Bibliography on Variation and Gradience in Phonology

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF VARIATION AND GRADIENCE IN PHONOLOGY

Arto Anttila

Warning: This bibliography is intended for my course ‘Variation in Optimality Theory’ to be taught at the Phonology Fest, Indiana University, June 19-22, 2006. It is heavily biased towards generative phonology, in particular Optimality Theory. I have not tried to systematically cover the vast phonetic, psycholinguistic, and sociolinguistic literature on variation and gradience. I have included occasional references to variation in syntax and semantics, learnability, and phonological variation in specific languages, in particular English and Finnish. Corrections and additions are welcome.

Anttila, Arto. 1997. ‘Deriving variation from grammar’, in Frans Hinskens, Roeland van Hout and Leo Wetzels, (eds.), Variation, Change and Phonological Theory, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, pp. 35-68. Also at http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Anttila, Arto. 2002a. ‘Morphologically Conditioned Phonological Alternations’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 20, 1-42. Also at http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Anttila, Arto. 2002b. ‘Variation and phonological theory’, in Jack Chambers, Peter Trudgill, and Natalie Schilling-Estes, (eds.), Handbook of Language Variation and Change, Blackwell, Malden, Massachusetts, and Oxford, U.K., pp. 206-243. Anttila, Arto. 2003. ‘Finnish Assibilation’, in Makoto Kadowaki and Shigeto Kawahara (eds.), Proceedings of NELS 33, GLSA, Amherst, Massachusetts, pp.13-24. Anttila, Arto. in press a. ‘Derived environment effects in Colloquial Helsinki Finnish’, in Sharon Inkelas and Kristin Hanson (eds.), The Nature of the Word: Essays in Honor of Paul Kiparsky, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Also at http://www.stanford.edu/~anttila/. Anttila, Arto. in press b. ‘Variation and opacity’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory. Also at http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Anttila, Arto. in press c. ‘Variation and optionality’, in Paul de Lacy, (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Anttila, Arto and Curtis Andrus. 2006. ‘T-orders’ (comes with software), available at http://www.stanford.edu/~anttila/research/torders/t-order-manual.pdf. Anttila, Arto and Young-mee Yu Cho. 1998. ‘Variation and change in Optimality Theory’, Lingua 104, 31-56, Special issue on Conflicting Constraints. Anttila, Arto and Anthi Revithiadou. 2000. ‘Variation in allomorph selection’, Proceedings of NELS 30. Anttila, Arto and Vivienne Fong. 2004. ‘Variation, ambiguity, and noun classes in English’, Lingua 114, 1253-1290. Also at http://www.stanford.edu/~anttila/. Anttila, Arto, Vivienne Fong, Stefan Benus, and Jennifer Nycz. 2004. ‘Deriving consonant cluster phonotactics, Proceedings of NELS 34. Also available on http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Auger, Julie. 2001. ‘Phonological variation and Optimality Theory: Evidence from word- initial vowel epenthesis in Picard’, Language Variation and Change 13, 253-303. Bailey, Charles-James N. 1972. Variation and Linguistic Theory, Center for Applied Linguistics, Arlington, VA.

