Migration, Missionaries and Contact: Recent Archaeological Research In

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Migration, missionaries and contact: recent a new polity, the BaTawana, in north- date and type, with some sites yielding western Botswana, and establish the first large numbers of fine glazed wares whilst archaeological research in the Khwebe Hills, capital in the Khwebe Hills. others had a higher proportion of unglazed Botswana Later, the legendary explorer and sherds from large vessels. missionary, David Livingstone, travelled Preliminary analysis of the results Ceri Ashley northwards from the London Missionary would suggest that travellers were chiefly Field survey and excavation in the Khwebe Hills of Botswana form part Society (LMS) base at Kolobeng, following a route running northeast- of a British Academy Postdoctoral Fellowship project on the Archaeology determined to reach the fabled Lake southwest, on a course some distance of Migrations in Africa. Here, the BA Postdoctoral Fellow describes the Ngami, arriving in 1849 (Fig. 3). to the north of the modern road from Having opened up a route to the north, first two seasons of fieldwork, which concentrated on the investigation Merv to Chardzhou. The substantial it was not long before other European architectural remains discovered also of two sites, one associated with the BaTawana, who migrated into the travellers, including missionaries, traders, support the assertion that the major area in the early 19th century and the other a missionary establishment and hunters, arrived, and in 1892 it was eastwards axis of trade of Merv ran to of the London Missionary Society that was occupied during the 1890s. decided to establish a new LMS station in Bukhara and Samarkand and vice versa. the Khwebe Hills, which was led by the Characterizing the sites of the ork in the Khwebe Hills of (both written and oral histories) record missionary Alfred Wookey, accompanied northern route, there is not the uniformity Botswana was undertaken significant mobility in the region during by Reid (artisan and craftsman) and th that might be expected with desert way- as part of a wider British the 19 century and at least one large- Mogodi, a renowned Tswana evangelist. stations. Instead, a wide range of forms WAcademy Postdoctoral Fellowship at the scale migration into the area. In particular This mission was occupied until 1899 was identified, perhaps associated with Institute of Archaeology (2007–2010) the impact of two phases of immigration when the various effects of malaria and different roles and different chronological Figure 6 A large fortified tepe (KRS03), with a well preserved building which is exploring the archaeology of have been identified and explored within attacks by leopards drove the missionaries timescales, demonstrating the complexity th th migration in sub-Saharan Africa. The this research: the migration of BaTawana out. of infrastructure that underpins this major of surface ceramic scatters. The majority later period, the 14 –16 centuries CE, intention of this study is to explore the into the region in the early 1800s, and the Investigation of the Khwebe Hills route. of these sites were located in natural than the assemblages associated with the dynamics of human mobility, and in effect of incoming European settlers from therefore provides the opportunity to depressions, currently occupied by small northern route, and were often found th particular the relationship between host the mid 19 century, in particular the role explore the impact of the incoming The southern route animal herders’ structures congregating amongst modern occupation debris. and immigrant communities. of missionary establishments. BaTawana on the indigenous hunter- The majority of the sites identified during around wells (Fig. 7). The archaeological The wider spread of cultural material Archaeology has historically had a The BaTawana, who now constitute gatherer and herding communities, ground survey in this area took the form samples retrieved indicated a slightly across the Karakum Desert in this strong engagement with migration as an the major ethnic group in the region, are a whilst the later settlement by European southern area suggests that this area was interpretive device, although its role and Tswana polity who migrated into the area missionaries provides an insight into early indeed inhabited during the medieval prominence has dwindled considerably c.1805 as a result of a succession dispute colonial contact and interaction. period and it is probable that the natural since the 1960s. As a result, migration is amongst the BaNgwato polity of eastern basins – with their proximity to the often overlooked, and particularly so in Botswana. Denied the leadership of the Fieldwork water table, shelter and higher levels of sub-Saharan Africa, where it often has BaNgwato in favour of a younger brother, Trial survey and test excavation were vegetation – would be as advantageous in connotations that relate it to European Tawana seceded from the BaNgwato and undertaken in November-December the past as they are to modern day herding settlement and colonialism. However, left the capital of Shoshong, taking a 2008, in conjunction with Mr Vasco communities. Unlike the strong linear migration is a key feature of everyday number of followers with him to found Baitseseng of the National Museum and pattern of the northern route, with its life in Africa, and recurs throughout its imposing architectural remains, the image history, from the early migration “Out of emerging of the southern region is of a ZAMBIA b Africa” to modern urban and economic ANGOLA number of small interconnected outposts migrants. This project has identified a Za ezi or watering points. Trade and travel number of case-studies where various Kavango feasibly percolated through this system, forms of migration are known to have ZIMBABWE perhaps with no particularly strong axis occurred, and is subjecting the associated Tsodilo m of movement, but instead choosing a Okavango approximate margin of sites to archaeological scrutiny to try and Kalahari sands Delta series of way-points suited to the purpose. understand what the impact and effects Maun Makgadikgadi Surveying a greater number of these sites Pans Bulawayo of such migration may have been on the Boteti may give a more detailed impression of material record. The primary case study is the associated chronology, and elucidate Khwebe that of the 19th century Khwebe Hills in the function of these remote outposts. Lake Ngami Hills north-western Botswana (Fig. 1). S NAMIBIA hashe General conclusions Historical background and context Ghanzi Preliminary analysis of the results would CENTRAL Fieldwork was undertaken in 2008 and suggest that travellers were chiefly Serowe 2009, with further research planned KALAHARI following a route running northeast- Shoshong for 2010. As well as the author, staff southwest, on a course north of the o N p and students of the UCL Institute of po modern road from Merv to Chardzhou. Lim Archaeology, University of Botswana, Such a route is congruent with historical UCLA international archaeology accounts of passage between Merv and programme and the Botswana National the Oxus, in particular the postal network BOTSWANA Museum and Art Gallery were involved.1 Gaborone Kolobeng running through this region of the Islamic The chosen area of study, the Khwebe SOUTH world. However, comparison of the two Hills, is located c.30km south-west of the AFRICA routes (northern and southern) suggests modern town of Maun, and in the frontier very different forms of navigation across area between the Kalahari Desert and the the vast desert and the existence of

