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UMI
THE USE OF THE INTERNET BY JMANESE NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
Ian Tweddell
.A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Graduate Department of East Asian Studies University of Toronto
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This paper examines the use of the Internet by Japanese new religious rnovements.
Both the Intemet and new religions are relatively new to Japanese society. New religious movements first started in 1872, but experienced a great deal of growth in the post war years. The Lntemet was adopted relatively Iate in Japan (15 to 20 years later than most other industrialized nations), but is now experiencing an explosion in popularity in Japan.
The conrent and presentation of the web sites maintained by Japanese new religions are examined, and some trends have been proposed. This paper explores several general issues which arise when examining the Internet and Japanese new religions, including the speed of adoption of new technology, capitalization of the Intemet's ability to foster interactivity, attitudes regarding the Intemet as a medium of communication, and the distribution and control of information. This paper owes its existence to a number of people who have helped me in a number of ways.
First. I would like to thank my academic supervisor, Prof David Waterhouse for allowing me to pursue an unusual line of research. His advice, guidance and encouragement helped bting this paper to completion. His demand for depth ofresearch and clarity of language have kept me on my toes throughout this project.
1 would also like to thank my parents for their support and encouragement in pursuing this degree and undenaking this research.
Finally 1 would like to thank my partner, Lori Newman for al1 her help with this projecr. Withour her support and advice, Iwould still be wailowing in an overload of information and ideas. She kept me grounded when I was in the clouds and gave me words of encoura_eernentwhen ail felt hopeless. Table of Contents
Abstract
.Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Table of Figures
Introduction
Chapter 1 : Methodology
The Intemet as "the field"
C hapter 3: A Bnef History of the lnternet
Japan and the Internet
Chapter 3 : Tenrikyo
History
lnternet
Xnalysis
Chapter?: Omoto
History
Internet
Analysis
Chapter 5: Perfect Liberty
History
hternet
Analy sis Chapter 6: Seicho no Le
History
Lnternet
Analysis
Chapter 7: Kofuku no Kagaku
History
Internet
.4nalysis
Chapter 8: Anaiysis
lntenet as Medium
tnteractivity
New Technology
Content
Xccessibility
Conclusion
References
Bibliograp hy List of Figures
Ficiire 1. Te~kyoWeb Site
Figure 2. Omotokyo Web Site
Figure 3. Perfect Liberty Web Site
Figure 4. Seicho no Ie Web Site
Figure 5. Kofuku no Kagaku The Use of the Intemet by Japanese New Religjous Movements
Introduction
The new religions in Japan are composed of spirituai groups which have arisen within recent history; the oldest having been founded in 1872. These groups are generally highly symxetic, cornbhhg elements fbrn a number of diEerent spiritual traditions to create a new set of beliefs and doct~es.They are generally focused on providing worldly benefits to members, in spiritual ways, such as faith healing, or in social ways by providing a supportive community.
The Intemet is sirnilar to Japanese new religions in a number of ways. It combines diverse elements such as text, pictures and sound to create a new medium for communication. It can be used to provide worldly benefits, either in the fom of a
"vimial community" or by making information widely accessible. New religions in
Japan have been quick to adopt the Internet and World Wide Web as a new means of communicating with members and the public at large. In this paper, the websites of five new religious groups will be examined in order to discem the general trends in the use of the Internet by new religious movements in Japan. Each site is studied in depth, closely examining not only the content, but the ways in which it is presented. Al1 five sites will be compared and contrasted in order to create a composite image of the general trends in
Intemet usage among Japanese new religions, and the attitudes held by these five groups towards the htemet as weli as other new media. Chapter 1- Methodolow
One of the difficulties in using the Intemet for research is the ephemeral and impermanent nature of websites: a page may be changed or disappear after a period of time as short as only a few hours. Unlike a book, which once pnnted remains unchanged
until further editions are produced (and can be stored away and retrieved at any time) a
website is in a constant state of change. Different editions of a book rnay be compared
side by side, but doing so with websites is much more difficult. Ln viewing only what is
available on the Intemet at the moment of access, a user is unable to see what has gone
before, the evolution of the site, and the manner in which things have been presented in
the past. To overcome this problem, fcr this research, a site copying program
(WebCopier by ~aximum~oft)'was used in order to download entire websites, complete
with al1 text, graphies, forms and links. These sites were stored on a hard drive (as well
as CD-ROM)to preserve them as a "snap-shot" of the website's statu at a particular time.
For the purpose of the current research, the selected websites were copied three &es:
iate October of 1999, late May of 2000 and mid-lune of 2000. In addition, a copy of the
Perfect Liberty site from early 1997 and a copy of the Seicho no Ie site from late 1998
were also available from earlier research. In each case, the Japanese site was the main
focus of the research, and thus was copied in its entirety. In cases where foreign
laaguage sites were also hosted by the Japanese headquarters' cornputer, they were
copied as wel. Nthough not the main focus of the research, they were examined in order
to provide a contrast with what is presented to a group's 'domestic' audience as opposed
to a 'foreigd audience. Five Japanese new religious groups were chosen for this research, on the basis of two factors. The first is the relative age of the groups. Two of the groups, Omoto-kyo and T~M-kyo,are among the oldest of the new religions, having been started in 1892 and
1875 respectively. They represent the established, "old guard" of new religious movements within Japan. Perfect Liberty and Seicho no Ie were chosen because they reprrsent the .'micidie aged" new religions. Founded in the l92O's and IWO'S and having tlourished after a penod of post-war recovery, they represent the second wave of new religions. Finally, Kofuku no Kagaku was chosen to represent the most recent wave of so-called "new new religions", formed rnaidy in the 1970's and 1980's. Although there are many other new religions which could also have been chosen to represent the groups which emerged duhg these periods of tirne, rnost did not meet the second ct-itei-ion for selection: an awareness of the group on the part of the public. Ml of these groups were chosen because the general public in Japan has some awareness of their existence, either through their publications or through their activities. This demonstrates a desire for and acceptance of public knowledge of the group and its teachings, and suggests that the group's website will be sutficiently informative to permit hith1 research.
Similar to the Intemet itself, the websites of Japanese new religous groups are constantly changing, dbeit at different speeds and with differing Ievels of technical expertise or vigour. Five years ago, virtuaiiy none of the new religions in Japan had an lntemet presence. In another five years, the creation of websites by these groups may be completely different; drasticdy increased or completely ignored in favour of a new form of media. The increasing use of the Intemet for communication, publishing, and the creation of cultural artifacts is both empowering and destructive. Rather than leaving behind a set of physical artifacts, such as books, photographs, or other objects, the Internet leaves behind nothing physical or concrete. Once a web page is changed or deleted &om the computer which acted as its host to the Lntemet, it is essentialiy gone. There is no paper rraii or iost folio whch cm reveai the history of a website once it has been changed.
Much of the history of the Intemet, as seen in websites, e-mails, and chat rooms, is lost as soon as it has been sent, never to be seen again. However, as the use of the Intemet continues to increase, and more emphasis is given to what appears there, the ephemeral nature of this medium becomes more problematic. The ability to learn the history of an idea or a particular text is lost to digital immediacy. It is hoped that this research can provide a isnapshot" of the current use of the lntemet by a selection of new religiouç movements, so that future researchers may compare their contemporary situation with an historical view.
The Internet as "The Field"
The Internet was originally created as a tool for research, a meaas of sharing knowledge and resources between institutions and individual scientists. It has not been until recent years that the uitemet has become the subject, rather than the means, of research. With the explosion of popular interest and participation in the Lntemet, especially since the widespread adoption of the World Wide Web and the HTML language, increasing academic interest has been dûected towards the vunial communities which have been created or been developed on the Intemet. Academic research on the Intemet has corne from a varïety of fields, each with its own unique set of interests, foci and requirernents. The two disciplines which have approached the Intemet and its vinual communities most coherently and rnethodically are ethnography, a sub-set of anthropology. and feminist cultural theorists. For the examination of the use of the
Intemet by Japanese new religions, both of these disciplines are applicable. Feminist cultural theory, when dealing with the Internet, has examined the creation of virtual communities which rnirror real life communities, or create communities where none existed before. Feminist culturai throry also tends to examine issues of marginality and a marginalized group's interactions with the dominant culture, which in the context of the current research, cm also be applied to Japanese new religious movements, which hold marginal status within most of Japanese society. Ethnography, with its roots in anthropoiogy, has tradirionally studied societies and social groups outside that of the researcher's own expenence. Aithough it deals with social cornrnunities, ethnography has a tradition of rigidly defining the subject of its research and the methods used to study
it. The way in which ethnographers view the Internet and accept it not only as a means of communication between researchers, but also as a vaiid field or area of research,
demonstrates that the use of the Intemet in this research is accepted as being
methodologically sound.
The concept of the "field" and b'fieldwork" are central to ethnographie research.'
The "field" is defined as "the nahirai, non-laboratory setting or location where the
activities in which the researcher is interested take place".3 In the past, the "field" was a
geographic location far removed fiom the ethnographer's home country (or region),
which the researcher would travel to in order to study a comrnunity or aspect of the culture found in that locale; as a result of this dislocation, the researcher was typically an outsider, "never fùlly coterminous with the individuais who [were] members of the community or research setting in question"."
However, recently accepted trends in ethnographic research have begun to erode this rigid definition of the field and research subjects. An "ethnography of the self' has emerged, in which research is conducted involving a community or area with which the researcher is already intimately comected5 (for exampie a member of a religious sect church performiny research on members of her own church). Related to this, as both a cause and an effect, has been the expansion of "non-standard foms of reporting",6 including narratives in the short story form, and "auto-poetics".7 which combine narrative and autobiography to relate both the researcher's findings and personal experiences. As the fields of ethnography and anthropology expand to deal with increasingly complex research topics? the methods used to collect data and report it have become more flexible.
The use of computers and the tntemet has been a topic of great debate arnong ethnographers in recent years. The use of personal computerc, and especiaily portable computers which can be carried into the "field has created the means to collect more data more quickly,' which, rather than aiding in research, confounds it by obscunng valuable data and insights. Some ethnographers feel that computers should not be used for data collection or research because of the problem of excessive information, but many feel that if used with a well-defined focus, they cm be invaluab~e.~hother recent development in the use of computen and ethnographic research has been in the field of publishing results and data. Having performed a survey of the use of the htemet in the field of anthropology, Bnan Schwimmer concluded that the Intemet is a valuable resource to al1 anthropologists and ethnographers. 'O The ability to use multi-media to allow the "inclusion of visual images, case studies, complementary texts, and field notes" creates a more robust and comprehensive report of the research. More important for
Schwimmer is the opportunity to utilize the new forms of expression available through the Intemet to:
bener capture the multilevel referencing and interrelatedness of complex symbolic and behavioral systerns. Accordingly, postmodemists might more easily realize their objectives of articulating numerous voices and perspectives without the restraints of linear exposition." iUthough Schwimmer is refemng to the use of the Intemet in reporting complex, multi- layered research, he reveals the ability to use the Intemet to observe this kind of behaviour in those groups which have created an odine presence or cornmunity. Using the internet in the context of this research is actually more like textuai analysis, rather than person-to-person interviews. However, in many ways, using the Internet for this rcsearch aileviates some of the problems encountered because of this outsider status: if careful, the researcher can be anonyrnous and virtually invisible, and does not act upon the subjects.
Ln addition to the use of the Intemet by ethnographers for performing research, a reverse flow of information is also occurring, back to the research subjects. The Internet
"offers communities.. .the power of instant communication and access to information never before a~ailable",'~a state which applies to both researchers and their possible subjects. The Intemet not only allows researchers to find their subjects, but it also allows the subjects to find researchers to "help them answer pressing questions related to improving their quality of life or their ability to advocate for themselves".'%e use of the Internet is increasingly cornmon, both as a means of communication and publishing, but also as a means of research for both trained ethnographers and the 'untrained' groups which they seek to study.
Feminist cultural theory has also taken a great interest in the Intemet, because of the opportunities for the creation of virtud communities and the ways in which the
Intemet assists the resistance or subversion of dominant culture. Susan Leigh, in her profile of the use of the Intemet among women's groups and individuals, "From Hestia to
Homepage: Feminism and the Concept of Home in Cyberspace", examined a nurnber of issues pertaining to the creation of virtual communities and the use of the Intemet as a tool for ernpowering marginalized groups. Many of the issues which she raises are also applicable to the study of Japanese new religious groups. Leigh challenges the popular idea that the Internet is an inherently liberating and empowering tool, especially for marginalized groups, by pointing out that its use (and the creation of web pages) not only requires the ownership of a computer (and the financial obligations which that irnplies), but the knowledge necessat-y to use a computer, as well as an even more fundamental skiIl, literacy.I5 This raises a number of interesting issues when examining the websites of Japanese new religions. As mentioned previously, computer ownership and Lnternet usage are low compared to the North Amencan milieu which Leigh was critiquing, meaning that even fewer people have the means to access the Intemet, let alone the ability to create their own web pages. Given that many (but by no means dl) new religions continue to appeal to a rural population or the urban disenfianchised, how does this affect their creation and maintenance of a presence on the Intemet? It raises the question of whether the websites created by these groups are meant for their own members, or to inform (and possibly recnllt) non-members. Many cultural theorists have researched and written about the use of the Internet by marginalized groups to fom virtual communities of far flung people who wouid othenvise not be able to interact. Particularly popular among feminist cultural theorists have been the study of lesbians, both within urban and rural areas, and the sub-groups which they create, as weii as tram-sexuals, sex-trade workers and racial minonties. Nina
Wakeford made a study of the creation of an oniine lesbian community and its relationship with the red-life community which inspired it, as well as the creation of real- life mirrors of virtud c~mmunities.'~Issues of margindity are also important to the study of Japanese new religious movements. Although most groups hold official status as religions under Japanese law, they are not considered to be rnainstream religions, and membership in a new religion is often viewed with some distrust by the general public.
Several incidents involving new religious groups in the past ten years, such as the Aum
Shinri-kyo sarin gas attack in 1995, have resulted in varied public opinion on the groups, from ambivalence to outright distrust. Most members of new religious groups engage in activities and celebrations that fall outside of the regular calendar of Shinto matniri and
Buddhist observances. As a result of these factors. new religious groups and their members in Japan can be considered to be marginalized groups, aithough by no means as marginal as other groups such as the Burakumin, Ainu or long-term Korean residents.
Thus, it is reasoaable to view the websites of Japanese new religions as the Internet presence of marginalized groups, which can then be examined accordingly.
The use of the intemet as a resource for research is still in its infancy. Unlike textual research, it is a constantly changing and evolving medium; pages and whole sites may appear and disappear in a few days, or they rnay remain unchanged for years. And yet, unlike the traditional conception of field research found in ethnography, it does not involve face-to-face interaction or the observation of a community and its activities in person. The Intemet as the field of research occupies a space similar to that of the new religions, regarded with a measure of uncertainty, but nonetheless officially recognized as a valid form of research material. Feminist cultural theory, while giving value to the
Internet as a means of communication and a tool for empowering the marginaiized, also cautions that as a medium of communication and community, the Internet has certain inherent limitations and excludes certain classes of people. Given al1 these factors, researching the use of the Intemet by Japanese new religious groups is obviously a valuable exercise. The message that each group wishes to broadcast cm be examined, but more importantly, by studying how this is done, the focus of the group cm be revealed, as well as its attitude to a number of factors (such as the interaction arnong members and the public, the group's public "face", and their perception of technology). Chapter 2 - A Bnef Histow of the Internet
In order to consider the use of the Intemet by Japanese new religions, the history and background of the uitemet itseif must kst be explored. Even within the community of dedicated Internet users, the history and origins of the Intemet remain largely unclear and are clouded by a large number of commonly held misconceptions.
in the early 196O7sYas Cold War tensions intensified, the United States govemment created the Advanced Research Projects Agency, commonly known as
ARPA; it was fùnded by the Department of Defense in order to research a wide variety of scientific areas for mildary puvoses. l7 In 1967, MAcded for papers outlining a means of comecting distant cornputers: the creation of a computer network. l8 In the
1950's computers operated in what was referred to as a "batch mode": a computer was devoted entirely to completing one task (no matter how simple) before it could perform the next. In the early 196OYs,"shared resource" computing became possible, allowing a computer to split its resources to complete a number of tasks simultaneously. This allowed severd users to utilize a computer simultaneously, and also aiIowed those users a mdimentary form of communication between each other while doing so. In June of 1968, as a resuit of a cdfor proposais, a paper cded "Resource Sharing Cornputer Networks" was produced and approved by ARPA.'~This proposed a network which would be usehl to both academic research (those scientists who were comected with ARPA) and the military as weL20 The stated objective was to experiment with various ways of comecting computers and sharing their resources, which would aiiow both academics and the military to use widely dispersed computers to their fuilest. A group of researchers met throughout the summer of 1968 to discuss issues ofprotocol: the means by which computers operating completely different systems could comrnunicate with each other2' Although the work on these early protocols was important to the immediate development of the ARPA network many scholars agree that by far the most important result of the work of this group was "the discoves, of a new way of looking at computers.. . [they] viewed the computer as a communication device rather than only as an arithmetic de~ice".'~This view that computers could act as a means of communication and that in the shadow of the computer network a human network could be created has Uinuenced the way in which the Intemet is viewed today.
In January of 1969, the contract to build the proposed network was awarded to a
Company named BBN, composed of a number of the scientists involved in the network research? In August of 1969, the fint part of the network was installed at the University of California, Los Angeles, and by the end of 1969, a total of four university sites had been networked together? These four sites were %odes" which acted as the interface between local collections of computers and the other computers on the network.
ARPANET, as it became known, expanded slowly at first, as new problems were dealt with, but eventuaily grew quickly. By the end of 197 1, there were 15 nodes, each serving several computers sirnultaneous~~.~~In 1973, the extent of the ARPANET was expanded beyond the continental United States, with the addition of a network node in Hawaii (via satellite in Ianuary of 1973), as well as two nodes at universities in the United Kingdom and onv va^.'^ By late 1973,45 host computers had been connected to the network, and it was after this point that the network's growth began to accelerate, with 1I 1 host computers in 1977 and over 4,000 in 1983 .27 It was during this perîod of rapid expansion that nominal control of the computer network was changed: in 1975 responsibility for the maintenance of ARPANET was transferred from the research based
ARP A group to the Defense Communications Agency, a govemment agency comected with the military.'g One of the misunderstandings about the origin of the lnternet stems
From this transfer of responsibility. There is a commody held beiief that rather than being a tool for exchanging research information and resource sharinç, the Internet was designed by the U.S. military as a secure in-house communications network. Mthough this has been of incidental benefit to the military, it was not part of the original design for the early computer network.
The next major step in the development of the tnternet as it is known today was the creation of Usenet by graduate students at Duke University in 1979." In the mid-
1960's as local resource-sharing became popular on university cornputers, allowing several users access to a computer simultaneously, a form of electronic bulletin board was created, allowing users and researchers to trade information and programs through text. What was unique about these bulletin boards was the fact that users did not have to be using the computer simultaneously to communicate with each other; their messages remained on the cornputer's "bulletin board" for al1 to read for days or weeks until they were erased by the original author. The Duke University graduate students adapted this system for use across the ARPANET, dowing researchers fiom different institutions to communicate with each other without having to be sitting at computer terminals at the same Me. Usenet created a large virtuai builetin board, but was separated into dEerent topics so that users would not be Booded with information outside their area of research.
Origindy Limited to topics of scient5c research related to ARPA projects, it quickly became populated with other topics, including hobbies, science fiction and games. In the mid 1980's, the ARPA network was phased out of use by the United States govemment, and was replaced by a series of networks dedicated to specific uses (such as the military's creation of its own MILNET to serve as a rneans of communication and resource sharing).)' In the late 1WO's and early 19807s, CSnet (Computer science network) was established using money from the National Science Foundation as a network for resource sharing and communication for those scientists who were not comected with ARPA projects.31It was originally intended primarily for cornputer scientists, but soon grew in populaity with other researchers and graduate students. In the mid 1980's. the NSFnet (National Science Foundation network) took over the role of
.WMTin connecting universities together in resource sharing and comrnuni~ations.'~
It was also in the mid 1980's that the growing popularity of personal computers for home use spawned the creation of commercial networks, such as Cornpuserve, and later America Online. These originally served as national (and later international) bulletin boards, and contained their own version of Usenet. However, unlike the
MANET and its successors, most users used telephone lines to connect to these commercial networks and were limited in the amount of time that they could use. The ability to access large amounts of material was severely limited by the slow speeds of computers and modems at the time. Also, by contrast with research-based networks, the focus was on communication and some sharing of data, but not the mutual sharing of computer resources.
NSFnet and these early commercial networks remained mostly iimited to sending text or computer code between computers until the early 1990's. A major Sep was taken towards the creation of the World Wide Web in 199 1 with the development of the Hypertext Markup Language (now commonly referred to as HTML) and the concept of a
Universal Resource Locator (URL or "web addre~s").~~HTML dlows texts and pictures to be accessed by any computer with "web browser" software, and the üRL assigns an address to materials using HTML, allowing users fiom around the world to locate and access that information. These were developed by a team of cornputer researchers at
CERN, the European Laboratory for Particle Physics, led by Tim ~erners-~ee.~'In 1994,
Bemers-Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium to promote the "Web's evolution and the developrnent of standards." The development of a standardized rneans of
formatting and transmitting data across the Internet, when combined with the
infrastructure developed both commercially and acadernically, made the popularization of the intemet possible. ft has been the increase in public knowledge and interest in the
Intemet, and specifically, the World Wide Web, which has lead to the current explosion of Intemet users and onliae content.
Japan and the Internet
The history of the Internet and computer networks in Japan is much shorter than
that in the United States . Until 1985, it was illegal to connect a computer to a phone line
because of strict governent regulations.36
In 1984, Jun Murai, a computer science researcher at Keio University, created the
Japan University Network (also known as IUNET). It was created to connect the smaiier
computer networks which existed at many of the larger university campuses across Japan.
W~thina few years the Widely Integrated Distributed Environment (WIDE)evolved fkom
JUNET.~' WIDE became more popular because it used the protocols more common on the contemporary Intemet, rather than earlier ones used by JUNET.~*in 1989, the WIDE network was comected to NSFnet in the United States, via the University of ~awaii.~~
This marked the first time that Japanese cornputer networks were comected to the
Intemet, almost 20 years after it had been started in the United States.
The WIDE network was expanded in the early 199OYs,including more universities
and increasing the number of connections to Amencan netw~rks.'~In 1993, as the
Intemet became more widely known, commercial and public interest rose, and a number
of non-research groups sought to become comected through WIDE." The university-
based VADE was unable to accommodate this demand, and as a result, in late 1993 two
companies were formed to provide commercial Internet ~ervice."~From early 1994, the
commercial and individual use of the tntemet has experienced tremendous growth, with
nearly 600 companies providing access."
Jun Murai cites the Kobe earthquake in 1995 as having helped popularize the
Intemet arnong the Japanese public. The earthquake destroyed a great deal of the
surrounding area's communications network, leaving e-mail and diasaster information
websites as one of the only reliable means of two-way communication to the outside
world. A senes of articles in newspapers and magazines raised the public profile of the
Intemet immediately following this event?