1 Bailey, Charles-James N. and Roger W. Shuy (eds.). 1973. New Ways of Analyzing Variation in English, Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C.. Bayley, Robert. 1995. ‘Consonant cluster reduction in Tejano English’, Language Variation and Change 6, 303-326. Berent, Iris, Daniel L. Everett, and Joseph Shimron. 2001. ‘Do phonological representations specify variables? Evidence from the Obligatory Contour Principle’, Cognitive Psychology 42, 1-60. Berkley, Deborah Milam. 1994a. ‘Variability and Obligatory Contour Principle Effects’, in Beals et al., (eds.), CLS 30: Proceedings of the 30th Annual Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, Volume 2: The Parasession on Variation and Linguistic Theory, Chicago Linguistic Society, Chicago. pp. 1-12. Berkley, Deborah Milam. 1994b. ‘The OCP and gradient data’, Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 24:59-72. Berkley, Deborah Milam. 2000. Gradient Obligatory Contour Principle Effects. .Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University. Bickerton, Derek. 1971. ‘Inherent variability and variable rules’, Foundations of Language 7, 457-492. Bermúdez-Otero, Ricardo. 1999. Constraint Interaction in Language Change: Quantity in English and Germanic, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Manchester. Blumenfeld, Lev. 2005. ‘Matching ictus and stress in Latin hexameter endings’, Stanford Poetics Fest, May 14, 2005. Boersma, Paul. 1997. ‘How we learn variation, optionality, and probability’, in Proceedings of the Institute of Phonetic Sciences 21, 43-58, University of Amsterdam. Also on http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Boersma, Paul. 1998. Functional phonology: Formalizing the interactions between articulatory and perceptual drives, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Amsterdam, Holland Academic Graphics, The Hague. Boersma, Paul. 2001. ‘Review of Arto Anttila (1997): Variation in Finnish Phonology and Morphology.’ Glot International 5, 33-40. Boersma, Paul, and Bruce Hayes. 2001. ‘Empirical tests of the Gradual Learning Algorithm’, Linguistic Inquiry 32, 45-86. Boersma, Paul. 2003. ‘The odds of eternal optimization in Optimality Theory’, in D. Eric Holt (ed.), Optimality Theory and Language Change, Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 56, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Borowsky, Toni and Barbara Horvath. 1997. ‘L-vocalization in Australian English’, in Frans Hinskens, Roeland van Hout and Leo Wetzels, (eds.), Variation, Change and Phonological Theory, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, pp. 101- 123. Bybee, Joan L. 2001. Phonology and Language Use, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Bybee, Joan L. 2002. ‘Word frequency and context of use in the lexical diffusion of phonetically conditioned sound change’, Language Variation and Change 14, 261-290. Also at http://www.unm.edu/~jbybee/current.htm. Bybee, Joan L. 2005. ‘Grammar is usage and usage is grammar’, Presidential Address, the Linguistic Society of America Annual Meeting, Oakland, CA, January 8, 2005.

2 Cardoso, Walcir. 2001. ‘Variation patterns in regressive assimilation in Picard’, Language Variation and Change 13:3: 305-342. Carlson, Lauri. 1978. ‘Word stress in Finnish’, Ms., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Cedergren, Henrietta J. and David Sankoff. 1974. ‘Variable rules: performance as a statistical reflection of competence’, Language 50, 333-355. Coetzee, Andries. 2004. What it Means to be a Loser: Non-optimal Candidates in Optimality Theory, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Coetzee, Andries. 2005. ‘Variation as Accessing “Non-Optimal Candidates – A Rank- Ordering Model of EVAL’, Ms. University of Michigan. Coetzee, Andries. in press. ‘The Obligatory Contour Principle in the Perception of English’, in Sonia Frota, Marina Vigario, and Maria João Freitas, (eds.), Prosodies. Selected Papers from the Phonetics and Phonology in Iberia Conference, Mouton, New York. Côté, Marie-Hélène. 2000. Consonant cluster phonotactics: A perceptual approach. Ph.D. dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Coleman, John and Janet Pierrehumbert. 1997. ‘Stochastic phonological grammars and acceptability’, in Computational Phonology. Third Meeting of the ACL Special Interest Group in Computational Phonology, Association for Computational Linguistics, Somerset. pp. 49-56. Cutillas-Espinosa, Juan Antonio. 2004. ‘Meaningful Variability: A Sociolinguistically- Grounded Approach to Variation in Optimality Theory’, International Journal of English Studies 4(2), 165-184. Demuth, Katherine. 1997. ‘Multiple Optimal Outputs in Acquisition’, in Viola Miglio and Bruce Morén, (eds.), University of Maryland Working Papers in Linguistics 5, Linguistics Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, pp. 53-71. Elenbaas, Nine. 1999. A Unified Account of Binary and Ternary Stress. Doctoral dissertation, University of Utrecht. Elenbaas, Nine, and René Kager. 1999. ‘Ternary Rhythm and the Lapse Constraint’, Phonology 16, 273-329. Escudero, Paola and Paul Boersma. 2001. ‘Modelling the perceptual development of phonological constrasts with Optimality Theory and the Gradual Learning Algorithm’, Proceedings of the 25th Penn Linguistics Colloquium. Also on http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Fanselow, Gisbert, Caroline Féry, Ralph Vogel, and Matthias Schlesewsky (eds.). 2005. Gradience in Grammar: Generative Perspectives, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Fasold, Ralph. 1972. Tense Marking in Black English. Center for Applied Linguistics, Arlington. Fidelholtz, James L. 1975. ‘Word Frequency and Vowel Reduction in English’, in Robin E. Grossman, L. James San, and Timothy J. Vance (eds.), Papers from the 11th Regional Meeting Chicago Linguistic Society, pp. 200-213. Fraser, Bruce. 1998. ‘A phonological constraint on the alternate to-dative form’, Ms., Boston University. Frisch, Stefan. 1996. Similarity and Frequency in Phonology, Ph.D. thesis, Northwestern University.

