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Sub-Saharan Africa Hydrological Assessment : West African Countries

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The World Bank United Nations Development Programme African Development Bank French Fund for Aid and Cooperation Sub-Saharan Africa Hydrological Assessment West African Countries Regional Report December 1992 Moll MacDonald Inlernalional Cambridge, U.K. nCEOM Montpellier, France ORSTOM SOGREAH Montpellier, France Grenoble, France • • PREFACE This report is based on information obtained and documents collected during missions to countries in West Africa over the period November 1990 to November 1991. The missions were undertaken by • staff from the Consultants (Mott MacDonald International, BCEOM, and SOGREAH, assisted by a number of local experts), in conjunction with staff from ORSTOM. We wish to place on record our appreciation of the very considerable help that we received during • our visits; unfortunately it is not possible to name here all those who assisted us. The report was issued in draft in June 1992. The World Bank invited the UNDTCD, the WMO, CIEH, and representatives of the countries of the region, to review the draft report and particularly to comment on the project proposaIs. The country representatives discussed and agreed their • recommendations at two workshops, heId in Abidjan 8-10 September and in Accra 14-16 September 1992. Whilst every effort has been made to take account of the views expressed, a number of important issues were raised which could not be properly addressed at this late stage in the project. These issues • have been only briefly introduced in the final report, but they are subjects which should be examined in greater detail in the future as part of the on-going debate on water resources development in Africa. • • • • • 07171/19IB:WAC·RR.PRB • • CONTENTS • Page Nr SUMMARY S-1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to Study 1-1 • 1.2 Value of Hydrological Data 1-1 1.3 Approach to Study 1-3 CHAPTER 2 REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES 2.1 Introduction 2-1 • 2.2 Climate in West Africa 2-1 2.2.1 Introduction 2-1 2.2.2 Recent Climatic Change 2-1 2.2.3 Future Climatic Change 2-3 2.3 Major Surface Water Resources Basins 2-5 • 2.3.1 Introduction 2-5 2.3.2 The Niger River 2-6 2.3.3 The Senegal River 2-9 2.3.4 The Gambia River 2-11 2.3.5 The Volta River 2-13 2.3.6 Lake Chad 2-15 • 2.3.7 The Zaire or Congo River 2-19 2.4 Groundwater Resources 2-21 2.4.1 Introduction 2-21 2.4.2 Aquifers of the Coastal Basins 2-22 2.4.3 Aquifers of the Sedimentary Basins 2-25 • 2.4.4 Discontinuous Aquifers 2-35 2.5 Comparison Between Water Resources and Future Demands 2-40 2.5.1 Demand Estimates 2-40 2.5.2 Water Sufficiency in West Africa 2-40 • 2.6 Inter-basin Transfers from the Zaire River 2-43 2.6.1 Introduction 2-43 2.6.2 The Bonfica Proposais 2-43 2.6.3 The Nigerian NEPA Proposais 2-44 • CHAPTER 3 REGIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND PROGRAMMES 3.1 Introduction 3-1 3.2 Regional Organisations in the Field of Water Resources 3-1 3.2.1 Niger Basin Authority 3-1 3.2.2 Lake Chad Basin Commission 3-2 3.2.3 Organisation de Mise en Valeur du Fleuve • Senegal (OMVS) 3-2 3.2.4 Organisation de Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Gambie (OMVG) 3-3 3.2.5 Mano River Union 3-4 3.2.6 Comité Inter-états de Lutte contre la • Sécheresse dans le Sahel (CILSS) 3-4 07171/19JB:WAC-RR.CNT • • CONTENTS (Conl.) Page Nr • CHAPTER 3 (Cont.) 3.2.7 Comité Inter-africaine d'études Hydrauliques (CIEH) 3-5 • 3.2.8 ORSTOM 3-5 3.3 Regional Programmes and Support Projects 3-7 3.3.1 AGRHYMET 3-7 3.3.2 HYDRONIGER 3-10 3.3.3 Onchocerciasis Control Programme 3-10 • 3.3.4 CLICOM 3-11 3.3.5 DARE 3-12 CHAPTER 4 METHOD OF ASSESSMENT OF DATA COLLECTION SYSTEMS 4.1 Evaluation Framework 4-1 • 4.1.1 Introduction 4-1 4.1.2 The UNESCO/WMO Guidelines 4-2 4.2 Compilation of Inventories 4-4 4.2.1 Station Inventories 4-4 4.2.2 Bibliographies 4-4 • 4.3 Identification of Data Requirements 4-7 4.4 Identification of Gaps in Data 4-8 4.4.1 Temporal Gaps 4-8 4.4.2 Spatial Gaps 4-8 • 4.5 Data Quality Checks 4-9 4.5.1 Introduction 4-9 4.5.2 Basic Quality Checks 4-9 4.5.3 Detailed Quality Checks 4-10 4.6 Formulation of Development Recommendations 4-11 • CHAPTER 5 REGIONAL DATA COLLECTION SITUATION 5.1 Introduction 5-1 5.1.1 General 5-1 5.1.2 Overview of the Problems Facing Data • Collection Agencies 5-1 5.2 