Despite its relatively late start, Iapan has the second largest number of Internet
users in the world, second only to the United States. Exact numbers of users are difncult
to determine, but estimates range f?om 18.2 million at the end of 1999, to about 20
million in June of 2000.''~ The United States has an estimated 1 10 million Intemet users,
whde the United Kingdom, the third largest Intemet-ushg country, has 14 million users. 46 These numbers are based on users of traditional Internet service providers, in which the user accesses the Intemet by using a cornputer or laptop equipped with a modem to connect to a company's computers, and then through those computers, accessing the Lntemet. However, in the past year, a new type of access has become viable and extremely popular in Japan. Owners of cellular phones (#$%sskeitni ciemva or simply 94 9 4 keiiai) can subscribe to an additional service which ailows them to access the Internet. There are severai seMces available, each tailored to the different cellular companies: NTT DoCoMo provides the most popular service, "i-mode*', while cornpetitors J-Phone provides 7-Sky" and Au provides "EZ-Web". According to the most recent subscnber numbers, i-mode had 5.85 million users in the first week of Xpd
7000, and an average increase of 3 to 4% each week.'<' Other services, such as J-Sky and
EZ-web have similar rates of expansion.48
The increasing popularity of these mobile foms of Intemet access occurs despite the high cost of access and the limited nurnber of pages available for viewing in this format. In addition to a basic subscription fee, users are charged for Internet usage, as well as regular air time charges." Monthly bills of YSO, 000 (approxirnately $500 USD or $720 Canadian) have been reported, although for moderate users, it is usuaily around
%5000 (approximately $50 US) in addition to the subscription fees?n addition to the relatively high costs, usen are Limited in the pages or websites which they can access.
Because of the small size of the screen and low resolution compared to a regular cornputer monitor, most web pages will not display correctly on a cellular phone's screen.
In order to be viewed properly, pages must be formatted especidiy for one of the services, nich as i-mode. Owing to proprietary ditrerences in these Intemet services, pages viewable through i-mode may not be accessible by users of other services such as EZ-
Web, and thus a separate version may have to be created for each service."
Despite Japan's reputation for being a leader in high technology, ownenhip of personal computers has traditionally been much lower in Japan than elsewhere in the world. The United States leads the world in personal computer ownership, with approximately 35.4% of households owning a personal ~orn~uter.~*Japanese levels have held steady for several years at approximately 16% o~nershi~.~~There are a number of factors which have contnbuted to this situation. Foremost among them has been the relative difficulty in using the Japanese languase on computer systems which were ongnally designed for use in English. This is especially tme in the case of the internet and computer networking in general, where the network protocols (the rules which computers follow in sending and receiving data) were designed for English characters, rather than the much more complex Japanese syllabaries and kanji. Other factors which have delayed widespread adoption of personal computers have been issues of space, and the high domestic cos of hardware.
Although the Intemet was embraced by Japan later than North America and
Europe. its situation in Japan at this time is one of continuing expansion. Not only is the use of cellular phone access increasing, but a number of new high speed means are currentiy being introduced throughout the country to improve the quality and quantity of this increased access. Cha~ter3 - Tenrikvo
History
Te~kyo(XE&), The Religion of Divine Wisdom, is the oldest of Japan's 'new religions'. It was officidy founded in 1872 by a peasant woman named Nakayama Miki
(1 798- l887)? The formation of Tenrikyo was the result of a number of revelatory experiences which occurred over several years. Miki's first revelation occurred in 1837 while she was serving as an impromptu medium in order to practice fâith-healing on her
family. In Japm, from the early eighth century until the beginning of the twentieth century, the healing of sickness was accomplished by having a second party (almost
aiways a wornan) ad as a medium to allow the sickness-causing spirit to speak and be
identified. It was then the responsibility of a male priest or monk to expel and banish the
spirit by using the magico-religious powers which he was able to channel. While acting
in this role, Miki received a revelation from what she called "the Tnie and Original
~od"? In the following years, Miki received several more reveiations from this god,
with instructions on how to pursue the salvation of the world. Initiaily, this consisted of
Miki ridding herself of al1 of her possessions (and some of those belonging to her
husband's family as well) in acts of charity to help feed the local poor.56 Later, it was her
healing powers (especiaily the grantiag of easy ~hildbirth)~'which drew followers.
In 1863, the same year in which her husband died, Miki met Izo Iburi, the man
who wodd go on to become the unofficiai CU-founderof Tennkyo. Iburi was impressed
by Miki's healuig abilities and became so involved with promoting her beliefs that, other
than Miki's own writings, his are the only ones which are considered canonical in the
Tenri faith- Ln 1865, a hi& ranking Shinto pnest came to investigate tales of Miki's magical abilities.j8 Rather than condemning her (as a Buddhist monastery had done just months earlier), the priest was impressed by her beliefs and heiped bfiki receive official recognition by the govenunent, which enabled her to promote her beliefs across ~a~an.'~
In 1875, while working in her garden (near modem-day Nara), Miki had a revelation informing her that the spot she stood on was the "cradle of the human race"'Y
(referred to as C? Crf Jibn); it is at this location that the salvation of hurnanity would begin when "sweet dew" rains down fiom heaven, to be coosumed first by Tenri faitffil, and then by the rest of the w~rld.~'The main temple of Tennkyo was built around this area, and in time, T~Mcity was built to surround the temple. In the years following 1875,
Miki and the Tenri followers faced increasing opposition from the govemment and other
This was largely due to the political situation at the time, during which the government needed to maintain the Emperor as a divine figure in order to give itself political legitimacy. As a result of this policy, any religion which did not recognize the supremacy of the Sun Goddess as the Uimate" divinity was persecuted.63 Because of this intense persecution, several of the major Te~kyorites could not be performed in public.
In early 1887, Nakayama Miki died, but the group which had forrned around her revelatory experiences and charitable acts continued to thrive. Aithough it is not currently the larges new religion in Japan, since its formation Tenrihyo has remained a strong influence on later developments in Japanese spirituality.
The basic beliefs of Tenrikyo are outlhed in three texts: two wiitten exclusively by Miki, and the third compiled by the "CO-foundef'Iburi &ter her death. Miki's writings were regarded as another form of divine revelation, with Miki channeling the god's thoughts and performing a type of automatic riti in^.^'' The Tenri god (T~M-O-no- mikoto) is believed to be the creator of al1 things, and is regarded as a divine parent of the
~niverse.~'Although ernphasis is placed on this single god, there are several Shinto deities who have been retained, especially in the creation The basic hstof
Te~kyobelief and practice is the salvation of mankind €tom worldly sin (conceived of as dust on the soul). The focus of this salvation has changed over time, €iom the act of delivering believers from pain and sickness, to a later shift to the avoidance of econornic and social troubles. Recently, the group has changed its focus again choosing to concentrate on the idea of spintual salvation as a prominent goal.
Internet
The Tenrikyo website6' was started in May of 1997. featuring both Japanese pages and an English section. A major "renewal" [sic] was completed in August of 1999, which revised the format of the Japanese site and added more material io the foreign language site. Minor updates, such as the posting of news articles, occur as ofien as once or nvice a week? The website is maintained by the T~MIntemet Cornmittee (*E&4'
2 9 -5 Y b g$i@$;iW%Teririkyo intamto zîn 'ei hzkai), which is Iargely composed of high-ranking officiais of the headquarters group, aithough there are also severai members who volunteer their fkee the to help?' The technician wbo maintains the cornputers at
Tenri headquarters is responsible for the daily maintenance of the website, and enters the updates created by the ~ommittee." Figure 1 Tenrikyo Website
Te~kyoLogo
"Quick L&' to Web Upcoming Camera Vietv of Tenri Events Cie
1 Teachines 1 Window Displays 1 Headquaners 1 descriptions of links based on 1 WEB Services 1 position of user's mouse on screen Site Search
Text-only Links 7
Headquarters Address The contents of the initiai page of the Tenrikyo website are typical of those of the new religions. Interestingly, the maln page for the group is in English, not lapanese."
From the main page, links are provided to a sumrnary of teachings, an overview of the building of the headquarters and testimonials (in Tenri's case, called "salvation stones").
Unlike many of the other groups, there is not a direct link to a biography of the founder(s). The page is divided into two colurnns, with the lefi column consisting of a list of nine languages (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Korean, Nepali and Ponuguese) under the heading "Welcome Home", which are linked to a short explanation of the history of the group, with the founder's narne, the date the group started (Listed as 1838, not 1872 when the group achieved official recognition), and the importance of T~Mcity as the resting place of the Jiba. Athough greetings are provided in languages other than English, the rest of the non-Japanese portion of the site is written only in English. The right-hand column has links to a sumrnary of beliefs, a giossary of
"Key Words of Te~kyo",a newsletter, a "live view" (comected to two cameras overlooking Tenri city), an overview of Tenrikyo's facilities, instructions on travelling to
Tenri city, a children's section, a page of T~M-relatedlinks, and a senes of testimonials
("Salvation Stories"). At the bottom of the page is a "special" link to a page detailing a
Tenri-Christian interfaith conference held in March of 1998.
In the "Sumrnary of ~eliefs"", key words are hiflighted and a link is provided which takes the user to another page which contains a fùrther explanation of the term, with each word or idea being given one fidl page or more. The 'Key Words of ~ennkyo"~provides direct access to these nineteen detailed descriptions. Some of the explanations contain a link which takes the user to an even more detailed explmation of
Temi doctrine, and the "~cri~tures"~~entry lists dl ten extra pages devoted to the issue of doctrine.
The .'Facilities ~verview'"' displays an aerial photograph of T~Mcity with selected buildings highlighted. Each building is Linked to another page with photos and a description of the building and the activities which take place in it, including a list of ceremonies or speciai festivals which are held there year-round.
The "~inks"~~section provides a Listing of al1 other Tenri-related Intemet sites.
Interestingly. most of the non-lapanese links provided are only for e-mail, and oniy the
Tenri Cultural Institute in New York, the Los Angeies Tenri Judo club and the
Association Culturelle Franco-Japonaise de T~Min Paris have actual websites. in addition to this, there is a page which lists 63 homepages maintained by Tenri members.
These pages are generaily used as the homepage for a branch church or group, and are used to 'publish' many local groups' own newsletters. At the time of this research, none of the local or indiviudal websites featured a chat room, bulletin board, or niailing list which would allow members to interact with each other.
In cornparison with the Japanese portion of the site (See Fig. I)," the English page is very simple in its content, organization and presentation. Not oniy are the
Japanese pages more numerous, but they aiso contain more detailed information, presented in a number of formats. Uniike the English page, which is simply divided into two columns, the main Japanese page provides a number of ways to access further information. On the lefi-hand side is a column of options, listing "Teachings" (Bk oshie), "Activities7' (sakatsudo), "Headquarters Overview" (@e*%kyokai honnb),
"Web Services", a site map and e-mail. To the right of ths column is a picture and link to an upcorning event (.&%fi%saishin g)oji). The Te~kyologo is centred between the two colums, and provides a link to a preluninary explmation of the group and its beliefs. On the main page, users can also access pages by inputting words into a site search, or by picking a specific page or topic from a drop-down list. At the bottom of the page are text-based links which allow users without graphics capabilities (specifically i- mode and handheld PC users) to navigate the site. Each link leads to a page with further iinks which ailow users to have access to more detailed information.
The introductory page7' is presented as being a "five minute introduction7'(liB
If;r'T)JI %& I, \ 7: f=lf 2 if)to the beliefs of Tenrikyo. It is sirnilar to the summary of beliefs on the English page in that key terms are highlighted and act as links to other pages with more detailed explanations. Udike the English page, the initial descriptions are more detailed, and are accompanied by pictures of believers or the headquarters and its surrounilings. The text is written in an unusualiy direct style: the phrases "you and I" or "your and mine" (&& k 2 amta tu watashi) are used kequently. This introductory section is tightly integrated with the teachings section, which has been divided into two sub-categones: "Teachings" (Bkoshie) and "One Word Tallcs" (-Z
hitokoto hmnshi).
The *'Teachings" page79 contains links to 23 additional pages which provide more detailed explanations of the centrai te- and concepts of Tennkyo. As with the introductory page, these are illustrated with photos of believers or Tennkyo buildings, although some of the photos have Little to do with the nibject; for example, a picture of children playing in a pool accompanies the explanation of kashimono/karimono(lent thing, borrowed thing), which teaches that the body is borrowed from god. The "One
Word ~alks"~'is a series of 20 pages which contain small stories which apply Tenri teachings and doctrine to everyday situations. Instructions are included on how to include the stones in an e-mail, which directs the recipient to visit the Te~kyosite for more information.
The "Events" (%akuts~do) section81 contains links to "Current News" (-4zL-
nyzrsu), an "Introduction to Tenrikyo Activities" (!@&*&QI@* katst~dozenpan no shokai), a list of the publications produced by the group (afishuppan), and a list of
Broadcasts (&g hoso). The Turrent News" page" contains a number of short articles pertaining to Tenrikyo and its followers, updated as events occur. Articles often list what activities were undertaken by branch churches for various festivals. Although the articles generaily cover only a month or two (about ten to twelve articles at any time are displayed), readers can use a search function to find older anicles which are maintaùied in an electronic archive. The "Publications" pages3 lists ail of the books and periodicals produced by T~M,arranged by subject and topic. Topics range from introductions to
Tenri doctrine, Tenri guguhî (religious music), and family life to dictionaries and picture books. By selecting a link to a specific topic. the user cmthen read a List of d available books on the topic. Each book is provided with a brkf description and publishing information bublisher and price) and some books have a picture of the cover included.
The "Broadcast" page84provides links to pages containing information on the radio and television broadcasts aeated by Tenri. Further pages provide information on programme topics, as weU as ffequencies and times of broadcast. By far the largest sub-category within the activities page is the "Activities" (4&
@& zenpan katsudo) page,85which provides links to pages dealing with ''Missiooary
Work" (;tfi~f5~firkpdend~),'~ "Aid Work" (mif ôir \ tmîkeoi) ,87 bLP~bli~ity'y(E% k~ho),~~biC~lt~re'T (ft,fL b~rnka),~~"Education" (@aky~iki<)~* and "Medical Treatrnent"
( o.Exh lin!! !&es the user to uiother 22ge, which has a nimrnary of the general nature of the activates undenaken, accompanied by more specinc descriptions of particular events which have recently taken place, dong with photographs of the event.
The bbHeadquarters"(&%$Zfa kyokai honbu) page9' allows users to choose between a list of "Annual Events" (PME3tienkm gvoji) or '-Guide to Facilities" (bki
fi shisetslr anrini)
The page for "Annuai ~vents"~'contains a list of al1 the annual festivals and rites, ananged by month. Each event is linked to another page, which provides details about the event: the date and location (within Tenri city) of its performance, as well as the doctrinal meaning and reasons behind it. Events range from annual rituals performed since the inception of the group, to a gatebd tournament. Some pages aiso provide Links to sirnilar or related events; for example the page for the spring rites also provides links to pages for the autumn rites. The description for each festival or event is accornpanied by several photos.
The "Guide to Facilities" pagegJcontains a list of ail of the important locations within Tenri city. Each location is provided with its own page, which contains a description of the location, its importance withui Temi doctrine, one or more photos, and where appropriate, a list of the events which take place there. The "Site Jump" (-!? 4 b 9i. 9 7' suïto jympu) page95provides a listing of links to extemai web pages maintained by local, regional and international groups. These include links to overseas groups and the youth group in Japan. Many groups have only an e-mail address listed, while many of the overseas groups also have a website listed. At the bonom of the links page is a graphic for the "Te~kyoFellowship", which takes the user to a list of web pages maintained by Te~kyofollowers, mostly in Japan, dthough there are severd fiom the United States and Korea. In order for a site to be listed, the user must subrnit its address to the Tenrikyo Intemet Cornmittee and have it accepted. At the time of research, tbere were 63 homepages listed, with a short description including the site's author, his locale and the nature of the site. Several sites are used to ' publish' a
regional or local group's newsletter or newspaper. There is no standard format for these
pages, with some emphasizing personal testimonials, others promoting the teachings and
writings of Nakayaxna ~iki,~~and still others reporting on their local area and the local
Te~kyogroup's activities." Many of the penonal pages are not limited purely to
Tenrikyo, with many featuring personal photos, lists of hobbies and information about the
author's hornetown.
The "Web SeMce7'(WEB 9- E'x web sabin/)page98 provides access to a
number of resources which are ody available online or meant to be used with a
cornputer. A link is provided to two cameras which overlook the Sancniary Hall of the
main temple building in T~M Pictures are changed every hour, and an archive is
maintained of the previous three days' pictures. Links are also provided to pages with
weather information and forecasts provided by a private meteorological service. 'O0
Nthough there is no explicit purpose stated for the "live camera7' pages, it seems that they are provided so that believers who do not live near Tenri city can remain connected to the main temple wherever they are. Althouph it could not be considered a pilgrimage, the live camera page provides believers the opportunity to pay a vimial 'visit' to Tenri every day.
Another link provides information on travelling to Temi city. 'O1 Information as basic as T~M'slocation within Japan and as detailed as bus schedules within the city is provided. Train and road maps are also provided, as well as detailed instruction on driving to Tenri city and findine parking near Tenri headquarters; some are contained in
"printer-fnendly" file formats (Adobe files), enabling users to print out the information to bnng with them. There are also severai links to the railway compaties which serve the area, especially Japan Rail which has established a special service for certain annual festivals and provides direct service from Tokyo to T~Mcity.
Other links in the "Web Service" page include a search engine which allows a user to search the Tenri website and archives for specific words or topics. There is aiso a
"Photo Salon" (7 i5 b if 2 fotosarot~)'~~which features photographs taken by Temi believers, usudy feahiring Tenri buildings, festivals and other activities.
The two most ununial aspects of the entire Tenri website are the "Download
Section" (y3 2 n - F dmi~zrodo)'~~and the "i-mode" (i-r- F3jG"- 9 i-modo lai0 peiji) pages.''" Of ail the pages and information provided within the site, these sections are the most technically advanced, utilizing a number of very recent software programs and website design methods. The "Download Sectiony' provides links to a
number of different pages, ranging fkom upcoming events to downloadable documents.
k the time of research, the event being promoted with downloadable files was "Kodomo Ojibagaeri" (2y &fjS"Cdd% !l $!? kodomo ojiba gaerikai) the children's festival held between July 26 and August 4" 2000. The page features a description of the specific events and locations for the festival, which are identical to the text found on a page dedicated to the event, accessible from the main page. What dserentiates this page is the inclusion of several multimedia files which promote the event. Using colourful graphies, animations and maps, these files have been produced keminiature television comrnercids, balancing the promotion of the fun aspects for children with the more serious religious aspects airned at adult believers. The main event (a ritual centring on the karirodai column at the location of the Jibn), is promoted as well as many other activities planned for the time, and the many facilities located around T~Mcity for believers and children.
Other downloadable files available include a guide to upcoming episodes of the
Te~kyotelevision show "The TTime of Tenri-kyo"(*fE&mR(t Tenrikyo no jidni), dong with a printable archive of previous shows and topics. A "map" of the Te~kyo website is provided so that users can easily find the information they are looking for, but also so that they will be avare of the site's entire contents. The map is provided in a printable form, as well as a cornputer-only form which contains links to the pages.
In conjunction with the "Photo-Salon" page, there is a "The Four Seasons of
Tenri" 'mini calendar', which features photographs of T~Mcity and the T~Mtemple buildings. The rnini-calendar is available in a format designed to be easily printed in either black and white or colour. One of the rnost unusuai dodoadable files available on the Tenri site is a set of T-shirt designs. The designs are intended to be downloaded and printed onto special trders which are then ironed onto blank t-shirts. By fieely providing these designs via the Internet, any believer, within Japan or globally, cm create a Tenri t-shirt.
This seems to be representative of T~M'sattitude toward the use of the Intemet: it provides a means of comecting users to the headquarters in Tenri City, no rnatter where they may bel dlowing them to participate kom afar (in a very limited fashion) with other members. However, this attempt to create materiai which has broad appeal and allows a greater degree of 'participation' by geographically distant members is somewhat limited by certain techical issues. The effective use of this kind of resource not only presumes a level of technical ski11 in using a cornputer, but it also requires some specialized equipment and materiais (a colour printer and the t-shirt transfer materials), which not al1 members may have.
The other unusual aspect of the "Downloads Section" is the presence of a set of
"i-mode" compatible pages. As mentioned exlier, many cellular phones currently in use in Japan are capable of accessing the Internet, but because of the limitations of the screen and data transfer speeds, viewing regular websites is difficult if not impossible.
Responding to the explosive increase in the use of cellular phones to access the Iotemet in recent months, the Tennkyo website created a set of pages specially fomatted for i- mode users. Three sets of pages are offered: a news page,'o5which contains slightly abbreviated versions of the articles found on the regular news page; a "mini dictionary"
( 2,3@%%& mini @egojzien)lo6 of the specialized words used in Temi texts, similu to the glossary of tems provided in the regular web page; and a list of times for the daily prayers (%a@@Ba7 otsirome jikcm).lo7 AU of these pages have been optunized to facilitate access through cellular phones or handheld cornputers, with no graphics or photos, and many of the articles have been shortened to make them easier to read.
Analysis
The Tennkyo Intemet presence, the international English site and the much larger
Japanese site represent a well-planned and effectively-executed use of the intemet as a
means of communication between a group's headquarters and users, including both
cornmitted believers and newly-interested visitors. The design and layout of the pages
are simple, and in contrast to the websites of some of the other groups, there are few
broken links or inaccessible pages. Various media types have been used, and chosen to
mavimize the site's impact or benefit. Computer graphics, photos, sound, and animations
are used to rnake the pages interesting and eye-catching, while large amounts of
information have been saved as Adobe files, which are easily handled by virtually any
cornputer and pinter. What is unusual about this use of a large variety and number of
multimedia files is the dernand which it puts on a user's ability to access the Intemet: the
larger files take lonser to dodoad, which is an unattractive attribue for Japanese users
who seek to keep their online time to a minimum because of the high cost.
In opposition to the media-rich tendencies of the regular pages is the creation of a
set of pages formatted for i-mode Intemet users. This demonstrates a willingness to adapt
to current trends and their desire to remain accessible to the largest percentage of users
possible.
The emphasis of the English website is on introducing those who are not currently
Tennkyo members to the basic tenets of the group. W~ththe exception of the newsletter section, there is very iiaie mention of events or rituals which take place within the group.
The Japanese site also contains a great deal of introductory material, explaining the group's history, providing a biography of the founder, and explaining the faith's beliefs and special terminology. However, in contrast with the English site, there is a great deal of emphasis placed on the activities of the group, especially daily practice by long-term members. The "News" section lists many of the most current activities (both religious and philanthropie) undertaken by the headquarters group, but also by local groups. In addition, the annual festivals and rituals which take place at the headquarters are featured prominently. The focus of the website seems to be on creating and maintainhg a sense of connection to the group's headquarters in T~M.Within the group'ç doctrine, Temi city
(and specifically the kanrodai located at the Jibo) are highly sacred and important locations because they are believed to be the birthplace of humanity and the starting point of its salvation. This has resulted in an imperative to make sure that geographically distant believers are able to maintain a connection to that place, whether it is through an actuai pilgrimage to T~Mcity (with the travel directions provided on the site), or through an expenence facilitated by the site: by reading descriptions of annuai events, looking at photos, or even viewing hourly picnires of the main temple buildings.
The Temikyo headquarters group maintains the "fxeign language" web pages even though the New York Association (which also has its own website) could maintain them just as easily; the group seems f'yopen to having its members produce their own websites, without dictating content or format. This creates a level of interactivity between believers and the headquarters, and also between individuai believers: not only can members of a local group produce their own Intemet content, but it can be seen and read by other Tenri believers elsewhere. Each group can see what other groups or individuals are doing in pursuit of the Tenri faith, demonstrating a certain level of cornfort on the part of T~Mheadquarters in allowing believers to interact without the direct guidance or supe~sionof a designated minister or other authority.