3 Frisch, Stefan. 2000. ‘Temporally Organized Representations as Phonological Units’, in M. B. Broe and J. B. Pierrehumbert (eds.), Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Acquisition and the Lexicon, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 283- 298. Frisch, Stefan and Bushra Zawaydeh. 2001. ‘The Psychological Reality of OCP-Place in Arabic’, Language 77, 91-106. Frisch, Stefan A., Janet B. Pierrehumbert, and Michael B. Broe. 2004. ‘Similarity avoidance and the OCP’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 22(1), 179- 228. Gafos, Adamantios, and Stefan Benus. 2003. ‘On neutral vowels in Hungarian’, Presentation at the International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Barcelona, Spain. Goldwater, Sharon and Mark Johnson. 2003. ‘Learning OT Constraint Rankings Using a Maximum Entropy Model’, Ms., Brown University. Greenberg, Joseph. 1950. ‘The patterning of root morphemes in Semitic’, Word 6, 162- 181. Grimshaw, Jane. 2005. ‘Datives, Feet, and Lexicons’, Ms., Rutgers University. [Appeared in Grimshaw 2005, CSLI Publications, Stanford, California.] Guy, Gregory R. 1980. ‘Variation in the group and the individual: The case of final stop deletion’, in William Labov, (ed.), Locating Language in Time and Space, Academic Press, New York, pp. 1-36. Guy, Gregory. 1991a. ‘Explanation in variable phonology’, Language Variation and Change, 3, 1-22. Guy, Gregory. 1991b. ‘Contextual conditioning in variable lexical phonology’, Language Variation and Change, 3, 223-239. Guy, Gregory R. 1994. ‘The Phonology of Variation’, in Katharine Beals et al., (eds.), CLS 30, Volume 2: Parasession on Variation in Linguistic Theory, The Chicago Linguistic Society, Chicago, pp. 133-149. Guy, Gregory R. 1997a. ‘Competence, Performance, and the Generative Grammar of Variation’, in Frans Hinskens, Roeland van Hout and Leo Wetzels, (eds.), Variation, Change and Phonological Theory, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, pp. 125-143. Guy, Gregory R. and Sally Boyd. 1990. ‘The development of a morphological class’, Language Variation and Change 2, 1-18. Guy, Gregory, and Charles Boberg. 1997. ‘Inherent Variability and the Obligatory Contour Principle’, Language Variation and Change 9, 149-164. Guy, Gregory R. 1997b. ‘Violable is variable: Optimality Theory and linguistic variation’, Language Variation and Change, 9, 333-347. Guy, Gregory R. 2003. ‘Variationist approaches to phonological change’, in Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda (eds.), The Handbook of Historical Linguistics, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 369-400. Hammond, Michael. 1994. ‘An OT account of variability in Walmatjari stress’, Ms., University of Arizona. Also on http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Hammond, Michael. 2004. ‘Gradience, phonotactics, and the lexicon in English phonology’, International Journal of English Studies, 4(2), 1-24. Hanson, Kristin, and Paul Kiparsky. 1996. ‘A parametric theory of poetic meter’, Language 72, 287-335.