Climatology 5-2 5.2.1 Data Collection Networks 5-2 5.2.2 Data Collection Equipment 5-5 5.2.3 Data Quality 5-6 • 5.3 Hydrometry 5-6 5.3.1 Data Collection Networks 5-6 5.3.2 Data Collection Equipment 5-11 5.3.3 Flow Gauging Techniques 5-13 5.3.4 Data Quality 5-14 • rtl171/1918:WAC-RR.CNT ii • • CONTENTS (Conl.) • Page Nr CHAPTER 5 (Conl.) 5.4 Groundwater 5-14 • 5.4.1 Introduction 5-14 5.4.2 Inventories of Springs, Wells and Boreholes 5-15 5.4.3 Monitoring 5-15 5.5 Fluvial Sediment Yield 5-18 • 5.6 Waler Quality 5-18 5.7 Scope for Regional Co-operation in Data Collection 5-19 5.7.1 Climate 5-19 5.7.2 Surface Water 5-20 5.7.3 Groundwater 5-20 • CHAPTER 6 DATA HANDLING 6.1 Present Data Handling Techniques 6-1 6.1.1 Overview of Systems Currently Used 6-1 6.1.2 Raw Data Handling 6-2 6.1.3 Data Processing 6-4 6.1.4 Quality Control Procedures 6-4 6.1.5 Data Storage and Retrieval 6-5 6.2 Data Storage and Processing in the Future 6-6 6.2.1 Basic Requirements 6-6 • 6.2.2 Evolution of Future Systems 6-7 6.3 Computerised Data Handling 6-7 6.3.1 Introduction 6-7 6.3.2 Meteorological Data Handling 6-8 6.3.2 Hydrological Data Handling 6-8 6.3.4 Groundwater Data Handling 6-9 • 6.3.5 Observations 6-9 6.4 Publication and Dissemination of Data 6-11 6.4.1 Present Policies 6-11 6.4.2 Future Developments 6-11 • CHAPTER 7 INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 7.1 Introduction 7-1 7.2 Financial Justification for Hydrological Data Collection 7-1 7.3 National Services 7-4 • 7.3.1 The 'Ideal' Data Collection Agency 7-4 7.3.2 Organisational Structures 7-5 7.3.3 Equipment 7-6 7.3.4 Transport 7-6 7.3.5 Manpower 7-7 • D7171/19/B:WAC.JUt.CNT Hi • • CONTENTS (Cont.) Page Nr • CHAPTER 7 (Cont.) 7.4 Regional Organisations and Regional Projects 7-8 7.4.1 Introduction 7-8 • 7.4.2 SWOT Analysis - International Basin Development Authorities 7-8 7.4.3 SWOT Analysis - The AGRHYMET Project 7-9 7.4.4 SWOT Analysis - OCP 7-10 7.4.5 SWOT Analysis - The HYDRONIGER Project 7-11 7.4.6 SWOT Analysis - CIEH 7-12 • 7.4.7 Lessons for the Design of Regional Projects 7-13 7.5 Summary of Institutional Issues 7-15 CHAPTER 8 RECOMMENDATIONS • 8.1 The Way Forward 8-1 8.2 Hydrometry Development Programme for West Africa 8-3 8.3 Regional Projects 8-4 8.3.1 General 8-4 8.3.2 Hydrometry Development Programme 'Umbrella' Project 8-5 8.3.3 Training Programmes for Technicians and Professionals 8-10 8.3.4 Advanced Hydrological and Environmental Monitoring Programme 8-10 8.3.5 Data Rescue Programme 8-11 8.3.6 Value of Water Resources Data in West Africa 8-11 8.4 Country Projects 8-12 8.4.1 General 8-12 8.4.2 Summary of Projects 8-12 8.4.3 Personnel 8-13 8.5 Financial Estimates 8-14 8.5.1 Assumptions 8-14 • 8.5.2 Overall Budget for the HDP 8-15 REFERENCES APPENDICES • APPENDIX A REGIONAL PROJECTS APPENDIX B GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE 21st CENTURY APPENDIX C NEW TECHNOLOGY FOR SURFACE WATER • HYDROMETRy IN AFRICA • 07171/191B:WAC-RR.CNT iv • • LIST OF TABLES Table Title Page Nr • Nr 1.1 Programme of Country Visits 1-4 2.1 International River Basins 2-5 2.2 Major Schemes in the Niger Basin 2-8 • 2.3 Upper Senegal Physiographic Characteristics 2-10 2.4 Potential Hydropower Sites on the Volta within Ghana 2-14 2.5 Electricity Generation at Akosombo/Kpong 2-14 2.6 Existing and Projected Developments on the Volta in Burkina Faso 2-15 2.7 Development Projects in the Lake Chad Basin 2-17 2.8 Occurrence of Discontinuous Aquifers in the Region 2-36 2.9 Population Statistics 2-41 • 2.10 Water Scarcity Matrix 2-42 3.1 ORSTOM Presence in the Region - March 1992 3-6 3.2 National Activities - AGRHYMET Phase 3 3-9 4.1 Minimum Recommended Activity Levels for Principal • Hydrological Data Collection Activities 4-3 4.2 Numbers of Climate Stations Currently Operational 4-5 4.3 Numbers of Hydrometric Stations Currently Operational 4-6 5.1 Precipitation Station (non-recording) Densities 5-3 5.2 Meteorological Station Densities 5-4 • 5.3 Surface Water Level (non-recording) Station Densities 5-7 5.4 Surface Water Level (recording) Station Densities 5-8 5.5 River Discharge Station Densities 5-9 5.6 Operational Status of Piezometric Networks 5-16 6.1 Current Status of Computerised Data Processing 6-3 • 7.1 Expenditure on Structures and Projects Sensitive to Hydrologic Design in Australia 7-3 8.1 Hydrometry Development Programme for West Africa - Proposed Regional Projects 8-6 • 8.2 Country Projects by Type and Priority 8-12 • • • 07171/191B:WAC·RR.CNT v • • LIST