Aithough information on Tenri literature and tapes is available through the website, it is not the main focus of the site or the group. The fiequent news updates on activities and rituals and the wide selection of photographs of regular and specid events emphasize daily practices. Athough important, the fine points of doctrine are secondary to regular and earnest practice of the basic beliefs, an idea which is emphasized throughout the website.
The Tenrikyo website was not designed as a substitute for belonging to a local group and practising the Tenri faith under the guidance of a qualifieci minister. However, it does provide members who already belong to a local, regional or international group a vaiuabie sense of co~ectionto the most sacred of places in the faith, the main temple in
Tenri city. This kind of comection cannot be fostered through the local group, but is facilitated by the many dserent forms of media utilized on the website, allowing believers to lem about the place and see it, without physically having to go to the main temple.
The design and maintenance of the Temkyo website demonstrates this group's understanding of the htemet as being sornething more than an electronic replacement for paper. Rather than diredy tramferring the static nature of written Literature, they have chosen to hamess the interactive potential of the medium, as weii as its capability to deliver many different kinds of media such as photos and sound, while easing the transferral of more complex information such as archives, databases and rnaps. Despite being one of the oldest new religions in Japan, Tenrikyo has taken great advantage of one of the newest advances in communications, proving that ït actively seeks to remain relevant within modem Japanese society. Cha~ter4 - Ornoto
History
Omoto-kyo (A*&), Teaching of the Great Origin, was founded in 1898 by Nao
Deguchi x R t~%(l836-19 18),lo8 a peasant woman fkom the Kyoto area. After a senes of tragedies (including the death of her husband, a three-year illness and the deaths of three of her children) Nao joined Konkokyo, a local peasant religion. 'O9 In 1892, Nao was possessed by a god who comanded her to carry out the salvation and reconstruction of the ~orld."~Mer this event she began to heal the sick with a laying on of bands, speaking in tongues, and, despite her previous illiteracy, also began regularly to perform automatic writing. In 1897, Nao broke fiom Konkokyo and practised on her own, but it was not until 1898 that her divinely inspired writings and speech would be formalized into a religion. l' '
It was in that year that she met the man who would later be known as Onisaburo
Deguchi U %(~t-&b(1 97 1- 1948). Unlike Nao, Onisaburo had received a great deal of formal education, especidly in philosophy and literature. Mer the death of his Qther,
Onisaburo retreated to a mountain to subject himself to ascetic practices, dunng which he claimed that his spirit left his body and gained perfect knowledge of the universe's truths.'l2 Mer severai years of studying under a famous mystic, Onisaburo, urged on by a divine revelatioq traveled to Nao's village. During this fkst meeting, Nao declared that he was the saviour promised to her by god, and soon Onisaburo was married to Nao's youngest daughter and adopted into the family.1'3 Together they fonnally founded
Omoto; Onisaburo acted to organite the growing number of followers, and to interpret and explain Nao's writings, while Nao remained the mystical source of the group's vitality .
The group grew in size, popularity and influence, building shrines, publishg books and a daily newspaper and attracting Iiberal inteilectuals, until 192 1 when the govemment decided to restrict Omoto's activities and arrested many leading members including Onisaburo. '14 This was largely a result of the anti-capitalist, anti-war ideologies promoted by the group at the the. Du~ghis Ume in jail, Onisaburo began to dictate his experiences in the spiritual realm in order to have thern act as a guide for his followers. ' l5 Mer his release, Onisaburo continued the effort to spread Omoto's doctrines, promoting the idea that through social action and the Omoto faith, a kind of utopia could be achieved on Earth.llG These efforts resulted in another, longer prison term, which did not end until the Allied Occupation freed "political prisoners" in late
1945. "'
The doctrines of Omoto are contained within Nao 's revelatory writings, the
Ofudesaki (said to be more than 10,000 volume^),"^ and Onisaburo's writings, in similar quantities, but largely focused on an 8 1-volume account of his experiences in the spirit world. The general emphasis of the grouposdoctrine is salvation from worldly wony and pain, and the irnperative that mankind mut strive to create a more just and divine society on this Earth, the *'Heavenly ~in~dorn"."~Humans are seen as the children of God, who are inherently capable of goodness, but mua struggie against the obstacles presented in the mundane w~rld.'~~Aithough it contains the idea that a devout foliower will be rebom into a spiritual afterlife (rather than rein~arnation),'~'the Omoto faith concentrates on performing aaivities which will benefit not only its rnembers, but society at large. These benefits range from faith healing and increased productivity for its members, to international aid programs and agricuitural training for fmers in Japan and abroad.
Internet
The Omoto websitel" was created in March of 1998, and has been redesigned and upgraded a number of times, the most recent time being in Iune of 2000. The entire website is mn by one person who is employed on a full-time basis to manage both the technical aspects, such as running the computers and troubleshooting problems, as well as the creation of content. The website is updated with new information as ofien as once a
day, although it is usually once a week. According to the webmaster, the site averages
about 1500 visits per month, with a total of 17,079 visits since luly of 1999.
The Main Omoto page (See Fig. 2) presents the user with the choice to access a
Japanese, Esperanto, English or Portuguese langage site, each accompanied by a graphic
for the representative langage. Along the bottom of the page, there are four graphic
banners which lead to Japanese pages dedicated to the specific topics, including:
Tenseisha (Xttf:tenseishn) the Omoto publishing company, Aizen Mizuho Kai (gz
brrft$?aireri miaiho kai), Omoto's organic farming company, a description of an
ongoing religious seminadretreat hosted at the Omoto headquarters, a campaign against
the concept of brain death, and a campaign against organ donation. There are also two
other links which have no graphies, one for a "rorna.d7 version of the site, and another for
1-mode users.
The English page1" has been divided into several sections: "Newly Added
Contents", "What is Omoto?", "Books", and "Links". The "Newly Added Contents" segment iists the title of the material and the date that it was added. Items hclude a simple chronology of Omoto's inter-reiigious activities (largely a iist of meetings with the leaders of other religious groups), a selection of books available in English, and the updated biography of Nao Deguchi.
"What is Ornoto?", set off in its own box in a different colour and with small graphics, is intended as a simple introduction to the group. It provides Links to pages containhg information on "Spiritual ~enters""~(the headquarters of the group), the group's "Founders and Spiritual ~eaders",'~''4Hi~tory 79 ,126 '4 Orgmizatiodl, "Teaching and Scriptures", and "Artworks of the Founders". Each of these links takes the user to another page which provides a brief explanation of the subject, and often bas a photograph.
The IFounders and Spiritual LeadersT'section has a picture of each of the major figures in Omoto's history, including the current leader. Each photo is linked to another page with a brief biography which outlines the person7srole in Omoto and their religiously significant attributes. Many of these biographies contain links to other biographies, linking the more recent leaders to Nao Deguchi or Onisaburo, creating a kind of spiritual heritage. The "Organization and Activities" page'27describes not only the organization of the group (including the size and location of its two headquarters and
the numbers of members and churches) but dso listsl the annual festivals and rituals which the goup observes.
Ornoto doctrine and teachings have been nrmmarized under the headings of "The
Four Teachgs" and "The Four Principles", 12' dong with a list of English language books on the subject (including one which was written by an independent scholar not associated with Omoto). The "Artworks" section129contains links to photographs of 44 tea bowls crafted by the group's CO-founder,Onisaburo Deguchi. These pages contain only photographs, with no description or explanation of the sigruficance of the works.
The "Books" section provides links to a page which contains a description of each book13* dong with its cover illustration and publishing information. The biography of
Nao Deguchi, originally translated into English in 1982 (based on the 1949 Japanese lmguage original), is in the process of being published in its entirety on the Omoto website. Despite the stated intention that the entire book be posted, currently only the first hvo chapters have been made available on the website, leaving the last two chapters and a prologue unavailable.
The "Links" section directs the user to another page which contains a number of links to other *-related"websites.13' At the top of the page are links to Tenseisha,
Omoto's publishing company, and Aizen Mizuho, Omoto's organic agriculture cooperative. Other links include Intefiaith organizations in the United States, American pages dealing with Japanese cultural activities such as Taiko drumming or Aikido, links to Esperanto websites, and the "fiends of Omoto" site, which is referred to as the
American "branch of Omoto.
The Portuguese web pages are arranged in a fonn similar but not identical to the
English pages. The announcement of two newly translated books is featured at the top of the page,13* as is a link to a set of pages containhg photographs (but no text) of a ceremony held several months earlier at the headquarters in Ayabe, Japan. This is followed by a bnef introduction to the main elements of Omoto: the date of its foundation, the founders' names and the goals of the group. Near the bottom of the page is a set of links sidar to those found on the English pages: "~anctuarios",~~~about the two headquarters and main shrine complexes; "Fundador, CO-fundad~r"'~'about the founder,
CO-founderand subsequent leaders; "Historia" (H~stor~),'~'providing a history of the group from the foundress' 6rst religious experience to the present day; "Orgaoizacao e
Atividade" (~r~anization/~ctivities),"~providing information on the group's organization and activities, and "Ensinamenta e Escntas Sagradas" (Teachings), which will provide information on the group7steachùigs and sacred texts. The "Ensinamenta e
Escritas Sagradas" section has not yet been completed, while the "Historia" and
"Organizacao e Atividade" pages are stated as being "partially completed". At the bottom of the page, there is a link to the "romazi" website, with links directly to the
"Omoto News" pages, as well as a page dedicated to a recent Setsubun ceremony, and
another set of photographs of Onisaburo Deguchi's tea bowls.
The Esperanto version of the website13' is a demonstration of Omoto's continuing
dedication to the promotion of this recently-created "universal language" . Under
Onisaburo Deguchi, Omoto began supporting Esperanto as a means of attaining universal
brotherhood and world peace in 1923."* Despite the fact that it never becarne widely
accepted, Omoto continues to promote Esperanto, providing suppon for several
Esperanto promotion groups, and translating a good deal of its Literanire into the language.
At the top of the page underneath a photo of a tea bowl is a link to the photo gallery of
Onisaburo Deguchi's tea bowls, and next to that is a photo of the front cover of Diaj
Revelacioj, one of Nao Deguchi's books, as weii as a simple text link to Diaj Vojsignojf
one of 0nisaburo7sbooks. These links lead to pages which contain relatively detded
descriptions of the texts' contents, as weil as complete pubiishing information. Below those Links on the main Esperanto page is a set of Links leading to a downloadable version (Adobe PDF files)'3g of the Esperanto newsletter, which can be dowoloaded in its entirety or section by section. At the bottom of the page is a set of links nearly identical to those on the Portuguese page: "Sanktejoj-7, ,140 on the two headquarters in Japan; "Fondintino/Kun fondintino7, ,141 on the founders of the group and their successors; "~istono",l'" outlining the history of the group; "Organizo kaj aktiveco9, ,143 on the group's organization and activities, "lnstmo kaj Sanktaj Skibjo" dealing with the group's doctrines and writings. There is also another link to the photographs of Onisaburo's tea bowls under the heading "Artverkoj de Fondinto kaj
Gvidantoj.,? . 144 Like the Portuguese page, the "lnstruo kaj Sanktaj Skibjo"(Teachings) section is not available and the "Historio" (History) and "Organizo kaj aktiveco"
(OrganVation) sections are both listed as being partially completed. Interestingly, both the Portuguese and Esperanto sections which are listed as being incomplete contain the same information as their English counterparts, which are treated as fully complete.
The 'romazi' pages1J5are intended for users who read Japanese but do not have an Intemet browser capable of displaying Japanese characters; the Japanese has been transliterated into roman characters readable by any cornputer. The romanization system used is not the standard found in most dictionaries or textbooks, and seerns to be derived from the p honetic system of Esperanto. As mentioned earlier, the "roman" pages contain only "Omoto News", a link to the photo gailery of Onisaburo's tea bowls, and a link to a set of pages with photographs and text detailing an Interfaith celebration of Setsubun held in February of 7000. W~thinthe Setsubun pages, there are two links which provide a fuli transcript of the opening address made by Omoto leaders, but it is only available in
Japanese.
Like al1 of the other sites studied in this paper, the Japanese portion of the Omoto
website is by far the largest, covenng a greater variety of topics and in a more detailed
fashion. Similar to the English page, beneath the main Omoto banner at the top of the
page are two columns containing the most recently added material (!ZIRB# koshin joho) on the left, and links to the fundamentals of Omoto on the right (&JITa %Cà. Z
% % 6 Hnjmete no kotn ha kochira ha),similar to the "What is Omoto?" section.
Between the two columns are two small graphics which provide links to the most recent
Omoto book and another to the anti-organ donation campaign. Figure 2. Omotokyo Website
r Omoto LO~O "Igi 1 1 Non-Donor Book / New Materid Introductory Matenai: -Holy Land, Leaders, History, Organization Activities, Teachings and Ceremonies -
Banner for anti-brain-death campaign
Event Guide Guide to Omoto Training Courses Omoto News
Towards Tackling the Ethical Problems of Life
Religious Group's Policy
Books and Media 1 Links
1 Send a Message to Omoto t 1 Ï Link to i-mode pages Youth Group Page
Lmks to EsperantoJnglish, Pomiguese, and Rommi pages The "New Contents" column provides a iink to the most recently added contents of the page, and is arranged by date, rather than by topic. Generally, content remains in the "new" section for about one month, although dunng times when updates are Iess frequent, items may be feanired for as long as two to three months.
The "Introduction to Omoto" contains the same topical divisions as found on the foreign language pages: "Holy Land" (%a~eichi)'~~ dealing with the twin headquarters in Kameoka and Ayabe; "Religious Leaders" (@fH kyoso),'" giving biographies of the group's founders and their successors, '*History" (!fi!!* rekishi),'" on the group's history;
*oOrganizationand Activities" (#lii$i%&~ soshiki ro katsirdo),'"'> on Omoto' s organization and the activities that it pursues; "Teachings and Texts" (Bk k&& oshie to kyo~z),'~~ and "Art Work of the Omoto Leaders" (~1f&k~Et;i.f%1 rrlodui kyoshu geijutsir sukzrhin). ' ''
Below the nvo columns is a banner for the anti-brain death campaign "Brain death is not a person's death!" (BéhK Ca A QI& T Lk h Y % -@X, ! noshi )va hito no shi de )va arimasen)."' tt leads to a page which explains Omoto's opposition to the concept of brain death, based on the belief that a body that breathes, sweats and has a beating heart is still dive and should be treated accordingly. Below the exphnation of the group's position, users are invited to add their name to a petition against the acceptance of the concept of brain death by the Japanese government. This is accomplished by having users submit their names and addresses (and thase of their famiy members) via a fom on the web page. In addition, users can submit an e-mail address to which Mer information on brain death issues and Omoto's activities surrounding it can be sent. At the bottom of the page are links to the non-organ donor ~arn~ai~n,'~~and the book "1 have an objectiony'(A~h 9 Igi ad)"' which deals with the group's stance on brain death and organ transplantation. In this way, Omoto has created a means by wkch believers (or even casual web surfers) can participate in political actions undertaken by the central headquarters. Believers who are not comected to an Omoto goup (such as
Japanese nationals living abroad) and others who are unable to maintain physical contact with Omoto members are able to support the group's ethical beliefs. It is obvious from the content of the website that the Intemet is not the primary means of communication for this campaign. Rather than providing a large number of facts or arguments against the practice of organ donation, a simple suminary is given and users are directed to the "best- selling" book on the subject, available across the country. The Intemet is not regarded as the appropriate place to provide detailed information, nor is it seen to have a wide enough appeal. The collection of names and signatures for a petition is currently being undertaken by the headquarters and branch churches of Omoto in lapan. This opens the possibility for church Leaders to persuade members in a face-to-face situation, and also allows the group to idorm non-members about the issue and solicit support. This kind of proactive carnpaigning is not possible on the Intemet, which requires a user to actively choose and locate a site to view. The number of people who could possibly take part in this kind of online political activity is Limited to those who have the means to do so (some kind of htemet access) and the desire to find the site and pursue the issue.
A significant part of the main page is taken up by a series of topic headings with a
list of links to related pages. Each of the topic headings acts as a iink to a page which
provides a Merlist of Links to pages with specific 'articles' on that subject. On the main page, beneath the topic banner, is a List of the articles and their titles and dates. In general, the Links provided on the main page beneath the banners are identical to the links presented when the banner itself is chosen, making the secondary page redundant. There is no clear reason for Listing the same information and links in two separate places on the site.
The "Events" (fi%gyoji) page'55provides a list of the upcoming year's events, arranged in a simple table. The date, day of the week, narne of the event and its location are listed, with most events taking place at one of the two headquarters. Because there are no explanations of the activities and their significance, this page is obviously directed towards current members.
The *'Omoto News" (A&= 3. - Oomoto nyu-ir) ~ection"~contains a series of pages, one for each recently held event. A iink on the left side of the page allows the user to choose the news 'article' From a list which has the date, location and the titie of the event. Each 'article7consists of a briefdescription of the event followed by four to six photographs. The text tends to concentrate on describing the actual activities involved in the event, and often has littie comment on the religious or doctrinal significance of the activities. in addition to the current year, there is an archive of the news items poaed to the website in 1999 and 1998. The 1999 news pages generally confon to the same format as the current year's entnes. The 19% pages generaiiy contain fewer photographs and more text, with a more detailed description and greater discussion of the doctrinal signiticance of the event .
"Leader's Greetings at Festivals" (kgtd: y o)&%#gTaisai nado kyosh aisa~.sztr)'~~contains iinks to the addresses made by the group's Ieader Deguchi Kiyoko /?l a &F(1935- ) at various festivals, rituals and other special occasions. These range from a New Year's address, to the major ceremony held for the Buddhist figure of Miroku.
Each of the pages contains a fiIl transcnpt of the leader's address, but unlike the news pages, no photographs are included. Links are also provided to a series of addresses made by the head priest of the headquarters ($SE hohicho). These addresses are similar to those made by the leader, having been made at the opening of an Omoto festival. Ln addition to a hl1 transcript of the speech of the most recent address (April 5" at the time of research) by the leader, a portion was recorded and converted into an audio fild5* The excerpt, which lasts about one and a half minutes, is hmthe first few lines of the speech. This audio clip has been saved in a format that is compatible with both
Macintosh and IBM-PC computers, but as a result it is a large file which requires a great
ded of time to download. By choosing a file format which is compatible with al1 operating systems and does not require additional programs (for example a specialized
p!ayer for other file formats such as MP3), more users are able to use the file, but because
of its six, they are limited in their ability to download it. The drive to make information
accessible to as many people as possible is confounded by the nature of Intemet access
and usage in lapan: high expense and generally low access speeds make dowdoading
large files difficult.
The year's plan, or rnanifesto is presented in the "Religious Group's Policy" (@
k& @odm hoshin) section. 15' Policy documents are available for 2000 and 1999,
and there is aiso a policy document for the Youth Group (Bq%seinenbu)16' for 1999.
Each document is very long and detaiied, each about six full printed pages in length, but
has no credits for authorship. The documents outhe Omoto's general policies and goals, such as "revival of the Japanese spirit" or the "establishment of life ethics", as weil as providing relatively detailed information on their positions on specific topics, such as the current campaign against the concept of brain death and organ transplantation. The specific activities which will be undertaken during the year in the pursuit of these objectives (both generai and specific) are listed. For group activities organized by headquarters, dates and locations for specific ceremonies are given, including those activities intended to be perfomed by members across the country. In addition to the information on group activities, the activities that individual rnembers can undertake are also explored; these include recruiting new members, the continuation of readiag (#% haidoh, "reverential reading") certain texts and Blling out a "non-donor card. The fact
that these policy documents are kept separate corn the introductory material shows that they are intended primarily for long-time members, or those who are truly interested in
the group's overall goals. Interestingly, the practical, real world activities of the group
have been separated from an explanation of the group's beliefs; the founder's teachings
and the group's current practices are not similar enough that they can be easily combined.
"Recent Omoto Assertions" (z{fPXk*o>2% kindni no Oomoto no shcho)
sectiod6' contains a series of pages which contain wrîtten declarations (FM seimei),
opinions (RN kenkai) and dernands (~~~yobosho),written in recent years by the
Omoto leaders. Most are from the past three years, but one dates back as far as 199 1
They deal with a variety of abjects (such as nuclear proliferation in hdia and
~akistan)'~~but the most recent ones are dominated by declarations regarding the group's
opposition to brain death. The newest declarations are formatted much iike a standard
paper-medium news release with the group' s name, address and contact information at the top beside the topic of the declaration. Most of these have been presented to municipal and prefectural govemors, although several on brain death/transplantation were presented to the association for Japanese medical schools.
The "Links7' section ( Y 9 3 @ rinhi shr)16"of the page is virtually identical to the one found in the English version, with the exception that there is a larger number of
Esperanto sites listed: both domestic groups and those overseas have their own section, with many of those pages noted as being in Esperanto ody.
From the main page, there is a link called "Send a Message to Ornoto" (A*-
% Y * - 9 %(gOmoto e messeji no soshin). 16' On this page, users are invited to relate their opinions, feelings and questions. A fom is provided where those people who wish to send a message cm input their names, e-mail addresses and any comrnents or questions they may have. Inquiries sent through the web page are read briefly by the website manager and are then divided up for response by a group of volunteers around the country. These volunteers will receive one or more e-mails From the Omoto webmaster and are expected to provide a response. Different volunteers (often believers
who are working to raise their rank within the group) are assigned different types of e-
mails: general comrnents, questions and overseas. There are usually several people
attending to each category. In each case, the member attempts to continue a diaiogue
through e-mail and encourage the user to pursue their interest in Omoto through their
nearest local branch. The group's address, telephone and fax numbers, as weil as the
webmaster's e-mail address are also provided so that those who are uncornfortable using
(or unable to use) the fonn are able to contact the group. The purpose of this feedback
and inquiry form seems to be to create an active diaiogue between curious Lnternet users and the group through well-placed and trusted current believers. Ultimately the purpose of the these dialogues is to encourage the user to seek out a local Omoto group and begin participating.
The youth association of Omoto has its own set of web pages, although they are currently very simple. It has been designed as if it is its own separate web page,166 having an "openhg page" which then leads to a main page with a list of the other pages contained. The top link takes the user to a combined "Organization and History" page
(à%$% s~shiki)'~~which lists the group's cunent executive committee as well as a brief history and the current year's policy document, similar to that found in the "Religious
Group's Policy" ($%Bk$#kyodan hoshin) section. Most of the members of the executive committee have an e-mail address, hosted by the Omoto headquarters, so that they can be contacted. Another page, deaiing with the group's activities (&@fT$ kakz~shugy~ji)'~~ provides information on the current activities of the group, with emphasis on the upcoming youth group festival %$%E2000 (seishonensai 2000). A detailed outline of the events is provided with descriptions of ciasses, ntuals and activities which rnembers cm participate in.'69 At the bottom of the page are links to three files (in Adobe PDF format) which can be dowdoaded and are intended to be printed out. One file is a srnail poster which can be printed out to promote the upcomllig event among local Omoto members, another is an application form to participate, and the last is an even more detailed outline of the event, dong with the rules and regdations that must be obsewed. Another page provides Links to other application forms for the group, in this case application for membership in the youth group or an application for entrance into a training program. Both these files have been made available in the easily printed PDF fle format. There are also two unfinished ('mpjunbichu) links on the main youth group page, one for a cultural exchange program, and the other for an odine version of a youth group newsletter. The youth group's web pages seem to be an attempt to provide a means for young Omoto members who are not near an existing youth group to get information on the activities being plamed by the headquarters group. This section of the website is being utiliied to organize the widely dispersed members of the youth group, capitalizing on the communicative abilities of the Intemet.
