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Stainless Steels in Ammonia Production
Stainless Steels in Ammonia Production Committee of Stainless Steel Producers American Iron and Steel Institute Washington, D.C. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ...................... 4 PROCESS DESCRIPTION ....... 5 CORROSIVES IN AMMONIA PROCESSES .......... 5 CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTING STAINLESS STEELS .................................... 6 Desulfurization of Natural Gas ................. 6 Catalytic Steam Reforming of Natural Gas ................. 6 Carbon Monoxide Shift ......... 8 Removal of Carbon Dioxide . 10 Methanation .......................... 11 Synthesis of Ammonia ......... 11 Turbine-Driven Centrifugal Compression Trains ........ 14 STAINLESS STEELS ................ 15 Metallurgical Structure ......... 16 High-Temperature Mechanical Properties ..... 16 Thermal Conductivity ........... 20 Oxidation Resistance ........... 21 Sulfidation Resistance .......... 22 REFERENCES .......................... 22 The material presented in this booklet has been prepared for the general information of the reader. It should not be used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability for any given application. While the material is believed to be technically correct, neither the Committee of Stainless Steel Pro- ducers nor the companies represented on the The Committee of Stainless Steel Producers acknowledges the help Committee warrant its suitability for any gen- by Gregory Kobrin, Senior Consultant, Materials Engineering, E.I. eral or particular use. DuPont de Nemours & Company in assembling data for this booklet. single-train plants came increasing demands on materials of construc- INTRODUCTION tion. The process for making am- monia is considered to be only Approximately 12 elements are es- moderately corrosive, so considera- sential to plant growth. Of these, nit- ble use is made of carbon and low- rogen is the main nutrient and is re- alloy steels for vessels and piping. quired in much larger amounts than However, numerous applications any other element. -
2020 Stainless Steels in Ammonia Production
STAINLESS STEELS IN AMMONIA PRODUCTION A DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK SERIES NO 9013 Produced by Distributed by AMERICAN IRON NICKEL AND STEEL INSTITUTE INSTITUTE STAINLESS STEELS IN AMMONIA PRODUCTION A DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK SERIES NO 9013 Originally, this handbook was published in 1978 by the Committee of Stainless Steel Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute. The Nickel Institute republished the handbook in 2020. Despite the age of this publication the information herein is considered to be generally valid. Material presented in the handbook has been prepared for the general information of the reader and should not be used or relied on for specific applications without first securing competent advice. The Nickel Institute, the American Iron and Steel Institute, their members, staff and consultants do not represent or warrant its suitability for any general or specific use and assume no liability or responsibility of any kind in connection with the information herein. Nickel Institute [email protected] www.nickelinstitute.org CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ............................ 4 PROCESS DESCRIPTION ............ 5 CORROSIVES IN AMMONIA PROCESSES ............... 5 CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTING STAINLESS STEELS .......................................... 6 Desulfurization of Natural Gas ....................... 6 Catalytic Steam Reforming of Natural Gas ....................... 6 Carbon Monoxide Shift .............. 8 Removal of Carbon Dioxide . 10 Methanation ............................. 11 Synthesis of Ammonia ............. 11 -
The Haber Process
Making ammonia - the Haber process Background During the last century, the populations of Europe and America rose very rapidly. More food and more crops were needed to feed more and more people. So farmers began to use nitrogen compounds as fertilisers. The main source of nitrogen compounds for fertilisers was sodium nitrate from Chile. By 1900 supplies of this were running out. Another supply of nitrogen had to be found or many people would starve. The obvious source of nitrogen was the air (about 78% of the air is nitrogen). Unfortunately, nitrogen is not very reactive. This made it difficult to convert it into ammonium salts and nitrates for use as fertilisers. A German chemist called Fritz Haber solved the problem. In 1904, Haber began studying the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen. By 1908 he had found the conditions needed to make ammonia (NH3). Eventually, the Haber process became the most important method of manufacturing ammonia. 1. Why did farmers start to use nitrogen compounds as fertilisers? 2. What problem did farmers face in 1900? 3. How long did it take Fritz Haber to work out the conditions needed to make nitrogen and hydrogen react together? 4. What does the Haber process make? 5. Haber was an apprentice plumber before studying to become a chemist. How was Haber’s background useful to him as a chemist? The Haber process The raw materials for the Haber process are Natural gas, air and water. In the first stage, Natural gas (which is mostly methane) is reacted with steam to produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen. -