Okavango Delta region (Fig. 2). 0 200 km numerous sites questions the existence This area was chosen for research as of a single Silk Road in this region. it has never been subject to systematic Figure 5 Example of a caravanserai (KRS02-1), close to the modern settlement of Ravnina Nevertheless, it would appear that the archaeological investigation before. Figure 1 Map showing sites mentioned in the text primary northern route attracted major

Furthermore, the historical records

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(Fig. 3). The results of the field survey were combined with the desk-based research in the GIS. The northern route Thirteen sites, ranging from small surface scatters to large fortified structures, were recorded across the northern study area (Fig. 4). Cultural material, primarily ceramics, was recovered from all of these and most of the sites’ surface material could be dated between the 8th and 16th centuries CE. Many of these were located using the Soviet maps (the prospect of identifying sites from satellite imagery was more disappointing – see below). The structural remains included a number of caravanserai and fortified settlements, some of which had substantial extant architecture (Figs 5 and 6). Traversing tracks between these remains, smaller sites Figure 4 Students from the University of Figure 3 The remains of a double-courtyard caravanserai (KRS01) recorded during the desert survey. were located on less prominent mounds, Botswana excavating KWH1 in December 2008 The spring rains have just brought out a wonderful carpet of wild flowers, which are resplendent for probably from eroded earthen structures. about 2–3 weeks Ceramics from these sites were diverse in undergraduates from the University of Botswana (UB) Archaeology Unit (Fig. 4). features from Soviet maps of the area. These Following the successful pilot study, a data were combined in a Geographical full excavation season was conducted Information System (GIS), which in August-September 2009, involving would later form the basis for digitally 15 students from the UCL Institute of mapping sites and their characteristics. Archaeology, Archaeology Unit of UB Geographic and hydrological features and a new collaborative field-school with – such as seasonal lakes (takyrs), wells, the UCLA International Archaeology palaeochannels, topographic anomalies, programme. In addition, Mr Phillip and modern settlements – were also added Segadika, Head of Archaeology of the as layers in the GIS. This combination of National Museum joined the project, data enabled us to examine the landscape and two UCL graduate students, Jane and locate areas of possible occupation, Humphris and Nikolas Gestrich acted which were then targeted as part of the as supervisors. Two sites were subject to field survey. There are also descriptions of survey and excavation. trade routes and postal networks from a number of historical sources, providing a Excavation: KWH4 backdrop to the survey data. The site of KWH4 stretches Figure 2 View of Thamalakane River in the Okavango Delta approximately one kilometre across the Field survey hillside, commanding spectacular views In May 2009, a transect of the desert to the north, east and west, and consists landscape, approximately 50km north- of hundreds of stone features (Figs 5, 6 south and 20km east-west, was targeted and 7). Recorded in local oral history as for ground survey. The field survey aimed the first occupation site of the incoming to investigate the satellite “signatures”, to BaTawana, KWH4 has been subject to see if the anomalies observed there could test excavations and ongoing planning be linked to archaeological sites, to explore and survey. the “ruins” noted on the cartographic In 2009 a new programme of mapping sources, to locate previously unknown Figure 4 Sites located during the field survey sample area along the northern route. (Background © was begun at KWH4 using a combination sites, and to gain a better understanding Google EarthTM mapping service) of GPS and Total Station survey. These of the topographic variation across the KRS01 Double-courtyard caravanserai, 10th–12th century results demonstrate a complex and study area. KRS02-1 Single-courtyard square caravanserai, 9th–11th century intricate series of low stone walls that The area was traversed using a four KRS02-2 Single-courtyard roughly square caravanserai, 8th–10th century interconnect to form large scalloped wheel drive vehicle (Fig. 2), with the team KRS03 Large fortified tepe – well preserved tower, 8th–12th century outer-walls surrounding internal features supported by Global Positioning System KRS04 Pottery scatter on large takyr, 12th–13th century and enclosures, and accessed through (GPS) navigation, handheld computers KRS05 Pottery scatter in natural basin, 12th–14th century walled entrance-ways. This layout is and a satellite telephone for emergency KRS06 Köshk and enclosed complex, well preserved,large 9th–12th century highly reminiscent of typical Tswana contact. For each site encountered, KRS07 Small roughly circular walled structure, 10th–12th century settlement layouts recorded in the 19th samples of surface cultural material were KRS08 Pottery and brick from modern excavate d mound, 14th–16th century century, where space is strictly organized, collected; sketch plans, basic dimensions KRS09 Section of standing wall – tower?, 11th–12th century and focused around central cattle kraals and photographs recorded; and GPS th th KRS10 Very eroded mound – no clear morphology, 9 –10 century Figure 3 Contemporary illustration of Livingstone arriving at Lake Ngami or byres, with domestic activities taking coordinates obtained. Although the KRS11 Very eroded structure – some walls, 11th–14th century place in the surrounding space. Thus conditions were difficult, the late spring KRS12 Large tepe and satellite – small settlement?, 12th–13th century each of the scalloped enclosing walls rains briefly bring the desert to life might represent a single household space,

