Issue 64 June 2020

Climate crisis and local communities

plus Early reflections on COVID-19 Trafficking and smuggling Forced Migration Review (FMR) provides a forum for the regular exchange of practical experience, information and ideas between researchers, refugees From the editors and internally displaced people, his issue will go online and to print while the UK is still gradually easing its and those who work with them. Tlockdown. We know that many of our readers will be living and working in It is published in English, Arabic, very difficult circumstances, and we extend to you our warmest wishes. Spanish and French by the Unusually, this issue of FMR includes two main feature themes, one on Refugee Studies Centre of the Climate crisis and local communities and one on Trafficking and smuggling, Oxford Department of International plus a ‘mini-feature’ on early reflections on COVID-19 in the context of Development, University of Oxford. displacement. Staff Climate crisis and local communities: Local communities around the world Marion Couldrey & have been coping with the effects of a changing climate for decades. This Jenny Peebles (Editors) feature focuses on the impact on local communities, their coping strategies, Maureen Schoenfeld (Finance lessons arising, and broader questions of access, rights and justice. (A future and Promotion Assistant) issue will focus on international response and policy.) Sharon Ellis (Assistant) Trafficking and smuggling: Since we published an issue on human trafficking Forced Migration Review in 2006, increased reporting of both trafficking and smuggling has triggered Refugee Studies Centre renewed attention around the growing impact of, and the links between, Oxford Department of International these related but distinct phenomena. This feature explores some of the Development, University of Oxford, current challenges, misconceptions, insights and innovations in these fields. 3 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TB, UK COVID-19 – early reflections: Four articles offer preliminary reflections on the fmr@qeh.ox.ac.uk pandemic, focusing on the role of refugee-led organisations and the need for Skype: fmreview data to inform responses. Tel: +44 (0)1865 281700 We would like to thank Carmela Buehler (Swiss Federal Department of www.fmreview.org Foreign Affairs), Khalid Koser (GCERF) and Roger Zetter (Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford) for their assistance as advisors to the feature Disclaimer: Opinions in FMR do not themes. We would also like to thank the Government of the Principality of necessarily reflect the views of the Liechtenstein, Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, the Swiss Federal Department of Editors, the Refugee Studies Centre Foreign Affairs, UNHCR Division of Resilience and Solutions and the or the University of Oxford. Australian Research Council Linkage project ‘Transformative human Copyright: FMR is an Open Access mobilities in a changing climate’ for their generous funding support for this publication. For details visit particular issue of FMR. www.fmreview.org/copyright. FMR 64 formats online at www.fmreview.org/issue64 • Full magazine • Editors’ briefing (headline analysis of the content) ISSN 1460-9819 For printed copies, please email us at [email protected]. Designed by: Plus: see our thematic listings on Climate change and Trafficking. These Art24 www.art24.co.uk provide quick access to FMR articles (and full issues) on these topics. Printed by: www.fmreview.org/thematic-listings Oxuniprint www.oxuniprint.co.uk Forthcoming issues: see www.fmreview.org/forthcoming or back cover. With best wishes

Front cover images: Marion Couldrey and Jenny Peebles Editors, Forced Migration Review Top left Credit: Project Survival Media/ Joe Lukhovi FMR 64 has been sponsored by Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung with funds from the See page 11 for full image. Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development of the Federal Bottom right Republic of Germany. Credit: Nadia Sebtaoui The content of this publication is the sole responsibility of Forced Migration See page 64 for full image/caption. Review and does not necessarily reflect the position of Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung. Forced Migration Review issue 64 • www.fmreview.org/issue64

Climate crisis and local communities 45 Addressing trafficking in the sex industry: time to recognise the contribution of sex workers 4 Resilience, adaptation and learning: Malian Borislav Gerasimov refugees and their Mauritanian hosts Fouda Ndikintum and Mohamed Ag Malha 48 The return of vulnerable asylum seekers to Italy: protecting victims of trafficking 7 Environmental challenges and local strategies Lucia Della Torre, Adriana Romer and Margarite in Western Sahara Zoeteweij Matthew Porges 50 Trafficking, ritual oaths and criminal 10 Climate-induced involuntary migration: nomadic- investigations pastoralists’ search for elusive pastures in Kenya Ana Dols García Ekai Nabenyo 53 Civil litigation on behalf of trafficking survivors: 13 Community strategies for diversification a new approach to accountability? in Ethiopia Henry Wu Pablo Cortés Ferrández 56 Challenging the so-called trafficking–terror 15 Trapped or resettled: coastal communities in finance nexus the Sundarbans Delta, India Craig Damian Smith Shaberi Das and Sugata Hazra 60 Tackling exploitation through ‘technology for 18 Climate crisis and local communities in South freedom’ East Asia: causes, responses and questions Christa Foster Crawford and Ashley Kafton of justice Laura Geiger 63 Smuggling and trafficking from Vietnam to Europe Mimi Vu and Nadia Sebtaoui 22 Lessons from internal climate migration in Mongolia 66 Migrant ‘caravans’ in Mexico and the fight Simon Schoening against smuggling Eduardo Torre Cantalapiedra 25 Climate crisis, gender inequalities and local response in Somalia/Somaliland 67 The adverse effects of Niger’s anti-smuggling law Amy Croome and Muna Hussein Colleen Moser 28 Indigenous perspectives on gender, power and 69 Tackling smuggling in the Balkans: policy lessons climate-related displacement Charles Simpson Sarah Pentlow 32 Multiple mobilities in Pacific Islands communities COVID-19: early reflections Fanny Thornton, Karen McNamara, Olivia Dun, 73 Refugee-led responses in the fight against Carol Farbotko, Celia McMichael, Merewalesi Yee, COVID-19: building lasting participatory models Sabira Coelho, Tim Westbury, Sharon James and Alexander Betts, Evan Easton-Calabria and Frances Namoumou Kate Pincock 35 When the two seas met: preventive and 76 By refugees, for refugees: refugee leadership self-managed relocation of the Nova Enseada during COVID-19, and beyond community in Brazil Mustafa Alio, Shaza Alrihawi, James Milner, Giovanna Gini, Tatiana Mendonça Cardoso and Erika Anila Noor, Najeeba Wazefadost and Pires Ramos Pascal Zigashane Trafficking and smuggling 79 Counting urban refugees during COVID-19 Florence Lozet and Evan Easton-Calabria 39 The same ruler for everyone: improving trafficking estimates 81 Supporting evidence-driven responses to Joshua Youle and Abigail Long COVID-19 Domenico Tabasso 42 Understanding the psychological effects of sex trafficking to inform service delivery Jennifer McQuaid

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Warm thanks also to our readers for their support. All donations help. If you read and value FMR, please make a gift at www.fmreview.org/online-giving. Help keep this resource going! 4 new skills in exile. Both refugee and host communities are benefiting. are communities host and refugee Both exile. in skills new learning are and country, home their in change climate of effects the managing in gained they experience and skills the them with brought have Mauritania, Mbera, in refugees Malian which they experienced at home. experienced they which change of climate consequences severe the to for solutions search own their during developed was situation new their in learning to openness their that acknowledge refugees The community. host the in of these some mitigate to and challenges such with deal to equipped better are they home country, their in change of climate consequences negative the with dealt themselves Having them. with needs own their as well as solutions bring Fortunately, refugees purposes. agricultural and for domestic of water use and collection firewood as such activities other by affected been also has environment natural The change. climate by exacerbated resources, these on pressure increased placed –has for livestock pasture water and as –such communities host their in resources for natural Demand exile. into them with livestock their bring often 1973. since Mali northern 10 in or so years every for example, have recurred Droughts, or longer. decades over several change climate of consequences negative the experienced had however, flight, them of most their to prior insecurity; of growing because areas negative impacts of climate change was then, then, was change of climate impacts negative the to response immediate Their country. their in remained they though change, climate of because homes their from previously move to forced been had camp Mbera the in now living refugees Malian Several Deciding tomove:tippingpoints Mauritania. eastern south- in surroundings, its and camp Mbera in now living are and of Mali north the from hail refugees in These 2012. whoMali fled 60,511 hosts refugees currently Mauritania hosts Mauritanian their and refugees Malian learning: and adaptation Resilience, Fouda Malha NdikintumandMohamedAg www.fmreview.org/issue64 Being mostly herders, Malian refugees refugees Malian herders, mostly Being 1 They left their home their left They Climate crisisandlocalcommunities practised there were the same as their own. own. their as same the were there practised religion predominant the if only country aneighbouring in refuge seeking consider would Others move elsewhere. than land their on die would rather people some extreme, other At the for themselves. fend to obligation it an consider and maturity age of the whoby youth have reached for individually, example reached be also can Decisions members. of community part greater of the exodus alarge be could there which following consultation, after others. to over generosity priority the becomes interests family immediate and personal safeguarding as strained, become relationships strategies, adaptation failed to addition in when, reached is point tipping away home. The from further moving consider to however, start people limits, their beyond stretched are strategies adaptation resilient. less the to hand a generous extending community of the members resilient most the with of survival, ameans as role plays acentral also of community sense The water cool. order keep to in jars around wrap to skin of animal use the water and soil conserve to of mulches types of various use the as such innovations, way of indigenous by resilience attempt to build to remains, and refugees for decades, and has asked the the asked has and for decades, refugees Malian towards policy open-door an maintained has of Mauritania Government move. to forced The persons embrace to communities of host predisposition the affecting factors all are border the across ties family and ethnicity shared affinities, national culture, of ademocratic existence The Facilitating integration The decision to move is usually reached reached move to usually is decision The innovative acommunity’s When June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 Malian refugee herders gather at Mbera camp to sell livestock. sell to camp Mbera at gather herders refugee Malian options are available in the country of asylum, of asylum, country the in available are options livelihoods whatever adapt, embracing instead will refugees the option, afeasible not is rebuilding such If of asylum. country the in of stock rebuilding commence to capital seed as used meat be to most the or produce of calves number greatest have the milk, most the yield which animals cleverly selecting by achieved is of livelihoods rebuilding the possible, When animals. their retrieve to personally of returning risk the take can they Alternatively, passage. safe would provide who authorities or administrative traditional or friends help of reliable the probably with haven, accessible safe, to a cattle their drive to herdsman atrustworthy on rely can They twohave options. haste in who left home options. livelihoods their or adapting recovery, include rebuilding country host the in easily integrate can they ensure to refugees by Malian used Strategies status. of and cash) into transformed be can that (savings of wealth indication an is owned of cattle Moreover, stock the refugees. Malian of majority by the undertaken activity important most the is ruminants small sisters. and brothers as them consider to and refugees the receive to population local June 2020 With regard to recovery, displaced persons to persons recovery, regard With displaced extent, and,to a lesser of cattle Rearing Climate crisisandlocalcommunities indeed be carried out simultaneously. out simultaneously. carried be indeed may strategies These production. cattle subsequently and ruminant small engage with re- to aspringboard as this use donors, and by funded partners through sometimes of seeds not known to the host community, community, host the to known not of seeds varieties heat-resistant them with brought Firstly, refugees Mali. the in were they when change climate of effects negative the circumvent to used had they techniques camp. the in of UNHCR’s partners assistance the or with independently either gardening in engaged were community refugee entire the 10% in of households approximately that indicate UNHCR to 2019, available of 31as December statistics camp; however, at the of arrival time at the background agricultural an had Mbera in degradation. environmental reduce to and resources natural on pressure resolve to associations through working and consumption) for household (to produce grow gardening include These change. climate to response in Mali in developed innovations several replicated have successsfully Mbera in refugees Malian Adaptation strategies Refugees have replicated several several have replicated Refugees living households 1.3% of refugee Only www.fmreview.org/issue64

