped by a pool of water occupying big enough to enter, and no attempt was made a plunge basin beneath a waterfall ledge 3 feet to follow it. The channel on the left comes above water level. A blind fi sh fully 5 inches through broken-down rock also, and a ridge of in length was observed in the remarkably clear Illud rises sharply between the two channels. water of the pool. At 320 feet from the entrance T he ldt channel was fo ll owed by going over holes, a lead goes off to the righ t (south-south-

66 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY west). It is smaller than the main channel and [rom. The tra verse of the cavern system ended is nearly filled with loose rock. Apparently at the up-s tream end 1,400 feet nearly due east stormwaters from the main channel fe ed into it. o[ th e cavern entrance and directl y LO " 'ard the Ripple marks and etched rock cl early indicate area of the dry-bed swallow-holes. It is regret­ water passage into it. Its floor 75 fe et back [rom table that the traverse was not continued in this the main cha nnel is considerably higher than direction in spite of the deep pool of water that of the main channel. It is possible that th e which discouraged further ex ploration. This waters which [ollow this lead are fed into the source is highly adequate, and the behavior of 575·foot le,'el in th e room 1,485 feet from the th e waters flowing through the ca vern system sink hole entrance to the ca,'ern system. seems to indicate such a so urce. T he Hudelson cavern was entered and ex­ It is apparent that the stormwaters course p lored in the hope that it would lead to the low­ through the cavern " 'ith considerable "elocity water route of the main channel of the under­ during an earl y period of flow, but later the ground Lost River. It seems quite probable thaI: waters become stagnated or flow very slowly. the explored part of th e cavern is sou th o[ th e The high velocity period is associated with the malll through-water channel of Lost River. fil ling period wh en large quantities of water en­ Swallow-holes in the dry- bed just to the north of ter the Turner swa ll ow-holes from the dry-b ed. the cavern are directed southward, evidently Later, the underground routes become fill ed leading into the underground route of Lost with stormwa ters and th e velocity of flow is River somewhere betwee n the mapped part of checked, chiefl y because of the stormwaters the ca ,'ern and the dry- bed channel. The ca v­ which occupy the down-s tream part of the sys­ ern was aga in entered during a dry period in tem. Decreased volumes th en enter the swallow­ June 1931, and a further attempt was made to holes in the up-s trea m part of the system, and trace the low-level route to the main course of the excess stormwa ters desce nd to the dry-bed underground Lost River. T he cavern route was channel. The stagnated muddy waters deposit extended for 100 feet or more by wading muds in th e underground routes of the system , through wa ter varyi ng from knee to waist deep, es pecially in the higher levels, such as the 575- a"oiding the deeper places. Numerous white foot level of the Hudel on cavern. The walls blind crawfish were noted, and two blind fish and ce iling become heavil y coated with mud up to 4 inches in length were ob erved in the and dea d-end channels become fill ed. These clear wa ter. The total traverse of the cavern waters stand as high in the sys tem as the flood system aggregated 3,200 feet. waters in the dry-bed channel, and they cannot The stormwaters which course through the be evacuated until th e dry-bed waters are low­ triple-floored Hudelson cavern rise as high as ered or emptied. Following th e cessa tion of flow 605 feet in altitude, as much as 45 fee t above in the dry-bed, the stormwaters in the subter­ the low-water route at or near the watertable of ranea n sys tem subside and eventually cease to the region. There are two poss ible sources of fl ow. Only cl ea r waters seeping into the sys tem these SLOrmwaters. It is poss ible for them to from groundwater ources th en flow through the come [rom the surface streams which desce nd lowes t rou res, exce pt for th e passage of the from th e Ches ter escarpment south and south­ through-waters from th e upper part of the sur­ wes t of the cavern, where se veral ravines send fa ce s),stem which is spring- fed. their rain-born waters into individual swallow­ It appears quite likely that th e compound holes on reaching th e sink-hole plain. T hese vertica l components of a ys tem like that of waters undoubtedly reach into the underground Hudelso n cavern are the resul t of the develop­ system of Lost River, thoug'h their actual routes men t of success i ve le"els as the wa ter table is are unknown. The second possible so urce of the lowered, and that the older and higher levels mudd y stormwa ters is [rom the dry-bed channel are maintained and further de"eloped by the in­ o[ Lost River entering through the numerous fl ooding waters frol11 the surface. The upper Turner swallow-holes near the ce n tre of the levels are maintained as long as the under­ NE~ of sec. 13, about one mile east of the cav­ ground tubes are not too much clogged by ern entrance. (See inset map, Fig. I.) It appears breakdowns in them, or as long as stormwaters qui te probable tha t here is where they come rise up and pass through them. La ter stages in

