Downloaded from Brill.Com10/01/2021 04:33:44PM Via Free Access 138 Simpson to Regrounding Christianity in Scripture

Erasmus Studies 37 (2017) 137–160

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The Use of evangelicus in the Paraphrases

Dean Simpson* University of Richmond [email protected]

Abstract

This article is a word study that analyses and interprets how Erasmus uses the adjective evangelicus, -a, -um in his New Testament Paraphrases. The development of the idiom ‘gospel-blank’ (evangelicus + noun) is analyzed diachronically; the phrases denoting gospel things are divided into six semantic categories. The study shows, on the one hand, that there is a general consistency in how evangelicus is used, the most common pairings predominating in most Paraphrases on the Epistles and Gospels, while, on the other, there is some broadening and lowering of the nouns with which evangelicus is joined, moving from the Paraphrases on the Epistles to the Gospel Paraphrases. Erasmus’ changing attitude to the project of paraphrasing the New Testament provides biographical and historical context in which to place the study’s findings. The study concludes by highlighting the New Testament Paraphrases as Erasmus’ humanistic response to worsening divisions in the early 1520s.

Keywords genitive – God’s salvific power – gospel – Paraphrases

The Biblical scholarship of Erasmus of Rotterdam holds a prominent place among the many things that make the Renaissance author historically impor- tant. Erasmus’ first edition of the Greek New Testament, his Latin translation, and the Annotations, published together in 1516 as the Novum Instrumentum, are supreme illustrations of Erasmus’ humanistic erudition and commitment

* I want to express my gratitude to the anonymous readers for a number of corrections and helpful suggestions.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2017 | doi: 10.1163/18749275-03702001Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 04:33:44PM via free access 138 simpson to regrounding Christianity in Scripture. A fourth component of Erasmus’ biblical scholarship, the New Testament Paraphrases, fits so well with the Novum Instrumentum that it could easily be imagined that Erasmus planned his biblical scholarship as a fourfold project: text, translation, notes, and elaborated commentaries written from the point of view of the biblical authors. The truth of the matter is different. Erasmus had no plan to paraphrase the New Testament1 and as the scope of the Paraphrases increased—Paraphrase on Romans, Paraphrases on the Pauline Epistles, Paraphrases on the Epistles of Paul and Peter, Paraphrases on all the Epistles, Paraphrase on Matthew—he hoped each new work might suffice, until, remarkably late, he saw the need to finish the project ending with Acts, omitting Revelation for obvious reasons.2 Working in concentrated periods of weeks interspersed amid his other literary activities, Erasmus wrote the Paraphrases between 1517 and 1524. Paraphras- ing was hard work,3 requiring the close reading of biblical texts and selected commentaries to arrive at a synthesis that could serve as the basis for informed reading and preaching. As hard as it was to persuade Erasmus to move beyond his original intension of paraphrasing only Paul’s Epistle to the Romans and tackle the other New Testament Epistles, it was much harder to prevail on Erasmus to jump from paraphrasing Epistles to paraphrasing Gospels. As letters, the Epistles left out a lot for a paraphrast to supply. The Gospels were already continuous and well elaborated, raising the question, what was there for the paraphrast to add? Eras- mus also worried about the presumption of altering the recorded statements of Jesus Christ.4 Redundancies and discrepancies between the Gosples also posed

1 See “The Paraphrases of Erasmus: Origin and Character” in cwe 42, xv and (cited there) Albert Rabil Jr, “Erasmus’ Paraphrase of the Gospel of John,” Church History 48 (1979) 142– 155, esp. 142–144 where Erasmus is described as not being “self-conscious about the project of writing paraphrases of the New Testament.” I think an attitude of reluctance is closer to the mark. 2 Erasmus recounts the stages in Ep. 1341a, 30 Jan. 1523, to Johann von Botzheim, lines 750–774 cwe. For an overview of the publication history of the Paraphrases see R.A.B. Mynors, “The Publication of the Latin Paraphrases” cwe 42 xx–xxix. See also Rabil, note 1. 3 Erasmus begins Ep. 1171, 16 Dec. 1520, dedicating the Paraphrase on James to Cardinal Matthäus Schiner, by likening himself to an athlete: “I thought I had already reached the end of my race, and was intending to give myself a rest, at any rate from studies of this kind, having explained all the Epistles which I thought genuinely Pauline.” lines 4–6 cwe; the metaphor is repeated at lines 50–51. 4 Ep. 1255, 13 Jan., 1522, dedicating the Paraphrase on Matthew to Charles v, gives numerous reasons why Erasmus did not want to paraphrase the Gospel of Matthew after having para-

ErasmusDownloaded Studies from 37 Brill.com10/01/2021 (2017) 137–160 04:33:44PM via free access the use of evangelicus in the paraphrases 139 a problem. In the end, a white lie on the part of Cardinal Schiner, who spread word that the Paraphrase on Matthew was nearly ready for publication, forced Erasmus’ hand.5 As he worked on the Paraphrase on Matthew in November and December, 1521, Erasmus held out hope that one Gospel paraphrase might be enough.6 Rather than finding the task of paraphrasing the Gospels daunting, it is clear that Erasmus found the exercise of impersonating the evangelists satisfying and illumining.There is no evidence in the Gospel Paraphrases themselves that Erasmus felt any scruple in rephrasing Jesus’ words. This type of work, it turned out, suited Erasmus very well: the literary, analytical, and pastoral challenges drew him in and up.7 The popularity of the Paraphrases also buoyed him.8 As

phrased the New Testament Epistles (lines 31–79 cwe). Chief among these was that it was too bold an undertaking: “the majesty of Christ was too great for the same boldness to be permissible in respect of the words he uttered.” lines 34–36 cwe. Also Ep. 1333, 5 Jan., 1523, dedicating the Paraphrase on John to Archduke Ferdinand: “The very grandeur of the work inspired a certain awe that deterred my mind from approaching it.” lines 7–8 cwe. 5 Again from Ep. 1255: “[Cardinal Shiner] went on to Milan, and promised the Germans in my name that the work would come out this winter. Consequently on my return to Basel I was beset by my German friends, who can be very obstinate when they want something, so that to fulfill my promises he and I had made I finished the work in about a month.” lines 88–92 cwe. Also Ep. 1248, 14 Dec. 1521, to Matthäus Shiner, lines 16–18 cwe. 6 Ep. 1333, on completing the Paraphrase on Matthew: “I then thought that in this class of composition I had done all I ever should.” lines 10–11 cwe. 7 Recent studies of the Paraphrases as scholarly and literary achievements are found in Holy Scripture Speaks: The Production and Reception of Erasmus’ Paraphrases on the New Testa- ment, eds. Hilmar M. Pabel and Mark Vessey (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002). Also of note, Reiner Leushuis, “Speaking the Gospel: The Voice of the Evangelist in Erasmus’ Paraphrases on the New Testament,” Erasmus Studies, 36.2 (2016) 163–185; see also Cottier (note 20) and Bloemendal (note 26). For a recent historical study of Erasmus’ approach to the project, see Christine Christ-von Wedel, Erasmus of Rotterdam: Advocate of a New Chris- tianity (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013) ch. 7 “The New Testament Scholar” 79–96 and ch. 8 “The Paraphrast” 97–110. 8 Erasmus was extremely pleased by Charles v’s letter of 1 April 1522 acknowledging the Para- phrase on Matthew which Erasmus dedicated to him. Charles praises the work and comments on “the great applause with which it has been received by all authoritative and learned crit- ics.” He adds: “Great as is the reputation you have won by the other products of your labours, which are famous everywhere, by none are you thought to have earned a richer harvest than by your paraphrases.” Ep. 1270, lines 6–7 and 10–12 cwe. In Ep. 1331, 25 Dec. 1522, to Johann von Botzheim, Erasmus lists six dignitaries who reported the emperor’s high estimate of his work separately from the emperor himself, lines 12–19. Cf. Epp. 1299:41–46 and 1342:280–286 cwe.