The "Guide to Courses at the Omoto Grand Hall" (%kk%#%abida%#Y
Ornom daidojo kmno onnai) section'70 contains a list of the lecture series taught at the headquarters building in Kameoka. Each course lasts five days, with a dserent lecture scheduled for the morning, aflemoon and evenings on a wide variety of topics including the deities of Omoto, the ongin of the universe and the purpose of human life. The main koza page provides a quick surnmary of the course, some of the topics covered and directions showing how to get to Kameoka in order to attend a lecture. Further links are used to @vernore detailed information. A one page "Lecture ~uide"'~'(%@O%& koza no annai) provides a schedule for the classes and a longer explmation of content of each of these classes. Another page has testirnonids fiom believers who have attended the lecture c~urse,'~'and a second page provides a schedule of the dates on which the course wiii be given for the upcorning ten months.In A third page (ki$%$~gdaidajo no mado)'" presents a senes of essays menby a member about undertaking ascetic practices ((@'Fishrgyo) at the headquarters training hall. A great number of these essays, and indeed much of the rest of the "Guide to Courses'? section, is concemed with extohg the value of the lecture courses and emphasizing their necessity. Members are strongly encouraged to attend, and links to train scheddes and road maps are provided to facilitate the travel of those making the trip from far away.
One of the largest sections of the entire Omoto website is the "Towards Tackling the Problems of Life's Ethics" (%&%j%!~d@--D~!l #&b seïmeironri mondai e no
This page is divided into two colurnns, showing the two main ethical problems to which Omoto has tumed its attention. The lefk hand column is entitled
"Activities Against Genetically Modified Products" (@fi?-$H%kfF% !CE%%6 irh kendenshi kumikae sakirmotsu ni hantai nrru knts~ido). which is the newest campaign started by the group. This column has only two links: the first leads to a declaration of protest made in 1997, presented to an unspecified group.'" and the second goes to another page which deals specifically with the issue of genetically modified foods. Over the course of 13 separate pages written in a very informal style, genetic manipulation and its history are explained, and a great deal is written about the dangers of this technology.
A link at the top of the page encourages users to submit their reactions and opinions
through the "Send a Message to Omoto" (Omoto e rnesseji no soshirz) page discussed earlier.
The "Activities Against Brain DeathIOrgan Transplantation" column(!ii& B%
%.ibi l=EMt5 ?i%h noshiioki ishokir ni hantai SII~katsirdo) on the main ethics page
is much larger than that for genetic alteration, which suggests that it is the primary focus
of social and politicai activity for the group. The links is this colum have been Mer
subdivided into more specific categories, unusuai in that this type of classification is
generaiiy not employed elsewhere on the site. General Ws have been placed at the top,
with subsections below them for "Data for Considering the Problem of Brain Death" (a 9 %&QI2%nosh1,zoki ishoktr ni kaisurii Oomuto no shucho), and "Users' Opinions"
($-Ad- 3 lz S hT=gRhomu peji ni yosareta ikken). Under the general iieading are links to pages dealin3 witli the non-dorior card1" (a walfet-sized cud which states that the member does not wish to be considered for organ transplantation), the anti- brain death book "Igi ari!"178 (previously discussed), and a page which dows the user to enter their name to a petition electronicdly or to downioad a petition which can be printed and returned to Omoto headquarters. 17' Under the "Data" section, there are several links to pages with very detailed and extensive information on brain death and organ transplantation. One link takes the user to another set of seventeen pages covering ail aspects of the topic: the nature of life and death, the relationship between the sou1 (%
reikon), physical body (RBnikirrai) and the brain (Biw no), and a description of what
happens to the body of an organ donor after death. ''O At the bottorn of each of these
pages are links to the pages for the non-donor card, "Igi ari!" and the printable petition.
Other links under the "Data" section include an extensive question and answer page, which features the most commonly asked questions about brain death and organ donation,
a link to "Igi an, and a dowdoadable sixteen-page booklet explaining the process of
organ donation and Omoto's opposition to it. The link under the heading of "Assertions
on Brah Death" leads to the "Omoto' s Assertions" (ilif% k*Qlr@Kindai no
Omoto no shcho) pages, which are dorninated by declarations and official protestations
against brain death, largely delivered to politicians. Finally, at the boaom of the column
is a set of links listed under "Users' Opinions", which leads the user to a page which has three short submissions (it is unclear whether they have been excerpted or edited).18'
Usen are identified by age range (20's, 30's or 40's) and gender but not by name. Each of the submissions clearly States how forcefully the author feels about these issues, and all are in complete agreement with the Omoto position. At the bottom of the page, users are encouraged to submit their own opinions about the subject. Despite that encouragement, nothhg has been added to the page during the penod of this study.
The "Publications and Media" (8%& % 7,7 shoseki !O medein) ~ection''~ provides access to the wide variety of publications and other media produced by Ornoto and its associated publishing Company. Under the heading of "Newly Published Books"
($%fils%shirrkcn~shoseki), there are links to eight books, with most but not dl of the books having been given a separate page. A picture of the Front cover of each book is shown next to a brief description of the book, dong with the complete publishing information such as the number of pages, publisher and ISBN number, to make ordering
it at a bookstore easier. The length of detail of the descriptions of the books varies.
Some have a basic summary of the topics covered, while others contain a complete table
of contents and a lengthy explanation of the importance of the book within Omoto. The complete collection of Deguchi Onisaburo's writings has been given a relatively larger description as well as a number of photographs of Onisaburo himself While several of the books featured have links which are supposed to allow the user to read a sample of the book (% a 9 2 7s5 5 chott0 yonde mini), during the period of this study, none of them has worked. Two of the book pages also include reactions kom readers, formatted in a similar manner to those tiom the "EthicsY'section, with gender and age range indicated, but not names. These reviews either praise the books for their insight, or provide a testimonial on how the book solved a panicular problem and changed the reader's life. At the bonom of each book page is a link to the website which belongs to
Tenseisha, the Omoto pubiishing Company. Lnterestingly, only the most recent books published by the group are featured on the pages within the Omoto website; a fuii iist of older books is found on the Tenseisha website.
Under the heading of "Monthly Publications" (1PH~ Fjl-fil fi @ gekkm kankomono), there are links to two of the Omoto monthly publications, one for the Omoto
($33& 2 oomoto), and the other for the Omoto monthiy ne~s~a~er'~''(A%%g%i9i8aq jijinri aizrn shiribtrn). Each of these links takes the user to another page which shows the cover of the curent issue and its table of contents, dong with the publishing information.
A list of links on the lefi side of the page provides access to similar information for back issues, dating back until May of 1998, when the website was first started. A link at the bottom of both pages takes the user to an order form which allows them to subscribe to any of the four monthly magazines (there are three magazines in addition to Omoto) or the monthly newspaper. hother link provides the opportunity to order back issues of the magazines. Athough users cmorder online, it is not possible to pay online, and invoices are sent by mail with the kst issue of a subscription.
A Link is provided to the website operated by the Omoto publishing Company,
Ten~eisha.'~~This website is not operated through the main Omoto website, but rather
fiom a commercial Internet service provider. It is through this website that users cm
order Omoto books, tapes, CDS and videos oniine. Books are generaily organized by
author, with Nao and Onisaburo's works being featured most prominently. Many books
are dso arranged in more general categones such as monthiy publications or didonaries (borh for Omoto's religious beliefs and Esperanto). As mentioned earlier, although users cm order products online, unlike many other oniine book sellers (including those selling
Kofuku no Kagaku books), the option to pay for them online is not available.
Unlike the Tenri website, which has several pages on their radio and television programs, the Omoto radio program does not have its own page, only a small listing on the main page, under the "Publications and Media" section. The frequency and theof the weekly broadcasts are listed, and unOte other websites for new religious groups which also have radio programs, there is no information on the contents of past or upcoming programs.
At the bottom of the "Publications and Media" section are links to "alternate" versions of the Omoto website. One is a page which gives the user a choice to view the foreign language sites, and the other link leads to an i-mode page. The i-mode was created in April of 2000, to cater to the exploding popularity of the ce11 phone-based i-mode Internet access. As a result of the limitations on graphics imposed by the i-mode method of htemet access, these pages are very simple in form. Currentiy, there are four links and three pages (two links lead to the same page), dealing with the training courses offered at the headquarters in Kameoka. The first page expiains the purpose of the training course, '" the second contains a condensed outline of the program[88and the third provides a list of the dates on which the courses are offered.lS9 Obviously, these pages are only usefùl to current members interested in taking these courses. Analysis
The Omoto site features both Japanese and foreign languages, and a great deal of information covering a wide variety of topics from biographies of the group's founders to information on recentiy published books, and activities undertaken by the headquarters group. The analysis of their websites can reveal not ody the2 attitude towards the use of this new medium, but also some recent developments in the group's own doctrines.
In terms of the technical sophistication of the web pages, Omoto fdls in the middle of the spectrurn: it is neither the most advanced, nor the simplest. Most of the pages contain simple text with few graphics and a sparing use of photos, mostly of cunent and past leaders or to iliustrate news stories detailing recent rituals conducted at headquarters. There is some use of other types of multi-media files, but it is relatively lirnited. There are a few easily printed booklets in Adobe Acrobat format, and a single audio recording of Taniguchi Kiyoko's speech.
Centralization is one the most prominent characteristics of the Omoto website.
The Japanese headquarters created and maintains control over the foreign language sites, unlike many other groups which have their central church for each country create its own website. Unlike other groups, notably T~M,Omoto does not maintain a List of member's homepages or provide links to regional churches. Although other sites or churches are mentioned in passing, the Omoto website focuses almost entirely on the activities undenaken at the two headquarters sites in Kameoka and Ayabe.
The ability to comect members who are separated by great distance with one another through the Internet is largely unused by the Omoto website. There is very Little interaction between local groups or between those groups and the headquarters. However, there is a Limited degree of interactivity available through the site. Questions and comments can be sent through e-mail, and members can particpate in the carnpaign against organ donation by submitting names and addresses for the petition. The comments and opinions sent in by users are sometimes used as testimonials or recomrnendations for books that are discussed. Despite these possiblities for interaction, it is important to note that it is highly centralized and supervised communication, meaning that al1 interactions are conducted through the headquarters website. A less restrictive form of communication and interaction would be unmoderated and take place directly between members through chat roorns or electronic bulletin boards. The importance of the headquarters group has influenced the way in which the Internet is used.
Aithough the Japanese site and the foreign langage sites are al1 administered through the headquarters and are maintained by one individual, there are many differences between them, both in terms of design and in content. The Japanese site is much larger and more complex than the foreign language sites; it has links to a wider variety of topics which are given a more thorough examination and explanation. This is mostly a reflection of the group's primary following being Iapanese speakers (both in
Japan and abroad). Before it was redesigned and upgraded in May 1,2000, the Japanese
site had an identicai design and format to the one used in the foreign language site. The extensive work done to change the Japanese site indicates its importance relative to the others: because it serves the group's core audience, the Japanese site is the most
important. DZFerences of design and format aside, there are several significant
dserences between the Japanese and non-Japanese sites. The foreign language sites
focus on introducing users to the group's founders, basic beiiefs and the books which have been translated into that language. The writings and activities of the two CO- founders of the group are particularly emphasized. In contrast, the Japanese site has a heavy emphasis on the group's social and political actions, currently the campaign against brain death and organ transplantation, as well as others. The addresses and wntings of the current leader are found in many different foms tbroughout the site. The foreign language pages focus on the histoncd founding and religious doctrine of the group, where the Japanese pages focus on current activities and the application of the those doctrines in a worldly (and ofien political) way. Where the non-Japanese sites can be said to be situated in the past, the Japanese site has positioned itself in the present, looking towards a future that it wants to shape. The primary audience for the foreign language pages seems to be people who are not currently members of Omoto, but rather those who want to know basic background information about the group; thus the limited nature of the pages. The primary audience for the Japanese site however, seems to be those Japanese individuals who are already members of the group and want to stay in touch with the headquarters, and as a result the Japanese website contains a great deal about current activities and the rituals and festivals held at the headquarters.
Throughout the dEerent Omoto websites, there are a number of inconsistencies and incomplete pages. On the English language site, the odine version of Deguchi Nao's biography has been "in-progress" for over a year. This is despite the fact that it is not a
uew work, but is simply being transferred fkom printed book form ro an electronic forrn.
The Portuguese and Esperanto sites have had their teachings sections 'ûnder
constniction" for a similar amount of the. Links which should aiiow a user to read
excerpts eom a book create errors or do not work. The i-mode pages were added recentiy to cater to the new means by which many Japanese users access the Internet, but the content is very sparse. These reved the group's attitude to the use of the Intemet: any kind of internet presence, whether it is incornpiete or outdated, is desirable. Cha~ter5 - Perfect Libertv
History
Perfect Liberty Kyodan 1%- 7 r 3 b Y / "PL Kyodan" or more simply, "PL") was officially founded in September of 1946 by Miki ~okuchika.'~~It was in fact an evolution of two other new religious movements which had been started decades before. Tokuchika's father, Miki Tokuhani, was a foliower of Tokumitsukyo, a new religion which taught the unity of Shinto and Buddhism, and was based on 18 Precepts delivered to the leader in a divine vision. Prior to his own death in1 9 19, the leader, Tokumitsu, commanded his rnost faithfùl follower Miki Tokuhani to pray at his gave until a final set of three precepts was revealed to him. Mer five years of prayer, the final three precepts were revealed to Tokuharu, and he founded the new Tokumitsukyo in 1924, and changed the name to Hitonornichi (The Path of Man) in 193 1.Ig1 Having witnessed the troubles encountered by other new religions in deding with the militarist govemment and the policy of the Emperor's divinity and the supremacy of Amaterasu as the ultimate deity, Tokuharu made several doctrinal accommodations to the group's beliefs. However, these changes did not filly satisfj the govement, and Tokuhani was jailed in 1937. Ig2 Tokuham's son, Tokuchika became the leader of fitonornichi, and was also quickly arrested and kept in prison until the Occupation govement released political prisoners fiom Japanese jails. Tokuchika founded Perfect Liberty Kyodan in September of 1946, and "revealed the 2 1 Precepts of the goup (dthough these were identical to the ones his father had revealed before). lg3 Tokuchika retained control of the goup util his death in 1983 when his adopted son assumed the role of leader (oshieoya). Although he did not actually start the current group, PL Kyodan, Tokuhani is dways referred to as the founder of the religion, and treated accordingly. Perfect Liberty's teachings are very worldly, focusing on ways to make existence in this world as fhitful as possible. Like many other Japanese new religions, faith healing holds an important role within PL belief Sickness and misfortune are regarded as divine messages sent by the PL deity, Mioya Okami, as a means of correcting a lack of adherence to the group's teachings.Ig" When a member experiences an illness or problem, he conmlts his local minister, and a request for advice is submitted to headquarters in Tondabayashi, near Osaka. The response, called a mioshie, written by the leader or another high ranking official at headquarters, gives instructions on how the believer can change his lifestyle to correct and overcome the problem. The most fundamental and often repeated doctrine within PL is the idea that "Life is Art'' (hïltr#?'jT &i 6 jinsri >vageijirtsr de mi). According to this doctrine, God (Mioya Okami) is the artist who created the universe, and in order to become attuned to God, a person must [ive Me as artistically as possible.'g5 The understanding of art and the artistic in Perfect Liberty is very broad, covering any action that cm involve personal expression, whether it is fine art, salesmanship or manual labour. lg6 Self-expression, and the sense of "intuition" that creates self-expression, are thought to be the ability to ben to the "whispers of ~od",'~'therefore, the more a person expresses himself through dady activities, the closer to God he becornes. Although a positive outcome is desirable, it is not so much the level of skill with which a particuiar "art" is performed that is important, but rather the attitude with which it is pursued. Although PL beliefs can seem almost self-centred in their promotion of any activity, even foms of recreation, as a fom of prayer, the group and its doctrines also promote the interests of others. Two of the 2 1 Precepts, the fundamental teachings of the group, are explicitly aimed at helping others; Precepts 1O (strive for creating mutual happiness) and 14 (al1 is for world peace), both prescribe selfless actions to benefit others.lg8 Many of the non-religious activities which are organized by the group are for the benefit of members and non-members aiike: agicultural and scientSc research has been shared with other universities and companies, and health check-up are provided free of charge at health centers maintained by the group. .4lthough Perfect Liberty itself is monotheistic, members are not required to give up their former religious beliefs, but are encouraged to continue practising thern. This is a point that PL literature stresses strongly when it presents itself to non-members in an effort to distance itself fiom other more aggressive new religious groups and cuits. Perfect Liberty is relatively famous within Iapan because of the many non- religious activities which it organizes. In the Kansai area, it is well known for the fireworks display which it creates on the first of August every year. Non-members from across the Kansai area travel to the neighbourhoods surrounding the main sanctuary in Tondabayashi to watch the show. The group is also well known throughout Japan because the high school basebd team f?om the Perfect Liberty Gakuen, the PL-run school system, enters the finals of the nationally televised high school basebaii tournament almost every year. Internet The Perfect Liberty website (Figure 3)"' reflects the doctrine of self-expression: it is brightly coloured, and features a number of graphics and icons that present the user with a seiection of clearly demarcated choices in a simple manner. The top of the page features the group's name and a scrolling message window which displays current information, or an invitation to click on a particular link. Below this is a set of links arranged in two columns accompanied by icons which represent the link: "New Information" (%@RBshinchakzr joho), "Peace Tower" (kql%%,&@$daihewci kinen /O), "What is PL?" (PL 7 TfbLf-"? 3 '? PL-tte nundnro?), "PL Holy Sanctuary" (PL u3PidI PL no seichi), "What are PL's Teachings?" (PL la &Lk&Yt;i ? PL wu donna oshie), "The Leader" (Oshieoya), "Question and hswer" (gpd1 \ 6C \ 5 shitmmon iroiro) and "PL's Cultural Activities" (PL a)%fk~%mPL no bmka katsudo). Below those two columns are two more links, one for the ''The Story of One's Expenence" (& %%4' -9' toikendm peiji) and the "Links Page7' ( Y > 9 d- ./ rinhr peiji). Below these two links is the Perfect Liberty Churches (PL @sPL kpkai) section, which is divided into domestic churches ( El *QI$!&Nihon no kyokai) and overseas churches (& kufgai kyokai) with sections for North Amenca, South Amenca and "Other". Below this are three smd Links which provide access to an introduction to PL in Engiish, Spanish and Portuguese. However, these links are provided only in Japanese, which raises the question of their usefulness for users who camot read Japanese. At the bonom of the page is copyright information, a visitor counter and a iînk to contact the webmaster. Figure 3 Perfect Liberty Site Large Perfect Liberty Logo Scrolling Message Bar Newly Amved Peace Tower Info mation r--What is PL? PL Holy Sanctuary What are PL'S Oshieoya (Leader) Teachings? -7 Question and f L's Cultural hswer Activities Links Domestic Churc hes America, South Amenca, Other -- - - Links to English, Spanish, Pomiguese Pages Copyright uiformation and Contact Information The "New Information" page (%s4F$fishinchnkir joh~),~~~rather than containing actual new information, provides a set of links (twelve throughout the penod of research) to the most recently updated pages within the entire Japanese website. The title of the page, and the date it was changed are provided, without any further description. The "Stones of One's Experience" (taikendan) page and the "Links" page are the two most frequently changed pages and appear several tirnes. May of the links are over a year old but seem to have been retained because they represent issues important to the group. There are a number of links which lead to pages dealing with the group's reaction to recent changes in laws regarding religious groups, referred to as the Religious Institution Law ($?$$&A&shirkyo hojh ho), which has been changed as a result of the Aum Incident in 1995. The "New Information" page seems to have a dual purpose, guiding members to information which is genuinely new within the site, but also keeping certain issues active within the minds of users. The "Peace Tower" (kv8~8&%daiheiwa kinen tu) page 201 provides information about the PL Tower in Tondabayashi. Next to a large photograph of the tower, there is information on the opening times for the tower as well as for the surrounding garden. A Li& is provided to another page which provides information on the history and purpose of the tower, including an explanation of how the tower reflects the precept that "Life is Art". Another link provides the schedule for the annuai New Year's cefebrations which are conducted in and around the tower. At the bottom of the kst page dealing with the tower there is also information about speciai exhibits or events. The "What is PL?" (PL 9 7 fb h/ ff 6 5 ? PL-tte nan daro ?) page 'O2 explains what the name of the group means, giving a translation of the English name "Perfect Liberty" into Japanese and a very brief explanation of how it relates to the group's beliefs. PL's headquarters is described and explained in the "PL Holy Land (PL D%%!! Pl rio ~eichi)~'~page. An aerial photo of the main sanctuary precedes a brief history of the site and detailed description of each of the buildings. Within the text description, each of the building names is a iiito a page with even more detailed information on the particuiar building. Ln addition, the large pbotograph acts as a link to a page which contains photos of each of the major buildings. In turn, each of these photographs acts as a link to another copy of the photo from the previous page and a more detailed description which can be accessed through the text links mentioned above. The fundamental teachings of PL Kyodan are introduced in the "What are PL's teachings?" (PL Ca (r' AJ $2 & 2 ? PL )va donna oshie?).'04 Accompanied by a smdl piece of art by a member, the page is divided into seven sections: "The Laws of Human Life" (h%a jinsei no horit~r),~~'"The Fundamentals of Belief' (lg(qQI &* shinko no kihon), "PL'S History" (PL a@% PL no reki~hi),~'~"The Declarations of PL" (PL ZZ PL ~en~en),~'''"The PL Way of Life" (PL &@lll PL sho~eikzrn),''~"The Benefits of Following the PL Lifestyle" (PL f8{m&&Lh# shinko seikatsu kokor~e),~" and "PL Rites and Ceremonies" (PL $$$fisc~iten).~'~ With the exception of ''Fundamentals of Belief7,each of these general headings acts as a link to another page which explains the generai topic in more detail. "The Fundamentals of Belief' section is subdivided into eight sub-categones, each one dealing with a separate idea. Each of these sub-categories explains one of the words or concepts which are unique to PL, such as hosho, daily placement of money before the PL altar, or oyashikirz, the PL prayer.211 Some of the topics are explained in a great deal of detail (for example "The Laws of Human Life"), while others (such as the 2 1 Precepts presented in "The PL Way of Life") are presented with no context at ail. Many of the pages feature photographs taken by PL rnembers, either of statuary located at the main sanctuary or generic scenes unrelated to the topic under discussion. Several of the detailed pages contain links to other pages which deal with related topics (for example, a mention of one of the leaders will include a link to bis biography page). Throughout this section there are several links to the page which explains the doctrine of "Life is Art" (hQIAa@?th 5 jirzsei \va geijzitm de mi), reinforcing the importance of this idea in the group's beliefs. The "PL Rites" page contains nothing but links: one for each of the four major annual festivals (a yo~zdaisai)2'2,monthly rituals (- Li i%ichi no hirn~iri),"~and another for daily individuai ntuals (@lh~%%&kojin no sai~en).