BULLETIN NUMBER 11 , NOVEl\IBER 194·9 67 lheir history are associated with incoming' fl ood limes tone. As sti ch the initiated water passages wa ters which do not flow freely because of oc­ are small and of little significa nce. When taken casional breakdowns in the sys tem. These stages over, however, by high-pressure flood wa ters are associated with accumulations of clays and from the surface, they become enlarged into silts brought in by the muddy waters which may through passages, and the selected routes of sub­ fill the dead-e nd passages and largely elimina te terranean drainage are established from those them. Such clays are highly characteristic of dry more favorably located or those which have be­ caverns now above the reach of inflooding storm­ come etched out more quickly and become sub­ waters and high above the water table. New ject to the inflooding of stormwaters gathered levels are initiated at or near the water table by fr om surface areas. The caverns into which they lhe normal phreatic waters along the permissive develop are the result of subterranean drainage, bedding planes and the joint sys tem of the no t so much by the phreatic "va ters, but by lhe stormwaters directed into and through them. Speleological Abstracts Compiled by EDWARD F. MOORE and E. L. KRINITZSKY This installment of StJe leo logical Abstracts forma t: F ULL TITLE OF J OU RNAL, [Recommended is devoted to speleological journals and maga­ A bbreviation: Extent of publication, (Da tes of zines. Every effort has been made to include the publication). Language. Statement as to avail­ names of every publicati on of each speleological ability of back iss ues, giving address from which society, and of every journal which deals mainly they can be obtained, if possible. Locati on sym­ with any aspect of speleology, except that ephe­ bols of libraries which have a collection of this mend newsletters have not been listed. I t h as journal, indicating by an as terisk * those whose been necessary to give some of the abstracts in collection is known to be complete.]-A brief very incomplete (orm, where the inaccess ibility history and descri p ti on o f the journal. of the journals makes it impossible to consult It has been decided to transfer the li st of re­ them. In particul ar, no copy of Nos. 29, 36, or 51 ce nt publications into the N.S.S. News, where it is known to exist in the U ni ted States, and any will be ava il able sooner because o f the grea ter in fo rmati on about these is from indirect sources frequency of publication. Therefore, this and and may be incorrect. But their names h ave been future installments of Speleo logical A bstra cts included, and it is hoped that the small amo unt will be el evoted exclusive ly to abstracts dealing of information given may prove of some value. with va rious special aspects of speleology. In ge neral the periodicals listed are very use­ ful and concen trated sources of information Part 2-Speleological Periodicals about specific caves and general speleology. It is 26. AcrES DU PR EM IER CONG RES N ATIO NAL DE hoped that this list will increase the general SPitLEOLOGlE, [Act. Fran. CongL Nat. StJe /eol.: kn owl edge about them and encourage their use . 76pp., (1939) . In French. Available:< from R . de T he authors would appreciate information about J oly. Loca tio n. DGS*, D SS*, EFM *.] - This any speleologica l peri odicals which are not listed, pamphlet was published by the Societe Speleogi­ incompletely li sted, or incorrectly listed h ere. . que de France, containing the papers presented In order to fac ilitate the giving of accurate at a meeting held at Mazamet, France, on M arch and intelligible bibliographic references, the 30-31, 1939. It contains articles on crys talline recolll mended standard forms of abbreviati ons of depos its, deep caves (gouffres), and other sub­ the titles o( all o( th e periodicals have been give n. jects. T he abbrevi ati ons chosen have been according to th e usage of the Code In terna tional d'abbrev in­ 27. ANNALES I)E S I' .E LI~O LO G I E, [A nn. StJe leol.: tions des T itl'es de Prh-iodiques, Paris (193 0, 2+ vols., (1946- ). In French. Available a 1932). from R . de J oly. Location : DGS, EF1VI *.]-This T he abstracts are presented in the fo llowing jo urnal (which also goes under the subtitle of

68 N ATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Sp elunca, 3e series) is published cooperatively by brochures from commercial caves, etc., are occa­ the Societe SpeIeologique de France and the Club sionally bound in. Alpin Fran <;:a is. Most of the articles are detailed accounts of the caves of particul ar parts of Bn·tish Speleo logica l A ssociation: see 18, 33. France. 32. BULLETI N ILL USTRE DE LA SOCIETIO: BELGE D'ETUDES GEOLOGIQUES ET ARCHEOLOG IQUES, 28. ATTI DEL I CONGR£SSO SPELEOLOG ICO N A­ [B u ll. ill. Soc. Belg. Eiud. Ceol. Archeo l.: 13 + ZIONALE ORGAN IZZATO DAL CLUB ALPINO ITALI­ vols., (1907- ). In French. Some issues avail­ ANO, [Atti I Congr. Speleol. Naz.: 252 pp., able from J. Fraipont, 14, Place J. Willem, (1933). In Italian. Not avail able. Location: Chenee, les Liege, Belgium. Location: DNSS.]­ DLC*]-This book contains the proceedings of a The title of the first iss ue of this journal was national Itali an congTess of Speleology held ·in Bu lletin de la Societe R oyale B elge d'Etudes Tries te on June 10-14, 1933. It contains articles Ceologiques et A 1·cheologiques, and its title has on hydrology, geophys ics, air circul ati on, biology, varied similarly since, with the further complica­ a nd other su bjects. tion that the society which publishes it is also known as "Les Chercheurs de la Wallonie." This 29. BARLANGV ILLAG- T his publication, whose society is devoted to archeology and speleology, title means " the cave world", was published be­ and their Bu lletins contain articles on various 'World " Var II by the Hungarian speleologi­ fo re aspects of these su bjects. cal society.