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wealth were typically articulated through stations, settlements and stopping points cattle ownership, whilst key social Merv to the Oxus: a desert survey of routes and in the desert east of Merv, to establish the transactions, such as the exchange of surviving archaeology course of the route and understand its bridewealth during marriage, were paid in structure. Tim Williams and Paul Wordsworth cattle. As such a valuable resource, cattle Possible southern route(s): the town of herds were carefully managed and only The site of Merv in Turkmenistan supported a series of major urban settlements Kerki (probably ancient Zamm) played slaughtered for special events. Even after from the 5th century BCE to the 13th century CE and is now a World an important role throughout the slaughter, the process of butchering a cow Heritage Site. The Institute of Archaeology has been involved in international Sasanian and Islamic periods as a major and redistributing its meat was closely research at Merv since 1991, including both excavation and field survey. Here crossing point of the Oxus. There are monitored, with different cuts allocated the Director of the current project describes the latest field survey, which is historical accounts of water sources across to different members of the family/ investigating Merv’s place in the famous Silk Roads that traversed Central Asia. this region and several indications of community according to status and palaeochannels on the satellite imagery, tradition. Thus the evidence of cattle from suggesting the possibility of previously KWH4 may suggest a continuation not succession of cities at Merv, name way-stations that lie along this inhabitable territories and routes. just of the economic/subsistence structure in the Murghab Delta of route, with distances given between them. from the BaNgwato homeland, but also eastern Turkmenistan, together However, the course of this routeway, Desk-based research Aencompass an area of over 1000 hectares and the settlements along it, was virtually wider socio-political and cosmological Before going into the field, and to make th structures. and date from the 5 century BCE to unknown. The two primary areas were: the best use of our time there, we first 1 However, there are also important the Mongol sack of 1221CE. These A northern route: The existence of a major analysed satellite imagery, combined with discrepancies within the faunal profile cities, once one of the largest urban route running north-easterly between information from historic and modern that suggest KWH4 does not completely centres in the world, straddled the Merv and Amul was well known, but its cartographic sources. Possible sites were conform to a typical Tswana model. fabled Silk Roads that traversed Central precise route and form were not. So our identified on high resolution (Quickbird) Importantly, almost a third of the faunal Asia. There has been a long tradition of initial project sought to identify the way- satellite imagery, as were “ruins” and other assemblage remains wild. This contrasts archaeological research at these cities and Figure 5 View across Khwebe Hills from KWH4 (looking north) to the 3–5% wild species found in the the Institute of Archaeology, University faunal assemblage at Ntsweng, a mid College London, has been working with 19th century BaKwena capital from the Turkmenistan Ministry of Culture south-eastern Botswana, where there since 1991, when the former Soviet was an absolute dominance of cattle.2 Central Asian Republic of Turkmenistan Furthermore, unlike Ntsweng, the range gained independence. The work has of wild animals exploited at KWH4 focused on both archaeological research includes large ungulates such as buffalo and approaches to the conservation and elephant. These large mammals are and management of the Ancient Merv Archaeological Park, which since 1999 