4 Hay, Jennifer, Janet Pierrehumbert, and Mary Beckman. 2004. ‘Speech Perception, Well- Formedness, and the Statistics of the Lexicon’, in J. Local, R. Ogden, and R. Temple, (eds.), Papers in Laboratory Phonology VI, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK. pp. 58-74. Also at http://www.ling.canterbury.ac.nz/people/hay.shtml. Hayes, Bruce. 1999. ‘Phonetically Driven Phonology: The Role of Optimality Theory and Inductive Grounding’, in M. Darnell, E. Moravcsik, F. Newmeyer, M. Noonan, and K. Wheatley (eds.), Functionalism and Formalism in Linguistics, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, pp. 243-285. Hayes, Bruce. 2000. ‘Gradient Well-formedness in Optimality Theory’, in Joost Dekkers, Frank van der Leeuw and Jeroen van de Weijer, (eds.), Optimality Theory: Phonology, Syntax, and Acquisition, Oxford University Press, pp. 88-120. Hayes, Bruce and Zsuzsa Londe. to appear. ‘Stochastic Phonological Knowledge: The Case of Hungarian Vowel Harmony’. Phonology 23(1). http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/HungarianVH/index.htm Hayes, Bruce, and Margaret McEachern. 1998. ‘Quatrain Form in English Folk Verse’, Language 64, 473-507. Hayes, Bruce, Bruce Tesar, and Kie Zuraw. 2003. ‘OTSoft 2.1, software package’, available at http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/otsoft/. Hinskens, Frans, Roeland van Hout, and Leo Wetzels (eds.), Variation, Change and Phonological Theory, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia. Hinskens, Frans, Roeland van Hout and Leo Wetzels. 1997. ‘Balancing data and theory in the study of phonological variation and change’, in Frans Hinskens, Roeland van Hout and Leo Wetzels, (eds.), Variation, Change and Phonological Theory, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia. pp. 1-33. Holt, D. Eric (ed.), 2003. Optimality Theory and Language Change. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 56. Hooper, Joan B. 1976. ‘Word frequency in lexical diffusion and the source of morphophonological change’, in William McChristie, Jr. (ed.), Current progress in historical linguistics: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Historical Linguistics, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, pp. 95- 105. Inkelas, Sharon. 1999. ‘Exceptional stress-attracting suffixes in Turkish: representations vs. the grammar’, in René Kager, Harry van der Hulst & Wim Zonneveld, (eds.), The Prosody-Morphology Interface, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.134-87. Iverson, Gregory K. and Shinsook Lee, 1994. ‘Variation as Optimality in Korean Cluster Reduction’, in Janet Fuller, Ho Han, and David Parkinson, (eds.), ESCOL '94, Proceedings of the Eastern States Conference on Linguistics. Jarosz, Gaja. to appear.‘Partial Ranking and Alternating Vowels in Polish’, Proceedings of the Chicago Linguistic Society. Jespersen, Otto. 1949. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, Part VII, Ejnar Munksgaard, Copenhagen. Jurafsky, Daniel, Alan Bell, Michelle Gregory, and William D. Raymond. 2001. ‘Probabilistic Relations between Words: Evidence from Reduction in Lexical

5 Production’, in Joan. L. Bybee and Paul Hopper (eds.), Frequency and the Emergence of Linguistic Structure, John Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 229-254. Kang, Hyeon-Seok. 1994. ‘Variation in past-marking and the question of the system in Trinidadian English’, in Katharine Beals et al., (eds.), CLS 30: Proceedings of the 30th Annual Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, Volume 2: Parasession on Variation in Linguistic Theory, The Chicago Linguistic Society, Chicago, pp. 150-164. Kang, Yoonjung. 2003. ‘Sound changes affecting noun-final coronal obstruents in Korean’, in William McClure (ed.), Japanese/Korean Linguistics, Vol 12, pp. 117-127. Karttunen, Lauri. 2006. ‘The Insufficiency of Paper-and-Pencil Linguistics: the Case of Finnish Prosody’. ROA-818. Karvonen, Dan. 2005. Word Prosody in Finnish. Ph.D. thesis, University of California at Santa Cruz. Keller, Frank. 2000. Gradience in Grammar: Experimental and Computational Aspects of Degrees of Grammaticality, Ph.D. thesis, University of Edinburgh. Available on ROA. Keller, Frank. 2005. ‘Linear Optimality Theory as a Model of Gradience in Grammar’, in Gisbert Fanselow, Féry, Ralph Vogel, and Matthias Schlesewsky, (eds.), Gradience in Grammar: Generative Perspectives, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Keller, Frank and T. Alexopoulou. 2001. ‘Phonology competes with syntax: Experimental evidence for the interaction of word order and accent placement in the realization of information structure’, Cognition 79(3), 301-372. Keller, Frank and Ash Asudeh. 2002. ‘Probabilistic learning algorithms and Optimality Theory’, Linguistic Inquiry 33(2), 225-244. Kenstowicz, Michael. 1994. ‘Sonority-driven stress’, ROA-33. Kessler, Brett and Rebecca Treiman. 1997. ‘Syllable Structure and the Distribution of Phonemes in English Syllables’, Journal of Memory and Language 37, 295-311. Keyser, Samuel Jay and Paul Kiparsky. 1984. ‘Syllable structure in Finnish Phonology’, in Mark Aronoff and Richard Oehrle, (eds.), Language Sound Structure, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Kiparsky, Paul. 1993. ‘An OT Perspective on phonological variation’. Handout from Rutgers Optimality Workshop 1993, also presented at NWAVE 1994, Stanford University. Available at http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/nwave94.pdf Kiparsky, Paul. 2003. ‘Finnish Noun Inflection’, in Satu Manninen and Diane Nelson (eds.), Generative Approaches to Finnic and Saami Linguistics, CSLI Publications, Stanford, California. pp. 109-161. Kiparsky, Paul. 2005. ‘Where Stochastic OT fails: A discrete model of metrical variation’, BLS. Also at http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/BLS2005.pdf. Kirke, Karen. 2004. ‘Phonological constraints on word order in English: Evidence from a quantitative study of genitive constructions using the Internet as corpus’, Ms., New York University. Kroch, Anthony S. 1989. ‘Reflexes of grammar in patterns of language change’, Language Variation and Change 1, 199-244.