Bu lletin: see also: 45, 49. 30. BJ OSI'EO LOG ICA, [B iosj)(iologica: 6 + vols., Cave R ese(l1·ch Cmup: see 19, 20, 21. (1907- ). In French. Available from H . Le Cave Science: see 18. Soudier, 174, Boulev. Sa in t Germain, Paris VIe, France. Location : DNSS, I C.J *, M H *, PPAN*, 33. CAVES AND CAV ING, [Caves and Caving: NNM*, RPB*]-This is a series of articles on Vo l. I , TOS . 1-5, (1937-1 938). In English. Nos. I , various as pects of cave biology, which appeared 3, 4, and 5 available 3 from British Speleological from time to time in the journal A1·chives de Associati on Publications, Duke Stree t, Se ttle, Zoologie E.xIJ(irimentale et Gene-rale. R eprints of Yorkshire, England. L ocati on: BM, DGS, these articles h ave been collected together into DNSS*, EFM.]- This short-lived journal, which volumes of about 1000 pages each and offered was terminated by the war, was published by the fo r sale by the publisher mentioned above. Be­ British Speleological Association. It co ntains a sides the strictly biological info rmation, a list of number of popularly written, interes ting, and in­ caves from which biological ma terial h ad been formative articles about anthropology, cave ex­ collected was included from time to ti me, with ploration, and the activi ties of various foreign a detail ed description of each cave. speleologists.

Bristol Un iversity Spelaeological Society: see 45 . Che1'cheurs de la Wallonie: see 32. Deutsche Cesellschaft fii1' Karstforschung: see 40. 31. T HE BRITISH CAVE R, [B 1·it. Caver: 18 + vols., (1936- ). In Engli sh. Current iss ues 34. GROTTE (L E) D'lTALI A. (Pos tumia. Institu­ avail able:l from Gerard Platten, R otherfi eld, to di Speliologia) [Cmtte d'Jtal. Ser. 1, 8 vols. Fernhill L ane, N ew M ilton, Hants, England. (1927-34). Ser. 2, 3 vols. (1935-38). In Itali an. Not L ocati on: BlvI, D NSS, EFM.]-T his journal is available. Locality: CSfA, CaO C, CaTR . CtY, not controlled by any organi za ti on, being edited, DGS* DLC* DSI-M, MBN*, MH -Z, N A, prin ted, and published personally by ]\if r. T TC, NNM, PPAN*.]- T his publicati on, also Platten. T he title of the fi rst five volumes was called Revista dell' Instituto Itali ano di Speleo­ l OUT/Ut l of th e lVlendip ExlJlomtion Society. A logia di Tries te, was edited by Eugenio Boegan. number of small Engli sh caving cl ubs use it as a It has an excellent b ibliography on Italian spe­ medium of publica ti on of their explorations a nd leo logy. Articles are of a scientific na ture and are cave finds. Contains descri pti ons of caves in very well illustrated. Alpine work is also fre­ E ngland and elsewhere, and miscell aneous non­ quently covered as the local spelunker Illust also technical articl es on caves. Small pam phlets and be a good climber.