very dangerous and could not have been 2 opportunistically hunted (unlike tortoise has been a World Heritage Site. which was found at both Ntsweng and In 2009 we started a project to KWH4), and instead requiring specialist explore the wider context of the ancient skill and knowledge (Fig. 8). This cities: in particular the hinterland of the suggests that alongside the emphasis on cities within the fertile Murghab Delta domesticates and animal husbandry, there (in collaboration with the University of was a strong focus on wild animals and Bologna) and the Silk Roads that these skilled hunting. Oral history records the cities were so intimately bound up with presence of hunter-gatherer communities through much of their history. For the in the region prior to the arrival of the latter, the project aims to explore how BaTawana,3 and it is probable that the urban centres connected through trade and how this fluctuated over time, against Figure 1 Satellite image of the region showing the fertile Murghab delta, the location of cities of community at KWH4 was in close contact Merv, and Āmul, on banks of the Amu Darya River (Oxus), some 200 km away. Note the intervening with these expert hunters, either trading the background of dynamic empire desert landscape. (Background © Google EarthTM mapping service) with them, or learning new hunting skills systems, imperial influence on trade from them. routes, individual “city” dominance over routes, and the structuring of rural way- Material culture remains from KWH4 stations. consisted primarily of ceramics, much The first survey project was to examine Figure 6 Satellite image of KWH4 showing wall features. Courtesy Google. of which conforms to a typical Tswana style, with red slipping and burnish and an area of the inhospitable Karakum (Black Sands) Desert, immediately to including houses and grain bins, whilst the were well preserved and demonstrated a geometric patterning (Fig. 9). However, in the east of the Murghab Delta.3 This is central enclosures were used for holding preference for domesticates, both cattle addition to these ceramics, other examples a region of arid scrub, bounded by the cattle and as a meeting place for the elders and sheep/goat, comprising 60–65% of ceramics with lugs and pierced handles Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) River to (the kgotla). Thus it would seem that the of the total assemblage. This includes were also found (Fig. 10). These compare the east and the Garabil plateau to the spatial organization of KWH4 conforms evidence of marrow extraction, evidenced closely with Khoe ceramics identified at south (Fig. 1), had to be crossed to link to the typical pattern in the homeland of by cattle bones that have been cracked different locales in Botswana, including the great cities of Merv with the Oxus the incoming BaTawana. open. This emphasis on cattle and the nearby site of Toteng. Associated with River, and from there on to Bukhara and particularly the maximization of resources semi-sedentary herder groups, the presence Towards the end of the 2009 season Samarkand. We know from historical from cattle, fits with the known pattern of of such Khoe ceramics at KWH4 once a midden area was identified and subject accounts that the route from Merv to Tswana subsistence strategies at this time. again suggests contact between incoming to brief test excavation. Although limited the city of Amul (the modern city of As the settlement layout demonstrates, BaTawana and pre-existing communities, in scale, this excavation produced useful Chardzhou or Turkmenabat), on the Amu cattle were (and still are) a highly prized and indicates how the migrants adapted material and subsistence data which can Darya, was one of the primary branches Figure 2 Gaigysyz Joraev and the desert survey vehicle, showing the scrub character of the desert resource, both for their economic value, to the local environment.

