HARVARD COLLEGE Writing Center WRITING CENTER BRIEF GUIDE SERIES A Brief Guide to Writing the Philosophy Paper The Challenges of Philosophical Writing light on them. So, for example, while trying to answer Big Questions like those above, philosophers might find The aim of the assignments in your philosophy classes themselves discussing questions like (respectively): When is to get you doing philosophy. But what is philosophy, would it be morally permissible to push someone into the and how is it to be done? The answer is complicated. path of a speeding trolley? What is a cause? Do I know Philosophers are often motivated by one or more of what that I have hands? Is there an external world? While we might call the “Big Questions,” such as: How should arguing about these questions may appear silly or pointless, we live? Is there free will? How do we know anything? the satisfactions of philosophy are often derived from, or, What is truth? While philosophers do not agree among first, discovering and explicating how they are logically themselves on either the range of proper philosophical connected to the Big Questions, and second, constructing questions or the proper methods of answering them, they and defending philosophical arguments to answer them in do agree that merely expressing one’s personal opinions turn. Good philosophy proceeds with modest, careful and on controversial topics like these is not doing philosophy. clear steps. Rather, philosophers insist on the method of first attaining clarity about the exact question being asked, and then providing answers supported by clear, logically structured Structuring a Philosophy Paper arguments. Philosophy assignments generally ask you to consider An ideal philosophical argument should lead the reader in some thesis or argument, often a thesis or argument that undeniable logical steps from obviously true premises to an has been presented by another philosopher (a thesis is unobvious conclusion. A negative argument is an objection a claim that may be true or false). Given this thesis or that tries to show that a claim, theory, or argument is argument, you may be asked to do one or more of the mistaken; if it does so successfully, we say that it refutes following: explain it, offer an argument in support of it. A positive argument tries to support a claim or theory, it, offer an objection to it, defend against an objection for example, the view that there is genuine free will, to it, evaluate the arguments for and against it, discuss or the view that we should never eat animals. Positive what consequences it might have, determine whether philosophical arguments about the Big Questions that are some other thesis or argument commits one to it (i.e., ideal are extremely hard to construct, and philosophers if I accepted the other thesis or argument, would I be interested in formulating or criticizing such arguments rationally required to accept this one because I accept usually end up discussing other questions that may at first the other one?), or determine whether some other view seem pedantic or contrived. These questions motivate can be held consistently with it. No matter which of philosophers because they seem, after investigation, to these tasks you are asked to complete, your paper should be logically related to the Big Questions and to shed normally meet the following structural requirements: Harvard College Writing Program Faculty of Arts and Sciences Harvard University 2 s Begin by formulating your precise thesis. State s Explain briefly how you will argue in favor of your thesis clearly and concisely in your introduction your thesis. In the example above, Jen’s thesis itself so that your reader understands what your paper sets is stated in such a way as to indicate how the argument out to achieve. Get to the point quickly and without for it will proceed. Jen might reasonably have chosen digression. Don’t try to introduce your argument to enlarge a little on this explanation, for example by within a grand historical narrative, for example. Your indicating in her introduction which term in Smith’s thesis does not have to be the same as any thesis argument is ambiguous, or by indicating why she thinks mentioned in the assignment, although in some cases it others may have overlooked the ambiguity. may be. GOOD WRITING EXAMPLE Take care to clearly indicate Jen was an excellent philosophy writer who when you are speaking in your received the following assignment: Evaluate Smith’s argument for the claim own voice, and when you are that people lack free will. Jen decided before she began writing her paper explicating someone else’s that Smith’s argument ultimately fails because it trades on an ambiguity. Accordingly, she began argument or point of view but not her paper with the following sentence: In this paper, I will refute Smith’s argument against yourself advocating it. the existence of free will by showing that it trades on an ambiguity. Jen’s thesis, then, was that Smith’s argument is invalid because it trades on an ambiguity – and she s If necessary, explain the argument you will stated it clearly right at the beginning of her paper. be critiquing. If your assignment asks you to critique Note that Jen need not say anything at all about someone else’s argument (as in the example above), you the truth or falsity of the thesis that people lack will need to explain that argument before presenting free will; even if Smith’s argument for it is invalid, your critique of it. Sometimes, the entire task of an it might still be true that people lack free will. assignment will be simply to explain an argument originated by somebody else, rather than to provide an argument for your own thesis. While you will not always s Define technical or ambiguous terms used in be expected to provide your own completely original your thesis or your argument. You will need arguments or theories in philosophy papers, you must to define for your reader any special or unclear terms always practice philosophy. This means that you should that appear in your thesis, or in the discussion at hand. explain the argument in your own words and according Write so that you could be clearly understood by a to your own understanding of the steps involved in student who has taken some classes in philosophy but it. You will need to be very clear on the precise logical not this particular class. (Think of this imaginary reader structure of an author’s argument (N.B. this may not be whenever you need to decide how much you need to clearly represented by the order in which the argument say to set up a discussion, or to judge the overall clarity is written down in the readings). Don’t try to impress of your work.) your reader with your wide knowledge by summarizing everything in a particular article, or everything you s If necessary, motivate your thesis (i.e. explain have learned about the topic: stick to explaining only to your reader why they should care about it). the details that are essential to the author’s argument You’ll need to do this, especially in longer assignments, for the particular thesis and to your own argument for when it isn’t clear why a reader would care about the your thesis. Also take care to clearly indicate when you truth of the claim you are arguing for. are speaking in your own voice, and when you are explicating someone else’s argument or point of view but not yourself advocating it. 3 s Make an argument to support your thesis. POOR WRITING EXAMPLE This is the main focus of your paper. To make the strongest possible argument, do not skip any steps, In answer to the previously mentioned and try not to rest your argument on any premises assignment, George wrote a paper arguing that that your reader might not be willing to accept. If you there was free will, on the grounds that George use a claim that your reader might find doubtful, then was himself aware of making all kinds of free you must try to give the reader convincing reasons for choices every day. His conclusion was that accepting it. It will almost always be more effective to Smith’s argument (which he had not explained, use a single argument and make it as compelling as you and mentioned only at the end of the paper) must can than to use more than one argument supported less be false, since there is free will. comprehensively, so avoid taking a “shotgun” approach George’s professor asked him to rewrite, telling by using multiple weaker arguments. In presenting your him that he had failed to engage with Smith’s argument, be straightforward in your language, and say argument in the first draft. Here is an excerpt precisely what you mean. At times you will need to use from George’s less-than-successful rewrite… examples or otherwise elaborate, yet you must still be as concise as possible – unnecessary words or information … Smith says on p.9, “The truth of causal will distract and confuse your reader. determinism having been established by this argument from elimination, we shall move on to prove s In order to strengthen your argument, incompatibilism.” Smith then says that the source of anticipate and answer objections to it. In most an agent’s actions is some event that occurred before he philosophy assignments, this will be an essential part was even born. If an event occurred before someone was of your paper; it helps support your main argument born, it cannot be a product of his choices.