B ULLETI N N UMBER 11 , NOVEMBE R 1949 69 35. GROTTES ET GOUFFRES, [Grottes et Gouf­ Nos. 1-18, (1908-1911). In German. Not avail­ fres: Vols. 1 +, (1948- ). In French. Avail­ able. Location: PPAN.]- able for 175 francs per year from Editions J. 42. MnTEILUNGEN unER HOHLEN UNO KARST­ e Susse, 13, rue de la Grenelle, Paris 7 , France. FORSCHUNG, [A1ilt. Hohlen KaTStforsch.: 19 vols. Location: DNSS, EFM.]-This bimonthly publi­ (192<1-1943). In German. Not available. Loca­ cation contains news of the individual speleologi­ tion: BM, DLC, DNSS, NNM.]-This periodical cal societies in France. It is sponsored by the was the journal of the Hauptverband Deutscher Comite National de Speleologie. Hohlenforscher. It contained a varied collection of detailed and comprehensive articles, with 36. HOHLENFORSCHUNG, - This publication, many bibliographies. Biological articles were es­ also called Barlangkutatas (both of the titles pecially common. The issues for the years 19<11- mean cave research) was published by the Hun­ 1943 (which are in the N.S.S. Library) appeared garian speleological society. under the title Zeilschrift fii)' KaTSt- und Hohlen­ kunde, and were published by the Forschungs­ Istituto Italiano di Speleologia: see 38, 39. statte hir Karst- und Hohlenkunde der Fors­ Journal: see 31, 52. chungs- und Lehrgemeinschaft, with other or­ Mendip Exploration Society: see 3l. ganizations. Memoires: see 38, 39, 49. 37. MEMORIAS DE LA COMISION DE INVESTIGA­ 43. MrnEILUNGEN DER SECTION FUR HOHLEN­ CIONES PALEONTOLOGICAS y PREHISTORICAS, Ma­ K UNDE DES OSTERREICHISCHEN TOURISTEN-CLUB, drid, [Mem. Com. Invest. Paleont., Madr.: Nos. [NIilt. Sect. Hohlenh. Ost. Tour.-Cl.: Jahrg. 1-7, 1-30. Series 2, Nos. 1-8, (1914-1930, 1934-1938). In (1882-1888). In German. Not available. Loca­ Spanish. Location: BM, DLC, DGS*, NNM.]­ tion: DLC*.]-This oldesl cave jourIlal is much A large percentage of these memoirs deal with like its successors all over the world, with articles the archeology or art of Spanish caves. on individual caves and on subjects related to speleology, together with bibliographies and book reviews of contemporary literature. 38. MEMORlE DELL' ISTIT UTO ITALIANO DI SPE­ LEOLOGIA, SERlE BIOLOGICA, [M em. 1st. Ital. 44. MONDO SOTTERRANEO (Circolo Speleolog-ico Speleol., Ser. Bioi.: Memories 1-3, (1931- ? ). ed idroligico Friulano) [Nlondo Soten. 19 vols., In Italian. Not available. Location: DSI.]-This (1904-1923). In Italian. D navailable. Location: journal was devoted to the fauna of Italian caves. CU, PPAN*.]-This journal was published by the Speleological Soc. at the Technical Institute 39. MEMORlE DELL' ISTITUTO ITALIANO DI SPE­ of Ddine and covers all aspects of caving. A few LEOLOGIA, SERlE GEOLOGICA E GEOFISICA, [Nl em. new species 'were described in the earlier vols. 1st. Ital. Speleol., Ser. Bioi.: Memories 1-3, (1934- ? ). In Italian. Not available. Location: 45. NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOClETY BULLE­ NNM, DGS.]-This journal was devoted to the TIN, [Nat. SjJeleol. So c. Bull. 1-11 ,(1940- ). geological and geophysical aspects of speleology. In English. Available from National Speleologi­ cal Society, 510 Star Building, Washington, D. C. 40. MITTEIL UNGEN DER DEUTSCHEN GESELL­ Loca tion: DGS, DLC*, DNSS*, VBP*.]-This is SCHAFT FUR KARSTFORSCHUNG, [Nlitt. D eutsch. the periodical in which these abstracts are Gesell. Ka)·stfoTSCh .: Nos. 1-4 +, (1947- ). In printed. It contains a wide assortment of articles German. Available from Deutsche Gesellschaft about \merican caves and various aspects of hir Karstforschung, Altenfurt ii Feucht, Niirn­ speleology. Bulletin No.1 appeared as Bulletin berg, Germany. Location: DNSS.]-This partly of the StJ eleological Society of the District of prin ted, partly mimeographed pu blication is de­ Co/um{Jia, Vol. 1. Bulletin No.2 was not num­ voted to Karst research, and hence overlaps bered, but was dated May, 1941. Bulletins 1 and somewhat with speleology. 2 were mimeographed, with only about 50 copies of each produced, so these issues are guite rare. 41. MI1TEILUNGEN DES VEREINS FUR HOHLEN­ All since then have had at least 500 copies KUNDE TN OSTERREICH, [Nfill. Ver. Hohlenli . ost.: printed. Nos. 3 'and 4 are out of print, but all