~'" The pages contained under the "What are PL'S Teachings?" link are obviousiy intended for prospective members, as the section explains the most fundamental teachings of the group, which a current member would already know quite well. As with many other new religious groups in Japan, the current leader and founder are very important figures within their doctrine, usudy representing a direct link to the deity or knowledge central to the group's beliefs. The "Leadei' ($5 L kSQ oshieoya, lit. "teacher-parent", the PL term for the leader)21spage provides a brief biography of Miki Takahito (a*%El k),the current leader of PL, dong with his officiai portrait. A LUik to the "Previous Leadersy'page (~~~~ rekidai ky~so)~'~provides bnef information on the two previous leaders, including the founder Miki Tokuhani. As with the previous page, each biography is accompanied by the official portrait of each leader. However, the founder does not receive a significantly larger biography than either of the other two leaders, which is unusual considering the emphasis which Japanese new religions usually place on the founder of the group. A series of cornmody asked questions which aise when a person considers joining Perfect Liberty are dealt with on the TLQ&A9' [sic] page(gP4 L i,\ 4 i, \ 6 shirs~trnoi~iroir~).~" Questions about particular obligations entaiied in joining the group are explained, such as the forrn of prayer used, rnonetary obligations and whether a new member must disavow any fonerly practised religions. The answers are short and witte~iin an informal style, and some feature links to further information within the text. The discussion of monetary obligations and donations has a link to a page about the PL weekly newspaper, which is not necessluy but is recommended reading, and the topic of religious exclusivity is supplemented with a Link to the Union of New Religious ~overnents,"~which explains that group's stance on the issue. Throughout the page, there are cartoon illustrations drawn fiom the New Member's Handbook published by Perfect Liberty for distribution to those who are interested in the gro~p.219Like many of the other pages in the PL site, the "PL Q&A" page is intended solely for those users who are not members of the group and are considering joining. It provides basic information about what is entailed in becoming a member of the religion, and emphasizes the benign nature of the group, without singling out other movements against which they might be compared (such as Soka Gakkai's insisteme on religious exclusivity). Although members are not required to take part, Perfect Liberty organizes a wide range of activities and groups which members cmjoui in order to pursue the doctrine that "Life is Art". These activities are explained in the pages comected to the "PL Cultural Activities" section (PL *fkl6!& PL bzinkn katmdo). The page provides links to three yeneral categories of activities: "Educational Activities" ($%BE!&kyoiku katnrd~),"~ *Scientific Research Acûvities'' (~"&%~!& kagaku kenkylr kat~lrdo)~~'and "Publishing Activities" (m&l%Bshppan kat sud^).^'' Each of these links takes the user to a page which provides more information on the activities undertaken by PL which fall under that particular category. The "Publishing Activities" page outlines a bief history of the publishing history of PL, as far back as its roots in the 1920's (as ~itonomichi).The description of current publishing activities is very general, describing the types of books, magazines, newspapers and CDS which the group produces, but mentioning only a few actuai titles. The "Educational Activities" page has a relatively long exposition on Perfect Liberty's attitude to the raising and education of children, namely that it must foster creativity without being completely anarchic, and that it must preserve Japanese culture while also creating a desire for international peace and exchange. Arranged dong the left hand side of the page is a series of links for aii of the activities and groups which PL organizes to achieve these goals. Links are provided to the following organizations: PL Tea Ceremony Organization (PL %% chado[sic])," PL Rower Arrangîng (PL ss kado)," PL Marching Band and Baton Twirling Association (PLMBA),"' PL Music (PL %% ~rt~aktr),~~~the PL School System (PL %m gakren)227and the Kappa-za Theatre Troupe (BI rb Y 1% gekih kaPPma).228Each of these groups has a page which features one or more photographs of members perîorming the activity, dong with an explanarion of how it fits into PL doctrines. In the case of activities which are considered traditional Japanese arts, such as Bower arranging or tea ceremony, the different attitude with which the PL foms are pursued is emphasized to show how speciai they are. The pages for both the PL School System and the Kappa-za Troupe contain Links to their own websites, which are created and maintained separately from the main Perfect Liberty site. The generai tone of this section is one of differentiating the group's activities from those pursued by non- members. The PL doctrine of creating self-expression in everythmg is emphasized many times, and the phrase "Life is Art" (A4 13 SNT&, 6jinsei )va geïjzutslr de uni) is mentioned repeatedly throughout. The particular focus of these activities is reinforced, as well as the goal toward which they are working. The "Scientific Research Activities" page descnbes PL's attitude towards the integration of "hard science dealing with the physical realm with the spintual and metaphysical foci of Perfect Liberty. The two do not conflict, but rather complement eacb other. The main page outlines PL's stance on the relation between science and faith, as well as giving a brief sumrnary of the longstanding scientific interests which PL has rnaintained since its earliest days in the 1920'~~as weii as providing briefinformation about the group's many dEerent medicd and heaith facilities around Japan. As with the -'Educationai Activities" page, to the lefi of the text on the main "Science" page, there are five links to the specific facilities rnaintained by the group: the PL Comprehensive Research hstitute (PL &'A A bff%BPL sogo kenky~rjo),"~the PL Botanical Research Institute (PL @@BR% S~O~ZI~ZI~SUkenkyir~),~~ the PL Hospital (PL %EPL and the PL Health Checkup Centre (PL @@%%f!é2 d -PL kenko kanri Each of these sub-pages is fonnatted in a similar manner to those related to the educational and cultural activities: a brief explanation of each centre's purpose and activities, accornpanied by one or more photographs. The Comprehensive Research Institute examines a wide variety of topics ranging fiom scientific proofs for the efficacy of Perfect Liberty prayers and beliefs to more efficient business management through the use of computer oetworks and data analysis. Among its many areas of research, The Botanical Research [nstitute is invesûgating cellular modification in crops, and cancer prevention techniques. The PL Hospital combines modem scientific techniques with PL prayers, stating that "Life 1s Art, Medicine, too is an Art" (hïlàH#?Th 5 @%& % 71 %#TT 85 6 jinsei >va geijutsir de am. @O mo mata geijzitm de c~nc).~'The Health Checkup Centers, located in Tokyo and Osaka as well as in the PL Hospital in Tondabayashi, combine scientific medical technique, PL-style prayer and life advice with a computer network which ailows researchers and doctors at different locations to consult on distant patients.23' Beneath the two columns of icons and links on the main page, there is a link to the "The Story of One's Experience" (b%% taikendan) page.235The page contains four links, which dow the user to read four auto-biographical stories written by PL members. The length and topics of these writings vary widely. Two are from members of the PL marchg band writing about winning a cornpetition, and the way in which PL beliefs aiiowed them to do so. Another is a long life history of a senior member of the group, starting fiom his childhood, and divided into several lengthy pages about his conversion to PL and the benefits he has experienced since. The most recent is fkom a young member whose experiences at the main sanctuary in Tondabayashi caused him to change his interactions with others. These laikendan are virtuaily identical to the testimonials found in many other new religious groups. Testimonials are seen as a useful tool not only for recruiting new members, but dso for strengthening the resolve of current members as well. The introductory booklets for many new religions, including Perfect Liberty, feature a chapter or section of testimonials, which are presented as proof that the group's beliefs can be followed successfûlly by anyone, not just the leader. There are many groups which are organized by Perfect Liberty or have a connection to the movement that have their own websites, created and maintained separately fiom the main PL site. The "Links Page" ( 9 2 3 4- 9 rinh peiji)236 provides a list of these groups, along with links to their sites. The groups are divided between those which are part of the main Japanese group (@mh$H% @dan-uchi soshiki), those which are independent but comected ( &ei~eii!!%&i%kyodm karzren soshikz), "Domestic Churches" (Eh$!& kokzmai kyokcri) and "Overseas Churches" (s kcrigai kyokai). The only group which has its web page maintained by the headquarters group is the Educational Group, (ftBeift9abirnkyobi~), which has two ab- sections. The Grst, michishinrbe (&6 L 5 "), features reproductions of short articles which have appeared in the regular PL pamphlet series "Ai" (gai). The other section features links to a collection of photographs by two rnembers of the group, along with a lengthy explmation of intellectual property rights and copyright infigement. The independent group includes links to the PL School System, the PL Hospitai, the Tokyo Health Checkup Centre, the Kappa-za Theatre Troupe, and the Union of New Religious Movements (commody known as the Shinshuren). The inclusion of the Shinshuren as a being "comected" seems unusual given the other groups in the list, which were founded by PL and are intimately associated with the religion. Mentions of the Shinshuren are made in other places on the website, oflen accompanied by a Link to their website. Perfect Liberty seems to be going to great lengths to prove that it is a reputable movement and to distance itself From others which are more negative in their attitude to other religions, recmit more aggressively, and oflen eschew membership in the Shinshuren. The inclusion of the Shinshuren as a co~ectedassociation is obviously aimed at assuaging any feus prospective members might have about joining the group, proving that it is a recognized religious movement and not a cult. The "Domestic Churches" section contains only a single link for a website created by a youth group, with another link "under construction". This is in definite contrast to the list of dozens of websites maintained by individuals and churches on the Tenri site. However, it must be noted that by dlowing local groups or churches to have their own websites, PL is demonstrating that it has a relativeiy open attitude about communication between members and the public. Some groups, such as Seicho no Ie or Kofiku no Kagaku maintain a much stricter policy, restricting ail interaction between Intemet users and the group to official websites created by the headquarters. At the bottom of the "LinksZ" page, under the "Overseas Churches" category, is a set of links to Perfect Liberty's Arnerican arm, one to the main site,=' and others to the Torrance California Church and the New York Church. The location of most of the PL churches in Japan is provided through the "Domestic" (BA kokzinai) section of the PL Churches (PL PL no kyokai) page.B8 The address of the main temple in Tondabayashi is iisted above a rnap of Japan, which has been divided into sections and colour coded. Clicking on a region takes the user to a list of the churches in that area. The Iargest or most important centre in the particular region has a photograph next to its listing, othenvise just the address, telephone number and fax number for each centre are Iisted. In contrast to the Tenri website which provides a map and directions to each of its centres, a prospective rnember is left to find his way to the church on his own. The "Overseas" (@% higai) section is divided into three sections: "North Amerka", "South Amerka" and "Other". The North Arnerican page features both a text list of links to the various churches, divided by state or region, accompanied by a map. Unlike the Japanese map, which can be used to select a region, the North American map is purely decorative. The link for each church takes the user to a page which simply lists the church's address, phone number and fax number. The South Arnerican page lists al1 of the churches in the area, arranged by the four countries where PL has centres (Brad, Argentina, Paraguay, Peru). Only the major centre for each country has its address listed, the rest merely have the location name and a phone number. A list on the "Other" page provides the address, phone and fax numbers for the PL centres in Europe and Oceania. Near the bottom of the main page, is a smail set of links, providing access to English., Spanish and Portuguese "Introductions" (Cg$goshokai) to Perfecr Liberty. The Spanish versiod3' has not yet been created, so the link leads to a page with an "Under Construction" icon. The Portuguese version2* is very similar to the Japanese site. It uses the same basic layout and even the same icons for the general topics. However, the section on the "Peace Tower" and "Cultural Activities" section have not been included. The English page,241on the other hand, is not only forrnatted differently, but also has a different focus. The "What is PL?" link near the top of the page leads to a bnef explanation of the group's name, its purpose and its beliefs. The "History" link leads to a page which provides a history of the group through the Lives of the three leaders. The English biographies of the leaders are more detailed than those featured on the Japanese site, and have been written in a more narrative style. Four links are found under the heading of "Teachings", two dealhg with the doctrines "LXe is Ad' and "Mirror of the Mind, one providing a link to an archive of the daily prayer, and the final link providing information on the great festivals and daily rituals. While many of these pages have obviously been adapted from their Japanese counterparts, the same depth of information has not been given to the English versions. For example, the "PL Ceremonies" page has been translated frorn the Japanese "Ceremonies" (ERssailn) page,2" but only the Founder's Day has been giveo a tùrther iink to more explanation: the rest go unexplained. It is in the focus on the writings of the second oshieoya that the English website exceeds its Japanese predecessor. Links provide users access to four relatively lengthy excerpts fkom the writings of the second PL leader. These excerpts have previously been published in the English-language editions of introductory booklets or PL magazines. Each of the pages is accompanied by several illustrations, which are the same as those which appeared in the original English language publications. Interestingly, the focus of the English language website has been placed on written materials as a means of leaming and foilowing PL doctrines and teachings, rather than emphasiting the need to join a group. This may be due to the fact that there are fewer centres in the Enghsh-speaking world which a prospective member could travel to in order to join Perfect Liberty. Perfect Liberty's "Cultural Activities" are also explained, with each one having its own hic, similar to the Japanese page: Kappa-za, Sado, Kado, Educational activities and Fireworks. The annual flreworks display which accompanies the Founder's Day celebrations on August lP At the very bottom of the main Japanese page there is information about the number of visitors to the site, copyright information, and an e-mail contact for opinions, -** requests and questions ( - ,e. R ** % ** Z$$lB07h? goiken. gokibo. goshitmmon). This iç the only chance for interactivity found throughout the site, the only oppomuiity for a user to reverse the one-way flow of information fiom PL headquarters. This seems to stem fiom the group's attitude towards the internet as a medium of communication, rather than a desire to limit interaction. For Perfect Liberty, the Intemet is largely regarded as an electronic version of regular publishing: content is created as a complete whole so that it does not require any interactivity between creator and receiver. It is published, and left to stand on its own until a newer version is deemed necessary. Analysis The primary teaching of PL is that "Life is Art". The Perfect Liberty website reflects this and the group's focus on self-expression through its colourful and sometirnes fancifùi design. Often, the desire to create a work of "art" is at odds with the creation of a website which is easily accessible and clear. Many pages on doctrinal matters are accompanied by photographs of unrelated topics. These certainly do not add anythtng to the textual explanation of the topics, and in some respects, they detract fiom the overall usefulness of the page and the site. These relatively large photographs cause each page to load more slowly, wbich, given the hiph cos of Internet usage for Iapanese users and the general unwillingness of users to spend large arnounts of time (and therefore money) waiting for pages to downioad, may dissuade them fiom reading the entire page or the rest of the site. In this respect, the pursuit of self-expression and "art" is detrimental to the goup's website and ultimately, the chance to recruit more members. Although Perfect Liberty established its website fairly early compared to many other new religions, in early 1996, the group has not attempted to keep up with emerging Intemet trends. Unlike Teriri, which utilizes a number of different programming languages to create an attractive site which also does not require a great deal of online time to explore, PL'S website has remained very basic. As well, the overwhelrningly large population of users who access the Intemet through i-mode or similar seMces via their cellular phmes has been completely ignored, denying PL the opportunity to be contacted by many possible new members. Although the website is well-maintained, the group has not been aggressive in its use or expansion of its presence on the Intemet. The general attitude of Perfect Liberty towards the Internet can be likened to that of construchg a building: great care has been taken to conmct a solid and unique building, but, once it has been created, it has been given Little more than basic monthly maintenance; there have been no great additions, nor deletions of little-used areas. The purpose of the Perfect Liberty site is relatively clear: it is intended for non- members as an introduction to the teachings, beliefs and activities of the group. With the exception of some of the Links on the Links Page, which provide access to pages with more detailed information on some of the associated sub-groups (which would have more appeal to long-tem members) ail of the information contained within the site is of a purely introductory nature. There is nothing to appeal to a committed member who already understands the group's teachings and takes part in the festivals and rites explained by the site. The PL website contains al1 the information a non-member needs to have in order to understand the religion, and enough information to make a decision about joining. Perfect Liberty is very forthcoming with al1 information, whether it is on general topics Iike doctrine and activities or more specific details such as the amount of money members are expected to donate on a daily basis. Although the Perfect Liberty website fails to take advantape of the possibility of interaction between the headquarters group and non-members or between current members, it can be considered a successful use of the medium. Because the site's purpose is clear, infordg non-members or potentiai members, there is no codiict between information and pages for members and non-members, as is found in the Seicho no Ie site. Perfect Liberty uses the Intemet as an electronic version of its paper publications, a static one-way medium which presents material in such a way that further explanation is only needed if the reader wishes to become a member of the group. Although the PL site has remained relatively unchanged since its initial creation and the material it presents is of a very simple nature, because it is aimed solely at recniiting new members or informing the general public it is more than adequate. Though the presentation of their information on the htemet is aot particularly dynamic, Perfect Liberty has the potential to reach a larger audience than they could with printed versions of this information. It remains to be seen if the group wiU choose to adapt to the changing conditions of Intemet usage within Japan, or whether they wiIl remain with the estabiished, but possibly less effective, method they have maintained until this tirne. Cha~ter6 - Seicho no Ie Eistory Seicho no Ie (YEKE$Z),also referred to by the abbreviation SNI, began not as a religious group but as a smaii publishing Company devoted to pnnting and distributing the wntings of the founder, Taniguchi Masahani ( 1893-1985). Taniguchi's wntings concentrated on his philosophical beliefs and his spirituai experiences, topics which appealed to a broad audience at the time. In 1936, Seicho no Ie was re-registered as a bokn danlai, or a social group, stating that its purpose was supra-religious, and that its goal was the edification of the people.'J3 In 194 1, the group once again changed its officia1 status, to that of a religious group.'u Unlike many other new religions at the time which were harassed or even persecuted by the govenunent because they did not suppon the official State Shinto policy of the supremacy of the goddess Amaterasu and the divinity of the Emperor, Taniguchi and Seicho no te were readily accepted by governent of fi ci al^.^^' Taniguchi made a number of attempts to boost morale for the war effort, and pursued a number of patnotic activities including the negotiation of labour disputes in factories that produced war goods and the distribution of patnotic songs and pamphlets.z~It was this accommodation to the militarist govemment that created problems for Seicho no Ie dunng the post-war Occupation period. Because of their nationalist and militarist ties, Taniguchi and many other high-ranking Seicho no Ie officials were banned fiom certain public activities. Most importantly for Seicho no Ie he was barred korn ninning his publishing Company. Taniguchi remained the head of the religious whg of Seicho no Ie (registered as Seicho no Ie Kyodan at the time), whiie control of the publishing arm was spun off into a separate company nui by his son, who had not been purged by the Occupation government. As a result of its close association with the defeated war-tirne govemment, Seicho no Ie experienced a sharp decline in popularity during the years immediately following the end of the war. With the end of the Occupation in 1952, Seicho no Ie underwent a number of significant changes. The publishing company and spiritual wing of Seicho no Ie were once again merged,'" a situation which has continued to this day. The "KyodanTYwas dropped from the group's name and it withdrew From the Shinshuren (Union of New Religious Movements) as Taniguchi sought to emphasize the group's position as being separate fiom (and above) other religious gro~~s."~The withdrawai of the Occupation government allowed a resurgence of conservative, right-wing and nationalist groups within Japan in the 1950's. Taniguchi's sympathies for the right-wing and nationalist groups were reflected in the doctrines and activities of Seicho no Ie in the 1950's and 1960's. The group campaigned in support of many conservative politicians, as weU as conducting a series of campaigns in support of conservative social movements, rnost notably Seicho no Ie's thirty-year fight against abortion. Owing to its close association with conservative politicians and social movements, Seicho no Ie enjoyed a resurgence in popularity throughout the 1970's and 1980's, reaching a high point of 3.5 million registered believers in 1BO.*" Just as Seicho no Ie's close association with the militanst government had created problems for the group in the early post-war period, a later association with certain political figures became similarly problematic when a series of corruption scandals rocked the Japanese govemment and several hi&-ranking politicians were forced to re~i~n.~~'As a resuit, Seicho no Ie membership declined to approxhately 600,000 members in 1985, a level which has rernained fairly stable ever since. Seicho no Ie's beliefs, Like those of many other new religious movements, are a synthesis of several religious traditions. What makes SNI unusual is the wide variety of influences which were used to create its doctrines: Shinto, Buddhism, Christianity, Western philosophical texts, the teachings of the Arnerican "New Thought" movement, as well as psychology and psychoanalysis. This wide-ranging syncretism was unusual at the time, but has become Uicreasingly common among those new religious groups founded in the 1970's and 1980's. The findamental belief of Seicho no Ie is that the world that humans expenence is unreal,"' that matenal things are a "shadow" of the more perfect spiritual ~orld.~'~Closely related to this is the concept that the power of the mind is lirnitless, and that, through proper conduct, anythng can be accomplished in this world. Through the SNI Shinsokan meditation, a believer cm tap into the lirnitless (and i~atelygood) power of God to infiuence his life in whatever way he visualizes: more money, better health, scholastic success. The final basic teaching of SM is that al1 religions are one; according to Masaharu, SNI is a movement "reducing al1 teachings to one".253 Not only does this justify the recombination of doctrines fiom many different religious traditions in SM'S doctrine, but it also gives SM a mandate to propagate its teachings aggressively. internet The Seicho no Ie website was created in late 1996, and has gone through many updates and renewals. Daily maintenance and supe~sionof the site and coinputers is perfonned by a full-time ernpioyee of the group.2sJ This one technician is also responsible for creating the web pages, but does not write or select the content. The creation of new content for the website is performed by an Intemet Cornmittee, whose rnernbers are generally highly plaoed in the publishing ann of Seicho no 1e.'" The design and look of the website have changed many times since its creation, but the fundamental contents have remained relatively unchanged since late 1997.~~~ The main page of the SNI website (Figure 412" is relatively simple: a column of links (contained in small oval graphies) on the left side of the page, a large SM logo in the centre of' the page, with a few (generally four or five) links to the most recently updated pages. With the exception of a few pages, throughout the entire site the column of links remains on the left side of the screen, allowiag the user to access them at any time rather than having to retum to the main page. The links in the column are "SM NOW', "Guide to Events" (e$%bgyoji annai), "Outline" (RBguiyo), "History" (ii,' enkakzr), "Fundamental Teachings" (&* f%fa' $% %k kikihonteh na oshie), "Basic Organization and Activities" (&fd#&@ 2 lf;@ ornona soshiki îo katsudo), "Guide to Joining" (Aâ%hnyirkai annai), "Guide to Radio Programs" (-7 G%f rajio bangimt annai), "SM'SMain Locations" (SM QI&fd#&,gSNIno omona men) and "Comected Links" (mg9 2 3 kmren rinku). At the bottom of the main page, there are links to the three SNI groups: the Brotherhood Association (soaiw, for men, White Dove Society (shzrahatokai) for womeq and the Y outh Group (seinenkni). At the very bottom of the page is a link to contact the web master and copyright information. Figure 4 Seicho no Ie Website Seicho no Ie Logo Seicho no Ie 1 NOW Guide to Events . Seiche no Ie Now Guide to Events i Youth Group Hornepage Fundamentai Links Basic O rg anizat io n Guide to Joining Guide to Programs Contact Information r 1 Links 1 Copyright Information The "SM NOW' Link takes the user to a page258that lists the rnost recent events which have occurred in the group. Depending on the time of year and the schedule of events, the page may contain up to a dozen events, although it usually shows three or four. Information about events generaüy remains on the website for one or two months, but may be retained longer if no other events have occurred to replace them. The link for each event leads to another page which contains a detailed description of the event, usually accompanied by one or two related photographs. Events which are recorded on the website include the announcernent of new publications by the current leader Taniguchi Masanobu, a sumrnary of conferences (A2taikai) held or attended by the group (with emphasis on the number of attendees), and social works undertaken by chapters of the group. There has also been a number of announcernents regarding the business success of individuais as well as events held outside of Japan (usually Brazil and the United States, but also Canada and Germany). Earlier versions of the SM website provided a link to an archive of previous news pages, ailowing users to view al1 of the news items which had been posted as far back as the site's creation in October of ~996."