UNHCR/Viola E Bruttomesso 5 6 several several have created home and back experiences own by their inspired have been refugees camp, do however, exist, not NRMA where Mbera In resources. of natural rehabilitation and to access regulate to created are (NRMA) Associations Management Resources Natural located, is Mbera where of Bassikounou district the in case the is as such country, the of area an in Ministry the of presence effective no is there When for enforcement. responsible Development Sustainable and Environment of Ministry the with over-exploited, being from resources natural its order protect to in community. host the women from with techniques control pest natural and enhancement fertility soil water management, in experiences their share to opportunity an gardening in women engaged refugee Malian afforded camp, which Mbera at the UNHCR and by partners organised jointly recently was visit exchange An activity. for the community host the in enthusiasm have aroused refugees by the obtained results positive these and season, farming 2019 the during yields impressive in resulted used. being started beds, seed rectangular sunken or beds flat usual Mauritanians’ the to opposed as beds seed sunken of circular use the as such techniques, conservation water indigenous Thirdly, ants. by soldier attacks of increasing consequence negative the has which dung, animal unfermented use to was community host the in norm the whereas fertility, soil for enhancing compost of production the as such practices, friendly environment- in engaged Secondly, they seeds. tomato and onion purple including organised during World Environment Day World during Environment organised usually are campaigns These five last years. the within Desert, by SOS distributed species tree adapted locally 60,000 than more planted community. host the to extend occasionally they which camp the within up campaigns clean- organises regularly Cleanliness), Camp Volunteers for (Refugee du Camp Propriété la pour Volontaires Réfugiés group, called For example, a degradation. environmental www.fmreview.org/issue64 Mauritania has passed a number of laws anumber passed has Mauritania techniques of these use combined The Afforestation associations have meanwhile have meanwhile associations Afforestation associations in order combat to in Climate crisisandlocalcommunities These committees are empowered in the the in empowered are committees These of Bassikounou. district the within villages the in committees community refugee–host of mixed creation the facilitated has agency Women. Moreover, apartner against Violence of Elimination Day for the International the World as Day such and Refugee activism, and days of observance international mark to held occasions on sites at hosting intervening partners other and agencies by UN created often are of interaction platforms Formal ceremonies. or festive markets at weekly and at pastures at water points, meet they when members community among interactions include channels Informal channels. informal and formal both through place refugees. Malian by the embraced been –has community host the in practised is but community refugee the in non-existent was –which of para-veterinarians use the for example, addition, In long term. the in pastures on pressure of the reduction the to leading consumed, of pasture quantity same for weight the more put to on animals enable which techniques fattening ruminant small adopting their in resulted further has establishment of over 100km of firebreaks. of over of firebreaks. 100km establishment the as such measures preventive involved in equally also Theywere fires. wild fight to gendarmes and brigades community host with intervene jointly and brigade fighting fire- – now have a fire-tracing about little very –who knew 2019. refugees in Malian four to reduced were caused disasters and outbreaks bushfire of number the bushfire, of a case in alarm the howon raise to directives and campaigns awareness-raising Following Mauritania. in degradation worst environmental of the for some account Bushfires practices. environment-friendly local adopted and community host the for change. partners as seen now rather are They environment. of the degraders greatest the are refugees idea that the dispel to have helped by refugees, spearheaded have been which actions, These of August. week first the during Tree celebrations the Day (5 of June) National and Celebrations Local-to-local knowledge exchange takes takes exchange knowledge Local-to-local The openness of refugees to learning to of refugees openness The from learned have equally Refugees June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 initiatives. refugee-driven flexible, of importance the show responses Their face. they that challenges climate-related interconnected the tackle to ways finding are refugee-nomads Sahrawi politicised by both Morocco and Polisario, Polisario, and Morocco by both politicised are Territories Liberated the and camps the both in estimates Population herders. nomadic comprising measure), primarily to harder even are here figures population (although 30,000–40,000 of around population may have a area This Territories. Liberated the it calls area –an Sahara of Western territory 20% about of the as well as camps, the administers Polisario Sahara. Western of people indigenous the 173,000 Sahrawis, of around population estimated have an movement) and Sahara’s pro-independence Front (Western Polisario the and Morocco between of war outbreak the following 1975 up in set were camps These Algeria. Tindouf, near camps refugee Sahrawi the on focused understandably has studies, migration forced and of refugee perspective the from particularly conflict, Sahara the to Western paid attention ofMuch the Sahara Western Environmental challenges and local strategies in can members community host and refugees of both resourcefulness and potential the Harnessing same. do to the citizens country host inspire to and of asylum country the in challenges similar tackle to them enable often experiences These home countries. their in crises climate-related facing through developed resources human including them, with of resources awealth bring alwaysis negative. Refugees both or conflict or crisis change of climate because places other to relocating or persons of refugees influx an that perception held commonly the about arethink be to needs There Rethinking assumptions related to access to natural resources. resources. natural to access to related those including of conflicts management Matthew Porges June 2020 Climate crisisandlocalcommunities continuously circulating set of inhabitants. set circulating continuously of a snapshots as understood best therefore are camps, for the particularly figures, Population Algeria. and Spain to camps the from migration labour by temporary as well as Mauritania, northern and Polisario’s territory between individuals and movement of families by ongoing complicated also are and organisations mentioned. does not necessarilyrepresenttheviews ofany iswritten capacityand inapersonal This article Mauritania President oftheRefugee Council,MberaCamp, Fouda Ndikintum refugees. to offer protection time same at the and practices, protection resource natural and security of food promotion the to contribute crisis, change climate to respond way countries the shape over time Mohamed Ag Malha Mohamed Ag https://data2.unhcr.org/en/country/mrt Bassikounou, Mauritania Livelihoods Officer, UNHCRSubOffice, 1. 61.3%Tuareg; 37.2% Arab; 1.5%otherminoritytribes resulted in significant damage to the the to damage significant in resulted 1991, until similarly lasted Morocco, which with war The cities. Spanish-controlled around coalescing population nomadic dispersed of the much with urbanisation, rapid (though temporary) triggered period colonial the during droughts Catastrophic variations. climatic to vulnerable extremely population the sheep) have and left goats (of camels, pastoralism nomadic on reliance population’s historic the with combined The harshness of the desert climate climate desert of the harshness The [email protected] www.fmreview.org/issue64 [email protected]