70 NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY other Bulletins are available at the prices indi­ tion: BM, DLC*, DGS*, EF1'vI*.]-This single cated: No.5, $2; No.6, $1.50; No.7, $1.50; No.8, name applies to a series of 3 related journals pub­ $2; No.9, $ 1.50; No. 10, .~ 2. (No. 10, _Cloth li shed by the Societe de Speleologie, Paris. These bOll nd, $3.). are distinguishable as fo llows: A-Spelunca, Bulletin de la Societe de Speleologie, Tomes I-VI, Nos. 1-24, 1895- 1900. B-Memoires de la Societe dsten eichischer Touriste l7 -C lub: see 43. de Speleologie, T omes I-IV, os. 1-24, 1896-1900. 46. PROCEE DINGS OF THE SPELEOLOG ICAL SO­ C-Spelunca, Bulletin et lVfemoires de la Societe CIETY, UN IVERSITY OF BRISTOL, [Proc. SjJelaeol. de Speleologie, Tomes IV-IX, Nos. 25-74, 1901- Soc., Bristol: Vols. 1-5 + ,(1919- ). In Eng­ 1914. B and C have blue paper covers, while A lish. Available" [rom R. D. Stride, Hon. Secre­ has ye ll ow paper covers . These journals were all tary, "Oldfield," Park Hill, Shirehampton, Bris­ edited by Martel, and contain many articles by tol, England. L ocati on: BM, DGS, DLC, DNSS, him, as well as many other interes ting articles on MH, NNM, PPAN.]-This journal is devoted caves o[ all parts of Europe and America. Exten­ primarily to the archeological aspects of spele­ sive bibliographies are also included . o logy, although it contains some articles on other subjects. None of the prewar numbers (Vol. 1- 50. SPEL UNCA, Spellll1 ca (2), os. 1-1 0, (] 930- Vol. 5, No.2) of this journal are avail able be­ 1943). In French. Avail able " from R. de J oly, ca use they were destroyed during the blitz. Pres ident, Societe Speleologique de France, Uchaud, N imes, France. Locati on: DGS*, D SS, Societe: see 26, 27, 32 . EF!\ £'- This journal was at first published by the Speleo-Club du France, which later became Suciety: see 45, 46. the Societe Speleologique de France. 47. SPELAOLOG ISC I-I E JAHRI3 UC I-I , [Sp eliiol. lb.: .I ahrg. ]-17, (]920-]936). In German. Complete SjJ ellll1 ca: see a lso 26. sets avail able [rom Dultz & Co., Curt Brumme, Munchen 2, Sendlinger Str. 75, Germany. Loca­ 51. TRA VA UX DE L'1, 'ST ITUT DE SPEOLOGIE, tion : DLC, NNM*.]-This was th e annual pub­ [Trnv. Jnst . SjJe ol.: Vol. 1 (193?- ). Avail­ lica ti on of the SpeHiologisches Institllt, Vienna, able (?) from P. A. Chappuis, Inst. of Speologie, Austria, and was edited by Dr. George Kyrle. It Strada Mico No.5, Cluj, R oumania.] contained scientific articles on various aspects of speleology. Verein [ ii,r I-iol!lel1li11lld e: see 4 1. 48. Sl'ELAOLOG ISC I-I E MONOGRAPI-I IEN , [SjJeliiol. NI oll ogr.: Vols. 1-13, (1923- 1932). In German. 52. YORKSHIRE RA~ f13L E R S CL 13 J 0 URN A L, Complete sets available [rom Dultz & Co., Curt [Yorlis. R al77b l. CI. j .: Vols. 1-7 Nos. 1-24 Brumme, lVliinchen 2, Sendlinger Str. 75, Ger­ + ' (1899- ). In English. Avail able :l from E. E. many. Location: DLC, NNM*, PPAN*.]-This R oberts, 12, Southway, '\rthur's Avenue, H arro­ was a series of books on various aspects of spele­ ga te, England. Location : B1\ [, DLC, DNSS, ology, published by the SpeHiologisches Institut, EF1\ f. ]-This journal is devoted both to cave ex­ Vi enna, A ustria. plorati on and mountain climbing, since the members of the Yorkshire R amblers Club share Speleological: see ]8, 26, 27, 29, 31, 33, 38, 39,47, both these interes ts. It contains well-written non­ '18, 49, 50, 5 ]. scientific articl e and accounts of individual ex­ plorations. 49. SPEL UNCA, [Sp elu.n ca (1),: 15 Tomes, 98 Nos., (189.5- 19 14). In French. Sets Jacking only Zeitschri[t [iiI' Karst lind H ohlellkullde: see 42.

No. 41 available [rom Laboratoire d e Geo­ :I Amcrica n ordcrs acccptcd b ' LcRoy f ootc. R . D. ~ o . I, Phys ique de la Sorbonne, Paris, France. Loca- ~I iddlcbury, Conn.

BULLETIN NUMBER 11 , NOVEMBER 1949 71 Caves In Eastern Canada Features of Cave Breakdown ""

(COlltilllled /rolll j)age si xl,y-lhree) (CO il ti,l/l ed /'rol/l, page Ihil-tY-five)

