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Natureza
& Conservação
Brazilian Journal of Nature Conservation
Supported by
Boticário Group Foundation
for Nature Protection
ht tp://www.naturezaeconservacao.com.br
1 Policy Forum
2 Impacts of deforestation on some orchids of São
3 Paulo State, Brazil
a,∗ b c
4 Q1 Jean Carlos Cardoso , Jaime Teixeira da Silva , Wagner Vendrame
a
5 Q2 Department of Rural Development, Centro do Ciências Agrárias, UFSCar, Rodovia Anhanguera, km 174, CEP 13600-970, Araras, SP, 6 Brazil
b
7 Q3 P. O. Box 7, Miki cho post office, Ikenobe 3011-2, Kagawa-Ken 761-0799, Japan
c
8 University of Florida, IFAS, Tropical Research and Education Center, 18905 SW 280th St, Homestead, FL 33031-3314, United States
9
a
r t
10 i c l e i n f o 11
12 Article history:
13 Received 28 June 2015
14 Accepted 12 February 2016
15 Available online xxx
Indonesia, which have similar policies and practices (Gilbert, 35
Deforestation impacts
2014). This represents a major concern in countries recog- 36
nized for their biodiversity because such policies undervalue 37
16 Countries that are home to high levels of biodiversity need to
natural biodiversity at the expense of economic development 38
17 address a fundamental question: which is more important,
(Jones-Walters and Mulder, 2009). As a consequence, the effec- 39
18 conservation of valuable – but unexplored – biodiversity, or
tive conservation of plant species is placed at risk (Keith, 2014) 40
19 deforestation for economic development? Brazil is one promi-
and this may represent an invaluable loss to humanity. For 41
20 nent and typical example of this struggle, finding itself at a
example, about 67% of anticancer treatments contain natural 42
21 crossroad because it is one of the major biodiversity centers
products derived from plants and animals (NCI, 2007). The 43
22 in the world (∼20% of Earth’s biodiversity) with one of the
degree to which biodiversity is susceptible to losses is related 44
23 largest centers of endemism (Government of Brazil, 2012a).
to the type of species and range of human use (Redford and 45
24 Brazil is also a nation with record-breaking deforestation,
Richter, 1999) and this susceptibility to losses increases when 46
2
25 having led to the removal of more than 165,000 km from the
human populations are near. Wild ornamental and medicinal 47
26 Amazon, the Cerrado, Mata Atlântica and other biomes within
plant species provide an opportunity for regional economic 48
27 a period of five years, from 2000 to 2005 (Hansen et al., 2010).
development while also preserving an intangible cultural 49
28 This is equivalent to double the total area of Austria. Brazilian
asset, aspects that are often overlooked or undervalued. 50
29 deforestation was responsible for 30% of carbon emissions,
30 between 2000 and 2010 mainly from replacement by cattle
São Paulo state in Brazil as a case study
31 (71%) and soybean production (29%) in deforested areas
32 (Karstensen et al., 2013). In situ conservation in Brazil is inef-
33 ficient because government policies encourage the economic Explosive economic development in the State of São Paulo (SP), 51
34 use of forests (Moran, 2011), similar to other countries such as Brazil caused by agriculture, industry, urbanization and other
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.C. Cardoso).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ncon.2016.02.001
1679-0073/© 2016 Associac¸ão Brasileira de Ciência Ecológica e Conservac¸ão. Published by Elsevier Editora Ltda. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, J.C., et al., Impacts of deforestation on some orchids of São Paulo State, Brazil. Nat Conservacao.