give some indications of domestic activities of the Silk Roads and the sources even area, just as the plants brought on by the brief spring rains are already beginning to dry out. In the

at KWH4. In particular, faunal remains as well as their social meaning. Status and foreground the low mounds show the lines of a heavily eroded caravanserai

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Figure 10 Vessel with lugs from KWH4)

KWH1 The second site subject to investigation Figure 7 Stone walled feature in KWH4 is KWH1, which was identified as the LMS site of Wookey and others, and The evidence from KWH4 therefore which was occupied between 1892 and presents a complex picture of incomers 1899. Test excavation was undertaken bringing many facets of their home in one of the associated buildings in community with them, as well as adapting 2008 (Fig. 11), with more detailed to the new locale, resources and people. and extensive excavation continued in 2009 (Fig. 12). In all, foundations of four prominent rectangular buildings have been located and planned, and one excavated, revealing a 3-roomed building with stone foundations and mudbrick walls (Fig. 13). Two rooms were excavated as well as exterior features including the doorway and parts of a veranda. The architecture of these buildings immediately indicates a strong European influence, with the use of rectangular buildings and stone foundations rather than the more typical local use of mud or dagga walls in circular formations. Plate glass was also found in abundance, suggesting the importation of fragile glass for glazing windows. Others indications of a strong European influence come from the finds retrieved during excavation. These included building materials such as metal nails, screws, nuts and bolts, which are not used in traditional Tswana buildings, as well as a range of domestic goods. Objects such as tins and broken bottles (gin, Worcester sauce) tell of the importation of European food and drinks, whilst the presence of several pieces of a tea set suggest that imported foodstuffs were also consumed on imported china. Even medicines and treatments seem to have been sourced from outside with the recovery of a labelled balm container. Figure 8 Some of the wild animals found However perhaps most interesting are in the faunal profile of KWH4 (tortoise and Figure 9 Sherds of Tswana type pottery from the personal items that were recovered, elephant) KWH4 that begin to present a picture of the