7. Pill ar sandslones, north COast of Gaspe 1. Broad nal ceilings without stalactites in­ dicate bedding plane solu tion and the 8. Niagara caverns possibili ty of Ceiling Slab breakdown. 9, Flower Pot Island, Lake Huron 2. Open ceiling joints are a criteria of Ceil­ 10. Perforations and caverns at M ichilimaci­ ing Block breakdown. nac, Lake Huron ; the latter now known as Mackinac Island, Michigan 3. Polygonal joints or thin beds are indi­ cative of Scaling Plates. II . The P ictured Rocks, Lake Superior 4,. In verlica l beds, sections of cave wall that 12. St. 19nacius Caverns, Lake Superior show separations from the parent rock or 1:J. Pilasters of Mammelles, Lake Superior faces of the wall at angles with the d ip of the strata are potential rock falls. 14. Thunder Mountain and Pate Island Pilasters, Lake Superior 5. In horizontally bedded limestones, the in­ tersections of cave passages are areas of (b) Those caverns a nd subterranean passages weakness. which are situated on dry land, and so far as we know are not attributable to the same cause in 6. In traversing passages where danger of their origin as those in (a): collapse is suspected keep close to the wall as observations indicale lhal col­ 15. The Steinhauer Cavern, Labrador lapse, except lhe Ceiling Block type, does 16. The basal tic caverns of Henley Island not ex tend to the walls. 17. Empty basaltic dykes of Mecattina 18. B igsby's Cavern, Murray Bay 19. Bouche lte's Cavern, Kildare. (See lext For location). 20. G ibb's Cavern, Montreal 21. Probable caverns at Chatham, on th e Ottawa 22. Calquhoun's Cavern, Lanark 23. Quartz cavern, Leeds 24. Probable caverns at Kingston, Lake Ontario 25 . Mono Cavern 26. Eramosa Cavern 27. Cavern in lhe Bass Islands, Lake Erie; now part of Ohio 28. Sublerranean passages in the Great Manitoulin Island, Lake Huron 29. Murray's Cavern a nd sublerranean ri\'er, Ottawa

30. Probable caverns III Iron Island, Lake Nipissing

~C) 1 - NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY WHO'S WHO IN BULLETIN ELEVEN THOMAS C. BARR, JR ., an enthusiastic caver in his own R OIlE RT J. H AC KMAN is a Junior a t Stanford Unive rsity '1'ight before he joined the NSS in January, 194 8, is par­ majoring in geology. H e is 26 years old and has spent ticularl y interested in ecology, the science which treats 6 yea rs in the U. S. Navy. H e has explored caves in Alaska, of the mutual relationships between orga ni sms and their the Hawai ian Islands, and Bermuda as well as numerous environment. While sti ll a high school senior he won a oth ers in Virginia, West Virginia and California. H e spent $400 schola rship in competition with students from all a summer excavating fossi l remains with a field party of the Un iversity of Nebraska and two summers in Alaska over the U nited States and is cO lllinuing hi s in terest in with the U. S. Geological Survey doing topographic work. caves with further scientific researches.