Erasmus Studies 37 (2017) 137–160 Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 04:33:44PM via free access 140 simpson we will see, before he was done, Erasmus came to have a strong personal affinity for the project and to feel an urgent desire to complete and publish his learned, coherent interpretation of the New Testament.

The present study arises from the experience of translating Erasmus’Paraphra- sis in Mattheum (cwe 45, 2008) and the curiosity that arose about one word, the adjective evangelicus (noun root evangel- ‘gospel’ + adjective forming suffix -icus, a, um = ‘of, belonging to, pertaining to, having the characteristic of, appropriate to’). In deciding how to translate evangelicus, account had to be taken of the fact that Erasmus combines the word with a surprising array of nouns, some of which do not have a natural Christian reference. As stated in the preface, it was felt that Erasmus’ use of evangelicus was “clearly intended to impress, at times to arrest if not to shock” (cwe 45:xiii). Following upon this observation was the decision to translate evangelicus most often as ‘gospel’ because it makes phrases that are rhetorically strong (e.g., gospel vigor vs. the vigor of the gospel) and because in English it connects directly to the noun ‘the gospel’ (the good news), in preference to ‘evangelical’ which is not built on an English noun and has a number of meanings (e.g., gospel faith vs. evangelical faith).9 It remained to explore what was behind the observation quoted above, and what might be the significance of the stylistic effect Erasmus achieves through his use of evangelicus. With these questions in mind, I have undertaken a study of evangelicus in the New Testament Paraphrases looking at how often the word is used, cataloguing the nouns with which it is joined, and locating when a particular ‘gospel thing’ was first used in the Paraphrases in order to see how the idiom ‘gospel blank’ evolved.10 Looking at the Paraphrases diachronically, I have found that in some ways evangelicus is used similarly throughout the Paraphrases. The

9 cwe 45:xiii explains: “Hence for the Latin noun and adjective the somewhat stark English derivatives from Anglo-Saxon generally seemed more appropriate in translation than the more complex and sophisticated ‘evangelical,’ derived from Latin.” 10 A few preliminaries. I want to thank everyone who had a hand in making lb 7 accessible on Google Books: https://books.google.com/books?id=ij1DAQAAIAAJ&printsec= frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=true. I could not have done this research without the ebook. I am also grateful to the staff of the William Smith Morton Library, Union Presbyterian Seminary, Richmond va, for allowing me access to their copy of the lb edition. In what follows, short references to Paraphrases of books of the New Testament are printed as p + abbreviation, e.g., PRom = the Paraphrase on the Epistle to the Romans. Translations from Latin are taken from cwe volumes with the exception of note 38 where the translation is mine. Regarding the word-order of gospel things in Latin, Erasmus puts both the noun and the adjective first. For the sake

ErasmusDownloaded Studies from 37 Brill.com10/01/2021 (2017) 137–160 04:33:44PM via free access the use of evangelicus in the paraphrases 141 word occurs with roughly the same frequency, at least from the Paraphrase on Galatians to the Paraphrase on Acts (see Table 1).11 The nouns most often paired with evangelicus are consistent, by far the most common phrase being doctrina evangelica followed by fides evangelica, sermo evangelicus, and veritas evangelica.12 At the same time there is development in the nouns that are paired with evangelicus in the Paraphrases on the Epistles and between the Paraphrases on the Epistles and the Gospel Paraphrases. The first six Paraphrases (the Paraphrase on Romans to the Paraphrase on 2Timothy, 1517–1519) show an increase in the number of nouns that are combined with evangelicus arriving at a set of gospel things that undergoes little increase in the remaining fifteen Paraphrases on New Testament Epistles (1519–1521). While this set of gospel things also accounts for most of the instances of evangelicus in the Gospel Paraphrases, we find that evangelicus is joined with a growing number of nouns starting with the Paraphrase on Matthew and continuing through the Paraphrase on Acts (1521–1524). Thus there are 46 different gospel things in the Paraphrases on the Epistles and 101 new gospel things in the Paraphrases on the Gospels and Acts. The remarkable adaptability of the adjective evangelicus warrants expla- nation. Deriving from τὸ εὐαγγέλιον / evangelium, evangelicus is central to the Christian message. Etymologically τὸ εὐαγγέλιον is ‘the good news,’ understood since St. Paul (Rom. 1:16) as the good news ‘of God’s power to save everyone who believes.’ This salvific power begins with God, emanates into the created and human worlds where it is received as revelation, taken to heart however imperfectly, and transmitted onto other humans and back to God in preaching,

of consistency, I have put the noun first unless I am quoting a passage where the adjective comes first. Also for the sake of consistency, I have normalized Latin orthography, changes mainly being to Allen. 11 Using a rough guide of instances per lb column, there is less than 1 instance per 2 columns for the Paraphrase on Romans and the Paraphrases on 1 & 2Corinthians; thereafter there is commonly 1 to 2 instances per column. This is not to imply that the evangelicus occurs at regular intervals. It is more common in some chapters than in others and can be found in clusters as certain episodes or statements are explicated. 12 The top 12 gospel things in Paraphrases on the Epistles (446 total instances): doctrina (119 instances), fides (51), veritas (38), caritas (31), professio (23), lex (18), pietas (16), sermo (14), lux (12), gratia and salus (11), negotium (9), subtotal = 353 (79% of total). The top 12 gospel things in Paraphrases on the Gospels and Acts (957 total instances): doctrina (128), sermo (97), fides (67), pietas (49), veritas (46), negotium (36), philosophia (34), caritas (23), lex (22), professio (20), gratia and lux (18), subtotal = 558 (58% of total).