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7 8 throughout the Liberated Territories is is Territories Liberated the throughout movement nomadic and aquifer, a large near built deliberately were camps Tindouf of The groundwater. depletion the is change refugees. employment for many provides camps the in of mud-bricks production the though problem, the mitigates partially cement, like materials, water-resistant with Building homeless. of refugees hundreds leaving rains, heavy the in dissolved houses mud-brick of the many 2015,In for instance, occurrence. annual almost an become has region, the in rare very previously Flooding, State. independent afuture and Sahara Western to readyreturn to perpetually remain to preferring reasons, for ideological materials permanent more with building resisted refugees the cases, some In materials. sourced locally made using mud-bricks from refugees by the built initially were camps the in structures semi-permanent Most rainfall. intense but very brief with interspersed long droughts seen has Tindouf around desert Algerian the rainfall, in decline continuous asteady, experiencing than Rather camps. the in of flooding frequency increased the been has problem severe increasingly Another pastoralism. animal with familiar more is population camp the because part in success, Moringa oleifera Moringa plant multi-use the of cultivation the in invested has for instance, –Oxfam, agriculture sedentary encourage Attemptsto by NGOs climate. by achanging decades recent in exacerbated have been challenges of those many and population, nomadic previously for the challenges unique presented has life Camp responses Climatic challenges–andappropriate economy. nomadic the rejuvenating and wells, maintaining and installing clearance, landmine large-scale by implementing pastoralism for nomadic specifically Liberated the to developeffort Territories –made aconcerted herds camel substantial maintains itself –which Morocco, Polisario with war of the conclusion the Following camps. Tindouf the in resided has population war, economy. of the nomadic most the Since www.fmreview.org/issue64 Another problem exacerbated by climate by climate exacerbated problem Another 2 – have met with mixed mixed –have with met Climate crisisandlocalcommunities in family members and activities.” and members family in investments dispersing strategically through risk-reduction and surviving; in other each assist to obligation the entails that network social astrong pastures; for greener looking of amentality elements: of three consisting heritage nomadic “as Somalis’ defined Kenya’s in camp,nomads refugee Dadaab refugee- Somali about Horst, writing Cindy anthropologist worlds. nomadic The and refugee both to atie it retains that in unusual is camps Sahara Western of the population the but refugees, and nomads for both problems are of groundwater depletion and drought of locations. anumber in emerging projects gardening Polisario-run with gardens, development of community the for allowed moreover,Territories, also has Liberated the in resources water of artificial development The wells. of mechanical use by the mitigated partially be can problem This aquifer. Tindouf the on pressure increase also and water sources, ephemeral on todepend however, it difficult make drought, and prolonged patterns rainfall unpredictable Irregular, wells. man-made water or small surface occurring naturally of either replenishment the on contingent in arid climates. Brahim’s earliest hydroponic hydroponic Brahim’s earliest climates. arid in agriculture for intensive strategy promising a therefore is and methods, other most than water-efficient more vastly is agriculture water. Hydroponic nutrient-enhanced in roots the by immersing typically soil, without plants of growing practice the is Hydroponics agriculture. hydroponic with experimenting began Syria, in engineer an as trained previously who had Taleb Brahim, named 2016, refugee In itself. aSahrawi population the from comes strategy promising most categories. nomad and refugee the bridge have to will then, camps, Tindouf the in implemented strategy resilience climate Any heritage. nomadic own their to ascribe refugees Sahrawi that values the largely are –which failure of economic points single resisting and solidarity social flexibility, of opportunism, form the in persists mentality nomadic this community, sedentary The unpredictable rainfall, generalised generalised rainfall, unpredictable The It is perhaps unsurprising that the the that unsurprising It perhaps is 3 In a In June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 cases have already been tested elsewhere with with elsewhere tested been have already cases some in and exported, be can construction climate-resistant and agriculture hydroponic of and practices technologies specific the obviously, Most of displacement. contexts for analogous here lessons several are There Lessons forclimateresilience programme. aid refugee-focused driven, solution”,own arefugee- implementing of their “allows part become to people 2019, in aspeech in argued Brahim This, requirements. for local optimised and modified be could units the case, each in Kenya; and Sudan Jordan, Chad, in camps refugee in tested were systems hydroponic Brahim’s H2Grow programme, Under the systems. low-tech of the use the in refugees Sahrawi over athousand training eventually camps, the in workshops hydroponic running began Brahim WFP, Polisario, and Oxfam from assistance With requirements. local specific to adapted be also could they Crucially, repair. and use to easier were and materials, available locally on relied cheaper, were units new These productivity. retaining while cost unit the reducing model, first his from derived units of hydroponic range a – developed staff Oxfam and WFP with –working Brahim which under established, H2Grow subsequently was called programme aWFP and funding Accelerator for Innovation selected Brahim’s was system Munich. in (WFP) World of the Programme Food initiative Accelerator Innovation the to system initial of his success the demonstrated 2017, In by themselves. Brahim solution ascalable not are units tech products). their contaminating refuse, eat often plastic camps the in (goats meat produced and milk of the quantity and quality the increasing also while of pasture search move to in need his reducing goats, own his feed to able was Brahim system, hydroponic home-built first grow.to his Using barley, was crop crop simple avery June 2020 Expensive, complicated, high- complicated, Expensive, Climate crisisandlocalcommunities 4 Taleb Brahim tends plants grown using a hydroponic system. ahydroponic using grown plants tends Brahim Taleb © Taleb Brahim themselves, approaching problems from their their from problems approaching themselves, strategies these devise to positioned best are refugees cases many in that likely is Finally, it context. that in implemented be must policies resilience worlds, climate and pre-displacement of their contexts cultural and skills practices, the retain they alike; essentially not are communities refugee that is Tindouf in resilience of climate lesson More generally, providers. the aid and communities by host account into taken be must context) that acamp in possible be not may that of production modes on reliance life, sedentary with (discomfort challenges and autonomy) pastoralist economies, regional in (involvement opportunities specific presents heritage movement, of nomadic that a history have refugees where cases In results. positive www.fmreview.org/issue64 9 10 policymaking. policymaking. inform must insights and knowledge their and level, international and local the at heard be must voices Their to move. choosing than rather to move, forced being increasingly are Turkana nomadic-pastoralists severe, more grow change climate of impacts the As ways of tackling the impacts of climate of climate impacts the ways of tackling own have their long had communities pastoralist displacement, of internal driver anew as change climate now considers world the While region. the in communities pastoralist other from counter-attacks and attacks cross-border and internal repeated with of security, state fragile its pastures. greener of water and search in place to place from livestock moving transhumance, in engage and sheep, and goats camels, We cattle, donkeys, keep borders. Ugandan and Sudanese South Ethiopian, the to Turkana County, stretches region, Kenya. Our of northwestern parts arid most the occupies and million one approximately numbers that community Turkana, anomadic-pastoralist from I hail pastoralists’ search for elusive pastures in Kenya nomadic- migration: involuntary Climate-induced strategies refugee-centred but individual challenges, disparate such tackle can policy environmental No single entanglements. of these range full the have incorporate to will strategy environmental A comprehensive analysis. the in included be must pastureland of loss and drought that means Territories Liberated of the economy nomadic the for instance, in, refugees involvement of the however, the to perspective, the Broadening livestock. (and products) of camp-raised diets the in of plastic accumulation the or patterns, rainfall irregular on focus might Tindouf in challenges environmental to approach A limited problem. of the parameters the define to chooses how one provision, of aid solutions. external applied of unilaterally pitfalls the side-stepping and perspective own Ekai Nabenyo www.fmreview.org/issue64 Turkana County is also known for known also is Turkana County perspective the from significant, It also is Climate crisisandlocalcommunities the pastoralists is available beforehand. available is pastoralists the of migration’ ‘distress aplanned about information when even proactive, than rather is, government the how reactive highlighted has Turkana experience The livestock. their move to with having of pastoralists likelihood the and patterns weather to alert be to and up reality, to wake to need Governments approaches. innovative demand region this of conditions apriority,Turkana the yet as by the faced challenges the consider not does evidently government side, its the On policies. follow to immigration pastoralists other all indeed Turkana and by the reluctance ageneral is there by government, neighbours. new their with or clash collaborate may either they where countries neighbouring into –by moving changes University ofStAndrews @matthew_porges ofSocialAnthropology,PhD student,Department Matthew Porges [email protected] Jouly. Sahrawi refugeesTaleb Brahim andSidahmed was preparedwithassistancefromThis article Territories. Liberated the and Tindouf in success promising had have already 2019 bit.ly/twitter-Brahim-22092019 4. BrahimT, SocialGoodSummit,NewYork City, 22September refugee lifeintheDadaabcampsofKenya 3. HorstC(2006)Transnational Nomads:HowSomaliscopewith www.fmreview.org/economies/angeloni-carr the Sahrawirefugeecamps’,Forced MigrationReview58 2. See Angeloni GandCarrJ(2018) ‘Animal andhumanhealthin Grievance, Performance,Disenchantment.London:Palgrave Schomerus M(Eds) of Resistanceand Analysis’, indeVries L,EnglebertP and 1. Porges M(2019)‘Western SaharaandMorocco:Complexities Largely due to a feeling of being neglected neglected of being due afeeling to Largely Secessionism inAfricanPolitics:Aspiration, . NewYork: Berghahn June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 pastures is first countered by controlled controlled by countered first is pastures of local depletion move to the on, taken is decision move to any Before or not. whether about decision community’s the influence back. report and pastures the inspect to or countries communities neighbouring to out emissaries may send elders The making. decision and assessment in role plays acritical of elders council community’s The together. move they when numbers in security greater is there situations, security volatile into move often they as because, agroup made as however, borders, often is international cross to decision The country. own their within for movement especially basis, individual an made on usually is decision Additionally, the one. avoluntary not moveto therefore is decision The on. moving do keep not they pasture green water to and have access Turkana place, to place when pastoralists do move from they While narrative. this move. Turkana debunk the The on constantly world of the are communities pastoralist the that misconception It acommon is Learning fromtheTurkana wayoflife June 2020 Project Survival Media/Joe Lukhovi In the Turkana context, numerous factors factors numerous Turkana context, the In Climate crisisandlocalcommunities has generally not been accorded international international accorded been not generally has adaptation climate to pertaining knowledge of their and change climate on opinions of pastoralists’ Recognition lacking. been hitherto has that something discussions, climate in heard be to voices pastoralist local enable to need urgent an is there and change, of climate realities harsh the with emulating. worth are –which tactics survival such Turkana have people learned The all. for effects have devastating will that commons of the atragedy create will system uncontrolled an patterns, grazing different have animals different As affected. adversely often are wish they as graze to animals their permit individuals where policy open an permit that communities pastoralist Other generations. for future trust it in holding generation current the Akuj from it ablessing consider and land to importance a of lot attach Turkana The rules. the implementing in lead the take elders the and by consensus established are restrictions These grazing. rotational and sharing communal grazing, Turkana is a region that is grappling grappling is that aregion Turkana is www.fmreview.org/issue64 (God), with 11 12 Two worlds apart! The climate debate needs debateTwo needs climate The worlds apart! Akuj of the aresult is moving into them pushes that aridity the that believe Turkana the activities, human disastrous of aresult is change climate that indicates science While change. of climate impacts negative the reducing and preventing towards geared traditionally practice, acommon is ancestors to sacrifices Turkana. Making of the banks. the on land to have access and rivers and lakes the who around live those for possible only is However,rebuild. this and recover livelihoods, their diversify to communities pastoralist enable to measures mitigation as supported and adopted be to need efforts adaptation grassroots Such Lake in Turkana. fishing in engage Turkana community of the a number Additionally, adopt agro-pastoralism. Turkana to the have NGOs helped and government the Here seasons. rainy the flow due aridity, now to only during which, region’s the Turkwelalong rivers Kerio and especially evident is This agro-pastoralism. embrace increasingly to change climate by forced Turkana have been the nomadic, undisturbed. lands, foreign in refuge by seeking lands indigenous their in wrath climate the escape to communities climate-hit of allowing potential have the –may elsewhere challenges similar facing by communities adopted –if initiatives such and effective, been has by Uganda). This (owned dam of Kobebe use shared for the and Uganda in Turkana pastoralists for the rights grazing allow to agreement an Kenya signed In 2019, overand pasture. Uganda conflicts incessant the to ahalt order call to in solution best the be to appear grazing joint encourage to efforts concerted as well as pastoralists by grazing reciprocal involved allow to adaptation. climate to approach our in failing –asignificant modelling climate in reflected not are strategies community Indeed, country. of the rest of the fabric societal the from detached Turkana are the as communities indigenous and minorities tribal such when especially attention, www.fmreview.org/issue64 Culture and faith play a big role in the life life the play abig in role faith and Culture purely being historically Despite countries by the negotiations Bilateral Climate crisisandlocalcommunities being unhappy. being and tradition to read from the same script. script. same the from read to tradition and order for in be science need if them debunking beliefs, such consideration into take to Kenya www.article43.org Founder, 43,aclimate advocacy Article group in @Article43Kenya [email protected] Ekai Nabenyo want. most affected most what those is go to by, this anything are grassroots the at people of voices the the pathways. If migration legal andto promote efforts adaptation own pastoralists’ support to more do must community international the and Governments community. of alocal context specific the on depend largely interventions appropriate most the that noted be also However, nomadism. it should traditional outside of livelihoods sources alternative to access pastoralists’ increase to It imperative is crops. drought-resistant more growing with assistance and training including resilience, may strengthen that initiatives adaptation of climate anumber are there agriculture, embraced of people, who have increasingly community For this migration. of distress cases in especially dignity, with migrate to Turkana the as such people to opportunities move. to forced pastoralists assist to prepared sufficiently order be to in areas in pastoralist-occupied patterns weather and conditions climatic endeavour monitor to should for Migration Organization International the Additionally, and UNHCR for flight. aground it as by recognising discourse refugee of the heart at the change climate place to aneed is There context. apastoralism in especially migration, climate-induced all, not if most, characterises which involuntariness the ignores but this – standing no legal has ‘climate refugee’ term the –as ‘climate be to migrants’ ought adopted be to terminology correct the that argue scholars Some change. of climate impact of the because displaced of people issue emerging the address not does Refugees of Status the to 1951The Relating Convention The involuntarynatureofmigration Meanwhile, there is a need to provide provide to aneed is there Meanwhile, June 2020