~In the earliest versions of the site, the entire archive of "SM NON'" pages were available, but later versions restncted the archive to a single The "SM NOW" section serves as a news page, aiiowing members of the group to lem about the activities of both the headquarters and other groups. Activities organized and sanctioned by the group compose the bullc of the news items, but more individual items (such as the release of a member's first CD) are also included. The "Guide to Events" (?f6%A gyoji annai) page26' provides information on upcoming events and activities organized by the group. Since 1998, there have been two items in this section: one for the "SM Course Meeting" (%Ea)%%g$?Seicho no Ie koshzikai) and the other for the "SNI Training Meeting" (4EDZ$?i@&% SNI renseikai). Each features a short description of the purpose and contents of the two training courses. Below the description of each of the two courses is a link to a page which lists the scheduled sessions for the current and upcoming months. The "Course Meeting" is an evening lecture intended for non-members who are interested in leamhg more about the group and its basic teachings, and oflen features a speech by Taniguchi Masanobu. The dates and locations of the meetings are listed, and each location has a link to a map which shows its location and nearby public transit. The "Training Meeting" is a regular event intended for members who want to increase their understanding of the group's teachings. This link takes the user ro a page which lists the six locations where training can be undertaken, afid the courses which are offered at each one. The courses include: Generai Training (-&$$!@ ippanrensei ), Short Term Training (%%&$hk tmkirensei), Family Training (%&@& koku rensei), and SNI Potentid Reaiiiation Training (&EO%ï%fif%i%R{@ seiccho no ie noryokzi kaihatstir kenshu), and last between two and ten days. Unlike the Omoto website, whch provides a summary of the topics the courses cover, the SNI courses are Listed only by title, and there is no description of their content or possible application. This would not present a real problem to members of the group because they would be able to get Further information kom their local church leader. The description of the introductory lecture presents enough information to create interest, but is not so detaiied that it reveals the entire contents of the presentation. The limited amount of detail provided in the descriptions of both sets of lectures is clearly not a failing on the pan of the group, but rather a carefully considered allocation of information intended to infonn but not to teach. The "Outlioe" page262provides basic idormation on the organization of SM and on the group as a religion. At the top of the page, the group's pre-war founding date and the names of the founder and the current president and vice-president are listed. Each of these names has a link to a biographical page presenting their date of birth, education and the titles of the books each has written. The group's purpose and basic beliefs are outlined in point form under the headings "Purpose"( b!? rnohiteki) and "~ecla.ration'~(~~sengen). Below these statements is information on the oumber of believers ({ER shirrto) and teachers @oshi) who belong to the group, as well as the number of missionary centres (*fi&%&%kyo shisetm ) rnaintained by SNI. These figures given in this section are divided between domestic Japanese believers and those outside Japan. Interestingly, whde the text dealing with the group's beliefs has not changed in two years, the membership figures are updated every year (even when they show a decline in rnernber~hi~).~~~ The "History" (?A% enkuk~i)~~'page provides the hinory of SNI, largely focusing on the founder Tanipuchi Masaharu, and the early years of the group. Masaharu's successors are mentioned, as are the dates of the group's expansion into countries outside lapan. The energetic and vigorous nature of the leaders, the group and their activities are mentioned, but Little detail is given. The basic teachhgs of SNI are presented on the "Fundamentai Teachings" (HE* Eifi fb f kihonteki na oshie) page.265 Against the graphic background of a scroll, the group's fundamental beliefs are summarized under three headings: "Humanity, Children of God and Lack of Ofiginal SV (.Ar3 -- F **$*$kt2 LL"ningen-kami no ko a* zazhonrai nashi '3, "The Environment is the Minds' Shadow" (l&&%bK)& kankyo wa kokoro no kage), and "AU Teachings in Unity'' (7?%i1R-mankyo kiitsli). Beneath each heading is a short paragraph explainine the meaning of the title and how it is exemplified in SM'Steachings and beliefs. As with many other pages in the SNI website, despite a number of visual and layout changes, the content of the page has not changed in over two years. The "Basic OrganVation and Activities" page266(%k$%6k 2 omona soshikz to kntszido), lists SM'Sthree major sub-groups and the primary non-religious activity that the group undertakes. In addition to being a member of their local SNI church, believers are encouraged to join one of the three specialized groups which cater to the differing needs of members. Men join the Brotherhood Association (#l%2 soaikai), women join the White Dove Society (Be2shtrohatokai), and young people (fiom ages 12 to 25) join the co-ed Youth Society (RF2seinenkni). The requirements for membership in these groups are listed on the page, dong with three links267which take the user to a photograph of members engaging in a typical activity for each group. These photo pages do not have any description of the activity shown and do not present further explanation of what other kinds of activities the group undertakes. Below the description of the three major groups, some of the other groups are mentioned, such as the SNI Prosperity Society (%EDir \ f % 2 6 2 seicho no ie sakaerrikai), as weil as a description of the four monthly magazines which are produced by the group's publishhg Company. A link is provided which takes the user to a page268with a photograph of the four magazines, but again, no further detail is provided. Below the descriptions of the groups and magazines is a section devoted to SNI's activities. Foremost among them is "The International Peace by Faith Movement" (HE ~l%!~f~~@bkohsai heiwa shinko trndo). A bief explmation of the goal of the movement and the means by which they are being pursued is given, as well as a Link to another page which presents only the movement's logo;269the goal of world peace will be achieved by spreading the tmth (as contained in SM'S teachings) to as many people in as many countries as possible. A secondary activity which is also related to the International Peace Movement is "Missionary Work Through Books" burisho dettdo). Because Taniguchi Masaharu's teachings can only reach a larger audience if they are translated into other languages, a project has been launched to facilitate this objective. This page details the works which are being translated, primady Taniguchi's "The Truth of Life" (%&o)" hl Seimei no Jisso), but also severd of the group's magazines. The languages into which the works have been translated are listed to show the wide ranging reach of the project, emphasizing that SNI's teachings continue to spread across the entire ~orld.~" Interestingly, these are the only two activities mentioned on the page, rather than the political action and social agitation which SNI once undertook, largely against abortion. The steps a non-member must take in order to becorne a recognized believer are outlined on the "Guide to Joining" (Ae%hnyhi aimai)."' The process, which includes joining the new rnember's group "SM Sage Mission" (/IE z%@!&% Seicho no ie seishimeik&) and following its course of instruction, is outlined, as well as the customary amount of the monthly donation and the magazines avaiiable which are appropriate to different groups. In the rniddle of the page (between the list of donation levels and the list of magazines), is a message stating that users interested in joining the new member's group should contact their nearest local church, providing a link to a page listing aU of the churches in Japan. Below the list of magazines is the price for each subscription and the address of the headquarters where payments must be sent to start a subscription. The "Radio Program Guide" (7 9k%#H%h rajio bangmi deals with the weekly twenty-minute radio broadcasts which the group makes across the country. The radio station's name and Frequency, dong with the time and day of broadcast are listed in a large table. Unlike the T~Msite which has a list of past and future topics, there is no description of the contents of the program, merely the title of the program, "The Departure for Happiness" ($%-QIm% kofiikzi c no ~huppatszi)~ and an invitation to listen are given. The fact that the table has remained unchanged for over two years demonstrates the general attitude toward the site: that updates or changes are unnecessary when the Uiformation is sirnilady unchanged. Rather than updating pages on a regdar basis, it is done on the basis of need; the group does not change its site unless it is absolutely required. A relatively static presence on the Internet seems to be better than none at d. On the "SM Principal Locations" (4f~Z$%[email protected];#%3 seicho no ie omona kyoten bnsho)" page the rnajority of the group's centres are show. At the top of the page there is a link to a list of ail of SNI's centres within Japan, foilowed by a list of nine 'major' centres. The first five inchde clickable pictures which lead to an enlarged photo of each of the buildings. The main headquarters building (honbzi) in Tokyo is at the top of the list, followed by the Horvan centre located in Nagano-ken, the Uji shrine in Uji, and three other centres located across Japan. The entries for each of these five centres is similar to those for the other locations, with only the location, address, phone and fax numbers listed. Depsite their importance as major centres, they do not have additional information inciuded in this section. At the bottom of this page, are links to overseas centres, sph into three groups: Taiwan, Brazil and AmencdCanada. When the first link "Domestic Links7' (Ofi Y 2 P kokz~nnirink~)''~ is folIowed, it takes the user to a page which lists a total of 60 centres, arranged in a table, showing the name of the centre, its address, telephone number, and fax number. Each of the location names is dso a link which takes the user to a page containing photographs of the centre, a map of the imrnediate neighbourhood, and travel directions. Each centre is presented as being equal and identical: no distinguishing Uifonnation is provided for any of the centres, perhaps so as not to encourage undue preferences for certain locations over others. The pages which list the overseas o entres''^ have a slightiy different format nom the Japanese page, but contain fundamentally the same information. Each of the centres is listed with its narne, address, telephone nurnber and fax number. However, unlike the Japanese centres there are no photographs or maps. These international pages seem to be intended to give Japanese members a sense of the group's influence globally, rather than help curious non-members find a local centre. The "Liaks" page (fkkqz 9 7 9' Kcmren rink~)"~provides a set of links to other websites related to Seicho no Ie. Links have been divided into several categones: "Links for Members" (SB&h0) 4E0>Z$Z Shukyohonin no seicho no ie), which provides links to the main site, and the three major subdivisions within Seicho no Ie: the Brotherhood Association ($El gâSoaikai), the White Dove Society ( 8 k$$? Shirahntokai) and the Youth Group (a+$Seinenbu). Each of these groups is airned at a panicular segment of SM believers: Soaikai is exclusively for men over the age of twenty-five, Shirahatokai is for women over the age of twenty-five, and the Seinenbu is a CO-edgroup for both children and youths up to the age of twenty-five. In separate categones, there are links for websites devoted to the major locations of the group: the main headquarters, the Uji temple cornplex, the Fuji centre, as well as a separate category containing a single link for the training facility devoted to the Souaikai in Aichi. An "Overseas" (&fikaigai) category provides links to the homepages for SM in America, Brazil and Germany. The final segment contains links to websites which are not devoted directly to SM, but belong to other organizations which have a co~ectionwith the group (k!%Bfi kmren danta). These include a group who prornote the distribution of sacred texts, the World Scripture Propagation Association (l&%%@$!?&~Hsekai seitm fi15.m @obi),'" Shdcyoren, (short for ?kg% shi~rkyoikusha rer~rnei)~~'an association for new religious movements (but not the largest, most widely recognized Shshuren), and ~~obunsha,'~~the publishing company which the group maintains to print its own materiai, as weli as unrelated books, on a variety of topics. The website for each of the three members' groups is arranged in similar fashion. The main page features pictures of recent activities, or the executive cornmittee for the group, as well as Links to the most recentiy added pages or information. A series of links dong the left hand side provide access to pages with more detailed idormation. The page for the Youth Organization is the most detailed, providing information about the group's activities, publications, executive cornmittee, training meetings, and the sub- groups which have been formed to cater to the needs of varîous rnembers, including middle school, high school and university students, as well as a women's group. The page for the Brotherhood Association is more formal, and retlects the age and interests of its members, with a subtle and sombre background and photographs of members. It includes a formai set of greetings (#$$ aisalsir), information on the national meeting (*Bk2 zenkokir laihi), the Happiness Training School (gU\'tg% yorokobi koshzikai), a members' network y l- 7 - 9 shijm nettowaku), the "Prime of Life Plaza" (%%m 06 Ifsonen no hiroba), a guide to monthly publications (1fil &O Z'% k gekkanshi no go-unnai) and a schedule of upcoming activities (5%7 r4A gyoji yotei). The White Dove Society's website is the srnailest of the three sub-groups. It features bright colours (largely pinks and pastel colours) and a large graphic of a white dove. The site includes a brief introduction to the group (!k&9% 0 É] 2 13. seicho no ie shirahafo to wa), a page for news about the group ( Él E%- z -X shirohatokai nylisii), an introduction to the group' s activities (7Zm 0) % fi karsido no shokai), and a page with advice fiom current members ( B&!$âg;ilb E%- shirohato kaiin kara minmama e). The White Dove site is largely occupied with introducing itseif'and its activities to new members, rather than with providing information for current members. The Brotherhood Association and Youth Association sites both seem to be written for current members rather than for curious non-members. These clifferences were explained as being the result of the di£E'erent cornmittees which oversee the creation and maintenance of the web~ites.~~'Each sub-group has its own committee, separate From the one which controls the main website for the headquarters group, and, although advice is given by the headquarters' "experts", each group is lefl to create its own Internet presence. Given the fact that the headquarters group does not promote or condone web pages created by local churches or individual members, it is interesting that they exert very little control over these websites. There is no attempt to present a uniforrn set of information or even a similar format. These sub-groups are allowed to create their own websites unsupervised largely because the codttees which create the websites are composed of high-ranking, long-terin members who are unlikely to present unorthodox or unfavourable views of their ab-group or of Seicho no le as a whole. Analysis Through its website, Seicho no Ie has dernoastrated its attitude to the Intemet and the use of new media. The group established a site quite early in cornparison to many of the other new religions, and clearly put a great deal of work into its creation at the time. Merthis initial period of construction, much of the website has been left unchanged for many years. Although there have been several cosmetic "renewais" -- changing the look of the site by altering the colours in the background or the logo on the inuoductory pages - there has been very littie change in much of the content. Many of the pages have not been changed in two years, and many of the pages onginally created in 1996 are still in use. Surpnsingly, the SNI website has a great number of graphics, ranging fiom small icons for links, to relatively complicated animated decorations (which serve no real purpose) and large background graphics. This is unusual considering the low access speeds which are generaily used in Japan, and even more surprishg when one takes into account the slower speeds available when many of the pages were originaily created in 1996. Graphic layout and visual appeal clearly take precedence over making the site easily (and economicaily) accessible to as many users as possible. At the tirne of this research, Seicho no Ie had not yet implemented any special measures to permit users of ceîiphones (through i-mode or similar services) to access any SNI information. Although Seicho no Ie did create a web presence for itself earlier than many of the other new religious groups in Japan, it has not adapted the site to recent trends in Intemet access (such as i-mode) or embraced the potentiai to establish greater interactivity or two-way communication. The site seems to have two foci, although it is unclear whether the site is intended primariiy for members or for those who are curious about the group. Established members would not need the background information, such as the group's history and basic teachings, that form a sigolfcant portion of the page. On the other hand, the detailed information conceming the dates and locations of upcoming events, or the more detailed information contained in the websites for the three sub-groups would be of little use to a non-rnember. Generally speaking, the main site could be regarded as having been designed as a recruiting tool, providing some general background information as well as matenal on the events and types of activities that the group undertakes. Like a movie trailer, it provides just enough information to raise interest without revealing everythng, and, in addition, the expenence is largely one of receiving information that the group wants to promote. Ka user is sufficientiy impressed to pursue an interest in the group and its teachings, the site provides information on becoming a member as well as a listing of local centres For the prospective member to visit. The information accessible to the user is only that which has been chosen by the headquarters group, or a cornmittee from one of the sub-groups. There is no chance to visit the home pages produced by local churches, let alone individual members: Seicho no Ie headquarters maintains a strict control over the group's presence on the Intemet. In many regards SM treats the Intemet as being equal to regular printed materials. It is regarded as a static one-way interaction, information flowing from the headquarters to individuals with little or no direct feedback, and with the attitude that once information has been presented, there is no need for revision other than changes to the layout and design. As mentioned eariier, Seicho no Ie began its website much earlier than many other new religions, showing that the group has an openness to new media and new ways of communicathg with members and prospective members. However, the website also demonstrates a number of the group's attitudes toward the flow and control of information, as weU as a relatively conservative regard for the changing nature of the Internet. For the most part, SNI treats the Intemet as a digital form of paper and ignores the abihy to permit communication between individuai members, as well as between rnembers and headquarters. Seicho no le fails to take advantage of the possibilities presented by the tntemet in strengthening distant members' sease of community, and the connection between local groups and the headquarters, and uses the Intemet Iargely as a tool to reinforce or promote activities that have aiready taken place at the main centre. Chapter 7 - Kofuku no Kaeaku History Kofuku no Kagaku (*%ONT),also known in Enghsh as "The Institute for Research in Human Happiness", was founded in October of 1986 by Ryuho Okawa (A)1 1 ) After he graduated with a law degree from Tokyo University, he studied International Finance at New York University while working for a Japanese trading company. According to Kofuku no Kagaku's literature, on March 23, 198 1, Okawa "attained enlightenrnent", and, after receiving a senes of revelations fiom angels, realized that his tme identity was "El Cantare". In his role as El Cantare, Okawa's mission is to Save humanity, and as a result, he formed Kofuku no Kagaku in 1986. In the first three years there were few members and activities centred on training missionary educators and "managers" for the group's future.28' A campaign of recruitment and evangelism was launched in 1990, resulting in more than 77,000 people joining the group. Between 199 1 and the beginning of 1994, the "Miracle Thee Year Project" was undertaken to expand the group's infiuence and membership, with the ultimate hope that it would become Japan's largest religion.'" The group obtained officiai status in 199 1, but mon encountered difficultieswhen a series of articles critical of the group and Okawa were pubiished, to which Kofuku no Kagaku retaliated with a senes of lawsuits. In 1992, the group began to move away fiom its original syncretic mix of Buddhism, Shinto, Taoism, Christianity and various occult influences, and began to focus itself as a new fom of Buddhist belief283 As part of the "Big Bang Three-Year Project" established in 1994, Okawa put more ernphasis on his identity as El Cantare and strengthened his association with the histoncal Buddha. The next year marked an increase in public awareness of Kofuku no Kagaku, as it actively sought out publicity in many forms. Mer the Kobe earthquake in 1995, Kofuku no Kagaku sent 20,000 members to help with rescue and clean-~~.~~"The group also published a series of articles which were highly critical of other new religious groups, denouncing them as "heretical r, .285 Kohku no Kagaku has taken credit for aierting the police to the illegal activities of Aum Shinrikyo, having staged demonstrations against the rival group and publishing articles accusing Aum of comrnitting various crimes, including the kidnapping of a prominent la~~er.~*~The following year, O kawa continued to give the group a high profile in the media by addressing various social, economic and spirituai issues. Perhaps most importantly, a monthiy magazine designed for the general public, rather than members, was established and made available in mainstream book stores.287In 1997, the "New Hope Project" was started, aimed at preparing members and the world for the possibility of a rnillennial catastrophe. As rnentioned previously, Kofuku no Kagaku began as a highly syncretic mixture of many elements drawn From a number of dserent religious traditions. Due to criticism kom the press and religious scholars, Okawa chose to place the group's focus on Buddhisrn. Despite this, there are still many syncretic elements remaining within the group's doctrine. A parallel is often drawn between Buddhism and ~hristianit~,~~~with Okawa having published a conversation that he (as El Cantare) had with esu us.^^' References are aiso made to Moses and Confiicius. The most fundamental belief within Kofuku no Kagaku is the idea that "without self-retlection there is no enlightenment'7 .291 Self-reflection is necessary for believers, and more generdy, human beings, to live happy and fuifihg lives. ui order to retum to heaven after death, a person must correct whatever wrong deeds or tendencies he or she has in Me. Okawa teaches that, through following his teacbgs, believers may achieve "Right Mind and secure for themselves happiness not only in this world, but also in the next . The officiai Kofùku no Kagaku headquarters is located in Utsonomiya City, about 100 kilornetres north of Tokyo, and was opened in 1996. A training centre was opened nearby in 1997, and together these two centres are regarded as the Head Temple (Su- Hom). There are plans to build three more training centres within lapan, where both members and the public cm attend lectures and meditate. There are dozens of official branches across Japan, as well as severai centres in the United States, Canada, Australia, Bruil, Korea and England. The number of members or believers is difficult to determine because of the group's constantly changing classification of members and believers. In the past, a person was required to read ten of Okawa's books and pass an examination before being admitted as a member.Ig2 This has since been simplified, now requiring only an application form and the approval of a local teacher. However, Kofûku no Kagaku aiso counts the number of people who have read Okawa's books as sympathizers or believers (as opposed to registered members). By this account, Kofuku no Kagaku has ten million believers worldwide, with slightly less than one hundred thousand outside ~a~an.'~~This is obviously a case where the number of believers has been Uiflated to improve the group's image; it is unclear how many of those "sympathizers" read one of Okawa's books and disagreed with his doctrines. However, the fact that the group places nich importance on the selling of books will re-emerge when the website is examined. Aithough most of its iiterature promotes the group as being a "new look at Buddhism in the modem world ,r ,294 Kofuku no Kagaku is similar to most new religious groups in that it is highly syncretic, in this case combining traditional Buddhist doctrine with elements drawn largely from the Western New Age movement. Okawa has pubtished books which include material on the legendary lost continents of Mu and Atlantis, as well as dialogues between himself and Jesus Christ (for example, Okawa writes that the spirit now known as Iesus was called "Agasha" 10,000 years ago when he "was incamated in ~tlantis").'~'When Okawa States that Shakyamuni was a manifestation of the "El Cantare Consciousness", he grants himself a measure of spiritual authority. Okawa also incorporates Moses and Confucius in his work as guiding spirits,296as well as the "Planetary Consciousness" which exias within the Earth's "tenth dirnensi~n".'~' It is said that there are "two main pillars" for the group: the attaiment of spiritual wisdom, and the practice of "love that givesrr .298 In pursuit of this spiritual wisdom, believers leam the Dharma Law through books, lectures and seminar~,'~~and engage in daily self-reflective meditation~.'