Erasmus Studies 37 (2017) 137–160 Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 04:33:44PM via free access 142 simpson worship, thanksgiving and prayer. Anything that characterizes or participates in this outflowing and return of God’s saving power may be termed evangelicus.13 I have found that the 147 different things that are called ‘gospel’ in the New Testament Paraphrases fall into six semantic categories, reflecting the multiple dimensions and stages of God’s salvific power. First, there are 21 nouns that are divine attributes, either absolute possessions of God or godly qualities a Christian aspires to possess, e.g., caritas, dignitas, gloria, gratia, lenitas, libertas, sinceritas, sublimitas, veritas, vigor. These nouns are ‘of the gospel’ in the subjective genitive sense, as in the ‘sweetness of honey’ or ‘sound of laughter’; they are God’s (divine) or godly (human). Second, 17 nouns identify the means by which the gospel is spread or the agent who bears the gospel, e.g., disciplina, praecatio, praeco, praedicator, professio, sermo. These are ‘of the gospel’ in the objective genitive sense, as in ‘love of money’ or ‘portrait of a lady.’ These nouns aim at the gospel as the object of teaching, preaching, etc. Third, 65 nouns are things that exist in many forms in our world and are open to widely different definitions, the gospel thing being the superlative, e.g., cognitio, felicitas, fides, lex, mens, modestia, munus, negotium, pietas, philosophia, regula, religio, societas, spiritus, virtus, vita. They are gospel in the sense of ‘according to, that accords with, or befitting the gospel’ (cf. ‘civic responsibilities’ = the responsibilities of a citizen / that befit a citizen). The essential claim that Christianity surpasses the Law gives rise to a recurring construction in the Paraphrases, pitting such things as gospel faith, law, love, righteousness, and spirit against counterparts termed Mosaicus or Iudaicus.14

13 The primacy and comprehensiveness of God’s power, which is the basis for this cyclical understanding of ‘gospel,’ is expressed, for example, at Rom. 11:36; its flow to fellow humans and back to God is found, for example, at Rom. 15:5–6 (also Col. 1:11–12 and assumed throughout Paul’s writings). It yields a large number of words that may be called gospel as they name features and components of God’s plan for human salvation and of the human responsibilities that respond to it. 14 Examples: PGal 4:26 lb 7:959f “lex Mosaica terrena est, lex evangelica coelestis.” PEph 1:4 lb 7:973c “non metu Mosaicae legis … sed evangelica fide et caritate” PJames 1:24 lb 7:1124a “lex Mosaica magis prodebat animi mala quam sanabat… evangelica lex per caritatem a volentibus ac liberis plus impetrat.” P1Jn 3:4 lb 7:1151f “legem evangelicam Mosaica longe sanctiorem” P2Pet 1:1 lb 7:1101b “sequamur iustitiam evangelicam … longe perfectius iustitia Iudaica.” PJn 2:11 lb 7:516c “iam enim tempus erat ut, pro insipida ac diluta legis Mosaicae littera, biberemus generosum illud vinum evangelici spiritus”

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The fourth category is analogous to the genitive of source, as in ‘the ticking of a clock.’ It comprises just two nouns: lux and promissum, the light and the promise that originate from God. ‘Gospel light’ is a metaphor placing lux evangelica also in the fifth category, consisting of 32 nouns that are not religious but that are used metaphorically to stand for religious ideas or facts. The nouns are partitive (as in ‘the cover of a book’)—metaphorically part of the good news. Finally, the sixth category contains 13 nouns that are partitive and literal: they are actual things that play a part in the gospel, that is, in God’s salvific plan.15 The following Table (Table 1, center column) shows that evangelicus is less common in the Paraphrases on Romans and 1 and 2Corinthians than in the ParaphraseonGalatians and thereafter, and that it occurs with somewhat lower frequency in the Gospel Paraphrases than in most of the Paraphrases on the Epistles. We can say that, throughout the Paraphrases, evangelicus is a word Erasmus uses normally, and often unaffectedly, something that is not surprising given its established usage going back to the Greek and Latin Fathers.16 The claim made in the Preface to cwe 45 finds support when it comes to the

PLk 1:64 lb 7:295a “nisi siluerit Iudaica lingua, carnalium observationum praedicatrix et humanae iustitiae vindicatrix, non potest loqui lingua evangelica, quae gratiam praedicat, quae fidem, quae caritatem.” PLk 6:11 lb 7:345b “sed non ferunt mustum evangelicae caritatis, assueti vappae legis Mosaicae.” 15 nb. Three words belong to two categories. The insights that follow from this analysis of evangelicus can be used to go more deeply into the ideas Erasmus is expressing, for example: category 1 (divine): P1Cor 12:28 (lb 7:900b)—“dispensers of gospel grace” = dispensers of God’s grace category 2: P2Cor 3:4 (lb 7:919e)—“so much more excellent is the gospel teaching” = so much more excellent is the teaching that bears the good news of salvation categories 1 (human) & 3: PEph 3:17 (lb 7:980c)—“Christ will dwell in you all the more if you join gospel love to gospel faith” = if you join godly love to faith that befits the good news of salvation categories 4 & 5: PEph 6:12 (lb 7:989d)—“laying snares in this darkness for those who love the gospel light” = for those who love the understanding and goodness that come from God and are part of God’s plan category 5: PPhil 3:12–13 (lb 7:1000c)—“running well in the gospel stadium” = serving effectively in the world that is part of God’s plan. 16 Citations in G.W.H. Lampe, A Patristic Greek Lexicon (Oxford: Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1961) are to: Aristides (ἁγία γραφή), Clement (ἀλήθεια), Hippolytus (λόγος), Ori- gen (ἀναγνώσματα, γράμματα, νόμος and πολιτεία), Methodius (φιλοσοφία καὶ παιδεία and νόμος), Eusebius (χάρις), Basil (βίος, ζωή, πίστις καὶ ἀγάπη, and πολιτεία), Gregory of Nyssa (ἱστορία and παράδοσις), John Chrysostom (πολιτεία), Ps. Chrysostom (βάπτισμα), Cyril (πολιτεία), Theodoretus (νομοθεσία and πολιτεία) and Procopius (πολιτεία); citations in

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Pub. date Paraphrase on # Instances # Adj-noun pairs # New pairings (per lb col.)

11/1517 Romans 13 (.24) 9 2/1519 1Corinthians 22 (.4) 11 7 2Corinthians 13 (.4) 9 4 5/1519 Galatians 35 (1.5) 14 5 11–12/1519 1Timothy 60 (2.7) 17 6 2Timothy 31 (3.4) 14 3 Titus 19 (2.7) 9 0 Philemon 5 (2.5) 4 0 1–2/1520 Ephesians 33 (1.8) 11 0 Philippians 16 (2.3) 12 2 Colossians 15 (1.6) 11 2 1Thessalonians 6 (.75) 3 0 2Thessalonians 3 (.75) 3 0 6–7/1520 1Peter 27 (1.2) 14 1 2Peter 23 (2.5) 11 1 Jude 9 (1.5) 7 0 12/1520 James 39 (1.8) 11 2 1/1521 1John 33 (1.8) 10 1 2John 5 (5.0) 3 0 3John 4 (4.0) 2 0 Hebrews 35 (1.1) 17 3 3/1522 Matthew 160 (1.1) 50 23 2/1523 John 156 (1.0) 42 13 8/1523 Luke 263 (1.25) 69 30 12/1523 Mark 230 (2.0) 69 24 2/1524 Acts 148 (1.3) 50 11 number of noun-adjective pairs (50) and the number of new pairings (23) that are found in the Paraphrase on Matthew compared to the Paraphrases on the Epistles (Table 1, columns 4 and 5).

Albert Blaise, Dictionnaire latin-français des auteurs chrétiens, (Paris: Librairie des Méri- diens, 1954) are to: Cyprian (disciplina and lectio), Tertullian (instrumentum), Ambrose (praecepta), Jerome (vir) and Augustine (verbum). Of these 24 words, 2 two fall into category 1, and 11 fall into categories 2 and 3.