Nitrogenase; Nitrogen Fixation Vs Haber-Bosch Process
Nitrogenase; Nitrogen Fixation vs Haber-Bosch Process Anna Balinski, Jacob Watson Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Abstract Comparison of Processes Haber-Bosch Process Overview:The Nitrogen Cycle is a chemical cycle which recycles nitrogen into usable forms, such as ammonium, nitrates, and nitrites. Nitrogen and nitrogen compounds are important Haber-Bosch Reaction because they make up our atmosphere as well as our earthly environments. Nitrogen can be recycled into ammonium naturally via nitrogen fixing bacteria, or synthetically using the + - Discovered by Fritz Haber, process scaled up by Haber-Bosch process. Nitrogen fixation in bacteria follows the reaction N2 + 8 H + 8 e 2 • Carl Bosch NH3 + H2 and is powered by the hydrolysis of 16 ATP equivalents. The Haber-Bosch process Response to Germany’s need for ammonia for follows the reaction scheme of N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3 and is powered by using high pressures, • temperatures, and catalysts. Using the Haber-Bosch process an optimum yield of 97% explosive during WWI ammonium can be obtained. These reactions both use diatomic nitrogen as well as Nitrogen Fixation Reaction • Prolonged WWI when Germany was able to hydrogen, but differ in their final products as bacterial nitrogen fixation releases hydrogen produce fertilizer and explosives gas as a byproduct. Bacteria in the soil use nitrogen to create energy to grow and reproduce Fritz Haber Carl Bosch as well as to introduce nitrogen for use by other species. The Haber-Bosch process produces ammonium which can be used for a range of activities such as the production of fertilizers, or even explosives. -
Haber Process - Wikipedia 7/17/20, 9 20 AM
Haber process - Wikipedia 7/17/20, 9)20 AM Haber process The Haber process,[1] also called the Haber–Bosch process, is an artificial nitrogen fixation process and is the main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia today.[2][3] It is named after its inventors, the German chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who developed it in the first decade of the 20th century. The process converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) by a reaction with hydrogen (H2) using a metal catalyst under high temperatures and pressures: Before the development of the Haber process, ammonia had been difficult to produce on an industrial scale,[4][5][6] with early methods such as the Birkeland–Eyde process and Frank– Caro process all being highly inefficient. Although the Haber process is mainly used to produce fertilizer today, during World War I it provided Germany with a source of ammonia for the production of explosives, compensating for the Allied Powers' trade blockade on Chilean saltpeter. Fritz Haber, 1918 Contents History Process Sources of hydrogen Reaction rate and equilibrium Catalysts Production of iron-based catalysts Catalysts other than iron Second generation catalysts Catalyst poisons Industrial production Synthesis parameters Large-scale technical implementation Mechanism Elementary steps Energy diagram Economic and environmental aspects See also References External links History Throughout the 19th century the demand for nitrates and ammonia for use as fertilizers and industrial feedstocks had been steadily increasing. The main source was mining niter deposits. At the beginning of the 20th century it was being predicted that these reserves could not satisfy future demands,[7] and research into new potential sources of ammonia became more important. -
The Haber Process
The Haber process MAGS Hey. I’m Mags and this is Cal. Cal. CAL Hey, you can’t hurry a good reaction. This episode Mags has made a video about ammonia and the Haber process. I need to get ready for my hot date. MAGS I think you need a ‘Cal process’ to make you ready. Here’s my video. Comb your hair. CAL I have. MAGS You’d find ammonia in my hair, because it’s in hair dye, and also fertilisers, cleaning fluids, even explosives. So how’s ammonia produced, I hear you ask. Molecules of nitrogen, which comes from the air, and hydrogen, are mixed in a reaction called the Haber process. And it’s a reversible reaction, so the arrows go in both directions. Our Auntie Trish works at a factory making ammonia for fertilisers. It’s a growth industry. Because fertiliser grows things. Check it out… Wow, this looks expensive. TRISH Yup, this factory spends a lot of money, especially on the energy bill. The energy cost goes up if we use a higher temperature. Environmental factors also need to be considered. The two main factors affecting the chemical reaction here are temperature, and pressure. MAGS So, heat up the nitrogen and hydrogen, increase the pressure, then… TRISH Molecules move faster, and collide more, then it’s ‘ammonia o’clock’. MAGS Is that an actual time? bbc.co.uk/bitesize © Copyright BBC TRISH No. We also speed up the reaction with a catalyst – with the Haber process, that’s iron. We need to replace the iron over time as it gets poisoned. -
Bosch Ammonia in a Carbon-Free Energy Landscape† Cite This: Energy Environ