6 Laalo, Klaus. 1988. Imperfektimuotojen ti~si -vaihtelu suomen kielessä [The Past Tense ti~si Alternation in Finnish], Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, Helsinki. Labov, William. 1969. ‘Contraction, deletion and inherent variability of the English copula.’ Language 45, 715-62. Labov, William. 1972. Sociolinguistic Patterns, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Labov, William. 1994. Principles of Linguistic Change: Internal Factors, Blackwell, Oxford,U.K. and Cambridge, U.S.A. Labov, William. 1997. ‘Resyllabification’, in Frans Hinskens, Roeland van Hout, and Leo Wetzels (eds.), Variation, Change and Phonological Theory, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, pp.145-179. Labov, William, Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, John Lewis. 1968. A Study of the Nonstandard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers of New York City, Volume 1, U.S. Regional Survey. Philadelphia. de Lacy, Paul. 2002. The Formal Expression of Markedness. Doctoral dissertation. University of Massachusetts, Amherst. ROA-542. de Lacy, Paul. 2004. ‘Markedness conflation in Optimality Theory’, Phonology 21, 145- 199. Liberman, Mark Y. 1993. ‘Optionality and Optimality’, fragment of a draft, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania. McCarthy, John. 1986. ‘OCP Effects: Gemination and Antigemination’, Linguistic Inquiry 17, 207-263. McCarthy, John. 1988. ‘Feature geometry and dependency: A review’, Phonetica 45, 84- 108. McCarthy, John. 1994. ‘The phonetics and phonology of Semitic pharyngeals’, in Patricia Keating, (ed.), Phonological Structure and Phonetic Form: Papers in Laboratory Phonology 3, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 191-233. Meisenburg, Trudel and Christoph Gabriel. n.d. ‘La théorie de l’optimalité et la variation phonologique du français: le problème des mots à “h aspiré”. Ms., Université d’Osnabrück. Morris, Richard E. 1998. Stylistic Variation in Spanish Phonology, Ph. D. dissertation, Ohio State University. Müller, Gereon. 1000. ‘Optionality in optimality-theoretic syntax’, Glot International 4(5), 3-8. Myers, James. 2003. ‘Frequency effects in Optimality Theory’, Ms., National Chung Cheng University. Myers, James and Yingshing Li. 2005. ‘Frequency effects and Optimality Theory’, Paper presented at First Theoretical Linguistics Conference, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan, May 21, 2005. Also on ROA. Myers, James and Gregory Guy. 1997. ‘Frequency effects in Variable Lexical Phonology’, University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics 4(1), 215- 227. Nagy, Naomi and William Reynolds. 1997. ‘Optimality Theory and variable word-final deletion in Faetar’, Language Variation and Change, 9, 37-55.