,.y. R. HAL.LlDt\Y received his B. A. a t Swarthmore in 1946 WIL.LlAM E. DA VIES was born in Clevela nd , Ohio in 1917. and his M. D. a t George Washington University in 1948. H e is a professional geologist now with the U. S. Geologi­ H e became in terested in caves while taking parties of ca l Survey in vVa shington after having been with the ca mpers th rough Clark's Cave when a co uncilor a t a Army Map Se rvice for three years. Before tha t he was in nearby boy's camp in Virginia. His major fie ld accom­ til e Army. Davies became interested in caves in 1940 while plishment was the reopening of the blasted entrance to working with the Pennsy lva nia Geologic Survey (influ­ Blowing Cave. H e is a charter member and Chairman of ence of Dr. Stone obvious). Since then he has covered the the So uthern California Grotto. His speleological explor­ caves of Maryland and a report is now nearing comple­ a ti ons have included about 60 caves in 10 states. tion for p ublica ti on by the :-'I aryla nd Geologic Survey. Last Summer he was with the \'Vest Virginia Geological D A:--I IEL KI RK HA~ IILTO N was born a t Goldsboro, N. C. on Survey a nd in vesti gated the caves of that State for a report :-'I arch 4, 1923. His ed uca tion co nsists of an A. B. a t the that is now in press by the \ V. Va. G. S. Right noll' h e's V niversity of North Carolina, i\1. S. at the niversity of clearing up some work on the terraces of the Potomac Kentucky and Ph. D. a t the University of North Carolina. ri ver in which there will be so me data on the relation of After graduating from the niversity of North Carolina caves and river terraces. After tha t he hopes to get back he ,vent a summer in the position of Geologist with the to his true love-the application of electrica l surve ys to ).To nh Carolina Geological Survey. At the end of the sum­ the mapping of cavern systems from the surface. This mer he we nt with the Strategic Minerals Division of the work got under way in 194-7 but with the other commit­ nited Sta tes Geologica l Survey and joined the Ground ments coming along it was sidetracked . T he information Water Branch of the U. S. G. S. in 1944. Since that time on which the pre ent articl e i based was gathered from he has been concerned with the occurrence of ground an examination of caves in the east, with the bulk from water in the limestone terrains of Kentucky. H e is now 'West Vi rginia, of course. teaching geology at the niversity of Kentucky, and is Geologist in Charge of Water R esource I nvestigations for BURTON S. FAUST, N _ S. S. member, 237, Chairman of Pro­ the Kentucky Geological Survey. P ublications relating to gram a nd Activities Committee, Director of the 1948 and limestone solution are as follows: "The Occurrence of 1949 Nati onal Convelllions, originator of the International Ground vVater in the Bedrock beneath the Glacial Out­ Salon of Speleological Photog!'aphic Art, qua nda m Chair­ wash at Louisvill e, Kentucky". Mimeographed 1944. man of Rich mond (Va .) Grotto, proxy member of Board "Some Solutional Features of the Limestone near Lex.ing­ of Governors of N . S. S. and a charter member of Florida ton, Kentucky". Econom ic Geology, Vol. XLIII, No.1, Academy of Sciences, has visited, explored, photographed, J an.-Feb., 19-J8. a nd studied caves since 1922. His special interest in Spe1eology is the historica l, procedural, ch emi ca l, and E. P . H EN DERSO:--l from 1919 until 1929 was with the . S. archeological aspects of salt petre mining as it was con­ Geological Survey in their Chemical Laboratory and from ducted in caves circa 1740- 1865. H e has devoted consider­ 1929 until the present time has been with the . S. a ble study to these problems and written extensively on Nati onal Museum as an Associate Curator in Mineralogr the subject. A number of his articles have appeared i"n and Petrology. His interests have been minerals, meteor­ the D. C. Speleograph as well as in other publica tions. ites, and ge m ~, and he is considered one of the country's His second interest is photographing in color examples leading anthorities on meteorites. of formations and geological phenomena of unusual in­ teres t and type. H e has appeared a t numerous group meetings as guest speaker on caves and caving. He is GEORCE F. J ACKSON has published well over 100 anicles on prese ntly employed as a Paten t Examiner in the U. S. caves a nd cave photography. He spent several year dur­ Patent Office. ing school vaca tions as a gu ide in Indiana's famous vVyandotte Cave a nd has explored e\-er ' nook and cranny W ILLIAM J. FOSTER is chiefl y in terested in the mineralogi­ of [hat great cavern. At present he is continuing his color cal aspects of caving. H e is a charter member of the photo work in C;1\'es and is working on a detailed map of N. S. S. a nd has spent about 250 hours in 80 caves since Indiana cave locations while at the same time completely 1943. H e has just co mpleted his 23rd yea r as an Examiner re-writi ng his " Cave R egiou of Ind iana" which will con­ in the U. S. )'atent Office. Courses in mineralogy at George tain all known facts abolll all H oosier cave . 'Washington U niversity and under Dr. E. P. H enderson of the U. S. National Museum gave him the background E. L. KR II'i ITZSK Y received training in geology at the ir­ for his mineralogical writings. Last May he married an ginia Polytechnic Institu te, Univer it ' of North Carolina, enthusiastic caver and amateur mineralogist, Gwendolyn and Louisiana tate University. For a time he was Assist­ i\ f. Wilson of O maha, Nebraska. ant Professor of Geology and Geograph at the outh-