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FMR 64 FMR 64 engaged in grassroots action to improve livelihoods recovery and to build resilience. resilience. to build and recovery livelihoods to improve action grassroots in engaged instead have livestock their lost who Many Ethiopia. of region Somali the of part eastern the in pastoralists 300,000 than more displaced Africa of 2015–17 Horn the in The drought for internally displaced people (IDPs). people displaced for internally Koracle site at the shelter atemporary in children seven and husband her with living 2017, who, since old pastoralist been has a40-year- explained animals,” our we all lost …and failed seasons rainy consecutive two [2015–17] the In alive. drought, of animals number aconsiderable we kept because one this as severe one,as but not it was suffered ago, years we nine …Around kind. this of adrought “We have experienced never memory. living worst in the was drought 2015–17 the region, of Ethiopia’szone Somali Dollo the in communities pastoral For the Community strategies for diversification in Ethiopia IDPs displaced by drought are now living now living are by drought IDPs displaced 2017, January in Koracle, opened were and adapt. to people forcing is of livestock Loss services. economic and social and opportunities diversification links, market limited and low productivity, livelihoods, of prevailing vulnerability high of the because challenges face pastoralists Many water depletion. and of pasture fears to leading pressure, grazing high experiencing levels are rainfall higher with Districts rainfall. of higher areas to low rainfall with areas from animals move their pastoralists as movement early of livestock, hugecome and 80% to 20%. around from decreased has area the in of pastoralists proportion the that estimate zone Dollo in authorities local shocks, repeated of the aresult As livestock. up of their 80% to lost households drought latest the but during pastoralism nomadic as displacement before lifestyle their defined Koracle IDP sites and drought. with associated displacement in living were of July 2019, end at the As people 425,000 change. climate with associated displacement to vulnerable very are families and Ethiopia, of southern drylands the in communities Pablo Cortés Ferrández Pablo Cortés June 2020 Both camps in the case-study, Gafow and and Gafow case-study, the in camps Both Alongside movement of people has also also movement has Alongside of people Pastoralism is the main livelihood of livelihood main the is Pastoralism 2 Nearly 94% of households in Gafow Gafow Nearly 94% in of households Climate crisisandlocalcommunities 1 displaced by drought and especially for especially and by drought displaced for IDPs capital, plus start-up building, capacity and skills vocational in training providing on would be focus The context. local the to appropriate are which solutions community-focused and individual find to households support to then and activities, economic and skills to gaps related identify to designed would be framework This approach. resilience alivelihoods support to framework of adiversification creation the proposed representatives community IDPs host and interviews, During livelihoods. sustainable and develop to diversified keen are organisations grassroots community of IDPs host and committees where actors, of local priorities main of the one is building resilience aid, on dependent highly are displacement by affected communities where region, Somali the In Livelihoods recoveryandresiliencebuilding resilience at a time when they are most needed. needed. most are they when at atime resilience and mechanisms coping communities’ depleted have severely insecurity food profound and of drought years Consecutive base. resource natural adiminishing and opportunities livelihood poor infrastructure, economic and services social basic to access limited malnutrition, chronic –including situations socio-economic precarious experience also communities host peri-urban their where settings marginalised and underdeveloped relatively in settlements temporary in live pastoralists Displaced challenges. main the are care health water and drinking to of access lack and Gafow.in insecurity Food pastoralist amale explained nothing,” with family. your We in came person responsible the you are and support other have any YouYou don’t of livelihood. have no means of hopelessness. “It afeeling is integration. local and for self-reliance opportunities scarce with displacement, protracted in www.fmreview.org/issue64 13 14 the current situation and produce weather weather produce and situation current the discuss to grant cash initial an given are They committees. reduction risk disaster in participate elders, and youth women, including whole community, The successful. proved NGOs, has of international support the with together Bureau Management Risk Disaster government’s by the Dollo as such zones strategy, in developed management risk disaster community-based The Community-based strategies Koracle. in pastoralist amale said school,” out of children our taking not we are again, we have “If livestock livestock. raise to areas rural to would return men the –while care health and education as such services to and to water access have to better and skills new Warder as learn to such areas urban peri- the to close stay should children, and women family, particularly of the members some that was option best felt the people Some way of life. semi-nomadic and pastoral to a them returning if it meant beneficial would be again animals having whether to as divided is but opinion integrated locally be IDPs to Most prefer Ethiopia. in place taking currently is strategy resilience livelihoods into a how it fits and restocking pastoralist. male a drought,” reflected the during centres feeding animal the to here We come can infrastructure. and services more Warder, are like there towns small in Second, again. animals buy drought, the after water and, and out of pasture we run before money make and animals the sell we can First, comes. drought another if things do“We two can strategies: coping new developed had they drought, last of the severity of the because activities. development of income-generation the up support to set be should associations savings and groups cooperative small that suggested also communities Displaced Koracle. in pastoralist shop,” afemale said tea asmall water[wells] or build sell to berkas some build market, work the in we could capital, initial some get could we “If youth. women and as such groups www.fmreview.org/issue64 An important debate about the option of option debate the about important An that, Koracle said and Gafow IDPs in Climate crisisandlocalcommunities

Monitoring Centre www.internal-displacement.org Research Associate, Internal Displacement [email protected] FerrándezPablo Cortés sustainability. and ownership acceptance, greater would enable organisations, grassroots community of IDPs host and committees with starting counterparts, local to commitment Astronger country. the in and region the in for durable solutions support development of and the facing challenges of the one is themselves communities the to appropriate are and from emerge functioning. no longer are committees these of many support, of government absence However, NGOs. and the government in the with conversations IDPs in represented who elders, local female and male both comprised IDP 2017 camp; these each in in community. of the member every benefits programming that ensure to communities, particular in arises how this and disabilities) with elderly people and (the exclusion of social analysis an include (ii) and participation, voice and rights, –women’s particular –in enabling on impact have apositive interventions that ensuring programming, into perspectives gender (i) should and integrate marginalisation, and gender, to approach age, disability sensitive a include to need responses grassroots any process, this Throughout solutions. durable building in ownership and agency generate to and processes planning in population involve to is the structure this of objective The processes. decision-making in partners key as authorities IDPs local and community, host the comprise committees communities. pastoral traditional as and droughts of previous experience their on based season next for the forecasts August 2019 2. IOM(2018)EthiopiaNationalDisplacement Report:Round18:July– bit.ly/IDMC-NoMatterOfChoice-2018 No MatterofChoice:Displacement inaChangingClimate 252 sitesforIDPsdisplaced bydroughtinEthiopia.IDMC(2018) environmental changefocusingonGafowand Koracle,two ofthe to investigate internaldisplacementassociatedwithslow-onset 1. IDMCundertookaresearchprogrammein December2018 Identifying durable solutions that that durable solutions Identifying created were committees Additional reduction risk disaster current The bit.ly/IOM-NDR-Ethiopia-Round18