~~ The knowledge and wisdom attained by absorbing Okawa's teachings cmbe applied to any aspect of life, creating the opportunity to improve heaith, relationships, and economic performance. This emphasis on immediate, worldly benefits is one of the centrai characteristics of Japanese new religions. Although monthly or bi-monthly healing prayer sessions are held at the headquarters or branch offices, Kofuku no Kagaku members generally use individual self-visualizations to deal with their problems. In addition to the immediate benefits provided by Okawa's teaching, he also outlines his vision of a utopian future. The creation of a perfect society on Earth is also another element which is common in many of the new religions. Internet At the tirne of this research, the Kofuku no Kagaku website was very new. In the initial survey in October 1999, there was no official Kofùku no Kagaku website; the only results retumed by al1 search engines produced a single page in English that promoted itself as an "unofficial introduction to Kofuku no Kagaku". This unofficiai website was cancelled soon after the creation of the official site. The current officiai website (Fig. 5)"' was created over the course of December 1999, and first put oniine on Decernber 3 1". Interestingly, the website is not registered under Kofuku no Kagaku, but rather as part of the RH Press Company, the publishing Company affiliated with the group. Because Kofuku no Kagaku did not respond to enquiries about its website, there was no information available about how the site is rnanaged and how its content was created. The site is provided in Japanese, English, German and Pomiguese, with the Japanese segment comprising the largest portion. The English, German and ~ortu~uese~~~pages are arranged in a nearly identical manner: a simple page which provides links to the books avdable in translation, a hkto a biography of Ryuho Okawa, and a luik to an introduction to Kofuku no Kagaku. Each of the books is provided with its own page, with a short summary of its contents and one or two quotations f?om Okawa. The English pages provide publisher and price information for the books, which is absent frorn the German and Portuguese versions. Both the English and the Portuguese sites have summaries for "The Laws of the Sun", "The Laws of Eternity" and "The Golden ~aws",~"all of which are available in translation, as weii as a summary for "The Laws of Prosperity", which is available ody in Japanese. On both sites, "The Laws of Prosperity" is promoted as the book which "acted as a driving force to lift the recession of Japan ,304 with the English site listing the cities and stores where the book was listed as a number one seller. The Geman site, which is the smallest of the three foreign language sites, only has summaries of "The Laws of the Sun" and "The Laws of Eternity". Both the Portuguese and English sites list "Other Works", providing a summary of thirteen otherbooks which are said to be: essential reading for al1 those interested in Buddhism and who wish to improve their lives spiritually and physically. Spiritual well-being goes hand in hand with physical weli-bein and prosperity. Spiritual development is the path to true happiness.90, The books promise to teach one how to achieve the mastery of one's own destiny, overcome negative thinking, solve persona1 problems, and becorne a leader in business. However, none of these books is available in translation, which reveals one of the weaknesses of the site. The site is largeiy promotional, providing a small amount of information; if' users wish to investigate this materiai further the only means possible is through the purchase of Okawa's books or other materiais. Figure 5 - Kofuku no Kagaku Website Kofuku no Kagaku Loeo 1 I 1 Link to foreign 1 Ryuho Okawa's Name language pages "Etemal The 10 Books for Entering "Laws of I Prospenty" Step-up Journal Headiny "Laws of the 1 / Sunw II I -- - -Kyoko Okawa's books -Essay s -Comic Books -CDSand Videos The Japanese pages fom the greater portion of the Kofuku no Kagaku website, and are designed in a much less tightly integrated muer. The initial Japanese page is simple and lacks any graphies, and the title of the page makes its purpose very clear: *'Kof.ktino Kagakzu no on",^'^ a website dedicated to the books of Ryuho Okawa. It provides links to the English, German and Portuguese sites, but more importantly, to dl of the books produced by Kofuku no Kagaku. The books are categorized in a number of different ways, and often a single book will appear more than once. On the left side, opposite Okawa's name is used as a link to the "htroduction of Authors" (%%,%f? chosha shokai). Below that, in the second-largest font on the page (the largest is reserved for Ryuho Okawa's name and Kofuku no Kagaku), are links to the three 'major' books of the group: "Eternal ~uddha"(&&7I eien no b~itrnda),~~'"The Laws of Prosperity" (Bg69 ?'han 'ei no ho),308and -'The Laws of the Sun" (*%a) ?&fuiyo na ho).309 Centred beneath the title and Okawa's narne is a link to the "The Ten Books for Entering Kofuku no Kagaku" (AQq +@ ûI$#-9O i O flf rynmon kofi~kuno kagaku no IO- a recornrnended reading lis of ten books for people newly interested in Kofuku no Kagaku. Beneath that there are links to books Listed under the heading "Step Up Journal" (3f Y 7'7 Y 7' .;i' ?T steppu appjan~mr),~" arranged as a series of books to be read by those already familiar with Okawa's writings. On the right side of the initial screen, opposite Okawa's name, is a link to the monthiy newsmagazine "The Liberty" (y9 - ru ~batei),"~with links to the most current issue as well as back issues. This is the luik on the initiai page which has been given a smaii graphic, making it stand out considerably. Beneath that, dong the right-hand side there are iinks to books written by Kyoko Okawa (Ryuhoys~ife),~l~ essays and n~vels,~'~a rnanga (comic book) seriesT5 as well as to a list of CDS and ideo os.^'^ The pages dedicated to the books are somewhat more advanced than the site's homepage, the colours are more subdued and there are a few graphies. A fhme is used on the left side featuring links to the categories mentioned above. In the case of the three 'majory books, a picture of the book's cover is displayed next to an enlarged titie and Okawa's name. This is followed by a summary of the book's contents, and the Life problems it can be applied to. "The Laws of Prosperity" clairns that it helped deviate the Japanese economic downturn, and lists the bookstores where it was a top seller. The page featuring "The Laws of the Sun" also features "The Laws of Gold" and "The Laws of Eternity", and, in addition to a Japanese summary, lists the foreign translations of the book. When a link for one of the categories (as opposed to a highlighted book) is selected, the page displayed contains five to twelve books selected which pertain to the topic. As mentioned previously, some books appear in multiple lists, for example, "Proof of the Buddha" (fLF'&DSiEBB butszida no shomei) appears in both the "Basic Teachings" (&*a&;i kihon no oshie) section3'' and the "Buddhist Teachings for Today" (@{th CD & 69 fL\$%D$kkgenduijin no turne no bukhno oshie) ~ection.~"Each book's cover is shown next to the enlarged title, and a brief description of the book. On many of the pages there are links beneath some of the books which take the user to a Japanese on- Iine book vendor where an order can be placed for the selected book. Many of Okaways earlier books do not have this Link, and as a result it appears that oniy the current top sehgbooks have this option. At the bottom of each description of a book featured on the website, the publishing information is included, complete with the suggested pnce and ISBN number. As mentioned earlier, "The Liberty", the monthly magazine published by Kofuku no Kagaku, has its own iink which leads to a page for the current issue. The tities of the major articles are provided, with a link to another page which features the title and a small summary or sample of the article. At the bottom of the page, users are uiformed that "The Liberty" is available at bookstores across the country, and the date of sale for the upcoming (or current) issue is listed. Current issues of "The Liberty" are available for purcbase online as well. Below the online shopping link is a section with the back numbers of "The Liberty", starting with 1995. Each year has its own page. with a listing of each issue and its special topic. On the page for 1997, in addition to the issue's theme, two to four article titles are listed. Beginning in December of 1999 (when the Kofùku no Kagaku website was first put online), each back issue features the same format as the current issue: article titles linked to another page with a short surnrnary. Kyoko Okawa (A)II S. 2 5 C) is the ody other writer mentioned on the website. Her pages list nine books which she has written (two of which are available for purchase online), dealing largely with issues of motherhood, parenting and love. As with the other pages featuring books, the cover is featured next to the title. However, neither Kyoko's name nor the tities of her books are printed as large as those of her husband, and the sumaries provided are much shorter. This would wggest that the books are perceived as being less important than Ryuho's works. In the "Essays and Novels" section, which Lists seven available works, books are given simple one- or two-he summaries, and with the exception of one book, no authors are cited. Again, the titles are listed in a srnailer font than are any of Ryuho's books. The manga section lists thirteen separate volumes. Siu of those are a detailed version of the "The Laws of the Sun", and another four form the "Look at Kofuku no Kagaku through Comics" (72 3T R 5 rnangn de mim kofirkir no kagaku) series, outiining the group's basic beliefs. For most of the manga, Ryuho Okawa is Listed as the original author, with some, but not al1 comics Listing the artist as well. The online links within the books sections of the website are iinked to an online shopping company which seems to have no connection with KofÙku no Kagaku. It sells other books as well as recreationai products such as sports equipment. Aithough the Kofuku no Kagaku site provides links directly to this company, there are other companies which sel1 Okawa's books on-line. One site explicitly States that it has no comection to the group,"g but al1 of the books it offers for sale are exclusively from Kofuku no Kagaku, listing several books, and a monthly magazine not rnentioned by the 'otticial' site itself Analysis Compared to the websites of other conternporary Japanese new religious movements, the Kofuku no Kagaku website is unusuai in several respects. There is no introduction to the beliefs of the group, nor is there a listing of the location of the headquarters or branch churches, both of which are almoa universdy featured on the home pages of new religions. From the website, there is no way for an interested user to find and join a Kofuku no Kagaku group. AIthough the English, Geman and Portuguese pages do feature a brief introduction to the group 's beliefs ('What is the IRH?"), there is very Little elaboration; the syncretic nature of the group and Okawa's idenacation as the El Cantare Consciousness are not mentioned, rather it is presented as a modem form of Buddhism. hterestingly, the biography provided in the Japanese portion of the site also does not mention these features of the group. Al1 three foreign-language sites were created and are maintained by the headquarters in Tokyo, despite the existence of relatively large groups of betievers in Brazil, the United States and Gexmany who could have created and rnaintained more elaborate sites themselves. This centralization suggests that the KofÙku no Kagaku headquarters in Japan was seeking a level of uniformity between the sites which would not have existed if they had been produced independently. Also, the centralization of the websites allows a greater degree of central control over their content. There is no opportunity for interaction between users on the Kofuku no Kagaku website. Information flows fiorn Kofuku no Kagaku to the user, but there is no retum; the user is ody able to read whatever materials Kofuku no Kagaku headquarters allows. Again, this is a result of the focus of the website, which is to promote and sel1 Okawa's books. Although Buddhism is ofien mentioned throughout the entire site, other religious aspects of the group are generaily not promoted. The central focus of the Kofùku no Kagaku website is not the teaching and clarification of the group's beliefs, but rather the promotion of the group's books, magazines and comics. Many of the books are promoted by listing the problems which they wiil help the reader solve, rather than the elernents of the doctrine which they teach; emphasis is placed on the irnrnediate worldy benefits which the products cm provide. Links are provided to facilitate online purchases, and where this is not possible, the publishing information necessary to order the materials at a regular bookstore is provided as well. The Kofuku no Kagaku website has been carefbiiy optimized to sel1 the group's products: there is enough information to geaerate interest and nothing is given away for free, forcing the online users to seek out the books in 'real We' . Chapter 8 - Analvsis The five websites examined in this research are as diEerent and distinct as the groups which they represent. The older, more established groups have created large, detailed sites providing a great amount of information and detail. A much newer group, sri11 struggling to attract and retain a solid base of membership, has srnder sites, designed not so much to distribute the teachings of the group, but rather to pique the interest of non-believers. The groups which fa11 between these two poles have websites which reflect this status: revealing a great deai, but not dl, of their teachings and givhg detded information on the methods and requirements for joining. Despite these variations, there are a number of cornmon trends and factors which can be observed among dl of these sites. The Internet as a Medium The most fundamentai issue surrounding any group's use of the Intemet is how it is regarded: whether it is seen as a new form of an old medium (such as paper or radio), or whether it is given the status of a distinctly new and different form of communication. Casting it in the role of a rnodified form of an older medium means that it is used in a very similar way, following the conventions of paper-based publishing to comrnunicate ideas. When the hternet is regarded as a new medium, new possibilities are created ro use it in a number of previously unuied ways, but these may not necessarily be successfbl in providing the kind of communication a group or individual desires. For the most part, aii of the new religious groups view the Internet and websites as a digital form of paper. They are largely used to publish text and some pictures, and in many cases these duplicate materials which have already been published in "regular" book format. The introductory materials about the group's founder, its history and basic teachings for both Perfect Liberty and Omoto are largely copied directly from the introductory booklets which they distribute to interested non-members. The Perfect Liberty website has even included a number of the illustrations found in a printed booklet. The "SM NOW" news section of the Seicho no Ie site reproduces news articles that appear in the newsletter distributed to local groups. The Omoto and Kofuku no Kagaku sites even include selections fiom books written by their spiritual leaders, which are available to be read online. Both Temi and Omoto have introductory booklets available to be downloaded, and which have been formatted to be easily printed and folded into booklet form. Tenri's booklets explain the group's basic teachings or provide derailed travel information to T~Mcity, while Omoto offers a bookiet which presents their campaign against organ donation. However, a number of the groups have extended their use of the Intemet beyond the replication of pre-existing written and visuai materials. The Tennkyo website features a variety of multi-media files, including t-shirt designs, rnap files, and a series of animated programs, very similx to television advertisements, which promote an upcomhg festival. The opening lines of a speech by the current Omoto leader are available to be downloaded as a sound file, which can then be replayed at a later the. However, although these groups do include media, nich as sound or animation, that could not be communicated on the written page, these do not forrn the rnajority of their sites, and represent only a minor addition. Kofùku no Kagaku, a group which is well known because of the prodigious writings of its leader, uses its website in a slightly dserent manner than the other groups examined in this research. Its website does contain mostly text and some pictures, typical of its approach to the Internet as a form of digital paper. However, what makes the Kofuku no Kagaku site iateresting is the manner in which it is used. The other groups use their sites to reproduce much of their previously produced matenai, and the materials seem to be published so that they can be used to inform both non-mernbers and new members. in contrast, Kofuku no Kagaku uses its site to act as a form of advertising for the books written by Ryuho Okawa, its leader, and published by the printing Company owned by the group. Some information is given about each of the books, but it is just enough to give a user a general impression of the book's abject, and make a decision about buying it. In this respect, Kofuku no Kagaku seems to view the Intemet not only as a new form of printed media, but more specifically, as a new form of advertising which dows the group to reach a potentially wider audience than with traditionai printed advertising. It should not seem remarkable that all of the groups under examination share sirnilar vîews on the topic of the Internet as a medium of communication. The Internet is largely regarded as a new form of traditional printed media. There is emphasis on written materiai, sometimes supplemented by illustrations or photographs. This is currently the prevailing view of the Internet both withui Japan and in the rest of the world, aithough as the technology is evolving this idea is being chdenged. For Japanese new religions, this view of the Intemet is certauily understandable. Text is the easiest and quickest way to communicate large amounts of material, especially when dealing with issues of doctrine where complex terms are often used. Simple text formatted as a web page is also a very easily accessible means of electronic communication because any computer with Intemet browsing (which can support Japanese characters) can access and read the matenals published by a group. Eveo if the the trend toward the use of hand-held computers and cellular phones to access the Intemet continues, the accessibility of these simplified pages can be maintained with a straightforward change in the format of the text. In contrast, those pages which incorporate animation, sound or downloadable data cannot be easily converted to be accessible through those hand-held devices. One final advantage of using a website in place of or in tandem with printed materials is that it can reduce a group's promotional costs. This is especially tme of the introductory materiais, which are often given to non-members who are curious, or given away during recruiting drives. Hundreds or thousands of bookiets and leaflets may be given out by a single local group dunng a year, al1 of which must be printed by the headquarters group. Materiais which are meant for comrnitted believers reidorce their sense of membership within the religion, and ultirnately benefit the group. From an economic standpoint, printed goods which retain members (and perhaps encourage them to contribute more money to the group) are worthwhile. Introductory materials are often given to the curious or non-believers, and ifthat person does not joh, the money spent creating those matenals cm be considered to have been wasted. In contrast, beyond the initial costs, a website is relatively cheap to maintain and update. By directing users to a website instead of giving away bookiets, the groups can Save money, especially on materiais which may not result in any benefit for the group. In teraclivity Before it had even been started, the system of computer networks that has become the Intemet was originally envisioned as a means of communication between distant researchers, ailowing them to share data and information. Integral to this original vision was the idea that there could be interaction between people who were physically separated, whether it was by leaving notes on an electronic bulletin board, or by sending messages to each other while both were simultaneously co~ectedto the network. The precursor of the Intemet was created in the hope of fostering an exchange of information and communication, based on a two-way fiow of information, with participants both giving and taking as part of this exchange. This interactive flow of information back and forth between individuals is closely associated with the creation of "virtud communities" on the Internet. These "virtual communities" are cornposed of people who are separated physically but have created a community through shared interests, background, culture or social status. Virtual communities have been the focus of academic interest and research in recent years, especially among feminists and ethnographers studying marginaiized groups. At the beginning of this research, it was expected that, in addition to the web pages maintained by the headquarters of each group, there would be mailing lists, electronic bulletin boards and chat rooms in use by befievers. The use of online chat rooms by other religious groups has recentiy attracted academic attention. Surprisingly, there was none to be found among the Japanese new religions. In order to create a virtual community onhe, the ability to interact with others through oniine chats or the exchange of e-mails is essential. However, when the creation of an online community is not the goal of a group, it is ody natural that opportunities for interactivity among members and Intemet users in general are Limited. Although this lack of interaction cenainly means that the unique abiiity of the Intemet to facilitate the creation of a sense of community is lost, this does not invalidate any of the groups' websites. As discussed previously, the Intemet has been used by these new religious goups in much the same way as printed materials, with the result that the kinds of communication created tend to be of a single type: pnnted materials creating a unidirectional flow of information fiom the (web)page to the reader. With the general lack of opportunity for interaction, or providing feedback about what has been read, these websites are similar to mainstream books, presenting information in a static manner. It was previously pointed out that much of the material found on these websites is reproduced from printed materiai. The introductory materiais, such as the group's history, biographies of leaders, and basic teachings, have often been copied directly from the introductory bookiets distributed by the groups. In general, this kind of communication is well suited to the use of websites by the groups under examination; when atternpting to Sominterested non-beiievers in the group's teachings, it wouid seem to make sense that consistent information be made available. Although a more interactive website might allow a curious non-member to pose questions to rnembers of the group, this could actually become a iiability for the group if the explanations provided were not orthodox ones, or were misinterpretations of the group's teachings. A aatic, non-interactive but weil-worded and concise explanation of its teachings allows a group to ensure that the image it presents is me to its core vision. However, this well-crafked, static presentation of a group can also be used to conceal or de-emphasize cenain aspects of a group. For example, the materials on Seicho no Ie's website do not mention the group's long- standing associations with conservative and right-wing factions within Japanese politics. Kofuku no Kagaku's use of its website as a means of selling its books tends to skirt the issue of the group's religious character to focus on the writings and wisdom of Ryuho Okawa. Despite the generai absence of interactive opportunities on these websites, there are a few examples of websites which do dow a limited fom of interaction. The first is the creation of a listing of the websites created by individuals and local groups by T~M. Users can visit these sites, which present alternative views (albeit universaily positive ones) on T~Mbeliefs, activities and daily life. They provide an oppominity for non- members to see a view of T~Mthat is not that of the headquarters group, but rather fiom individuai members. These sites are also of interest to current members of T~Mbecause they enable members to see how others have been helped by T~M, how they have integrated 'ïe~teachings into their lifestyle, or the various activities that other local groups undertake. hongthe five groups studied, T~Mwas the ody one which actively prornoted these individual sites. Some groups, such as Perfect Liberty and Omoto, allow their members to create web pages about the group, but will not provide a link to those pages fiom the main headquarters' site. Other groups, most notably Kofuku no Kagaku, do not ailow their members to maintain sites mentioning the group, especiaiiy in a religious context. These attitudes demonstrate each group's attitude toward decentraiized and unsupe~sedcommunication. Tenri, which actively promotes websites which have not been created by the headquarters group, seems more cornfortable with allowing members to communicate without having to do so through the main website. Information can flow directly between users, without being edited to avoid unorthodox content. This demonstrates the group's confidence in its own strength and stability; it does not feel that the free exchange of information (orthodox or unorthodox) will harm its status or vigour. In contrast with T~M'swillingness to dlow users to create their own websites and comrnunicate with each other, Kofuku no Kagaku maintains tight control over information about itself and its teachings on the Intemet. There are a number of possible reasons for tlus. In early 2000, the goup was the subject of a number of critical articles published in the Asahi Shinbun, which resulted in several lawsuits by the group against the paper. Athough the Kofuku no Kagaku website was created shonly before this, it seems that the group is attempting to maintain close control over the information that it makes public about itself This may be the reason that the religious nature of the group is Iargely de-emphasized on their website, in favour of promoting Okawa's writings. Since Meinformation is given out on their official website? it is not surprising that the group would not encourage members to create their own web pages. The single "unofficial website" for Kofuku no Kagaku (which existed before the group created its own page) was removed from the Internet soon after the launch of the officiai site. Individual web pages create the possibility of misconstrued teachings or unorthodox statements which are not in agreement with the policies of headquarters. It is perhaps the fear that these websites would be used against the group by its critics that has led Kofuku no Kagaku to forbid or suppress individuai websites about the group. Currently, Ornoto is campaigning vigourously against recent laws which have permitted organ donation, and have raised the issue of brain death. Visitors to the Omoto website are able to enter their name and address into an electronic petition which the group will use in its anti-organ donation activities. Although this is not truly interactive because users are not communicating arnongst themselves, it clearly breaks the pattern of a uni-directional flow of information. A user is able to contribute to the group's carnpaign, essentidly becoming a member of a "comrnunity" composed of people who are opposed ro organ donation. In a very limited manner, Omoto has permitted a form of interaction and has created a virtuai community. Arnong ail of the groups studied. this is the ody example of a website being used to pursue an activity or campaign, rather than merely reporting the results of completed events or advertisins upcoming ones. It is interesting to note that Seicho no te, which conducted a two-decade campaign against legalized abortion and has panicipated in severai right-wing political actions, has not yet used its website for these purposes. New Technology Even in its "birthplace", the United States, the htemet is still largely regarded as being a new technological advance. Althougb