B ULLETIN NUMBER 11 , NOVEMBER 1949 73 ,,·estern Lo uisiana Institute and is at present an E ngineer­ society and arranging fo r the exchange of publica tio ns ing Geologist with the U . S. '~a t e rw ays Experiment with fo reign speleological societi es. H e was o ne of the Sta ti o n located a t Vicksburg, M iss iss ipp i. H e has published charter members of the V. P . 1. Grotto in 1942, and has several papers relating to cave geology and do ne consid­ caved ma inly in Virginia and '''' est Virginia, but has erable cave ex plo ratio n in the southern Appalachians. vi sited caves as far away as Hawaii . H e is no w working toward a Ph. D. degree in ma thematics a t Brown Uni­ H AROLD II . HI TC HCOC K is associate professor of Biology a t versity. :'\'I iddlehury Coll ege and cha irman of the department. His interest in caves is an o utgrowth of his studies of bats. In DR. JOH N \0\' . MU RRAY gravitated into the realm of spele­ 1939, whi le teaching a t the U niversity of "Ves tern Ontario, ology at the invitation of some of his chemistry studen ts he hegan stucl ying the ba ts of eastern Canada and has in the V. P. 1. Grollo. It furnished a na tural outlet fo r his recentl y published his findings in the Canadian Field­ varied past interests in geology, photography, hiking and :>Ia turalist. T he problem giving him most concern now rock climbing as practi s-ed by the mo untaineer. He is in­ is tha t of accounting for the scarcity of females amo ng terested in wo rking o ut the facto rs which determine the the lillie brown bats hiberna ting in the northeastern part nature of cave fo rmatio ns. H e se rves as an uno fli cial ad­ of the continent. vise r to the V. P . 1. Grotto on matters of cave safety and mineralogy. J. D . LAWR ENC E, JR. was with the Army Air Fo rces in \ ' unnan Province, China in 1945 when he visit.ed his first undevelo ped cave. H e joined the V. P. I. Grotto in 1948 J Oli N OY AS P!\RKER, a malacologist, became interested i n and se rves as its secretary. Now a Junio r at V. P . I. he caves while a geology student a t Rutgers University. His stud ies el ectrica l eng ineering when it doesn 't interfe re ho bby of spelunking has been pursued o n three continents with his cav ing. H e married last June and converted a when he was a neld geologist for E mpire M ines and with sweet yo nng girl into a muddy cave woman who assists the First Infantry Divisio n . At present he wo rks with him with his o ther love-the mapping of caves. marine sna ils, both fossil a nd li ving, under Dr. H. A. I'ilsbry a t the Academy of Natural Sciences of Ph il adel­ J EROM E M. LU DLOW, NSS Bulletin Editor, was co nnected phia. Although he has provided a nice ho me for his wi fe with the Brookings Institutio n a t ' Vashingto n , D. C. when a nd two daughters in nearby Overbrook Hills, his hea rt is tha t economic and governmental research orga niza ti o n still in hi s nati ve l' lorida where he, in fancy, still explo res coral grottos deep in Neptune's R ealm. H e is a charter was fo unded . He spent two years with a Chicago firm of member of the Philadelphia Gro tto and has been very consnlta nts in municipal administra ti on and seven years acti ve in tha t unit. H e was elected to tha t Grotto's Board as chid cl erk and resea rch assistant with the New J ersey of Governors fo r two consecutive years, has h eaded im­ T axpayers Associatio n before joining the U . S. Geological po rtant committees in tha t unit, and has heen instru­ Snrvey in January, 19-10 . An invitation fro m Charles E. mental in tra ining groups in cave sa fety procedures a nd Mo hr to participate in an NSS field trip in April, 1947 rock cl imbing. H e is Nati o nal Safe ty Chairman of the resulted in his grad ual change fro m a so mewhat normal N . S. S. and is a memher of its Edi torial Commillee. His individnal to a speleoleditor. loves in caving are undergro und mountaineering. map­ ping·, photography, minera logy, and-you g uessed it­ CLY DE A. j\L\LOrr, a na tive Hoosier a nd long co nnected coll ecting sna ils! with Indiana Uni versity, has made special stndies of th e karst features and underground drainage pheno mena of DR . R AL PII W. ST01\,", retired Sta te Geologist of Pennsy l­ the limestone belt of southern India na. He is fa miliar va nia, is serving hi s seco nd year as Presid ent of the ,,·ith its ma ny caverns and has g iven special attentio n to Na tio nal Speleologica l Society. Nearly 25.000 copies of: his their connectio ns wi th wa ter so urces which were respon­ two bulletins o n " Pennsy lvania Caves", published in 1930 sihle for their development. Among them is the noted and 1932, have been circu la ted . T hey helped pave the Lo,t Ri ve r regio n of O ra nge County which offers unusual way fo r a nd to stimulate the growth of the N . S. S., while opportunities for the study of cavern p heno mena and the scores of talks which he has delivered before civic, p ro­ rela ti ons of caverns to the suhterranea n waters whi ch fess io nal, ed uca ti o nal, and sc ientific gro ups have intro­ develop them. O ut of these sllldies has come his invasio n duced spcleology to a larg·e aud ience. A life member of theor ), of cavern development, in whi ch accent is placed th e N . S. S., No. 80, and o ne of its first members o utside upo n cavern development by rain born surface waters ' Vas hington, Dr. Stone was selected Ho norar y ]Vr elllber in wh ich rea m ou t and a li g n initial and rudimentary sub­ 19-13. His lo ng edito rial ex perience, during llIuch of his surface joint o penings in to l o n ~ a nd in tegra ted cavern twe nty yea rs with the U. S. Geologica l Survey, in the sy"tems a t o r ncar the watertablc. T he prese nt paper, in Pennsy lva nia Geologica l Survey fro m 1922- 19'·16, and (o r add iti o n to the description of a dangerous and rarely the Pennsy lva nia Academy of Science fo r fifteen years, visited cavern, indica tes the adequacy of sto rmiJorn has been of inestimable ass ista Jl ce to edi tors of N. S. S. waters in cavern develo pmen t. bulletins. Dr. Sto ne's enthusiaslll for speleology and his particular interest in th e o rig in of caves, ma y be traced EDWAR IJ F. J\l OORE'S hobby is coll ecting books, ar ticles, d irectly to th e influence of hi s beloved profess-o r of journals, and pa mphlets abo ut caves. His personal co ll ec­ geology at Harva rd Uni versity, the late "v. 1\ f. Davis. ti on now incl udes over ~OO items in 5 lang uages. He also author of the classic wo rk , " T he Origin of L im esto ne helps the N. S. S. coll ect foreig n publica ti o ns for its li ­ Caverns" (1930). A biographical sketch of the N . S. S. hrar), hy ass isti ng with the fore ign co rres-pondence of the Pres id ent appeared in the IVl ay 19'18 N EWS.

74 N ATIONA L SPELEOL OGICA L S OCIE T Y P h o t.o fl'Onl Robl"-t J_ H ackma n

B ULLETIN NUMBER 11 , NOVEMBER 1949 75