NCON 55 1–5 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ncon.2016.02.001
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A generate electricity for expanding cities in the state, such as 71
Silviculture the Pardo and Novo rivers used to support the city of Águas de 72
Santa Bárbara as well as additional nearby towns (Fig. 1A and 73
Agriculture B). Companies are required under law to restore wild forests 74
Pasture in order to replace land newly occupied by water, but failure 75
Forest remnant to implement and regulate this legislation, together with the 76
lack of knowledge about many of the threatened plant species, 77
provides a weak foundation for the efficient conservation and 78
Deforested area restoration of much needed biodiversity. Wild orchid species 79
are not being restored in these new environments because 80
Forest remna nt
of the complex requirements for their propagation and cul- 81
tivation. In reality, new legislation written in 2012 resulted in 82
weak support for the protection and restoration of biodiversity, 83
and even though it established delimited areas for permanent 84
preservation and legal reserves, it did not define the number 85
Pastu re
and types of species that needed to be restored (Government of 86
Brazil, 2012b). Restoration procedures conserve wild species, 87
B
maintain genetic flow, and reduce urban heat islands (Pollock 88
Marginal forest remnant and Beechie, 2014; Staley, 2013). In addition, many riparian 89
forests, the preferential habitat of most native orchids of SP, 90
are now used for expanding sugarcane fields (Oliveira and 91
Seraphim, 2011), pasture and urbanization, which is at odds 92
Pardo river with Brazilian environmental regulations. 93
Further compounding this problem and inhibiting orchid 94
conservation in SP is limited knowledge about the interac- 95
tion of many species in the Orchidaceae with biotic and 96
abiotic factors of forest remnants. Fundamental research is 97
Complete deforestation essential to allow an understanding of the complex relation- 98
ships among orchids and the environmental conditions that 99
influence them and are involved in the reproduction and dis- 100
semination of these species. Tw o complex questions that need 101
answers are: Why do some terrestrial and epiphytic orchids 102
live in small, restricted populations, while others are widely 103
Fig. 1 – High pressure situation of natural marginal forest disseminated? What factors prevent the wide dissemination 104
remnants from the São Paulo State due to the uses for of some of these small, restricted populations within a forest 105
economical purposes (A) and detailed deforestation of remnant? In fact, some of these species have highly restricted 106
forest remnant of marginal area from Rio Pardo, at Águas and small populations, which influences the methodologies 107
de Santa Bárbara (SP), Brazil, for construction of a new that can be used to survey them, as observed in different 108
hydroelectric station. cities of SP (Cardoso, 2014; Cardoso and Israel, 2005). Tw o 109
orchid species showing contrasting scenarios are Galeandra 110
beyrichii (Tribe Cymbidieae, Subtribe Catasetinae) (Fig. 2A) and 111
52 anthropogenic interferences has reduced the biomes in rich Oeceoclades maculata (Tribe Cymbidieae, Subtribe Eulophiinae) 112
53 and diverse areas, such as Cerrado and Mata Atlântica to small (Fig. 2B). The former is highly restricted to small populations in 113
54 forest remnants, affecting the lives and existence of most forest remnants located in specific sites of SP (Cardoso, unpub- 114
55 species and resulting in areas that are under extreme pressure lished data; Fig. 2C), while the latter is widely distributed 115
56 for use in diverse economic applications (Fig. 1A). One of the in populations with variable numbers in different environ- 116
57 clusters of organisms affected by these conditions are the wild mental conditions and cities, and even widely distributed 117
58 orchid species of SP. Orchids are among the most threatened of within the same or different forest remnants (Cardoso, 2014; 118
59 all flowering plants due to over-collection, but mainly habitat Cardoso and Israel, 2005). Similarly, two epiphytic species, 119
60 loss caused many species to become extinct in the wild. As a Oncidium crispum and Lophiaris pumilla, both in the Subtribe 120
61 result, all orchids have been placed on Appendix II or higher of Oncidiinae show more restricted and more widely distributed 121
62 the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species populations, respectively (Cardoso, 2014). A recent survey in 122
63 (CITES) (Roberts and Dixon, 2008). Orchids face high environ- the subtropical Brazilian forests of the state of Rio Grande 123
64 mental susceptibility to losses in biodiversity, which can be do Sul confirmed the hypothesis that some terrestrial orchid 124
65 caused by genetic narrowing, and they may become critically species are very restricted while others are widely distributed 125
66 endangered or extinct due to the loss of habitats associated (Colla, 2014). The status of a species for conservation based 126
67 with agriculture, urbanization and over-collection for eco- on IUCN’s seven classes of nomenclature is defined by equa- 127
68 nomic purposes (Cardoso, 2014). tions that calculate the estimated number of plants. However, 128
69 In SP, one reason for the loss of forest stands along the some Brazilian orchid species are unique to forest remnants. 129
70 banks of rivers is the development of hydroelectric projects to Caution is thus needed when using the IUCN’s estimate as it 130
Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, J.C., et al., Impacts of deforestation on some orchids of São Paulo State, Brazil. Nat Conservacao.
NCON 55 1–5 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ncon.2016.02.001
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A C
B bf of pf1
fd
Fig. 2 – Some orchid species, Galeandra beyrichii (A) and Oeceoclades maculata (B) from environmental wild areas from the
state of São Paulo under high environmental pressure. See the details of a population of restricted specie G. beyrichii in a
marginal area from Rio Novo (Águas de Santa Bárbara, SP, Brazil), observed by inflorescence emission (red arrows). bf, bud
flower; fd, fruit development; of, opened flower; pf, pollinated flower.