Japan was relatively Iate in comecting to the Intemet, its universities and businesses have caught up. and currently the country is poised to become a leader in Internet commerce.320 Traditiondy, new religious groups have been eager to use every means available to them in spreading their beliefs. Printing and publishg have long been the main means of communication, but as new technologies became afEordable, they were quickly embraced. In the post-war period, when hundreds of local radio stations were created, many new religious goups began to broadcast weekly or daily programs. Audio cassettes have been used to distribute sermons and lectures to groups and hdividuals, a practice which is stiIl continued, especially in overseas congregations. Home video cameras were adopted by many groups to record lectures, both as a means of distribution, and as an archive to preserve the leader's teachhgs. Several new religious groups, most notably Tenrikyo, have capitalized on the recent introduction of cable and Sordable satellite television services, and the resulting proliferation of television channels, by creating their own daily television programming. The speed with which the groups adopted the Internet as a means of communication varies widely, and does not seem to follow a pattern. Perfect Liberty and Seicho no Ie both created their first websites in 1996, at the very beginning of the surge in popularity of the Intemet in Japan. The Temi site was first created in mid- 1997, while Omoto did not create its site until early 1998. Most surpnsing has been the relative slowness of Kofùku no Kagaku in using the Intemet: a group which promotes itseif as being uniquely suited to modem Ke, but has created an official website only in December of 1999. It is interesting to note that the two groups which adopted the Intemet the earliest have also ailowed their sites to remain relatively basic in terms of content and complexity. Both the PL and Seicho no Ie sites utilize a relatively basic structure, and aithough they both undergo periodic cosmetic changes, have remained fundamentatly unchanged since their introduction. Tenri and Omoto, which were both comparatively late in creating a presence on the Intemet, have much more complex and dynamic sites. Omoto's contains a great deal of material on a number of its activities, and has been greatly expanded since its inception. The Tenri site is the most technologicdy advanced of those surveyed, using not ody a number of multimedia files which dow the transfer of a great deal of material easily, but also programming techniques and languages which are considerably more advanced than those of the other groups. Some of the design and programming used by Tenri is comparable to that of current commercial and business sites. Kofuku no Kagaku, the latest group to create a website, does not use particularly advanced design or programming techniques, but has co~ecteditseif with electronic commerce, a current trend in htemet usage, both within Japan and overseas. It provides links to on-line book vendors who sel1 most or many of the leader's books, shipping them directly to a customer's home and billing using a credit card. Cellular and other "hand-held" means of access to the Intemet have only been widely available since mid- 1999, and experienced a great nirge of popularity at the end of that year. Despite its relative newness, T~Mand Omoto have already produced pages and content which are compatible with this new format: Tenri in January of 2000 and Omoto in April of 2000. It is interesting to note that both of these groups were not the early adopters of the Intemet, but created their sites relatively late in cornparison to some other groups. This demonstrates both of these groups' awareness of the changing nature of the Intemet, as well as a willingness to adapt to those changes. It is not clear why the reasons for these ciifferences in attitude toward new technology exist, both in the initial adoption of the Intemet as a means of communication and in the use of new developments in the medium. AU of the groups surveyed are relatively wel-established, and aii of them couid be considered to be financidiy secure. A group which is not well-established may not have the infiastructure to support the creation and maintenance of even a simple website, despite the fact that it could represent another means to recniit new members. On the other hand, a long-standing group which already has a stable membership may not consider it necessary to expand its means of communication, or to do so in a concerted manner. This may explain the relatively static Perfect Liberty and Seicho no Ie sites, which serve the basic function of creating a presence for the group on the Intemet, but have not been updated to include current trends in design or programming. These differences in attitude cannot be ascribed to financial differences between the five groups. Each one is financially stable, either from current publishing activities (such as Kofuku no Kagaku) or long-standing financial and real estate holdings (as with Omoto and Tenri). The occasional upgrading of a website to include current techniques is well within the means of al1 of the groups surveyed. It seems that differences in attitude towards the adoption of new technology, both the tntemet itself and the new methods which have emerged to use it, are related to each group's attitude towards the Intemet as a medium of communication. T~Mand Omoto, groups which both attempt to use the Intemet in a capacity beyond a replication of printed material, were slow to create their first websites. However, having done so, they have continuaiiy upgraded their websites using current programming Ianguages and have adapted to the changing demands created by the increase in the use of ceU-phones to access the Internet. Seicho no Ie and PL, groups which tend to view the Lntemet as another method to distribute printed material, were early users of the medium, but have generaliy not embraced new technology or techniques related to the use and creation of websites. Content The contents of the five websites studied Vary widely, with a range of subjects and general complexity. Nonetheless, there are several general trends which can be discemed. The most common factor among ail of the websites is the presence of introductory materid about the group. Even the Kofuku no Kagaku website, which attempts to distance itself from the group and focus on the sale of its books, features a bnef introductoly section. Generally, the introductory matenal is composed of a biography of the founder (as well as the subsequent leaders), a history of the group, an outline of the basic teachings of the group, the most important annual or monthly ceremonies and rituals, and instructions on how to join the group or find a local group. These are the five most common elements of content on al1 of the sites studied. These elements are aiso commonly found (often in the same order) in the printed introductory materid distributed to new members of these groups. One interesting convergence between pnnted materials and ~beuse of the Internet was the creation of a set of questions accompanied by answers on the Perfect Liberty site. It is similar to the FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions), which are often used on the htemet to provide introductory information on a subject, group or association in an informa1 manner. This contrasts with the general trend of forrnatting previously printed materials for use on a group's website. Closely related to the Japanese content of these sites is the existence of "foreign" language sites created and maintained by the Japanese headquarters groups. There are several different approaches to web pages intended to be visited by non-Japanese users. Some groups use their main page, the page displayed when the basic URL or website address is entered (for example www.oomoto.or.jp), as a directory to the various versions of its main site. The main pages for both Omoto and Kofuku no Kagaku contain simply a logo graphic and links to the various laquage-specific sites. The main Tenrikyo page is the home page for the English version of the site, but provides a iink to the Japanese site. The Seicho no le and Perfect Liberty sites are only in Japanese, having their non- Japanese sites created and rnaintained by the headquarters group for the country or region. Perfect Liberty provides links fiom its main page, while those for Seicho no Ie are listed in their Links section; for example, the Portuguese Seicho no te site is maintained by the Brazilian headquarters. Ironically, the links to these non-Japanese sites can only be found if the user can read Japanese, the only language the links are listed in. A group's decision whether to host foreign language sites fiom its Japanese headquarters, or to allow the regional groups to manage their own websites indicates how they view their role within the world. Omoto, which does not have a religious branch in the English speaking world, but does have branches in Bruil, maintains al1 of the foreign language sites from its headquarters in lapan. This may be because it regards itself largely as a Japanese religion which seeks inter-faith understanding, but does not attempt to propagate itself in North Amerka of Europe. Thus, without a headquarters or regional association in North America, the Japanese headquarters must maintain its own "foreign" web pages. In contrast to this is Kofuku no Kagaku, which seeks to spread itself globally. However, it currently has only a small foilowing outside of Japan, not large enough to support hli-fledged websites; again, the Japanese headquarters group must maintain its foreign language sites. Temi, which also promotes inter-faith activities, has placed its Japmese branch and headquarters at the centre of its lntemet efforts in adherence to its doctrine, which States that the salvation of humanity will begin on the site of the headquarters' main building. Although the group is open to expansion outside Japan, there is still a definite emphasis on the importance of centrakation. A different approach is seen in groups such as Perfect Liberty and Seicho no Ie, which tend to promote the "locaiization" of their beliefs when they are exported abroad (for example, encouraging Western members to combine their new beliefs with Christianity). Pictures, graphics and photographs are the most common non-text content found on ail of the websites. Smail graphics are ofiea used as icons to illustrate menus of items, while photographs are generally used to accompany news items or introductory material. In some cases, the photographs enhance the text which they accompany, especiaily when the buildings at the group's headquarters are described. However, there is also a number of examples in which the pictures or graphics seem completely superfluous. The Perfect Liberty site features a different colourful background graphic for each page. Some of these are generic patterns, while others are tailored to the page (for example, the page detailing the group's history features the English word "hiaory" repeated as a background). The Seicho no Ie site features a number of graphics which do not contribute or complement the materiai they accompany. Like the PL site, each page has a different background, often very colourful and complex. Large blocks of text are sometimes enclosed in large floral borders (for the History page), and the Basic Teaching Page features text which appears as if it is printed on a scroil of paper. Many of the T~M pages, especially those dealing with the group's teachings, feature photographs which are unrelated to the text. In contrast to these are the Omoto and KofÙku no Kagaku sites. In general, the Omoto site uses very few graphics, featuring simply text on a white background. This is not to suggest that there are no pictures on the site, as there are often srnail graphics at the top of each page, and there is also a large gallery of photographs of tea bowls made by Onisaburo Deguchi. Kofuku no Kagaku uses even fewer pictures, featuring only photographs of the front cover for each of its books. At the time of research, there were no pictures of either Ryuho Okawa or his wife Kyoko, the two authors featured on the site. Omoto and Kohku no Kagaku use pictures and other graphics sparingly, largely to highlight or illustrate pertinent points. However, this use is unusual arnong the groups studied. In general, pictures are used to add interest and colour to the sites, and often have little to do with the tex-they accompany. Only two of the five websites studied used sound in addition to pictures and text. The Omoto site features a single sound file, a segment of the introduction to one of the leader's recent speeches. The Tenri site also employs sound, but it is used as part of the animations created to promote the "Kodomo OjibagaeriTTfestival. In general, most of the sites do not use a great deal of sound, or other forms of multi-media such as animation or video. There are several possible factors which contribute to this situation. The foremoa is the general tendency of the groups to regard the Internet as a form of paper, which tends to limit the conception of a page involving elements other than text. Compatibility is another important factor because the diversity found in sound formats and multi-media files rnakes it difncult to guarantee that every user would be able to access the 61e successfully. The size of sound @es can also be a problem. Large sound files take a long time to access, and users may not be willing to spend a great deal of time or money downioading a sound file when a textual version could be accessed much more quickly. Accessibility The size of multi-media files, and a user's possible unwillingness or inability to access those files raises the larger issue of accessibility. Although the inclusion of sound, animation and pictures takes advantage of the ability of the Internet to function in different ways than a text-onented paper format, it also makes accessing those pages more dficult. The first problem presented is one of compatibility. Sound and multi- media files are currently saved in a number of differing formats that often require speciaiized programs to use them. Without the program or piayer, a user is unable to access the file. If a site relies too heavily on multi-media files, it places greater requirements on the users; they must have the prograrns to access the files and a computer capable of mnning those programs. Multi-media files are generally larger than text files and take longer to download, increasing the financial demand on the user and increasing the chance that a user may become too impatient to wait for the file to download completely. At this time, it is becorning increasingly popular to use hand-held computers and cellular phones to access the Intemet. Alternative means of accessing the Intemet, such as i-mode, increase the number of people who can view websites because they only require the ownership of a relatively cheap cellular phone (as opposed to a more expensive computer), and require linle skiii to use. This new form of access is making the Intemet more readily accessible to a larger audience. In order to make themselves accessible to those people who use this form of access, not only must groups create specially formatted pages, but they must also limit the amount of non-texhial information they use. Despite this limitation, it would seem that those groups who do not have cellular phone accessible pages are limiting the possible "audience" for their sites. Conclusion Despite the relative newness of the Internet as a medium in Japan, the five new religions in this study have embraced it quickly, ushg it to promote themselves and provide information for members and non-members alike. Each group has a different attitude toward this new technology, a different appreciation of the Lnternet as a medium and dEerent goals in its use. lo the four years since the first new religions established websites, the Lnternet has changed greatly. New means of access, such as the use of ce11 phones, have become increasingly popular, and new programming techniques and langages have made more cornplex websites easier to produce. Time "accelerates" when one examines the [nternet, change occurs quickly and often in unexpected directions. In the nine months of this research, a number of major changes have occurred in Japan with regard to the Intemet. The popularity of i-mode and other forms of cellular access to the Intemet has exploded, and, at the time that this paper is being written, they are poised to overtake the use of persona1 cornputers as the most popular means of accessing websites. While the cost of using the Intemet has been fdling, the speed with which it can be used has increased. Cable modems and high-speed ISDN lines, similar to those currently popular in North Amerka, have recently been widely introduced, increasing the ability of Japanese users to access and download large amounts of information quickly. It is difficult to predict how the situation will have changed in six months, let alone four years from now. This paper has attempted to create a comprehensive study of the websites maintahed by these Japanese new religious groups as of June 2000. The content, format and means of communication have been exarnined and compared to create a composite image of the elements which have characterized the early days of internet usage among Japanese new religious groups. In general, these groups have been quick to adopt this new technology, although to a great extent it has been used as a way to copy previously printed material for wider distribution. However, as Internet access improves and related technologies change, it wil become increasingly possible for the Japanese new retigious movements that successfully adopt these new methods to open themselves to a global audience beyond the limitations of paper-based publishing. It is hoped that this paper can be used to understand better a portion of this process: the early years of the history of Internet usage by Japanese new religious movements. References For website addresses, the MLA standard was applied: [author if known] "Page title if known7' address, date created, date accessed. Al1 avaiiable data were gathered and noted, however, not al1 were readily available, especidly page authors and page titles. Because each of the websites was copied in its entirety using WebCopier, the access date for each page within a site is the same. For ease of reading, the date of access has bcen highlighted in bold at the first reference. Unless stated othenvise, al1 subsequent pages were accessed on the same date. Dates are cited in month/day/year format. '~~~axirnurn~oflHome" http://l~~v.mauimumsoA.com/indes. htd ' Stephen Schenntl. Essential Ethnomahic Methods (Walnut Creek. CA: AltaMin Press. 1999) 70. 3 ibid.. 70. '' ibid.. 71. ' Harq Wolcon Ethnoerauhv: A Wav of Seeing (Walnut Creek CA: .4ltah,fira Press. 1999) 174. "id.. 19 1-2. ibid.. 192. Y Ibid.. 269. Ibid., 27 1. 'O ibid.. 270. ' ' Ibid.. 275. " Ibid.. 275. Margaret Lecompte. Researcher Roles (Walnut Creek. CA: AltaMira Press. 199) 9 1. 14 ibid.. 9 1. " Morag Shiacb ed.. Feminism and CulNral Studies. (New York: Oxîord Universiy Press. 1999) 578. l6 Rosa Aim. ed.. New Frontiers of Soace. Bodies and Gender. (New York: Routledge. 1998) '' Michael Hauben Netizens: On the histow and Impact of Usenet and the Intemet. (Washington. D.C.: EEE Computer Society Pres, 1997) 49. '' Ibid.. 100. l9 Ibid., 100. 'O Ibid.. 100. '' Ibid.. 1024. w - Ibid.. 109. '3 Ibid.. 119. '' Ibid., 120. Ibid.? 120. 16 Ibid., 12 1. rbid.. 121. ibid., 122. 29 Ibid.. 16 1. 'O Ibid., 50. 3' ibid., 50. 3' Ibid.. 30. 33 Christos Moschovitis, .ed., Historv of the Internet: A Chronolom, 1843 to the Present. (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Inc.. 1999) 127. 34 Ibid. 127. 35 Ibid.. 178. 36 Neil Randall. The Sou1 of the Intemet: Net Gods. Netizens and the \viring of the World- (Boston: tnternational Thomson Computer Press. 1997) 23 5. 3- ibid., 235. 38 ibid.. 235. 39 bid.. 136. JO Ibid., 238. " Ibid., 238. " ibid.. 239. J3 Ibid., 239. 44 Hauben. Netizens 239. 15 "hpanese tntemet Usage" ~iw.eurotechnology.codinfo.intemetjap~created 513 112000: accessed 6/05/00. " **CornputerIndu* Almanac-Net Users by Counw' http//~vww.c-1-a.com/1999 1 L iu. hunl created 1 111 111999: accessed 6/05/2000. " ..Intemet in Japan" http://ww~\v.eurotechnoIogy.comluitemet/inde~.htmIcreated 513 1/2000: accessed 6/05/2000. JY Tom Boatman. "E-marketing Boom in Japan" Japan Inc. Vol 2, Number 7. July 2000. 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'" lbid, 184. McFarland, Rush Hour of the Gods 64. 193hnp:llweb.pedea-~%erty.or.jp/histtbl.h~ lY-' Bill Trotter. 35 " 6%% QI 4- 9''http ://\veb.perfect-Liberty .or.jp/taiken. html created 612 1/97 -36 .. y 4 P 4- 9"h&://web.perfect-ii'bertY.or.jp/link-j. hûni ')'"Perfect Liberty USA" http:l/wnnv.pl-usaorg "..$!G%EE b r 7' 4- 3" http://web.perféct-liberty.or.jp/ch~~r~hll000.ht1nl 39 '.PL Welcome" http://wveb.perfen-L~erty.or.jp/welcome-s.hd "O -PL msin- htrp://web.perfect-IiIberty.or.b/pomigu '" hnp://web.perfect-liberty.or.jp/indes.html '" http://web.perfect-liberty.or.jp/saiten-J. htmi '" McFarland, Rush Hour of the Gods 153. 'N ibid.. 154. '" 154. '~5ibid.. 154. '" ibid.. 157. '" ibid., 156. '- Helen Hardacre. Marketing the Menacine Fetus in lapan. (Berkley CA: University of California Press. 1997) 75. ibid.. 76. '" Ohr. Modem Japanese Relieions 127. '52 ibid.. 127. "Tmth of Life Magazine" Vol XXXXVII. No 12 December 1998.2. 34 Webmaster [email protected]> "Re: Research Request" 3/25/2000 personal e-mail ibid. 6/25/2000 ~6-~~~~;fi-~. 4-.2" http://~ww.sni. or.jp/ created 71 1 1/97 accessed 5/27/00 37 .-I&E~~,$-Ad- 9''http://~vrvw.mi.or.jp/ created 1999 >' 5Ni NO W http :llwnnv.mi.oJp/honbu/htmL/snOO06dndn htmi created 5/25/00 "5NIW News" http://w\nv.sni.or.jp/honbU/htmVsn9805dn.htmlcreated 5/ 17/98 accessed 9/ 17/99 'W ..SNI NO W' http://~nw~v.mi.or.jp/honbunimiVsn990Sdn.hmil created 810 119 9 accessed 9/ 17/99 "' hnp://1vmv.mi.0r.jp/ honbu/hWact-j.htrn.i. created 1999 '" http://invw.sni.or.jp/ honbulhtmvoutl-j.hunI, created 1998 263 ibid.. 1998, accessed September 1999, created 11/?/98. '& http://~~~mv.sni.or.jp/honbulhllnvhjst-j.htmlr "' hnp://wnw.mi.or.jp/ honbu/html/tenets-j.hmi1. created 1996 '66 hnp://trnnv.sni.or.jp/ honbUmtmVorg-j. html. created 1998 " http ://\nnv.sni.or.jp/ honbulht~souai-j.html: http://mw.sni. or.jp/ honbu/httd/shiro-p. hmiI: http://~nv.sni.or.jp/ honbulhtml/seinen-p.html " htrp:l/~v~inv.mi.or.jp/honbulhtmilrnagaj-p.html. cmted 1996 "'http://~yww.sni.or.jp/ honbU/htnViogo-p.hüni. created L 996 -.-'O http :l/m.sni.or.jp/ honbulhtmüorg-j. hmil. created 19 98 -" http://~wi~v.mi.or.jp/honbu/hîmi/rnember-j. htmi. created 1996 77 7 -' - http://mw.sni.or=ip/ honbu/ht&radio-j. htmL created 1998 " http://~.mi.or.@/ honbu5Wcenter-j. htd, created 1996 http://wnw .sni.or.jp/ honbdhmivjapjad-j.htmi, created 1998 "' http:l/~vmv.mi.or.jp/ honbu/htmVtai~vadj.h~http://~nww.mi.or.jp/ honbu/hmivbrajad.hmil; http:/I~v~vw.sni.or=rp/honbuhûnilusadj. html, created 1996 36 http:/Iwvmv.sni- honb~or~jpl,created 5/25/00 ';' http://mm.ss8cor.jp/* aeated 11?/00 3%ttp://www.d 1.dionne.jp/-zskri http://mvw-~obunsha.co.m/,created 3/?/00 30 ibid., Peter B.Clarke, ed.. Bibliogra~hyof Japanese New Religions wvih A~oiationsand an Introduction to b~ane~eNew Religions at Home and Abroad. (Suney, England: Cunon Press. 1999) 150. 'Yg, Ibid.. 150. "' Ibid.1152. 'YJ ibid., 152. %' ibid.. 152. Ibid.. 152. bid.. 153. Ibid., 1%. '89 lbid.. 158. 190 2)ui-mOkw. The Lava sf the Sun {%'c'iv Yark: PcngÜin Publishing, 1799) 145. " Peter B-Clarke. Bibliomaphv of Japanese New Relieions 158. ibid., 162. 33 ibid.. 163. 34Ryho Okawa, The Laws of Etemiw (New York: Penguin Publishing, 1998). 3. "' ibid., 110. 36 Ibid.. 114. "' Ibid,. 114-115, 38 http://~nnv.irhpress.co.jplwhatis/indes.html ibid. 3m ibid. 301 "Kofuku-no-Kagaku IRH Press Co.. Ltd.'' http:/i~nnv.irhpress.co.jp/created 110 1/00. accessed 5/27/00 'O2 "Welcome to Kohiku no Kagaku" http:ll~~wv.irhpress.co.jp/pageUindex.html:"Kofuku-no-Kagaku Deutsch" http://~n~v.irhpress.co.jp/2germanlindex.html:http://~mv.irhpress.co.jp/3portuguese/indexhtmi 'O3 .*WorkSr htfp:l/~n~1v.iThpres~.~0~fi/page2h00ks.html j CU "page2" http://~vr~v.irhpress.co.jp/page21inde.u.htmi 'O' 'O' *.OtherWorks" http:l/~clw.irhpre~~.co.jplother/inde~ ..Kofuku-no-Kagaku no Hon" http://~n~v.irhpress.co.jp/ljapaneselîndex.htmi j0î http:i/mw .irhpress.co.jp/ 1japanesdeien~buddhaleiennobuddhn. hunl 308 http:ll~nnv.irhpress.co.jp/ljapanese/haneinohoulhi~1einohou.htrni 309 http:1/1nnv. irhpress.co.jp/ ljapanesdtaiyoultaiyou.html "O http:llwivw.irhpress.co.jplljapanese/ne~v/nyuumon/n,~iumon. html "' http:l/~~in.irhpress.co.jp/ijapanese/nerv/nyon/stepup/stepup. hW "'http://wmv. ir hpress. cojp/ljapanese/li'berty/indes.html "'http:l/t~v.irhpress.co.jplljapanese/l new/okawakyokolindex. hunl http://wivrv. irhpress.co.jp1 1japanesd 1new/essaylindex. htd " http:lItmv. irhpress.co.jplUapanese/l new/mangdindexhtmi http:/11isv.irhpress.c0.jp/ ljapanesd 1ne~v/cd/index.hvnl 31: http://t\wv. irhpress.co.jp/ 1japmed i new/nyuumon/jikkurilindes.htd "'http://wtvw. irhpress.co.jp/ 1japanesd 1new/nyuumon/bu~ou/ùide?c. html "'"Quest for Utopia" hnp:/lquest-utopia.com/info/books-e.hunlaccessed 6/10/00 '" Tom Boaiman. '.E-marketing Boom in lapan" Japan inc. Vol 2. Number 7. luly 2000.28. Books Aidey. Rosa New Frontiea of Soace. Bodies and Gender. New York : Routiedge, 1998. Boatman Tom "E-marketing Boom m Japan" Ja~anInc. Vol 2. Nurnber 7, Juiy 2000. CIarke, Peter B., ed. Biblio aphv of Jarnese New Religions with Annotations and an Introduction to Japanese New Reli~ionsat Home and Abroad. Surrey, England: Curzon Press, 1999. Hardacre. Helen. Marketing the Menacing Fetus in Jaoan. Berkeley. CA University of Califocnia Press, 1997. Lecompte, Margaret D., ed. Researcher Rola and Research Partnenhps. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1999. Masuko. Takashi. ed. Japan Economic Almanac 1998. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shimbun Inc.. 1998. McFarland?H. Neil. The Rush Hour of the Gods. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1967. Moschovitis. Christos, ed. Histont of the Internet: A Chronolow. 1843 to the Present. Santa Barbar. CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1999. Nakamura Takashi. The Basic Teachino of Oomo to. Kameo ka: Oomoto Foundation 1987. OBner, Clark. Modem Japanese Relieions: With Special Emphasis upon their Doctrines of Healing. New York: Twayne Pubiishers, 1965. Okawa Ryuho. The Law of the Sun. New York: Penguin Publishg, 1999. -. The Law of Etemity. New York: Penguin Publishing 1998. Perfect Liberty. New Member's Guidebook Glendale, CA: Church of Perfect Liberty, 1994. Randail, Neil, The Soui of the intemet: Net Gods. Netizens and the wrIne of the World. Boston : international Thomson Cornputer Press. 1997. Shiach Morag, ed. Feminism and Cultural Studies. New York: Mord Univers* Press, 1999. SchaisuL Stephen L. Essential Ethnograuhic Methods. Walnut C reek, CA: Altahh-a Press. 1999. Thomsen, Harry. The New Relieions of Jauan Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttie Company, L 963. 'Truth O f Life Magazine" VOL XXXXVII, No. 12, December 1998. Woiçoii. Harry F. Wiui Cr&_ CA. Aiaiilka Press' 1999. Internet Resources Cornputer Industry Aimanac: http://wwv.c-i-acom, Eurotechnology (marketing forum targeting Japan): http:l/www.eurotechnology.cod KoFuku no Kagaku: http://wwv.irhpress.co.jp Omoto-kyo: http://w\w.omoto.or.jp Perfect Liberty: http:/lweb. perfect-tiberty.or.jp/ "Quest for Utopia" http://quest-utopiacom~info/books-e.htmi Seicho no Ie: http://w~w.sni.or.jp 'OShins huren?' http://WTVIV. shmsfiuren o r. j p Temi-ho: htrp://w~\~v.tedyo.or.jp Tokyo PC Users Group: http:l/mv. tokyo pc. org/tpc/ Other The Webmasten of the five sites were contacted nith a questionnaire, requestmg information about the creation and maintenance of each group's web site. interestin& none of them signed their e-mails with a personal name, usbg their title m some cases, band no signature at ail m others. IWe Temi and Perfea Liberty were enthusiastic m their response to the questionnaire, Seicho no Ie and Omoto were Iess so. Kofuku no Kagaku was initially suspicious, and reluctantiy agreed to provide basic Sodon. Perfect Liberty 'Perfed Liberty Information" Seicho no Ie "SNI WzbhIast~r'~=hh-hsnbu;&ai, xjp Omoto-)-O "Webmaster" Tenri-kyo "WebMaster" Kohku no Kagaku