Juliana Surratt Titian's Rape of Europa: Past and Present Significance

Juliana Surratt

Titian’s Rape of Europa: Past and Present Significance

Throughout the 1550s and the early 1560s, Titian would be tirelessly working on a series of paintings (Figs. 1-6) for Philip II, who was his foremost patron, and the future king of Spain.1

In 1550, the two men met and formally agreed that Titian would “supply Philip with paintings on a regular basis,” sending work from his native Venice to Spain.2 Soon after, Titian began work on a series of six paintings which illustrated scenes from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, with the purpose of depicting the “loves and lusts of the Gods.”3 These paintings were referred to as

“poesie,” meaning “poems in paint,” as their purpose was to stimulate the emotion of the viewer on a level similar to poetry, showcasing the “ecstasy” or “tragedy” which could result from love between the human and the divine.4 Titian’s Rape of Europa, depicting Jupiter in the guise of a bull carrying Europa to Crete where he will rape her, was described by the artist as the final painting within the series: “I can say that she [the Europa] may be the seal of the many other works that were ordered finished to you by me.”5 In this correspondence between patron and artist, Titian refers to the painting with great pride, as if this “seal” represents the culmination of artistic progress for him. 6 Europa is more than the final painting, she is perhaps even the finest of all the paintings in the program.

1 Phillip would take the crown in 1556, while Titian continued working on the painting program. Cecil Gould, “Titian,” Grove Art Online, 2003, https://www-oxfordartonline com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/978188444 6054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085242. 2 Charles Fitzroy, The Rape of Europa: The Intriguing History of Titian’s Masterpiece (London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2015), 11. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 Paoletti, 470. Aneta Georgievska-Shine, “Titian, Europa, and the Seal of the Poesie,” Artibus Et Historiae 28, no. 56 (2007): 2. 6 Titian’s immense pride in the work would lead him to supervise a copy of the work in his workshop several years later. See Fitzroy 48. On observing Europa, it is no wonder that Titian considered the painting a masterwork.

By altering the direction of brush strokes, Titian created unmatched dimensionality in his painting. Now referred to as “proto-Impressionist,” this technique caused the image to become hazy when viewed from close up.7 This is especially visible in the background of Europa, where the wispy mountains fade into the sky and vaguely rendered figures reach out for Europa at the shore. Titian’s also creates three-dimensionality through layering, as the thin layers in the background give way to thick layers in the foreground where actual “light glints off thick deposits of color.”8 Additionally, Titian’s focus on the “art of colore (the supremacy of colour over drawing),” which was a technique commonly used in Venice, shines through in this work as the bright red of the drapery in Europa’s hand flutters in the wind, drawing attention to the main source of action within the scene.9 This focal point of action is further exemplified by the fact that Europa and the bull move “in an ascending diagonal across the picture surface,” drawing attention to the bull as he struggles to traverse the waves.10 Both figures take up the entire right corner of the painting, and the drape functions to extend them further across the surface of the painting, as if it’s reaching to the upper-right corner of the canvas as well.

While most scholars discussing Europa focus to some extent on Titian’s skills as a colorist, the majority of articles focus on the content of the scene depicted. A. W. Eaton and

David Carrier both consider the painting through a contemporary lens, recognizing it as a scene that presents an eroticized, possibly celebratory, depiction of abduction and rape. The bull seems to be championing the act, as he confidently romps through the waves, the cherubs with their arrows in full support of his endeavor. Both Eaton and Carrier argue that, regardless of the

7 Gould. 8 John T. Paoletti and Gary M. Radke, Art in Renaissance Italy (New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2012), 470. 9 Fitzroy 18. 10 Paoletti 470. mastery of the artwork, the subject matter causes discomfort in the modern viewer, and it is impossible to ignore the subject and admire the painting on a purely formal level.11

Charles Fitzroy and Aneta Georgievska-Shine choose to discuss the painting from a more historical perspective, trying to map out the specific literary sources and translations which

Titian used for the painting. For example, Georgievska concludes that Titian probably used the

1553 translation of Metamorphoses by Dolce, as Dolce “praises Charles V [Philip’s father]” in the dedication of the book, and it surely would have been a version Philip was familiar with.12

The translation of the text would undoubtedly play a role in the rendering of the scene, as

Dolce’s translation was less a “faithful translation,” and more a “free interpretation.”13 As such, a translator could change the undertone of the work, altering it to match the way they viewed the text. Fitzroy indicated that some versions of the story described the scene as one of fear, while others focused more on the “light-hearted” side of things.14 In understanding Titian’s painting, then, a scholar must trace it back to the specific text or texts that inspired it.

In order to gauge how Europa remains relevant today, I think that one must consider the arguments presented by both kinds of scholars. Eaton’s argument that the rape is an “ethical defect that diminishes the painting aesthetically,” is certainly applicable to the modern viewer.