Energy & Environmental Science View Article Online ANALYSIS View Journal | View Issue Current and future role of Haber–Bosch ammonia in a carbon-free energy landscape† Cite this: Energy Environ. Sci., 2020, 13, 331 Collin Smith,a Alfred K. Hill*b and Laura Torrente-Murciano *a The future of a carbon-free society relies on the alignment of the intermittent production of renewable energy with our continuous and increasing energy demands. Long-term energy storage in molecules with high energy content and density such as ammonia can act as a buffer versus short-term storage (e.g. batteries). In this paper, we demonstrate that the Haber–Bosch ammonia synthesis loop can indeed enable a second ammonia revolution as energy vector by replacing the CO2 intensive methane-fed process with hydrogen produced by water splitting using renewable electricity. These modifications demand a redefinition of the conventional Haber–Bosch process with a new optimisation beyond the current one which was driven by cheap and abundant natural gas and relaxed environmental concerns during the last century. Indeed, the switch to electrical energy as fuel and feedstock to replace fossil Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported Licence. fuels (e.g. methane) will lead to dramatic energy efficiency improvements through the use of high efficiency electrical motors and complete elimination of direct CO2 emissions. Despite the technical feasibility of the electrically-driven Haber–Bosch ammonia, the question still remains whether such revolution will take place. We reveal that its success relies on two factors: increased energy efficiency and the development of small-scale, distributed and agile processes that can align to the geographically isolated and intermittent renewable energy sources. -
Equilibrium and Advanced Thermodynamics the Delicate Balance of Chemical Reactions
UNIT 9 Equilibrium and Advanced Thermodynamics The Delicate Balance of Chemical Reactions Unit Overview Unit 9 introduces the concept of entropy and its role as the driving force for chemical reactions. Students will learn the Second Law of Thermodynamics in terms of entropy rather than energy and work as it had been previously presented in Unit 7. The middle sections of the unit explain spontaneity and Gibb’s free energy, explaining why some chemical reactions occur spontaneously while others do not. Even nonspontaneous reactions can still occur when coupled to sponta- neous reactions. The final sections introduce chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium constant, and equilibrium shifts (Le Chatelier’s Principle). Learning Objectives and Applicable Standards Participants should be able to: 1. Define microstate, macrostate, and entropy. 2. Explain how spontaneous processes increase the entropy of the universe. 3. Perform calculations with the Gibbs free energy equation to determine if a reaction is spontaneous. 4. Explain how nonspontaneous reactions can still happen when they are coupled with a spontaneous reaction. 5. Define the equilibrium state as the one where the Gibbs free energy is at a minimum. 6. Write the equilibrium constant expression for a chemical reaction. 7. Predict the direction a reaction will shift when: reactants/products are added/removed, the reaction vessel is compressed, or the temperature changes. Key Concepts and People 1. Microstates, Macrostates, and Entropy: Ludwig Bolzmann formulated an equation for entropy based on microstates and macrostates. The more microstates in a given macrostate, the more likely that macrostate is to occur. 1 UNIT 9 Equilibrium and Advanced Thermodynamics 2. -
Improving Process Control During Ammonia Production Using The
Improving Process Control During Application Note Ammonia Production Using the Thermo Scientific Prima PRO Process Mass Spectrometer Graham Lewis, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Winsford, Cheshire, United Kingdom Key Words • Steam-to-carbon ratio • H/N ratio • Air requirement • Rapid multi-stream sampler (RMS) • Methane slippage • Magnetic sector analyzer • Shift reaction Introduction as heating fuels, prices tend to be very volatile. This price Ammonia is one of the most important industrial chemicals volatility means plants must maximize the efficiency in the world, with demand forecasted to grow 3% of the ammonia production unit to maintain annually over the next five years. Close to 80% of the a strong bottom line. ammonia produced globally is used for the production of The Ammonia Process fertilizers. Ammonia is also an important component of The manufacture of ammonia can be described simply explosives, fibers, plastics, and intermediates for dyes and by the classic Haber process formula: pharmaceuticals. N + 3H → 2NH The first step in ammonia production is the conversion 2 2 3 of natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas or naphtha However, the production of the two reactants from into hydrogen. Because these raw materials are in high raw materials (i.e. fuel, steam and air) requires a number demand for many other applications including use of process steps. All of these steps occur during the gas phase and require fast, accurate gas analysis to optimize the process. PRIMARY SECONDARY CO SHIFT WATER REFORMER REFORMER CONVERTER SEPARATER Figure 1 is a schematic of a typical ammonia plant HIGH based on natural gas feedstock. The streams DESULPHURIZATION TEMP. -
The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870-1914