June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 a day throughout the year, the a day throughout meals two proper afford to 47% unable and to make choices in their response? And whose responsibility is it to provide support? to provide it is responsibility whose And response? their in choices to make they are able how change, climate of impacts the of brunt the face communities local When Sundarbans living below the poverty line poverty the below living Sundarbans Indian the in population 34%With of the Island. Sagar nearby to households displaced resettle to action government sustained was 1970s 1990s there the the to from and 1970s, the since erosion of coastal rates high experienced has Ghoramara estuary, Hooghly edge of the south-western the in Located submerged. rapidly –but being is picturesque is Island Hooghly, river Ghoramara of the view abreathtaking and soil nutrient-rich freshwater, abundant fields, green lush With Ghoramara: ahighlyvulnerableisland communities. for these migration of forced realities stark convey the Delta Sundarbans Indian the in Sagar and of Ghoramara islands the in communities from Glimpses them. among key being level rise sea and change –climate forces of different interplay by the inhospitable rendered locations in communities local by borne are costs human The hardship. related for alleviating responsible therefore and accountable unquestionably held be agency) can international or an government the individual, displaced the (whether or parties party no single however, factors, by climatic triggered migration of forced cases In displacement. of development-induced instances in easily relatively established be –can responsibility –and Culpability compensation. and of support provision the regarding of regulations absence or an inadequate to leading abound, definitions contradictory and Blurred migration. voluntary from differentiated be must stressors due environmental to migration Forced IndiaSundarbans Delta, the in communities coastal resettled: Trapped or in vulnerable islands like Ghoramara has has Ghoramara like islands vulnerable in Shaberi DasandSugataHazra June 2020 Climate crisisandlocalcommunities 2 the population population the 1

thousands. displacing size, original of its half than less to reduced been has island the years, 40 last the within erosion; rate of coastal high of the low, however, remains because investment Infrastructure tubewells. from obtained is water drinking and household, every almost in have NGOs installed and government the which panels by solar powered is island the on Electricity changes. environmental adverse with cope adapt to and to capacity limited migration as forced rather than voluntary. than rather forced as migration this acknowledge to State’s the about refusal concerns raises but also health mental and of people’s terms finances in challenging extremely measures adaptation such makes be) only not (or will erosion to lost soon been has that land for the compensation and of support However, absence change. the climate and degradation environmental to adaptation of long-term ameans into mechanism coping atemporary turning thereby demand, in is wage labour where places safer to permanently migrate to decision the taking have been migrants seasonal of these Recently, households the Sundarbans. the in population of the proportion for alarge mechanism coping a become has migration seasonal decades, two last work. the Over for construction Nadu or Tamil of Kerala far-away states the to seasonally migrate to households of most member male one at least forces livelihoods rural traditional more from returns or inadequate of livelihoods Loss school. high order attend to in mainland the on boarding to or travelling often children with inadequate, remain education and care health that revealed interviews refuge. amakeshift as serves building school the while construction, under Respondents to semi-structured semi-structured to Respondents 3 The first storm shelter is currently currently is shelter storm first The www.fmreview.org/issue64 15 16 some male members are seasonal migrants migrants seasonal are members male some where households from Women Ghoramara in The inordinate burdenonwomen rural poverty alleviation programmes. alleviation poverty rural state-level and national- existing from available what is from apart government the from support no additional receiving despair, and misery in live to continue they trapped; to are move afford who cannot Those altogether. ceased scheme the until Sagar. in resettlement seeking those to give to of land out run to began of West Bengal Government the continued, Ghoramara from of people relief. post-disaster immediate to limited are and events slow-onset from resulting overlook displacement management risk at disaster targeted policies and Legislation support. rehabilitation and aid financial for cause alegitimate as of displacement type but no other displacement induced development- –recognise Rehabilitation and Resettlement on Policy National the as –such regulations and policy where country in a significant particularly is This a precedent. setting thereby and factors, of environmental moveto because forced by households faced challenges the acknowledging households, displaced to aid financial and gave tenures out land Bengal zone. safer in a resettlement and to migration their enable to assistance government demanding increasingly move to are means the who lack Those island. the on rooted them keeps to place attachment deep their again, displaced be inevitably will they that and years 40 to 30 next the within submerged completely be will Ghoramara that means rate of erosion present the that know they Although land. their from separated being of notion the bear to unable are they because or migration permanent distant, more for required means the lack they because either elsewhere, permanently migrate to than rather locations safer comparatively in houses their rebuild to choose to tend inland further land purchase to means www.fmreview.org/issue64 In the 1990s, as assisted resettlement resettlement assisted 1990s, as the In of West Government 1990s, the the Until who have the families Displaced 4 Smaller landholdings were awarded, were landholdings Smaller Climate crisisandlocalcommunities due to the unavailability of assistance for of assistance unavailability due the to one, especially easy an by no means is migrate to decision Sagar, to the migration from island. the to 17 shelters and storm electricity roads, asphalt brought has of income source alternative this years recent in and millions, temple attracts site at the fair Gangasagar TempleMuni Sagar. on Every January, the Kapil of the presence the from and Hooghly) of the bank opposite (a the on port major Complex Dock Haldia of the proximity the from benefits and Ghoramara, nearby than alower rate of erosion has island The region. the in others all than infrastructure better has – Sundarbans the in island largest –the Sagar mainland, the to connected not Although Sagar: a‘safe’island? high bride price for the son’s for the price bride marriage. high a offer must who have sons Ghoramara in families Even impoverished Ghoramara. in families into daughters their marry to mainland the and islands other from families of reluctance the reveal also responses However, Ghoramara. in respondents women of all narratives the in prominently features networks support women’s informal weaving nets.” poverty forces ustotakeon additionalworklike everything here withoutmyhusband. Extreme “It getsveryhardformesometimestomanage noted: of them one As displacement. forced and migration of seasonal impacts of the analysis for agender-sensitive need the empasised Women respondents deprivation. intense face and hazards of climate fear constant in live they months, or six four every husbands of their return the awaiting while making; decision in participation and care, health finance, to access their and mobility their limits severely also society a rural within position socio-economic Their sheds. vine betel family’s the and chores domestic to tending and consumption, for household crops family, growing of the members sick and elderly, the and disabled for children caring household, the for heading responsibility shoulder They burdens. disproportionate bear Despite the obvious benefits expected expected benefits obvious the Despite The role of the community and local local and community of role the The June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 and destitution due to erosion in Sagar. in due erosion to destitution and displacement suffer again might they that aware well also However, are respondents choice. no other was there home when their abandoned only they that themselves by reminding distress climate-related and of displacement trauma the to themselves reconcile to attempts shows islanders’ it also effect, and cause and of culpability terms in phenomena understand to tendency a human reveals this While of God. wrath the even and processes geomorphological natural by ships, development, water displaced unsustainable Hooghly, river level rise, sea the on blame lay the variously respondents loss, their for hold responsible whom they asked When past. for the ayearning experiencing frequently report respondents displacement, and loss land suffering relatives and friends of news brings Ghoramara home to visit every While resurfacing. from homes lost however, not, of does memories prevent Ghoramara. in living still of those that as miserable as by no means is condition their overburdened, be to continue migrants of seasonal wives the farmers).to While available (despite loans or fishing agriculture from than returns due higher to Sundarbans Indian of the islands many within practice asystemic become it has because but also income family the supplement to only not resettlement, after even continues migration However, Ghoramara. seasonal in households displaced or soon-to-be displaced the among than households resettled the among of well-being sense a higher Nagar indicate Bankim and of Gangasagar relocation. of forced experiences and of knowledge sharing the promotes localities different in communities between interaction Sagar. Thus, in leave life forand anew aleap of faith take families that protection and resources rights, to access of improved hope It in is relocate. to households other of the decision influence greatly Sagar in who have resettled community of the members displaced from support and with consultations show that respondents Ghoramara the from Accounts resettlement. June 2020 Improvement of life and livelihoods livelihoods and of life Improvement villages the in migrants with Interviews Climate crisisandlocalcommunities Jadavpur University www.jaduniv.edu.in Professor, SchoolofOceanographicStudies [email protected] Sugata Hazra ofEnglish Master’s student,Department Shaberi Das change. of climate frontline the on by communities action of grassroots implementation and planning better but also of expertise sharing and interaction promote only not will This involved. complex processes highly of the understanding abroader gain to pooled be must communities affected within practitioners local and society civil agencies, State institutions, academic from Insights communities? affected protect to and disasters such from resulting for losses compensate to it then is responsibility State? Whose the or community the individuals, affected the phenomena: change climate and shocks of environmental form the in itself manifests development which human collective for unsustainable price pays the Who raised. questions of the some to for answers search to practitioners, and thinkers as while, our It worth is responsibility. and culpability about up questions throw Sundarbans the in these as such migration of forced Cases Looking ahead https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.03.008 Environmental ChangeVol 50 A model of actionandinactioningovernment responses’ inGlobal 4. MortreuxCetal(2018)‘Political economyofplannedrelocation: 3. Seevideohttps://youtu.be/OvvXypOUCLU bit.ly/HDR-North24Parganas-2010 Report: North24Parganas, pp199–201 2. Government ofWest Bengal(2010)DistrictHumanDevelopment bit.ly/HDR-South24Parganas-2009 Report: South24Parganas, p43,p46 1. Government ofWest Bengal(2009)DistrictHuman internet accessisless reliable.) for training (Please docontinueto request printcopiesofthe fullmagazine back cover for details! briefing whichislighter and cheaper to post.Pleasesee access to thelatest fullissues,orswap to ourEditors’ (www.fmreview.org/request-fmr), for instantdigital print copy! Request emailnotifications instead Email [email protected] to cancelyour help theplanet? Keen to readFMRandalso and advocacy purposes – orifyour – oryour partners’ [email protected] www.fmreview.org/issue64