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The different things that are called ‘gospel’ in the Paraphrases on the Epistles are set out in the following table, Table 2. They are located by when they are first used in the Paraphrases and placed in their semantic category. All but five of the 46 nouns belong to one of the first three categories; none belongs to the sixth. Viewed chronologically, we see a phase when new gospel things are added regularly, followed by a phase when new coinages are rare (though the established phrases are used). The Table also includes how many times a particular gospel thing occurs in the New Testament Paraphrases.

table 2 Nouns listed by first appearance in PEpp (total number of instances, PEpp / PGos & PActa) evangelicus = 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Subjective ‘of’ Objective ‘of’ According to Source Partitive & Possessed by God Bearing That accords w/ metaphorical God’s, godly Salvific Befitting

Romans caritas (31/23) doctrina (119/129) fides (51/67) promissum (8/6) gratia (11/18) lex (18/22) munus (3/4) religio (3/5) res (3/7) 1 & 2Cor. dignitas (1/0) sermo (14/97) functio (3/10) stadium (4/1) lenitas (1/0) monitus (1/0) veritas (38/46) negotium (9/36) pietas (16/49) regula (6/3) vita (6/2) Galatians benedictio (1/0) professio (23/20) lux – (12/18) – lux libertas (4/8) salus (11/13) 1 & 2Tim sinceritas (3/3) dispensatio (2/0) animus (1/1) cursus (2/0) doctor (3/32) ditio (1/0) operarius (1/0) spiritus (2/17) praedicatio (5/24)

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table 2 Nouns listed by first appearance in PEpp (cont.) evangelicus = 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Subjective ‘of’ Objective ‘of’ According to Source Partitive & Possessed by God Bearing That accords w/ metaphorical God’s, godly Salvific Befitting

Titus* Philemon* Ephesians * Philippians meta (1/0) scopus (1/0) Colossians benevolentia (1/0) sapientia (1/6) 1 & 2Thess. * 1Peter institutio (1/1) 2Peter iustitia (5/6) Jude * James simplicitas (1/1) philosophia (6/34) 1John cognitio (1/0) 2John * 3John * Hebrews iussum (1/0) sabbatismus (1/0) testamentum (1/10)

* = no new coinages

In the Paraphrase on Romans, Erasmus refers to God’s gratia evangelica (3:28) and caritas evangelica (9:28), category 1; to Paul’s teaching, doctrina evangelica, (3:2, 6:17–18, 14:17) that bears the good news, category 2; and to the new superlative standards that accord with the gospel of fides evangelica (1:7, 3:2, 10:21), lex evangelica (discerns the heart not food, 14:6), religio evangelica (16:25–27), and gospel labor or business (munus evangelicus [11:1], res evangelica [16:2]), category 3. Just as Paul argues for the insufficiency of Jewish and Greek pre- scriptions for happiness, the Paraphrase on Romans describes the life that will bring the fulfillment of the promissum evangelicum (2:7), the promise of eternal life whose source is God, category 4.

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Of the most common gospel things, the Paraphrase on 1Corinthians adds negotium (7:1, 9:14, 15:11, category 3) as a synonym of munus and res in describing gospel labor. It also introduces sermo evangelicus (1:18, category 2), elevating it despite its ineloquence and lowliness (it is of the cross), and states that pietas evangelica (11:16, category 3) does not have to do with external things. In the Paraphrase on 2Corinthians we read that the devil has blinded the minds of unbelievers who therefore cannot see the light of gospel truth (veritas evangelica 4:4, category 3). The Paraphrase on 1Corinthians also supplies the first of five metaphorical phrases, stadium evangelicum (category 5), on which see below. The Paraphrase on Galatians marks an increase in how frequently Erasmus uses evangelicus, something that is maintained at a fairly steady rate thereafter. With the coining of professio evangelica (2:10 & 12, category 2) and lux evangelica (5:4, of source and metaphorical), the core vocabulary of gospel things is established. In the remaining paraphrases on the Epistles, only a few new gospel things are added. One of these, philosophia evangelica coined in the Paraphrase on James (1:16, 3:10, 13, & 15, 4:17, category 3), is not very common in Paraphrases on the Epistles, but is the seventh most common gospel thing in Gospel Paraphrases and the Paraphrase on Acts. Three new coinages join with stadium evangelicum and lux evangelica to comprise the five examples in the Paraphrases on the Epistles of the fifth category, nouns used metaphorically and partitively. Paul’s metaphor of the Chris- tian athlete is recalled at P1Cor 9:23 & 24 with the phrase stadium evangelicum, taking the word stadium from 1Cor. 9:24. The gospel stadium stands for the world where Paul strives with all his might to live and spread the good news.The Christian athlete is also recalled in other Epistles by the statements that Paul is running the gospel race (cursus evangelicus P2Tim. 4:7, PPhil 3:13) towards the gospel goal and finish line (meta evangelica PPhil 3:13; scopus evangelicus PPhil 3:15 & 19), which is salvation. The last metaphorical and partitive phrase in the Paraphrases on the Epis- tles, lux evangelica, is first seen in the paraphrases at PGal 5:4 referring to the historical event of the Incarnation which put an end to the time of darkness (also at P2Pet 1:19 and 2:5). In later Paraphrases lux evangelica can be used to describe intellectual light (P1Tim 2:4, PEph 5:8 and P1Jn 5:20, knowing God) and moral light (PEph 6:12, P2Pet 1:9, P1Jn 1:7 and 2:15, and PHeb 12:17, it puts an end to sinning). The five nouns that are used partitively and metaphorically in the Paraphrases on the Epistles provide a precedent for further developments but will also allow us to note a main difference between Paraphrases on the Epistles and the Gospel Paraphrases. When Erasmus at last got down to the work of paraphrasing the Gospel of Matthew, evangelicus was a normal part of his vocabulary and he used the well-

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table 3 New ‘gospel things’ in PMt

1. 2. 3. 5. 6. Subjective ‘of’ Objective ‘of’ According to Partitive & Partitive & Befitting metaphorical literal

PMt mansuetudo (5:4 praecatio (6:9) beatitudo (5:3) arbor (7:16 twice) convivium (14:19) & 32, 12:15) vox (4:16) contubernium (5:19) fructus (15:26) generatio (1:17) perfectio (5:29 & felicitas (5:10) grex (7:15) regnum (20:25, 30, 6:9) mens (7:16, 19:29) opes (7:6) 28:18) sanctimonia (9:12, modestia (19:14) rete (13:49) 19:11) societas (19:29) schola (4:22) vigor (5:13) vir (5:4, 9:17, 10:11, 20:34) virtus (5:47, 10:37, 21:7)

established phrases freely. The nouns most often joined to evangelicus in the Paraphrase on Matthew are also common in the other paraphrases.17 We find, nonetheless, the notable difference that, in the Paraphrase on Matthew, evangelicus is given a much broader reach. Omitting the fourth category (source), the new gospel things in the Paraphrase on Matthew are set out in Table 3. With the data from the Paraphrases on the Epistles in mind, the first question of interest in the present study—What is behind the observation that Erasmus’ use of evangelicus was “clearly intended to impress, at times to arrest if not to shock”?—is clarified by the occurrence of 8 nouns belonging to category 3 and 9 nouns belonging to categories 5 and 6. Granting that biblical verses can prompt Erasmus to coin gospel things, the resulting phrases are remarkable for applying the good news of God’s salvific power to a large set of things that include the non-religious tree, school and net. The most amplified of these is arbor evangelica. Based on Jesus’ short statements at Mt 7:16a “Youwill know them by their fruits” and Mt 7:17a “Every sound tree bears good fruit,” Erasmus explicates its significance in an elaborate period

17 The most common in the Paraphrase on Matthew is doctrina (37 instances), followed by pietas (11), philosophia (9), lex and sermo (8), fides (7), caritas and fides (6), and negotium (5). These eight nouns account for 97 of 160 instances of gospel things in the Paraphrase on Matthew.

