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California State University, Northridge a Cultural CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE A CULTURAL STUDY OF ZEN BUDDHISM IN AMERICA AND JAPAN A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology by Joy Lynn Hathaway August, 1981 The Thesis of Joy Lynn Hathaway is approved: Lynn Mason, Committee Chairman California State University, Northridge ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the members of my Graduate Committee--Richard Goldberg, Evalyn Michaelson, and especially my Committee Chairman, Lynn Mason--for their patience and helpful suggestions in the preparation of this thesis. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii LIST OF PLATES . vi ABSTRACT . vii INTRODUCTION . 1 PART ONE ZEN BUDDHISM IN JAPAN CHAPTER I. Development of Zen in Japan 27 II. Influence of Zen on Japan . 91 III. Practice of Zen in Japan 139 IV. Zen's Future in Japan 156 PART TWO ZEN BUDDHISM IN THE U.S.A. V. Development of Zen in the U.S.A. 159 VI. Extent of Influence 187 VII. American's Interest in Zen 192 VIII. Zen's Influence on Western Thought 197 IX. Zen's Adaptation to Western Culture . 199 X. Practice of Zen in the U.S.A. 203 ' . I XI. Los Angeles Zen 213 XII. Zen and Christianity 220 .I iv ~ . TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) CONCLUSION . 227 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 235 APPENDIX .. 242 v LIST OF PLATES Plate 1 Tung-shan (Tozan) crossing the stream 243 2 A solitary angler . 244 3 Hui-neng (Eno) cutting the bamboo . 245 vi ABSTRACT A CULTURAL STUDY OF ZEN BUDDHISM IN AMERICA AND JAPAN by Joy Lynn Hathaway Master of Arts in Anthropology This study analyzes the ways in which Zen Buddhism has adapted itself to each of the countries it has entered. Background information is supplied on the transmission of Zen from India to Chin~ then the transmission of Zen to Japan and the United States, and its later development in both countries is analyzed. As Zen has traveled from country to country, through the process of diffusion, it has adopted new characteristics, while leaving some of its old traits behind. Zen has had to change in order to meet the needs of the people in the countries it has entered. The view that is taken is that Zen must continue to adapt vii itself to each new culture that it enters, in order to survive. Some of the questions that are asked by this study are: 1) Why has Zen been brought to the United States? 2) How has Zen adapted itself to American culture? and 3) What is the future of Zen in both Japan and the United States? Although there are practitioners of Zen in the United States, Zen has not yet acquired an American form. Instead it is part of the movement of new cults, which is operating outside of the mainstream of religion in the United States. Many changes must be made if Zen is to survive and become a part of American culture. viii INTRODUCTION Description of Zen Buddhism Zen is one of the most important schools of the Mahayana branch of Buddhism. It is a discipline that teaches meditation as the most direct route to 'Enlighten- ment' or 'Reality.' Its aim is to direct people to see their own nature; to come into touch with their minds so they can understand and perfect them. The intent of Zen Buddhism is to bring man into union with life and with himself, or in other words, to awaken in him the knowledge of who he really is ( S u z uk i 19 6 2 : xi i i) . It teaches that all forms of life have a Buddha-nature, unrealized through ingnorance . ... one does not practice Zen to become a Buddha; one practices it because one is a Buddha from the begin­ ning--and this 'original realization' is the starting point of the Zen life (Watts 1957:154). Zen is the bridge which lies between the world cognizable by the five senses and the mind, and the world of Reality (Humphreys 1974:102). The individual seeks direct awareness of this 'Reality' through zazen (Layman 1976: 54). Zazen is the Zen style of sitting in medita- tion, which is usually performed sitting cross-legged on a cushion. This practice leads to the 'death of self' 1 2 and the merging of the life within in conscious union with the spiritual life of the universe (Humphreys 1974:107). Enlightenment (satori) occurs when the world of discrim­ ination, or dualism (the world of opposites), is trans­ cended and man, through intuitive knowledge, realizes who he really is. Enlightenment is another name for the com­ plete unfolding of the inner mind (Chen-chi 1959:25). It is a spiritual self-awakening that gives insight into the world beyond that of discrimination and differentiation. When one becomes enlightened, he acquires a new way of looking at the world. Zen stresses 'self-enlightenment'; a personal experience brought about by self-effort, which gives a direct experience of Reality. "We teach ourselves; Zen merely