individuals living at the site, their

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Even the lives of children, who more easily adapt to new environments, seem to have been controlled and structured around European norms, with toys and play replicating European practice. This picture fits well with wider anthropological research which suggests that missionaries in Botswana, and southern Africa in general, were anxious to re-define every aspect of social life, not just religious or moral conversion, and thus emphasized western practice at every social level.4 Ultimately however, the success of this venture must be questioned; despite the wholescale importation of a new model of life based on European society, the mission lasted only five years, and succumbed to the realities of African life with the missionaries beset by disease and attacks from wild animals. Figure 11 University of Botswana students during test excavation at KWH1 in 2008 Conclusion: future plans Work on the Khwebe Hills is ongoing, however, even at this preliminary stage, it is clear that the process of culture contact, migration and colonization was not simple or clear-cut. Relations between immigrants and the indigenous community was not one of simple suppression by the incoming colonizers; rather, the new lands and resources of the Khwebe Hills forced the migrants to adapt and work with local communities. Even the missionaries of KWH1, who tried valiantly to impose a new social order and replicate their home lifestyle were defeated. The process of culture contact is thus seemingly multi-faceted and dialectical – the host communities and cultures can equally infiltrate immigrant or colonizer communities, creating a new hybrid society, which is neither a mirror of the immigrant homeland, nor of the indigenous community. Figure 12 Institute of Archaeology students working at KWH1 in 2009

interests and how they spent their leisure time. For example a chess piece was found (Fig. 14a), as well as children’s toys that included a marble and part of a small cup from a child’s toy tea set (Fig. 14b). A ﬁnal intriguing item was the recovery of a piece of blackboard chalk (Fig. 14c), suggesting that perhaps the building may also have served some sort of educational purpose, although it is unclear whether this was for the children of missionaries or those of the local community (or both). The evidence from KWH1 therefore clearly indicates a settlement where every attempt is being made to recreate a European model of society; indeed, not a single locally produced artefact has been recovered during excavation. Every facet of life seems to be affected, from the very outward display of European architecture through to the very private. Figure 13 Rectangular building wiht sone foundations at KWH1

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The Khwebe Hills clearly therefore holds huge archaeological potential, and a as such, fieldwork will resume in 2010, working once more with colleagues from the National Museum and students from the IoA and University of Botswana. New initiatives planned for 2010 include extending excavation at KWH1 to other buildings within the Mission station, with a possible church/high status building already identified from survey in 2009. For KWH4, excavation will continue alongside intensive planning and mapping. This latter aspect is vital, as it will help explain the articulation of space/activity within the site, as well as identifying areas for future investigation. A final component for 2010 will be a more general landscape survey, which will hopefully allow the detailed excavations of KWH1 and KWH4 to be seen in a broader cultural landscape. This endeavour is also b important for a deeper-time understanding of the Khwebe Hills; whilst wider research from surrounding Ngamiland has demonstrated human activity from the Early Stone Age onwards, no systematic or sustained archaeological work has ever been carried out in Khwebe. The results from this work will be published in a range of local/regional and international journals, and will form the backbone of my British Academy Fellowship. Notes 1 Particular thanks to Prof. Gilbert Pwiti, Prof. Alinah Segobye, Dr Sarah Mothulatsiphi, Ms Stefania Merlo (Archaeology Unit, University of Botswana); Mr Phillip Segadika, Mr Vasco Baitseseng, Mrs Nonofho Ndobochani (Botswana National Museum and Art Gallery). At UCL I am grateful to Andrew Reid for the faunal analysis from KWH4. In the Khwebe Hills, I am indebted to Mr Jon Dalsegg who generously allowed us to stay on his land and work on sites within his farm. In Maun I am also grateful to the c assistance of Mr John Fella of the Museum. I am also grateful to Kgosi Kealetile Moremi and Kgosi Kemang Nkakobang for all their support and assistance. 2 A. Reid, “Access to cattle resources in a Tswana capital”, in African historical archaeologies, D.A.M. Reid & P.J. Lane (eds), 301–24 (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2004). 3 T. Tlou, A history of Ngamiland 1750-1906: The formation of an African state (Gaborone: MacMillan Botswana Publishing, 1985.) 4 J. Comaroff & J. Comaroff, Of revelation and revolution: the dialectics of modernity on a South African frontier, Volume 2 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1997).

Figure 14 Finds from KWH4: a – chess piece; b – fragment from child’s teaset; c – piece of chalk

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