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(PMt 7:16 lb7:45cd). Printed in sense units, the careful construction relying on anaphora and auxesis is clear.

Ostendi qui sint fructus arboris evangelicae, nimirum animus alienus ab omni fastu; animus lenis, et minime appetens vindictae; animus contemptor omnium voluptatum huius mundi; animus contemptor opum, et sitiens esuriensque pietatis evangelicae; animus promtus et expolitus ad benemerendum de omnibus; animus purus ab omnibus cupiditatibus, nec alio spectans quam ad Deum; animus nihil afflictionum recusans, modo provehat doctrinam evangelicam; animus nihil mercedis exspectans in hoc mundo pro suis benefactis, neque gloriam, neque voluptatem, neque divitias; animus qui bene velit etiam malevolis, qui bene mereatur etiam de male merentibus. Hos fructus qui vere praestat ipsa re, is demum est arbor evangelica.18

It is in the paraphrase on the Sermon on the Mount, especially chapter 5, that one begins to feel the accumulating effect of the many gospel things the text contains leading to the conclusion that the force of the gospel can attach to virtually anything.19 The Sermon on the Mount is also where a reader senses that Erasmus has shaken off the inhibitions he felt about paraphrasing

18 “I have set out what the fruits of the gospel tree are, namely, a heart that is foreign to all pride; a heart that is gentle and not at all striving after revenge; a heart that has contempt for all the pleasures of this world; a heart that has contempt for wealth and hungers and thirsts for gospel godliness; a heart that is prompt and ready to do good to all; a heart that is free from all desires, looking only to God; a heart that rejects no affliction provided it promotes the gospel teaching; a heart that for its good works looks for no reward in this world—neither glory, nor pleasure, nor riches; a heart that wishes well even to those who bear ill will, and that strives to do good even to those who do harm. Only the one who really and truly displays these fruits is a gospel tree.” cwe 45:135. 19 The word evangelicus occurs 22 times in the paraphrase on chapter 5 compared with 4 times in chapter 1, once in chapter 2, twice in chapter 3, and 3 times in chapter 4. The word occurs 4 time in chapter 6 and 13 times in chapter 7.

Erasmus Studies 37 (2017) 137–160 Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 04:33:44PM via free access 150 simpson a Gospel. Erasmus fashions a narrative that synthesizes elements of all four gospels20 and writes in a style that maintains the voice and perspective of Matthew while shifting as needed into the voice of Jesus Christ. Recalling that Erasmus gave his reluctance to recast Jesus’s words as the main reason he did not want to paraphrase the Gospels, we are struck by the free hand he in fact took with this most prized section of Matthew’s Gospel.21 The Sermon on the Mount, we know, focuses on paradoxes and rewards. Evangelicus has both of these dimensions as Erasmus writes of the vir evangelicus who, thanks to mansuetudo evangelica, does not hurt others and is willingly rejected by the world. By possessing vigor evangelicus and a mens evangelica (in which understanding and actions are integrated by faith) and by exhibiting virtus evangelica (not repaying injuries) and entering upon perfectio evangelica (resulting from amputating an offending limb or eye), he enters into contubernium evangelicum (gospel fellowship) and finds beatitudo evangelica and felicitas evangelica. We therefore find that in Erasmus’ paraphrase on the Sermon on the Mount, where Jesus teaches his disciples to redefine themselves and prepares them to teach others to turn worldly values and hopes upside-down, the adjective evangelicus serves to invite readers to ponder how a lowly person turns injuries to gains and how a lowly tree, and the person it represents, becomes able to bear impossible fruit. The other 11 new coinages in the Paraphrase on Matthew fall into the first, second, fifth and sixth semantic categories.

– subjective ‘of’: – sanctimonia evangelica, at 9:11—God’s sanctity; at 19:12—as aspired to by humans

20 Jean-François Cottier, “Four Paraphrases and a Gospel or How to Rewrite Without Repeat- ing Yourself,” Erasmus Studies 36.2 (2016) 131–147 (144–147), stresses that Erasmus does not attempt through this synthesis to harmonize the Gospels but rather to sustain the “harmony of Christ” that comes from the four Gospels. It may be added, based on the prefa- tory letter Pio lectori [lb **2v–**3r], that Erasmus was concerned that the Paraphrase on Matthew not be an obstacle to belief for novice readers of Scripture. This could account for his strategy of neither leaving gaps in the story nor leaving unexplained apparent con- tradictions between the Gospels that could lead to confusion. 21 Erasmus’ paraphrase of the 107 verses of the Sermon on the Mount takes over 23 lb columns.

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– objective ‘of’: – praecatio evangelica—the Lord’s Prayer – vox evangelica—the word proclaiming the good news, heard by Jew and Gentile – partitive and metaphorical: – schola evangelica—the lowly training of fishermen turned disciples with a humorous allusion to pomp and ceremony – opes evangelicae—these riches are not for those who lead worldly lives – grex evangelica—the flock of the faithful who are under threat from the enemies of God (wolves in sheep’s clothing) rete evangelicum—the net to be used by angels as though fishing at the last judgement to separate the good from the bad – fructus evangelicus—the miraculous healing won by a woman’s faith – partitive and literal: – generatio evangelica—the generation living after the Incarnation – convivium evangelicum—the feast of the 5000 – regnum evangelicum—as a present reality (20:15) or Christ’s reign after the Second Coming (28:18)

Erasmus would have been satisfied paraphrasing only one Gospel and needed nudging to write the others.22 Still, having succeeded to his own and others’ satisfaction, he was not impeded by doubts about whether it would be feasible or wise to undertake these works.23 In the Paraphrase on John, Erasmus assumes a very different voice, opening with the evangelist explaining the need for a fourth gospel that goes beyond what Matthew, Mark and Luke have written. His

22 Regarding the Gospel of John, Ep. 1323, 29 Nov. 1522, to Archduke Ferdinand, lines 22–24 cwe, credits Albert of Brandenburg, archbishop of Mainz, and John, bishop of Rochester, among others, with persuading him to write a paraphrase on John despite its obscurities. See also Ep. 1308, 17 Aug. 1522, from Wolfgang Capito, lines 21–24 cwe, and Ep. 1333, lines 1–15 cwe. Regarding the Gospel of Luke, Ep. 1341a, lines 763–766 cwe: “Nor was I allowed to stop there: there began to be a demand for Luke, for there are many things in him which he shares with no other evangelist—so easy was it to find some excuse for asking.” Erasmus goes on to write: “The addition of Mark was then suggested to me by an eminent friend … There remained the Acts of the Apostles.” lines 767–768 and 770 cwe. 23 In Ep. 1333, Erasmus outlines the difficulties posed by the Gospel of John, concluding: “Thus it came about that, although I foresaw these difficulties and many others like them, none the less I set about this task … I was particularly encouraged by the success of the previous attempt.” lines 74–75 and 77–78.