Development

17 18 and promoting the rights of those displaced by the impacts of climate change. climate of impacts bythe displaced those of rights the promoting and injustice climate fighting are passion and knowledge experience, with networks society Civil little or no protection in place for them. them. forin place or no protection little is there migrate to forced are they once still, And, worse change. climate of effects the devastating to abandoned often are exploitation current and of historical costs indirect and direct of the burden the bear to who have Those competition. unfair against struggle producers or small-scale enterprises community-owned while rules the set and markets the dominate industries Monopolistic responsibility. bear also South Global the in governments sense, this in enforced; barely is protection social where and environmental and investors foreign to incentive an as cheap kept are land and labour where continue resources of natural exploitation and grabbing land ceased, has landownership colonial although South, Global the In consequences. the –suffer vulnerable and poor the world the –usually around others while of ecosystems, exploitation the and gases of greenhouse generation the from significantly have benefited simply for survival. homes their and ones loved their to leave forced are they often North; Global the in societies by many enjoyed that to lifestyle asimilar seek they because homes their leaving not People are survive. family help to your enough earn order to in factory agarment or in driver aday,hours arickshaw as days aweek, seven work –to 12 erosion land and drought to due possible no longer is farming traditional leave to home –because having children your imagine Or roads. awaywashed the has flooding flash frequent more because away kilometres several ahospital to basket a in labour, in while carried, being Imagine salty. groundwater nearby made your has level sea rising the water because fresh fetch day to every hours four walking Imagine and responses questionsAsia: causes, of justice Climate and crisis local communities in South East Laura Geiger www.fmreview.org/issue64 Over the past century, wealthy nations nations wealthy century, past the Over Climate crisisandlocalcommunities 2050. by migrants climate 1billion to 100 million from ranging predictions cites IDMC also continents; inhabited all 2019, in affecting displacements new 24.8 million approximately triggered hazards natural Centre, Monitoring Displacement Internal the to According Challenges –andcommunityresponses many people, particularly village elders and and elders village people, particularly many because difficult initially was themselves Organising for women fish. to acceptable become work finally advocacy it has their Women’s (PPNI Association Fishermen Indonesian the now chairs She his work. in helpto wife his ask to fisherman for a shameful considered it would have been previously whereas husband, her accompany to time first for the went sea to district, Demak the in who lives woman 46-year-old a crew. Masnuah, of their size the reduce to fishermen the forces catch reduced but the five to fishermen of three have to acrew used boats fishing Their catch. their in reductions and villages of their submergence the through level sea rising of effects the have experienced of Java coast north the on locations several farmers. landless the marginalising and markets international on goods their trading capital, foreign with companies, of shrimp owners now powerful are there agriculture, subsistence for chance and a fields agricultural on labour for paid opportunities once were there Where consequences. drastic has measure adaptation but this ponds shrimp salt-tolerant to paddies rice their convert to People have started salinity). increased to contributes (which level rise sea and cyclones surges, of storm potency and frequency increased by the threatened are for example, areas, Coastal challenges. related change- climate severe face countries Pacific In Indonesia, since 2000, fishermen in fishermen 2000, since Indonesia, In 1 Many South Asian, Southeast Asian and and Asian Southeast Asian, South Many 2 ). Thanks to to ). Thanks June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 for which they get occasional support from from support occasional get they for which trees mangrove planting is family her rise, dry.stay level of To sea impact the reduce order to home in own their in a platform build to family her by water,covered forcing permanently is now house her floor of ground The bus. and by bicycle continue then to land nearest the to kilometres five paddling boat, travelsmall by sibling five-year-old her and Kodriyah To school, her reach remains. family her only when today until families 200 from years, ten last over the decreasing village of her population the seen has girl, move. to forced being them of likelihood the to therefore and livelihoods of their precarity add the to are, men than change of climate impacts the by affected more already often are contexts vulnerable in women that reality the with combined factors, These jobs. invisible and precarious and protection, economic and social less recognition, lower wages, less have usually sectors aquaculture and fisheries in working women because important PPNI is as such by organisations workAdvocacy done products. fishery training in processing providing as such projects several through economy fishing the strengthen to helps PPNI also provision. same the get –but now lost women can lives event of the in and treatment for medical pay –to insurance obtain could men only 2017advocate for fisherwomen’sUntil rights. West to who Timor Sumatra northern awoman. being to PPNI contradictory was joining that convinced were figures, religious June 2020 Kodriyah, a 17-year-old Indonesian a17-year-oldKodriyah, Indonesian 16 from PPNI groups now comprises Climate crisisandlocalcommunities Kodriyah outside her house. her outside Kodriyah AEER/Khoiron measures adaptation work its climate on strengthening International the to According times. multiple homes and land their lose they once migrating from people stop not help –but will can saved. be can village her so adam building by and planting mangrove widespread more help by undertaking can government the hopes Kodriyah seedlings. mangrove selling by income family the supports Pasijah, Her mother, organisation. a student-run communities to mount resistance to deals deals to resistance mount to communities of local capacity the 1998 in build to formed NCBD was change. of climate causes root the Power (NCBD) Ports and fighting is Resources, Mineral Gas, Oil, Protect to Committee National Bangladeshi the For example, measures. mitigation on also but measures adaptation on only not working attention. their for policy a draft have NGOs submitted the and a policy develop to such principle in agreed has government policy. The displacement develop to anational government the Adaptation measures such as these these as such measures Adaptation Local community responses include include responses community Local and has been has and www.fmreview.org/issue64 advocating for advocating Transformation Transformation for Social Association NGO Coastal displaced. been who have those support to provided is assistance little yet migration, internal of drivers primary country’s the causes environmental and change climate making migrants, such million six hosts Bangladesh that estimated It is challenges. of environmental aresult as moved there of Bangladesh, capital the of Dhaka, slums the in of residents up 70% to Migration, for Organization Trust (COAST)Trust is The Bangladeshi Bangladeshi The 19 20 Manila Conference participants protest with local activists and the community of Taliptip, Philippines. Taliptip, of community the and activists local with protest participants Conference Manila solidarity, and build alliances to strengthen strengthen to alliances build and solidarity, show other, each from learn to actors society civil and academia together bringing 20 countries, than more from over 70 guests welcomed conference The Philippines. the in Manila, in Migrants of Climate Rights the on Conference Solidarity International an (RLS) organised Stiftung/Foundation 2019 Luxemburg Rosa the September In by, by, change. displaced and climate affected those support to movements and NGOs from learn to much is There Initiative The powerofnetworking,andtheManila change. of climate impacts the from areas coastal for protecting important very is area the as power station of acoal-fired introduction the forest) from mangrove UNESCO-protected its (including region Sundarbans vulnerable the protect to fighting also are They for over years. 22 issues these on campaigned has journalists and experts writers, teachers, people, artists, workers, indigenous women, peasants, –students, others of –among organisations and parties of political alliance broad This development. sustainable country’s the undermine and people’slocal interests against are environment, the damage that www.fmreview.org/issue64 Climate crisisandlocalcommunities not lead necessarily to climate justice. justice. climate to lead necessarily not does action Climate measures. mitigation and adaptation afew than more requires crisis climate of the aspects political and environmental economic, social, the addressing that understanding a common is there but nuances, different many with ways, multiple in approached and understood justice. topic of climate the on working South Global the in networks international leading of the –one Network Justice Climate Demand of the amember also is APMDD (APMDD); Development and Debt on Peoples’ Movement Asian the and Alliance, Migrants International the Kalikasan, conference: the co-organised NGOs Three fronts. many with struggle one is this that demonstrate and them unite to helped countries their in conversations migration development and climate, the leading currently who are people those together Bringing governments. their from responses solutions), plus of localised examples own their (each with have learned organisations their what and findings, scientific stories, change. of climate impacts by the displaced of those rights the promote to and injustice climate fight to networks power of their the Climate justice can, of course, be be of course, can, justice Climate personal their shared Participants June 2020