OF FIGURES Figure Title Following Nr Page Nr • S.1 The Study Area S-2 S.2 Organisation of the Hydrometry Development Programme S-8 1.1 The Study Area 1-2 1.2 Work Flow Chart 1-4 • 2.1 Percent Anomaly Maps for the Decades 1951-60 and 1981-90 Decile Rainfall Anomaly Maps for 1950 and 1984 2-2 2.2 Mean Summer (JJA) Rainfall Change Between 1931-60 and 1961-90 for Africa 2-2 2.3 Annual Rainfall Anomaly Index for the West African Sahel from 1888 to 1991 2-2 • 2.4 Sahel Rainfall Departures and Sea Surface Temperature Differences between the Hemispheres 2-4 2.5 Model-average Result for Doubling of Atmospheric CO 2 2-4 2.6 Major River Basins in West and Central Africa 2-6 2.7 Niger at Kouliokoro - Flow Characteristics 2-6 2.8 River Niger: Inflow and Outflow, Inner Delta - 1986/87 2-6 • 2.9 Senegal at Kays - Flow Characteristics 2-10 2.10 Senegal at Bakel - Flow Characteristics 2-12 2.11 Gambia River Flow Characteristics 2-12 2.12 Lake Volta 2-14 2.13
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    religions Article Syncretic Santa Muerte: Holy Death and Religious Bricolage Kate Kingsbury 1,* and R. Andrew Chesnut 2 1 Anthropology Department, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2HV, Canada 2 School of World Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: In this article, we trace the syncretic origins and development of the new religious move- ment centered on the Mexican folk saint of death, Santa Muerte. We explore how she was born of the syncretic association of the Spanish Catholic Grim Reapress and Pre-Columbian Indigenous thanatologies in the colonial era. Through further religious bricolage in the post-colony, we describe how as the new religious movement rapidly expanded it integrated elements of other religious traditions, namely Afro-Cuban Santeria and Palo Mayombe, New Age beliefs and practices, and even Wicca. In contrast to much of the Eurocentric scholarship on Santa Muerte, we posit that both the Skeleton Saint’s origins and contemporary devotional framework cannot be comprehended without considering the significant influence of Indigenous death deities who formed part of holistic ontologies that starkly contrasted with the dualistic absolutism of European Catholicism in which life and death were viewed as stark polarities. We also demonstrate how across time the liminal power of death as a supernatural female figure has proved especially appealing to marginalized Citation: Kingsbury, Kate, and R. socioeconomic groups. Andrew Chesnut. 2021. Syncretic Santa Muerte: Holy Death and Keywords: Santa Muerte; death; liminality; religion; syncretic; Mexico; Santeria; Palo Mayombe; Lat- Religious Bricolage. Religions 12: 220. inx https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12030220 Academic Editor: Malgorzata Oleszkiewicz-Peralba 1.
  • In Plateau and Kaduna States, Nigeria

    In Plateau and Kaduna States, Nigeria

    HUMAN “Leave Everything to God” RIGHTS Accountability for Inter-Communal Violence WATCH in Plateau and Kaduna States, Nigeria “Leave Everything to God” Accountability for Inter-Communal Violence in Plateau and Kaduna States, Nigeria Copyright © 2013 Human Rights Watch All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 978-1-62313-0855 Cover design by Rafael Jimenez Human Rights Watch is dedicated to protecting the human rights of people around the world. We stand with victims and activists to prevent discrimination, to uphold political freedom, to protect people from inhumane conduct in wartime, and to bring offenders to justice. We investigate and expose human rights violations and hold abusers accountable. We challenge governments and those who hold power to end abusive practices and respect international human rights law. We enlist the public and the international community to support the cause of human rights for all. Human Rights Watch is an international organization with staff in more than 40 countries, and offices in Amsterdam, Beirut, Berlin, Brussels, Chicago, Geneva, Goma, Johannesburg, London, Los Angeles, Moscow, Nairobi, New York, Paris, San Francisco, Tokyo, Toronto, Tunis, Washington DC, and Zurich. For more information, please visit our website: http://www.hrw.org DECEMBER 2013 978-1-62313-0855 “Leave Everything to God” Accountability for Inter-Communal Violence in Plateau and Kaduna States, Nigeria Summary and Recommendations ....................................................................................................