Erasmus Studies 37 (2017) 137–160 Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 04:33:44PM via free access 152 simpson gospel will test the limits of language and human understanding and probe the mysteries of Christ’s divine birth and his nature as both fully human and fully divine. While the Paraphrases that follow the Paraphrase on Matthew continue to use well-established pairings,24 the Paraphrase on John coins 13 gospel things, roughly half as many as the other Gospel paraphrases, and applies evangelicus to only one actual thing (litterae evangelicae = the new Christian testament); see Table 4 below. By contrast, the Paraphrase on Luke coins 30 new gospel things including 8 partitive phrases (4 metaphorical, 4 literal), while the Para- phrase on Mark coins 24 new gospel things, including 13 partitive phrases (9 metaphorical, 3 literal, 1 used in both senses). The Paraphrase on Acts has the fewest new coinages, but they include some phrases that are stylistically dar- ing. A conservatism in the Paraphrase on John in its use of evangelicus is also seen in the higher register nouns that combine with evangelicus. This may be seen in the metaphorical, partitive phrases: messis evangelica ‘gospel harvest,’ the gathering of the faithful like ripe grain; pabulum evangelicum ‘gospel food’ standing for eternal life, hungered for by gospel sheep; pastor evangelicus and oves evangelicae, Christ being the gospel shepherd and those who believe in him, gospel sheep; and profectus evangelicus ‘gospel growth,’ that comes to dry lands watered by true believers’ works.25

24 The most common gospel things: Paraphrase on John: doctrina (26), fides (25) pietas (12), doctor, lux, philosophia, professio, sermo, and veritas (6), negotium (5) Paraphrase on Luke: doctrina (31), sermo (26), veritas (18), fides (15), praedicatio (14), pietas (13), regnum (10) Paraphrase on Mark: sermo (21), doctor and negotium (14), doctrina (12), pietas (11), veritas (10), fides and philosophia (9) Paraphrase on Acts: sermo (36), doctrina (22), fides (12), veritas (9), negotium and philosophia (5). 25 The Paraphrase on John also uses the metaphors evangelicus fructus (8:49, two times) and evangelicus grex (21:13–15, two times) both of which are first seen in the Paraphrase on Matthew.

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table 4 New gospel things in PJn, PLk, PMk, PActa

1. 2. 3. 5. 6. Subjective ‘of’ Objective ‘of’ According to Partitive & Partitive & Befitting metaphorical literal

PJn (total 13) auctoritas (13:16) praeco (3:10) concordia (1:43 & 44) messis (4:35) litterae (1:1) gloria (3:22) ministerium (21:15) oves (10:13) puritas (13:1) pabulum (10:8) robur (12:43, 14:18) pastor (10:11) profectus (7:38)

PLk (30) maiestas (1:5, 19:3) dispensator beneficentia (6:33) calceatus (24:27) concio (2:49, 5:4) sublimitas (6:32) (12:46) episcopus (23:34) piscatio (5:3) concionator (5:1) vis (13:18) historia (1:1, fiducia (23:43) thesaurum (8:18) ecclesia (4:41) 3:34–38) fortitudo (5:33) via (1:79) imperium (19:26) legatus (6:13) gravitas (1:1) narratio (1:1 lingua (1:64) twice) negotiatio (19:29) propheta (4:20) obedientia (3:5, 19:40) pectus (8:13) praeceptum (17:5) praemium (10:42) successus (4:14) victima (2:37) victoria (22:51)

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table 4 New gospel things in PJn, PLk, PMk, PActa (cont.)

1. 2. 3. 5. 6. Subjective ‘of’ Objective ‘of’ According to Partitive & Partitive & Befitting metaphorical literal

PMk (24) (none) parabola (4:3) bonitas (6:1, 7:32) apparatus apparatus (8:7) praedicator catechismum (1:5) fames (11:13) mendicus (10:50) (3:17) civitas (8:30) fermentum (8:21) quaestus (2:15) discipulus (10:21) machina (14:33) rumor (10:47) [evangelici (10:12)] mons (3:17) indoles (10:21) navicula (4:1) initiatio (7:35) panis – – panis (8:5,6 & 7) miraculum (1:45) sal (9:50, 4 times) ordo (1:5) semen (4:29 principatus (10:45) twice, 6:6) [quiddam (1:6)] sementis (4:29)

PActa (11) (none) (none) bellator (9:23) iugum (6:7) congregatio (1:14) proventus (2:41) dux (9:19, 16:3, 17:10) foedus (2:46) liberalitas (4:36) orator (2:14, 10:28) pontifex (5:29) prudentia (11:2) sacrificium (7:59)

By comparison, we see in the Paraphrase on Luke, an increase in the use of evangelicus in designating things as ‘befitting the gospel,’ a slight lowering of the register of the nouns used metaphorically, and a return to the sort of literal partitive phrases found in the Paraphrase on Matthew. The metaphors are calceatus evangelicus ‘gospel shoe,’ part of Christ’s armor—the disciples are his armor and the shoe is their pure, unworldly mentality; piscatio evangelica, by which fishing the disciples will catch souls; thesaurum evangelicum, the trea- sure of understanding, to be preserved and increased; and via evangelica, the path illumined by the eternal Sun and also the way of peace and of reconcilia- tion with God.

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There are 4 new literal, partitive phrases (category 6) in the Paraphrase on Luke:

– concio evangelica—the gathering of the twelve year old Jesus and the priests in the temple (2:49), and the gathering of Jesus and his first disciples (5:4) – concionator evangelicus—Jesus as convenor – ecclesia evangelica—assemblage of people seeking healing from Jesus – imperium evangelicum—the reign that will unite the world into one church after Christ’s return.

The Paraphrase on Acts was written directly after the Paraphrase on Mark, but it deserves to be discussed alongside the Paraphrase on Luke, its partner. The partitive, metaphorical phrases are:

– iugum evangelicum—even some Priests put off their pride and put this on – proventusevangelicus—3000 baptized were the first-fruits of the gospel crop

The 9 coinages that mean ‘according to, befitting’ include 5 nouns from the language of classical historiography.

– bellator evangelicus—Paul (ille eximius bellator evangelicus) living to fight another day – dux evangelicus—Paul (eximius ille dux evangelicus, 9:19), Timothy about to undergo circumcision that he be perfect (16:3), (duces) Paul and Silas fleeing to Beroea (17:10) – foedus evangelicum—the apostles win converts to this gospel league – orator evangelicus—Peter, gladius spiritus in hand, is first to step forward to speak (2:14), Peter to the centurion and his household (10:28) – pontifex evangelicus—Peter (piscator et evangelicus pontifex) about to reply to the high priest (Pontifex) Annas.