The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870-1914 Joel Mokyr Robert H. Strotz Professor of Arts and Sciences and Professor of Economics and History Northwestern University 2003 Sheridan Rd., Evanston IL 60208 Phone: (847)491-5693; Fax (847)491-7001 E-mail: [email protected] In Valerio Castronovo, ed., Storia dell'economia Mondiale. Rome: Laterza publishing, 1999, pp. 219-245. Note: Parts of this chapter are based on my book The Lever of Riches (1990) as well as on a number of subsequent essays. Joel Mokyr 1 Introduction The second Industrial Revolution is usually dated between 1870 and 1914, although a number of its char- acteristic events can be dated to the 1850s. It is, however, clear that the rapid rate of pathbreaking inventions (macroinventions) slowed down after 1825, and picked up steam again in the last third of the century. This says little about the rate of technological progress as commonly defined in terms of productivity increase and the im- provements in product quality, which depends much more on the smaller, cumulative, anonymous changes known as microinventions. Yet the great pathbreaking inventions in energy, materials, chemicals, and medicine described below were crucial not because they themselves had necessarily a huge impact on production, but because they increased the effectiveness of research and development in microinventive activity. Eventually such activity like everything else runs into diminishing marginal product, unless a major new breakthrough opens new horizons. Technology is knowledge. Modern economic growth, Simon Kuznets (1965) argued more than 30 years ago, depends on the growth of useful knowledge. Yet as knowledge, technology differs from the knowledge of nature we think of as science, geography or a more pragmatic knowledge of natural phenomena. -
Evaluation of the Exact Production Quantity of Nitrogen Fertilizer in Real-Time from Any Particular Associated Gas Flare Volume in Nigeria
International Journal of Applied Science and Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, September 2017 Evaluation of the Exact Production Quantity of Nitrogen Fertilizer in Real-Time from any Particular Associated Gas Flare Volume in Nigeria Dr. Ekejiuba A.I.B. Senior Lecturer Department of Petroleum Engineering Federal University of Technology Owerri, Nigeria Principle Researcher Azuberth‟s Research Complex Naze Industrial Estate, Owerri, Nigeria Abstract Fertilizers acts in two ways to enhance the growth of plants i.e. either by providing the essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous potassium et cetera .or improving the effectiveness by modifying its water retention and aerations. Nitrogen can be fixed into chemical compounds such as ammonia (NH3) for plants use either by bacteria in the root nodules or synthetically fixed using Haber-Bosch process. Pure ammonia is gaseous and is sometime injected into the ground directly, but most often, it is used as a feedstock to produce all the other nitrogen fertilizers in either liquid or solid forms. Presently, over 80% of the fertilizer consumed in Nigeria is imported, while usage is 20kg per hectare on the average, against the expected usage rate of over 200kg per hectare for developed countries. This investigation on the real-time monetization of the flared gas in Nigeria through production of nitrogenous synthetic fertilizer ammonia/urea, applied the stoichiometric balanced equation of ammonia production with the Haber-Bosch process. The available 16.090 MM scfd, methane produced 655,399, 762. 4 grams of ammonia which produce 1, 156,587.816 kg of urea, equivalent of about 23,132 bags of 50kg fertilizer per day. -
The Second Industrial Revolution
STS 007 Class Notes class 17 Second Industrial Revolution Pivot point: 1850 – bring together European and American history – will go to MIT and US on Thursday Crystal Palace 1851 - middle class (vote, after 1831) – Corn Laws repealed 1846 – but enormous worry about working class – Irish famine- 1848 revolutions “Spring of nations” France, Germany, Italy, Denmark (Russia and A-H) Democracy, liberalism, nationalism, socialism US in 1850 To learn more about the US in 1850, see: The Compromise of 1850 Individuals vs. collective in victory: Tolstoy reading – about War and Peace, Napoleonic victories (and also retreat from Moscow) – the spectacle of millions of men in motion – “revolution” – causality: looking for laws – “change the subject” - Two fallacies: beginnings and endings, individuals – Tufte’s famous representation How does it change how you think about “technology in history”? Schivelbusch The Culture of Defeat How you think about “technology in history” – three examples: Civil War, France, Germany – Dower’s Embracing Defeat (we will read Hiroshima)– “losers in battle, winners in spirit” – savage winners, fear of being overrun by barbarians – borrowing technology and organization in service of higher cause Theme of “unconditional surrender” – Sherman and Grant South affirming white supremacy – slavery a fatal misadventure (69) – now there will be a New South – “the Cold War of Reconstruction” (73) – go back to status quo under different arrangements – but military occupation, Northern rules – led to repression – ten years – black codes – things began to settle down – economic colony (84)- low per capita income, a third to national average 1 Much more “civilized” to Europeans than Yankees – read p. 46 – a second war for independence Capitalist but with another knightly spirit – technological-economic modernity and feudal- romantic spirit (54) Choice of two kinds of exploitation/production (energy) [“For Obama,” Mr.