Though there is debate about whether Europa’s expression is one of “ecstasy,” or rather

“fearful,” the fact remains that this image is meant to be stimulating, beautiful, and a moment forecasting nonconsensual sex, or rape.15 Unfortunately, such representations continue to exist within modern art and culture. Eaton writes: “[O]ne doesn’t have to look very hard to see these

11 David Carrier, “Mrs. Isabella Stewart Gardner’s Titian,” Source: Notes in the History of Art 20, no. 2 (2001): 22. 12 Georgievska-Shine 180. 13 Ibid. and A. W. Eaton, "Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian's Rape of Europa," Hypatia 18, no. 4 (2003): 159. 14 Fitzroy 47. 15 Eaton 162 and Carrier 23. assumptions [about women’s sexuality and rape fantasy] manifest today in people’s attitudes, in a variety of cultural representations.”16 While a modern viewer can critique Europa alongside a film which presents similar assumptions, it is necessary for the modern viewer to also recognize the time in which this painting was created. Indeed, the painting is from the 16th century, illustrating a scene from an ancient, Roman epic. Thus, the content itself spans a history of about two thousand years. Europa comes from a different time, ,so as important as Eaton’s argument is, it cannot be the only angle under which the painting is considered. According to Fitzroy,

Titian’s work might have been progressive for its time.

In the Renaissance, Titian’s Europa may have been a progressive depiction of the myth than other artist’s renditions. Fitzroy writes that, in most Renaissance depictions of Europa and the bull, artists portrayed the scene as an “Arcadian idyll,” where Europa is playful and innocent, picking flowers to adorn the bull with.17 In contrast, Titian’s goal was to “portray the key moment when Europa realizes her fate,” following Horace’s interpretation which hones in on

Europa’s intense fear as she comes to understand that she will be raped.18 Indeed, it may be that her arm is raised as if to shield herself from the cherub’s arrows, as she doesn’t want to fall in love with her captor.19 I would like to further point out that the sky on the left side of the painting is intensely bright, blue and beautiful, and the clouds become increasingly heavy and dark in the direction the bull is taking her, as if nature is representative of the oncoming event. Seen in such a way, this painting can function to inform the modern viewer about the past, and how women were treated and considered during the Renaissance. Indeed, while women can view Europa today and recognize the brutality and inherent sexism of the scene, there is little to no

16 Eaton 164. 17 Fitzroy 48-49. 18 Fitzroy 47-48. 19 Ibid., 2. information on “how women in Titian’s era responded to such images.”20 This fact only functions to illustrate even more how little a say women had in Renaissance culture.

From a historical perspective, Titian may have been progressive. From a modern perspective, the subject matter of this painting is wrong on every conceivable level. Europa remains relevant because the painting provides viewer’s with the ability to analyze the past, and analyze the present as it relates to the past. By continuing to study Titian’s work, and other paintings like Europa, historians can continue to discover how certain prejudiced undertones have survived in today’s society, and confront the issues which remain present in modern media.

There are still many questions revolving around Europa, as well. This work had been part of a series, and Carrier notes that Titian’s “women do not always play passive roles.” 21 Another image from the series presents Actaeon seeing Diana nude, something which will result in his death; the death seen is actually portrayed in a later painting. (Fig. 7).22 Could viewing Europa alongside other paintings open up new means of interpretation? Recently plans have been made for almost all of the paintings in the series to be displayed together.23 Surely this will provide new opportunities for understanding Titian’s works, and his world.

Images

20 Carrier 22. 21 Ibid., 23-24. 22 Sometimes this work is even considered a part of the poesie series (see Cecil Gould’s article), thus making Europa the second to last painting, and so not the “seal”. It is possible that Titian changed his mind, after all! Ibid., 23. 23 Mark Brown, “Titian Masterpieces to be Displayed Together for First Time since 1704,” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media Limited, May 16, 2019, https://amp.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2019/may/16/titian- masterpieces-to-be-displayed-together-for-first-time-since-1704.

Figure 1. Titian, Danaë, c.1554 (Museo del Prado, Madrid)

Figure 2. Titian, Venus and Adonis, c.1553 (Museo del Prado, Madrid)

Figure 3. Titian, Perseus and Andromeda, c.1554-1556 (The Wallace Collection, London)

Figure 4. Titian, Diana and Actaeon, c. 1556-1559 (The National Gallery, London)

Figure 5. Titian, Diana and Callisto Man, c.1566-1559 (The National Gallery, London)

Figure 6. Titian, Rape of Europa, 1492 (Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston)

Figure 7. Titian, Death of Actaeon, 1492 (The National Gallery, London)

Bibliography

Brown, Mark. “Titian Masterpieces to be Displayed Together for First Time since 1704.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited, May 16, 2019. https://amp.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2019/may/16/titian-masterpieces-to-be-display ed-together-for-first-time-since-1704.

Carrier, David. “Mrs. Isabella Stewart Gardner’s Titian.” Source: Notes in the History of Art 20, no. 2 (2001): 20-24.

Eaton, A. W. “Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian's Rape of Europa.” Hypatia 18, no. 4 (2003): 159-88.

Fitzroy, Charles. The Rape of Europa: The Intriguing History of Titian’s Masterpiece. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2015.

Georgievska-Shine, Aneta. “Titian, Europa, and the Seal of the Poesie.” Artibus Et Historiae 28, no. 56 (2007): 177-85.

Gould, Cecil. “Titian.” Grove Art Online. 2003. https://www-oxfordartonlinecom.holycross.idm.oclc.org/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781 88444 6054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085242.

Paoletti, John T., and Gary M. Radke. Art in Renaissance Italy. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2012.