Certain nouns paired with evangelicus in the Paraphrase on Luke become more suggestive when viewed as also relating to the genre of history: concio, concionator, historia, imperium, legatus, narratio, negotiatio, victoria. These nouns may reflect Erasmus’ impersonation of the evangelist, for Erasmus consistently claims to be writing in the voice of the biblical author.26

26 On the Luke-voice as historian and doctor, see Jane E. Phillips, “Sub evangelistae persona: The SpeakingVoice in Erasmus’Paraphrase on Luke” in Holy Scripture Speaks, 127–150, and,

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Moving from the Paraphrase on Luke to the Paraphrase on Mark, there is a qualitative change in some of the metaphorical and literal phrases. The metaphors are: famesevangelica, Christ’s hunger for human salvation; machina evangelica, Jesus’ praying in Gethsemane conceived as a war-engine; mons evangelicus, the gospel height from which James and John were to sound the thunder of gospel preaching to the entire world; navicula evangelica, a place from which to preach removed from danger and earthly upheaval; sal evangelicum referring to the inner quality of incorruptibility; and semen evangelicum and sementis evangelica, Jesus’ gospel sowing is the first historical period of the gospel, followed by a time when the gospel seed germinates, awaiting the return of the sower, the third period of the gospel. Additionally, the story of the feeding of the 4000 (8:5–7) is simultaneously told as an actual event and interpreted allegorically. The allegory takes convivium evangelicum as a church service and panis evangelicus as the gospel books, made from accessible wheat, not hard barley as is the Pentateuch. The apparatus evangelicus ‘gospel provisioning’ that comprises only bread (with a meager obsonium of some epistles, but without the rich courses of rhetoric, phi- losophy and Pharisaic teaching) is sufficient for those who desire only to hear the words of Christ.27 The literal, partitive phrases:

– quaestus evangelicus—tax-collectors may enter the gospel trade, disciple- ship – panis evangelicus—the actual bread broken by Christ to feed the 4000 – rumor evangelicus—report received by the blind beggar that Jesus is near – mendicus evangelicus—the blind beggar who asked for mercy and illumina- tion rather than something worldly

Two of these phrases may be compared with related phrases in the Paraphrase on Matthew. Where PMk 4:29 has semen evangelicum, PMt 13:19 has semen evangelici sermonis and semen evangelicae doctrinae; where PMk 9:50 has sal evangelicus (four times), PMt 5:13 has evangelicus vigor. The implication here is that in the Paraphrase on Mark Erasmus goes farther in attaching the gospel to minute and ordinary things.

building on Phillip’s insights, Jan Bloemendal, “Exegesis and Hermeneutics in Erasmus’ Paraphrase on Luke,”Erasmus Studies 36.2 (2016) 148–162. 27 Erasmus here speaks of people who turn church services into theatrical displays (lb 7:216e), a criticism he makes of his own day.

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The trend of broadening and lowering the things that can be called ‘gospel’ reaches a point in the Paraphrase on Mark where some of the phrases are so oddly matched they seem wrong. A trade should provide monetary gain, a mountain should give rise to a storm or torrent, a little boat should be used for crossing water, bread should be notable for its quantity, provisioning should be notable for variety, a rumor should be suspect, and a beggar should be scorned. The last two come from another passage where Erasmus is seen to stress the force of evangelicus. Paraphrasing Mark 10:46–52, where the healing of the blind beggar Bartimaeus is plainly told, Erasmus calls many of the key elements ‘gospel.’ The report that Jesus is coming is an “evangelicus rumor”; the beggar’s cry is “non … vox Pharisaica … sed evangelica”; his persistence against the objections of the crowd demonstrates “fiduciam vere evangelicam”; Bartimaeus himself by not begging for a worldly prize is “mendicus evangelicus.” His request, “Master, make me see”—meaning, Erasmus explains, let me see the light by which one beholds God and Jesus his son—prompts the Mark- voice to exclaim: “O praecationem vere evangelicam!,” using the phrase that in the Paraphrase on Matthew introduces the Lord’s Prayer. The limit in how far evangelicus is taken from its natural domain is found in the Paraphrase on Mark at 14:33 where Christ’s prayers in Gethsemane are called ‘gospel war-engines’ used against the men who are coming to arrest him: “Agnosce machinas evangelicas adversus violentiam persequutorum.”28The phrase machina evangelica expresses disdain for a device of wordly conquest using it negatively29 to convey, through an image of Jesus praying, the all- conquering power of the gospel.

Based on the results of this study, where we have seen a broadening and lowering of the things that can be called ‘gospel,’ we can say that there are times when Erasmus’ use of evangelicus in the Gospel Paraphrases goes beyond the usual and is emphatic in proclaiming the good news of God’s saving power: that

28 lb 7:261d, cf. cwe 49:162: “Behold the evangelical weapon against the violence of the persecutors.” The idea that prayer can be a weapon is also found at PMk 9:29 lb 7:228c. A stricter interpretation of machina as ‘engine of war’ gives the solitary and motionless image of Christ praying dimensions that render the armed and violent men coming against him minuscule. 29 In the Paraphrases, Erasmus most often uses machina in relation to the contrivance of Satan in his tempting of Jesus (e.g., PMt 4:5, PLk 4:12) and his attacks on disciples and the faithful (e.g., PMt 16:18, PLk 4:1) and in relation to the world’s hostility to Christianity (e.g., PLk 19:43, PMk 8:38).

Erasmus Studies 37 (2017) 137–160 Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 04:33:44PM via free access 158 simpson it overturns worldly values, can save even the most lowly, and can accomplish the otherwise impossible. We see this prominently in the paraphrase on the Sermon on the Mount in the Paraphrase on Matthew, written November– December 1521, but when we compare the Paraphrase on Mark, written Novem- ber–December 1523, the evidence draws us farther to say that in the later work Erasmus adds even more emphasis, giving evangelicus more rhetorical strength and theological significance.The change may deserve to be placed earlier based on the liberal use of evangelicus in the Paraphrase on Luke, written April–June 1523, compared with the conservatism of Paraphrase on John. This would allign a subtle stylistic change with a claim Erasmus makes that his attitude towards the Paraphrases has changed. Far from the earlier reluctance to paraphrase the Gospels, he is eager to continue the work, which he now plans to complete and publish as the collected Paraphrases.30 He has found that the exercise of writing the Paraphrases has had an unex- pected benefit for him personally. Thus he writes to Willibald Pirckheimer on 19 July 1523, alluding to the disturbances of Zwingli, Luther, and Rome: “I am withdrawing from these conflicts, in favor of more peaceful pursuits. As I work on my paraphrases, I seem to myself to become a better man, and no one is hurt.”31 In the same month, with the work on the Paraphrase on Luke inter- rupted by the need to respond to the perceived smears of Ulrich von Hutten, a former friend turned reforming critic, Erasmus writes in the Sponge:32 “Work- ing on my Paraphrases is, I feel, fruitful in my own life. Hence this quarrel grieves me all the more, for I have lost six days reading Hutten’s false accusa- tions and wiping off the muck he threw on me.”33 Dedicating the Paraphrase on Luke to King Henry viii in August he writes: “I have learned from my own experience that there is little profit in the gospel34 if one’s reading of it is idle and perfunctory. But he who grows familiar with it by continuous and careful thought will find a power in it that is in no other books.”35 Erasmus’ drive to complete the Paraphrases has become personal and heart- felt. He writes also in the Sponge: “I do not even now cease from crying out in my writings, so far as there is hope of their doing good. I am crying out even while

30 Plans for a two-volume Complete Paraphrases were underway by 1523 and the work appeared in folio and octavo formats in 1524 (cwe 42:xxv–xxvi). 31 Ep. 1376, lines 8–11 cwe. Also Sponge, cwe 78:97: “But when I concentrate on my Para- phrases, I feel the agitation of my mind subside, and I become better than I was.” 32 Written in July 1523 according to Ep. 1389 line 77 cwe. 33 cwe 78:145. 34 The word intends to mean the entire New Testament. 35 Ep. 1381, 23 August 1523, lines 427–431 cwe.