7 Neu, Helene. 1980. ‘Ranking of Constraints on /t,d/ Deletion in American English: A Statistical Analysis’, in William Labov, (ed.), Locating Language in Time and Space, Academic Press, New York, pp. 37-54. Newman, Rochelle S., James R. Sawusch, Paul A. Luce. 1997. ‘Lexical neighborhood effects in phonetic processing’, Journal of Experimental Psychology 23, 873-889. Newmeyer, Frederick. 2003. ‘Grammar is grammar and usage is usage’, Language 79(4), 682-707. Nycz, Jennifer. 2005. ‘Global faithfulness and choice of repair’, Penn Working Papers in Linguistics (PWPL), 10(2), pp. 205-218. Oostendorp, Marc van. 1997. ‘Style registers in conflict resolution’, in Frans Hinskens, Roeland van Hout and Leo Wetzels, (eds.), Variation, Change and Phonological Theory, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, pp. 207-229. Paolillo, John C. 2000. ‘A probabilistic Model for Optimality Theory’, Indiana Working Papers in Linguistics, 2.1. Paolillo, John C. 2002. Analyzing Linguistic Variation: Statistical Models and Methods. CSLI Publications, Stanford, California. Pater, Joe. 2004. ‘Exceptions and Optimality Theory: Typology and Learnability’, Conference on Redefining Elicitation: Novel Data in Phonological Theory, New York University. http://people.umass.edu/pater/. Pater, Joe. 2005. ‘Non-convergence in the GLA and variation in the CDA’. Ms., University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Available on ROA. Pater, Joe and Andries Coetzee. to appear. ’Lexically Specific Constraints: Gradience, Learnability, and Perception’, Proceedings of the Korean International Conference on Phonology. Patrick, Peter. 1991. ‘Creoles at the intersection of variable processes: -t, d deletion and past-marking in the Jamaican mesolect’, Language Variation and Change, 171- 189. Paunonen, Heikki. 1974. ‘On free variation’, Suomalais-ugrilaisen seuran aikakauskirja, 72, 285-300. Paunonen, Heikki. 1995. Suomen kieli Helsingissä [The Finnish Language in Helsinki], Helsingin yliopiston suomen kielen laitos, Helsinki. Phillips, Betty S. 1984. ‘Word frequency and the actuation of sound change’, Language 60, 320-342. Phillips, Betty S. 2001. ‘Lexical diffusion, lexical frequency, and lexical analysis’, in Joan. L. Bybee and Paul Hopper (eds.), Frequency and the Emergence of Linguistic Structure, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, pp. 123-136. Pierrehumbert, Janet. 1993. ‘Dissimilarity in the Arabic verbal roots’, in A. Schafer, (ed.), NELS 23: Proceedings of the North East Linguistic Society, GLSA, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. pp. 367-381. Pierrehumbert, Janet. 1994. ‘Knowledge of Variation’, in Katharine Beals et al., (eds.), CLS 30, Volume 2: Parasession on Variation in Linguistic Theory, The Chicago Linguistic Society, Chicago. pp. 232-256. Pierrehumbert, Janet. B. 2001a. ‘Exemplar dynamics: Word frequency, lenition and contrast’, in Joan. L. Bybee and Paul Hopper (eds.), Frequency and the Emergence of Linguistic Structure, John Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 137-157. Pierrehumbert, Janet B. 2001b. ‘Stochastic phonology’, Glot International 5/6, 195-207.

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9 Treiman, Rebecca, Brett Kessler, Stephanie Knewasser, Ruth Tincoff, and Michael Bowman. 2000. ‘Adults’ Sensitivity to Phonotactic Probabilities’, in M. B. Broe and J. B. Pierrehumbert (eds.), Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Acquisition and the Lexicon, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 269-282. Vitevitch, Michael S. and Paul A. Luce. 1999. ‘Probabilistic phonotactics and neighbourhood activation in spoken word recognition’, Journal of Memory and Language 40, 374-408. Wolfram, Walt. 1973. ‘On what basis variable rules?’, in Charles-James N. Bailey and Roger W. Shuy (eds.), New Ways of Analyzing Variation in English, Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 1-12. Zamma, Hideki. 2005. ‘Predicting Varieties: Partial Orderings in English Stress Assignment’, ROA-712. Zubritskaya, Katya. 1997. ‘Mechanism of sound change in Optimality Theory’, Language Variation and Change, 9, 121-48. Zuraw, Kie. 2000. Patterned Exceptions in Phonology, Ph.D. dissertation, UCLA. email: [email protected]