131 may result in an overestimation of actual populations, placing da Silva et al., 2015), low temperature and cryopreserva- 158
132 these orchids under a lower status for conservation, and con- tion of seed, protocorms and pollinia (Vendrame et al., 2007; 159
133 sequently reducing the actual need to conserve these classes Vendrame et al., 2008; Teixeira da Silva et al., 2014a), and 160
134 of orchids. A recent survey of the forest remnants of SP dis- in vitro flowering (Teixeira da Silva et al., 2014b). In vitro seed 161
135 covered only one (or no) individual of some orchid species, germination is a viable technique that allows increase in 162
136 e.g. of the Cattleya genus, over a large sampled area (Cardoso, population numbers and subsequent reintroduction of endan- 163
137 2014). Furthermore, for the majority of plant species, data gered orchids back to their native habitats, provided that local 164
138 on population size and number of viable individuals are not laws are in place to foster such activities and protect rein- 165
139 readily available, making it more difficult to have accurate troduced orchids, as demonstrated in China for Paphiopedilum 166
140 estimates. wardii (Zeng et al., 2012) and Renanthera imschootiana (Wu et al., 167
141 Surveys, which may require sampling over several sea- 2014). 168
142 sons since terrestrial orchids show variable growth in different However, within the Brazilian context, the question 169
143 seasons (Cardoso, 2014), allow for an increase in knowledge remains on how germplasm propagated in vitro should be con- 170
144 about pollinators, modes of reproduction, level of hetero- or served and restored to native habitat areas. Legislation should 171
145 homozygosis, the capacity of recombination, and additional protects and encourage restored areas near rivers and other 172
146 genetic factors that would allow more efficient conservation types of water bodies named ‘Permanent Preservation Area’, 173
147 and restoration programs to be established (Cardoso, 2014; as well as ‘Legal Reserves’, extensions of areas with wild vege- 174
148 Cardoso and Israel, 2005; Magalhães and Maimoni-Rodella, tation defined by legislation according to different regions. In 175
149 2012). SP, Legal Reserves represent about 20% of every rural property 176
(Government of Brazil, 2012a,b). 177
Additional questions that need to be addressed include: 178
Diluting and solving the problems Are seeds from a few or limited plants from one specific pop- 179
ulation enough to conserve most genes accumulated in that 180
population? Are populations found in different environments 181
150 One approach to finding solutions to the problems previously
genetically different from others? Clues to these questions 182
151 described is the utilization of new technologies and model
may be found in two orchid species from SP that are now 183
152 organisms. Exotic Dendrobium is a model orchid genus that
restricted in wild areas, namely Cattleya coccinea (Novello 184
153 has been used frequently in many studies involving biotech-
et al., 2013) and Epidendrum denticulatum (Pinheiro et al., 185
154 nology. Biotechnology can provide valuable tools that play a
2013). Widely distributed species face greater limitations in 186
155 major and significant role in establishing efficient propagation
pollination, such as the capacity of a pollinator to transport 187
156 and conservation methods for orchids. Related studies with
the pollinia from one plant to another, and in the type of 188
157 Dendrobium include in vitro propagation techniques (Teixeira
Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, J.C., et al., Impacts of deforestation on some orchids of São Paulo State, Brazil. Nat Conservacao.
NCON 55 1–5 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ncon.2016.02.001
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245
r e f e r e n c e s
189 pollination, affecting pollination and fruit/seed development.
190 Cohen and Ackerman (2009) focused on the conservation of 246
191 the widely invasive terrestrial Oeceoclades maculata in the light
192 of forest disturbance, showing that populations were very Cardoso, J.C., 2014. Levantamento de espécies da família 247
193 reduced in small remnants with low canopy cover, and that Orchidaceae em Botucatu (SP): potencial ornamental e cultivo. 248
Hortic. Bras. 32, 7–13. 249
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Cardoso, J.C., Israel, M., 2005. Levantamento de espécies da 250
195 with increases in the population size of the invasive O.
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197 showed that intra-population plants of O. maculata had low
Cohen, I.M., Ackerman, J.D., 2009. Oeceoclades maculata, an alien 253
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203 from SP, probably due to intensive habitat fragmentation
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204 caused by economic exploitation of land (Novello et al.,
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244 The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, J.C., et al., Impacts of deforestation on some orchids of São Paulo State, Brazil. Nat Conservacao.
NCON 55 1–5 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ncon.2016.02.001