Kalikasan

FMR 64 FMR 64 International International Warsaw the negotiations, climate international of 20 years 2013,than in And more after change. climate addressing in countries individual of responsibilities differing and capabilities different the acknowledges that Change Framework Climate on Convention 1992 UN the within enshrined aprinciple is capabilities” respective and responsibilities of “common policy but differentiated The appropriately. and equitably, democratically used and allocated are technology and finance climate that owe, ensuring and they debt ecological historical for the responsibility taking but also mitigation, and for adaptation funding providing only not require will This compensation. change pay to climate required be should North will exert pressure on other countries to to countries other on pressure exert will life” to right the violate that conditions change-induced climate who face individuals may deport not “countries 2020 that January in Committee Rights Human UN by the statement the move.to that hoped It be to is forced for those of protection pillar a major be would of course systems security Social education. and protection, legal assistance, medical to right the as –such ensured be should you rights have moved, other after that secondly And ensured. be to has danger in is life move to your if right the that firstly means That protection. special of need in agroup are change climate of impacts by the displaced those that community international by the recognition Bangladesh Meghna Guhathakurta,ResearchInitiative being aburdenofresponsibility fortheNorth.” displacement withintheregion itselfwithoutit was onewayofcontainingmigratorytrends or issue andbyfocusingmore onadaptation,that “By notaddressing climatejusticeasacentral discourse. justice climate in element crucial a compensation, demands therefore and loss a always means change of climate impacts by the caused displacement respect this In alone. by adaptation addressed be cannot change of climate impacts the that stated June 2020 Firstly, the richer countries of the Global Global of the countries Firstly, richer the Secondly, there needs to be legal legal be to needs Secondly, there Mechanism Climate crisisandlocalcommunities Loss and Damage and Loss for

participant processes.” AminulHoque,COAST, conference climate negotiationsaswellUNhumanright issues are nowlosingmomentum in bothglobal on aninternationallevelbecausedisplacement play astrong role instrengthening ourvoice “We hope that[theManilaInitiative]will policymakers to sign up to the initiative. up the to sign to policymakers and society civil to acall issues and for improvements, demands their and future for the vision participants’ conference the presents This Migrants. of Climate Rights the on Initiative Manila the is Manila in 2019 conference September outcome of the major one production. regional and local support to incentives and costs, social and environmental of the shouldering fair fuels, fossil to end an consumption, in reduction would imply aradical that countries some For justice. and equity science, in rooted is that agreement climate international an and New Deal Green the as such elements incorporating changes, system Assembly in2012) (during the67thSessionofUNGeneral unavoidable.” AnoteTong, PresidentofKiribati with dignityshouldthetimecomethatmigrationis “We wantourpeopletohavetheoptionmigrate asylum. claim to change of climate impacts by the displaced those allow to order in policies immigration their change Kodriyah. conducting interviews withMasnuah(PPNI)and in and PiusGinting(AEER)for hissupport and AminulHoque (COAST) for theirinterviews, (RIB) The authorthanksMeghnaGuhathakurta Rosa Luxemburg Manila www.rosalux.org Stiftung Director, DialogueProgram onClimate Justice, https://climatemigrationforum.net Luxemburg Stiftung Manila fortheClimateMigrationForumat 3. ManilaInitiative andTheMovevideoproducedbyRosa 2. Acronym fortheorganisation’s nameinIndonesian. https://bit.ly/IDMC-Ndem-2019 Vulnerability: ThecaseofNdem, Senegal’ 1. IDMC(2019)‘ClimateChange,Migration Patterns and Laura In the light of discussions on the above, the on of discussions light the In fundamental be to needs there Thirdly, Geiger

[email protected] www.fmreview.org/issue64

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21 22 to urban areas but must take into account the long-term impacts of climate change. change. climate of impacts long-term the account into take must but areas to urban to migrate need the lessen may economy rural the Strengthening systems. livelihood traditional their abandoning increasingly are Mongolia western in communities Rural officials confirm that pregnant women women pregnant that confirm officials government by local Reports land. use to permission granted or being housing for claiming basis have no legal households Unregistered support. legal receive to and opportunities, employment formal and services public basic access to for individuals apre-condition is Registration of residence. place new at their registering from barred were in migrants 2017ban whereby official an introduced government the migration internal restrict to services, public and city’s infrastructure the on pressure growing communities. of migrant well-being and health the on impact asignificant has that pollution –creating winter during heating city’s ger the in of coal burning due the to part world, large the in in cities polluted most the among ranks Ulaanbaatar precarious. are settlements migrant urban in conditions But living destination. urban new their in reassemble they which and population rural by the felt used made from homes mobile traditional the from name their ger the as known are suburbs Ulaanbaatar’s capital’s the in outskirts. settle population. city’s current of the one-third alone, decades two past the in moved there have people 550,000 More than destination. popular most the by far Ulaanbaatar, capital, from rural to urban areas urban to rural from movement by aunidirectional characterised largely been has Mongolia in migration living conditions. living improved and for income search the in implemented strategies common most of the one is migration that found and Mongolia, western in changes climatic and structural to livelihoods of rural adaptation the on study a conducted recently Humboldt University at Development Berlin’s for Rural Centre The from internalLessons climate migration in Mongolia Simon Schoening www.fmreview.org/issue64 Given the rapid influx of people and people of rapid influx Given the newcomers of all 80% that suggest Surveys 1 Since the 2000s, internal internal 2000s, the Since Climate crisisandlocalcommunities 2 with the country’s country’s the with districts, taking taking districts, districts for districts agricultural practices, the prolonged economic economic prolonged the practices, agricultural traditional for abandoning point trigger the as households by surveyed may not mentioned be cities. move and the to livelihoods rural however, their cope, abandon to decide and to unable themselves find Many strategies. coping immediate to resort to forced population rural the with of shock, astate in left often are systems production agricultural their and communities scale, their in severe more have become events weather extreme 49%. to As areas rural in up poverty hiking population, livestock entire country’s of the 24% to equal animals, million ten than of more also distorts data on migration flows. migration on data distorts also but destination at their for communities conditions worsens only not subsequently ban migration government’s The register. to do attempt not therefore and temporary be to migration their expect many destination; at their registering with proceed of people by law, half about only required is period time acertain within registration While city. the to migrate to continue resettle to services. for medical eligible who are households unregistered from of people groups only the fact in are newborns and devastating. dzuds or storms, winter notorious country’s the –including events weather extreme have seen years Recent production. crop and horticulture keeping, livestock by pastoral dominated are country of the part this in lives Rural people. 400,000 than more home to Mongolia, western of regions mountainous the in fast particularly happening is 1940,2.24°C warming since and by increased has territory Mongolian the over temperature surface mean annual The Climate changeandvulnerabilities While the direct impacts of climate change change of climate impacts direct the While However, people without permission However, permission without people – become more frequent and more more and frequent more –become 3 The 2009–10 dzud The took the lives lives the took June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 cooperatives further reflects the recognition the reflects further cooperatives of agricultural formation the and economy rural of the organisation collective the in interest donor-supported A renewed, transfers. of livestock form the in herders other from received aid the is pastoralists for loss-affected support offer to adequate economy. rural Notably, found been what has the in level of indebtedness high already the to adding loans, by taking cope to try Others affordit. to unable often are households poor asset- losses, economic of the some mitigate to helps insurance such While reached. is herd rate of 6% insured of an a mortality pay-offsonce issue that schemes insurance farmers. and herders of individual hands the into transferred been has exposure risk of 1990s, early however, management the the in regime socialist country’s of the collapse economy. the rural Since of the stability the ensuring contributions, in-kind and transfers cash resources, with losses by weather-related hit severely those provided past of the system support agricultural State-controlled The developments. economic and social political, recent country’s the in embedded is change of climate impacts the to communities rural inadequate governance of water resources. of water resources. governance inadequate and use unsustainable currently the amid intensify to set is situation The of resources. use the over conflicts lead local to shortages water resulting 1940s, and the since 30% by shrunk have already mountains Altai Mongolian the in Glaciers events. drought frequent more and of glaciers melting the due to water availability surface decreasing as such events for slow-onset may hold true economy. same pastoral out The of the drop to households for rural predictor strong a become fact in has Mongolia in events incomes. of alternative search in migrate to forced eventually are locally income their or diversify restock either to options any without left Those impaired. significantly is of life quality afamily’s animals), 200 is this suggest (surveys threshold acertain below drops by ahousehold held of livestock number the Once are. certainly events of such impacts June 2020 The severity of climate-induced shock shock of climate-induced severity The Today, market-based into buy can herders of Mongolia’s vulnerability underlying The Climate crisisandlocalcommunities agricultural practices and their places of places their and practices agricultural traditional abandon to forced are communities As landscape. local the in formations and mountaintops sites, sacred about beliefs are Mongolia western in norms and customs to place. to Central connectedness standing long- communities’ erode may over time sources, income andstable profitablemore of presumably take-up the and areas urban to rural from resettlement permanent the as such strategies, Adaptation members. household for female only not –and at acost come it may financially, communities benefit workload. additional or creates opportunities income certain women excludes from either of work. This availability the and customs on depending basis agendered on assigned usually or sources, more two from income generate to have started households many events, shock and change climate onset todue slow- difficult increasingly become to poised are farming and pastoralism mobile As incomes. their of diversification the is pressures external with dealing are that at least. year of the parts during split being families many with Mongolia, in life of family feature acommon are migration, permanent with confused be to not while livelihoods, economy. ‘translocal’ rural Such the in income generate counterparts male their while centres urban to adults young and children with moving often education, to children’s access ensuring and finances household managing to regard with role Women important migrate. to play an decision over afamily’s of influence degree considerable a exercise work, they income-generating time or part- limited only often therefore and duties caring undertake women traditionally While migrated. who have previously members family with reunite to seek also Many security. financial and opportunities income stable access to desire by their driven mainly is migrate to households of rural decision The heritage Gender, incomediversificationandcultural impacts of climate change on a local level. alocal on change of climate impacts the with dealing in capital of role social of the While income diversification tends to tends diversification income While of households strategy important Another www.fmreview.org/issue64 23 24 on: focus to need may therefore strategy adaptation an as migration for internal need the order counteract to in long term the in economy rural the this iswhytheystayinthecountryside.” […] Also,herdersdonotwanttobeunemployed; study somethingtothennotfindajobinthisfield.’ I wastemyparents’ moneytogouniversityand “Children from herderfamiliesrealise, ‘whyshould destinations: urban in opportunities work of decent absence the recognising educated andthentheywanttogetajob.” to beherdersinthefuture. Thechildren wanttobe changes. […]Idon’thaveanychildren whowant tough andherderscan’tadapttotheclimatic want tocontinueherdingasaherder’slifeisquite centres orUlaanbaatar. […]Very fewyoungpeople “They [youth]allwanttogothe[provincial] interviews: during members community by rural raised were particular in youth of prospects the about concerns Serious vulnerable. increasingly now becoming are they of resilience, degree ahigh shown have Mongolia historically in systems livelihood rural and people Although To stayortogo? for millennia. culture unique Mongolians’ have defined of which some assets, cultural intangible and tangible their in disruptions substantial lead to may eventually this origin, www.fmreview.org/issue64 women in accessingincome-generating taking intoconsideration theneedsof strengthening community self-reliance on existingsocial networks andthereby agriculture andothersectors,drawing organisation ofeconomicactivities in promoting cooperatives andthecollective sudden assetloss households identifiedasmost at riskof or inaccessibleinsuranceschemes to in theformofsubsidiesratherthanloans farmers) byprovidingdirectassistance systems (particularlyforpastoralistsand life providedby, existinglocallivelihood increasing theresilienceof,andqualityof Holistic solutions for strengthening for strengthening solutions Holistic picture, nuanced amore paint Others Climate crisisandlocalcommunities of Berlin Ländliche Entwicklung,SLE),HumboldtUniversity Centre for Rural Development (Seminarfür Independent consultant;former research fellow, Paper No1759https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3259103 Aftermath ofanExtreme Weather Event’, DIWBerlinDiscussion Become Persistent: Household-Level Asset Growth inthe 3. Lehmann-UschnerK andKrähnertK(2018)‘WhenShocks bit.ly/IOM-Mongolia-2018 2. IOM(2018)Mongolia:InternalMigrationStudy SLE PublicationSeriesS282bit.ly/Beushausen-et-al-SLE-2020 as ComplementaryIncomeSourcesinKhovd andUvsProvince’, of thePotentials ofHorticulturalProduction andTourism Activities Structural andClimaticChangesinWestern Mongolia: An Analysis C andZotschewJ(2020)‘Adaptation ofRuralLivelihoods to 1. BeushausenW, GilliM,SchoeningS,SchreinerL,Vargas Koch Simon Schoening Simon Schoening programmes. and projects planning when account into change of climate impacts term long- projected the by taking adaptation of sustainable concept the to adhere and approach bottom-upled, participatory acommunity- take should interventions communities, by local expressed needs the Lastly, reflecting change. of climate context the in unsustainable are that practices intensive carbon- highly youth) avoid and promoting for building capacity and empowerment women’s employment, health, education, (in activities their coordinate learned, lessons integrate better must donor community the and institutions development finance agencies, Government development interventions. ongoing and duplicate to past or tend change of climate assessment adequate an lack either often donors international by efforts Current