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I write the Paraphrases. For what else is the light of the gospel than the contra- diction of our darkness?”36 Erasmus now sees the New Testament Paraphrases as a principal means by which he can enact his “zeal to advance the gospel cause.”37 This cause has been his chief interest all along. The effort to reground Christianity in its Scriptures is what he shared with Reformers.38 By 1522 there is disagreement regarding what scriptural Christianity should mean. On 9 Dec. 1522, Erasmus writes to Ulrich Zwingli: “Maintain the cause of the gospel with prudence and with courage.”39 Then on 25 Dec. 1522, referring to Zwingli, he writes to Johann von Botzheim: “No one abandons [the gospel] more thor- oughly than its incompetent defenders. Then, think how slowly Christ revealed his teaching! yet what could be more mad than some of those who now wish to be taken for champions of the gospel?”40 Martin Luther uses ‘gospel’ in a way that is contrary to Erasmus’ thinking in his Foreword to Sermons on the First Epistle of St. Peter (1523): “Those who stress most frequently and above all how nothing but faith in Christ justifies are the best evangelists. Therefore, St. Paul’s epistles are gospel to a greater degree than the writings of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. For the latter do little more than relate the history of the deeds and mira- cles of Christ. But no one stresses the grace we have through Christ so valiantly as St. Paul does, especially in his Epistles to the Romans.”41 Erasmus writes on 10 Dec. 1524, to Philip Melanchthon: “It is not without good reason that I com- plain about the way some people stir up trouble in the name of the gospel.” He adds that the Reformers are coopting the gospel for their own purposes: “Their only theme is the gospel and nothing but the gospel, but they want a gospel of which they themselves will be the interpreters.”42 In this period it becomes Erasmus’ cause, res evangelica / negotium evangelicum / causa evan-

36 Cf. cwe 78:110. 37 Sponge cwe 78:97, asd ix-1:170, lines 89–90: “perhenni studio qua licet rem evangelicam proveho.” 38 He writes in the Sponge: “I have so moderated my reactions that I have neither landed myself in an inescapable maze” (by siding with Zwingli or Luther) “nor deserted the gospel cause” (by submitting to the power of Rome). Cf. cwe 78:123, asd ix-1: 191, lines 667–668: “Nunc ita mea temperavi, ut nec inexplicabili labiryntho me involuerim nec deseruerim rem evangelicam.” 39 Ep. 1327, lines 13–14 cwe, Allen line 13: “rem evangelicam prudenter ac fortiter gere.” 40 Ep. 1331 lines 54–57 cwe. 41 Trans. Martin H. Bertram, Luther’sWorks, vol. 30:The Catholic Epistles (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1967) 3–4. 42 Ep. 1523 lines 3–5 cwe, Allen lines 2–3: “me non sine causa queri de moribus quorundam qui tumultuantur Evangelii titulo” and lines 171–173 cwe, Allen lines 162–163: “unum Evangelium occinunt sed cuius ipsi volunt esse interpretes.”

Erasmus Studies 37 (2017) 137–160 Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 04:33:44PM via free access 160 simpson gelica,43 to present an understanding of the gospel that is pure, peaceful, and broadly based in Scripture. We may therefore propose, based on this study of evangelicus, that the story of Erasmus’ New Testament Paraphrases may be refined at the point where Erasmus’ reluctance to paraphrase the Gospels was replaced, first, by a feeling of satisfaction at how engaging and profitable the exercise of writing Gospel Paraphrases proved to be, then, by a sense of urgency to complete the Paraphrases and publish the Complete Paraphrases so that they might be read, translated, and shared from the pulpit. Ignoring pressure from Rome and Luther to take a stand and come out against the other side,44 Erasmus used his humanistic skills to promote the gospel cause and shape people’s outlooks, even by a turn of phrase. The data here assembled may therefore be taken to support the conclusion that, in the course of writing the Paraphrases on the Gospels, Erasmus becomes more inclined to designate things as ‘gospel’ for theological and pastoral reasons. In the latter cases we may see him present an alternate gospel to those who would steer the Church toward division and violence, as he states emphat- ically and to the widest possible audience the gospel message that God’s saving power reaches to everyone and is this world’s only hope.45

43 res evangelica: Ep. 1331, lines 7–9 cwe. Sponge cwe 78:53, asd ix-1:134, lines 284–285: “quid enim nunc aliud ago quam assiduis meis laboribus rem evangelicam promoveo?” negotium evangelicum: Ep. 1378, line 22 cwe, Allen line 17: “quid Evangelico negotio perniciosius?” Ep. 1389, lines 14 & 18 cwe, lines 12 & 16–17 Allen. Sponge cwe 78:54, asd ix-1:134, lines 297–298: “hic ipse Hutteni libellus offenderit me toto pectore sudantem in provehendo negocio evangelico.” cwe 78:91, asd ix-1:164, line 1000 (sarcastically): “Huttenus propugnator evangelici negocii.” causa evangelica: Ep. 1384, Allen line 62 (on Hutten): “nemo magis officit causae Evangeli- cae” and lines 71–72: “magis me movet causa Evangelica ac bonarum litterarum quam mea iniuria.” Sponge cwe 78:88, asd ix-1:162, line 948. 44 As late as August 1524, Erasmus was resisting both factions, saying to the Magistrates of Strasbourg, on the one hand: “I have refused all offers made to me by princes as an inducement to write against Luther,” and on the other: “I have shown such reluctance to lend my name to that league (n8—i.e., support the reformers)” Ep. 1477, lines 26–27 and 29–30 cwe. Erasmus would soon be forced to oppose Luther openly by Luther’s De servo arbitrio (Dec. 1525), an unexpectly hostile response to Erasmus’ De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (Sept. 1524). 45 Cf. Ep. 1348, 11 March 1523, surviving only in a German translation likely made by Georgius Spalatinus for “Luther’s prince, Elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony” (Introduction cwe). The letter speaks of “the gospel cause, which I (Erasmus) try to promote in my own fashion according to my abilities more faithfully perhaps than some might think.” About the differences between Erasmus and the addressee: “Would God that Christ may turn it all to serve his glory, for therein lies our salvation!” lines 3–7 cwe.

ErasmusDownloaded Studies from 37 Brill.com10/01/2021 (2017) 137–160 04:33:44PM via free access