points the way" (Suzuki 1962:9). Because of Zen's insistence on an inner spiritual experience, it does not attach any lasting importance to ceremonial rites, sacred scriptures, commandments, judgments, or concepts like God, sin, or soul. Zen teachers are merely guides who help the students on the most direct route to enlightenment by dis­ carding the student's deluded thoughts, illusory ideals, and personal opinions about 'Reality.' They help their students to walk the way they have gone themselves and help them to see clearly (Schloegl 1976:6). The essence of Zen can be summed up as follows: A special transmission outside the scriptures; p • 3 No dependence upon words or letters; Direct pointing to the mind in every one of us; And seeing into one's own nature, whereby one attains Buddhahood. Description of Zen Sects The two main sects of Zen, in Japan and America, are Soto and Rinzai. Both are methods whereby one may obtain enlightenment, but their techniques and aims dif- fer. In Soto (Chinese Ts'ao-tung), the emphasis is on 'shikan-taza,' or sitting quietly, with an "empty mind," where enlightenment comes gradually through silent illumination. In this type of meditation, as thoughts intrude them­ selves into the mind of the sitter, he permits them to float through his consciousness, neither clinging to them nor trying to forcibly eject them (Layman 1976:57). "It is cross-legged sitting with no gain and no expecta- tion--a way of living in one's own true self" (Humphreys 1974:113). Soto Zen reminds us that satori is not an 'extraordinary experience' (Needleman 1970:46). In addi- tion, this sect shows a more meditative temperament than the other sects, and places more emphasis on study and intellectual understanding. Rinzai (Chinese Lin-chi) is distinguished from Soto by its extensive use of the koan and mondo to attain sudden enlightenment. A koan is a riddle, problem or story handed down from the ancient Zen masters, that is offered to a student to open the student's eyes to the 4 truth of Zen. A mondo is a fast question-answer exchange between Zen masters and their students which guide the students to the true nature of Zen. In Rinzai, zazen is practiced with a koan, or mondo, as 'seed' (Humphreys 1974:112). An example of a koan is 'Why did Joshua an- swer 'Mu!' (literally "no" or "has not") when asked, 'Does even a dog possess the Buddha-nature?' (Kapleau 1980:107). In solving this koan the Zen student must reject logical reasoning and find a solution through the awakening of a deeper level of the mind (Layman 1976:57) Usually the Zen disciple first seeks to solve a koan intellectually. But this is impossible, a fact which is underscored by the severe rebuff and the sharp blows of the master. During his ceaseless intellectual toil anxiety mounts intolerably. The whole conscious psychic life is filled with one thought. Such assault against the walls of human reason inevita­ bly gives rise to distrust of all rational percep­ tion. This gnawing doubt, combined with the futile search for a way out, creates a state of extreme and intense yearnings for deliverance. The tension may persist for days, weeks, and even years, but there must be a reaction (Dumoulin 1963:130). The solution of the koan constitutes enlightenment and results in a new way of seeing the world, in which the perceiver is one with the universe and has an ineffable sense of happiness (Layman 1976:57). Some other slight distinctions in the practices of Soto and Rinzai are: 1) during kinhin (Zen walking medi- tation), the students of Soto Zen walk very slow--only stepping forward one-half step with each breath, while the Rinzai students walk very fast (kinhin is done during periods of rest from zazen, to loosen stiff joints); 2) when practicing zazen, Soto students face the wall, while Rinzai students face each other. Stated Purpose of Thesis This thesis is a study of how Zen Buddhism has changed over time in response to the needs of the people in the countries which have adopted it. The adoption of Zen by both the Japanese and the American people will be covered. The purpose of this thesis is to analyze how and why Zen has been brought to the United States, and what changes have taken place in the practice of Zen since its transplant to American soil. Some of the questions that will be asked are: What is it about the United States that attracted Zen?, Has Zen been assimilated into American society, or does it operate as a culture within a culture?, What is the present function of Zen in Ameri­ can society?, and How might this change over time? In addition, Zen in Japan will be analyzed to establish why Zen was accepted by the Japanese, what its function was in Japanese society, how its function changed over time as the soceity changed, and how Zen itself changed since its introduction to Japan.
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