changes onhouseholds’ economicsituation. extreme weather events andslow-onset longer-term impactsofclimate-induced regular surveys whichreflectthecombined monitoring migrationflowsbyconducting practices enhanced soilandpasturemanagement stream users),whilealsofocusingon to theneedsofdisadvantaged anddown- water usergroups(payingspecialattention by providingfinancialsupporttolocal improving governance ofnaturalresources education foryouth employment opportunitiesandrelevant work andcreatingyear-round, diversified www.sle-berlin.de [email protected]

June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 communities in Somalia/Somaliland. in Somalia/Somaliland. communities local on crisis climate of effects gendered the at looking when intersect factors Various million people will be internally displaced. internally be will people million 1.72 of which assistance, humanitarian of need in be will people 5.2 million and insecurity food acute face will people million (IDPs) or in villages, or by taking up casual up casual or by taking (IDPs) villages, or in people displaced for internally camps in vendors street becoming goats, selling and keeping through –either breadwinners the become cases, women many have,as in increased also has violence Domestic violence. domestic increasing as reported interviewed communities all qat, which stimulant the chewing to turn also men Many children. women and towards violence domestic driving and in households conflict and tension causing is family. This for the income secure to unable being men in resulted has dynamics. gender on impact an having are and society Somali in norms cultural many –have shifted livelihoods on stress and scarcity resource –creating shocks climate events weather by extreme newlywere displaced 2018, 547,000 (3.6% people population) of its conflicts. clan increased turn have in which droughts recurrent experienced has 1991, in government Somalia of the collapse the after situation political afragile facing as well As price. aheavy paying already are Somalia in poverty in living people of of thousands hundreds unpredictable, and extreme more becomes change climate As inter-linked. closely are crises humanitarian and shocks Climate-related Somalia/Somaliland in Climate gender crisis, inequalities and local response genital mutilation are all prevalent. all are mutilation genital female and marriage girl-child early violence, gender-based and spheres, political and educational economic, in participation and power women have less crisis: climate current the before high very already was general in Amy Croome andMunaHussein June 2020 The loss of livestock because of drought of drought because of livestock loss The Gender inequality in Somalia/Somaliland in inequality Gender 2 and it is expected that in 2020 6.3 in that expected it is and Climate crisisandlocalcommunities 5 Now, Now, 1 In In 3 4 court system often imposes small fines on fines small imposes often system court informal the community, the in reported are cases when compromised is confidentiality as difficult or remains rape violence sexual for justice Seeking community. outside the and within from both men are Perpetrators lighting). and shelter of safe of lack (because homes their in and markets to roads on firewood, collect they where areas areas, grazing livestock areas, defecation open at water points, Women vulnerable feel rise. the on been rape, have as also such men. mostly affecting violence, cause also displaced are people when arising disputes land and movement. Evictions of freedom their limits consequently and clashes, or armed killings of revenge victims become easily who can for men, dangerous especially is This pasture. water and land, over compete groups as more conflicts clan education. boys’ prioritise they school, in girls and boys both register to afford cannot parents when Furthermore, school. out of dropping girls more in resulting work, domestic daily increased the support to asked are Girls resources. these collect to distances longer walking girls and women in resulting scarce, increasingly are and water firewood Both consuming. time- and demanding more have become girls, of women and responsibility the common. more have become households female-headed and have rates Divorce risen by suicide. or die violence, clan escape to leave military, the join cities, work the in for look to families leave men their cases, some role. In their to athreat as men some by perceived is and roles in gender shift a caused has This centres. work urban in Other forms of gender-based violence, violence, of gender-based forms Other increased also has scarcity Resource work, traditionally domestic and Caring www.fmreview.org/issue64 25 26 Women head to the water point in Eilmidgan village where Oxfam has built a water desalination plant. desalination awater built has Oxfam where village Eilmidgan in point water the to head Women with men for fear of being stalked, and carry carry and stalked, of being for fear men with movements their doleave share not camps, they times change groups, in travel girls and rape, women To and violence avoid sexual displacement. and crisis climate of effects gendered the with deal to mechanisms coping marriage. forced and early fearing interviewed girls of the many with discussions, group focus in raised issues main of the one was this and men wealthy to daughters their marry often will families Fadhigaab IDP camp,Sanaagregion) safely. Itrytosleepatnoontime.”(Woman from sleep atnight.Ikeeponwatchingthemto this IDPcamp.Theyare allunder17years.Idon’t I haveeightdaughtersandtwosisterswithmein “My husbandbrought ushere andlefttofindwork. frequently: happen conflicts clan where areas those in especially sleeping, while night the during raped women are Many cost. and due distance to inaccessible are systems formal the and community, the into back released then who are perpetrators

Oxfam/Pablo Tasco www.fmreview.org/issue64 Communities have developed a variety of have avariety developed Communities livelihoods, secure to struggling When Climate crisisandlocalcommunities warn each other of potential danger. of potential other each warn to touch in keep and torches use groups, in travel protection, for their guns carry men Many guards. posting outside and or sleeping shifts, in awake staying hiding, in sleeping either at night, homes from away stay killings of revenge fear in Men livestock. water or for look missing collect elderly women while torches, and sticks their participation in decision making. making. decision in participation their by, for example, increasing responses lead to humanitarian space more and funding direct more agencies government Somali and organisations national and local giving – to localisation have committed INGOs and donors for Change, Charter the and agreement Bargain Grand the Through access. lack agencies international which to areas, conflict in NGOs, especially national and by local delivered is response of the flowsdirectly. However, much funding (INGOs),NGOs donor of the whom to most international and UN by the largely met being is needs humanitarian rising to response The Local responseandprogramming June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 leadership and participation in decision decision in participation and leadership know.” family. They of the provider the are They happen. to going is disaster the when […]know to children first and Women the are are women affected most those adrought “In women’s Nagaad: network Somali rights the of Nafisa to Yusuf According account. into taken are households female-headed and considered carefully is gender beneficiaries, women).and For selecting example, when men both (serving cash-for-work programmes and transfers cash unconditional activities, livelihood and hygiene),and resilience WASH as such (water,activities sanitation various the across gender mainstreamed have government) the extent, acertain to context. religious and cultural of the understanding have deep and communities affected with relationships have ongoing they of work as type do to this actors international than placed better are actors Local reflection. and discussions generate to and awareness way agood raise to are dramas that and traditions oral strong has society Somali that understand organisations Local actors. help of the with situations of various –performances dramas community as such activities, awareness-raising community deliver also organisations Afew issues. such face they do when what women can explaining and violence sexual and domestic as such issues various about speaking and households visiting activities, raising awareness- out protection carry also Many survivors. for the justice seeking those help to and centres medical to survivors refer and respond to trained are members community whereby survivors violence sexual for and rape counselling and systems have referral organisations several and undertaken widely are activities Protection drought. of effects gendered the tackle to of activities avariety delivering Somaliland, Somalia/ in crisis by climate caused needs humanitarian the to responding who are system. humanitarian the dominate still INGOs and UN the localisation, made on been has However, progress some while June 2020 There are many local and national NGOs NGOs national and local many are There Local NGOs encourage women’s encourage NGOs Local (and, NGOs international and Local Climate crisisandlocalcommunities organisations remain limited. Restrictions Restrictions limited. remain organisations their in invest to capacity their and spaces decision-making to access their when sector the in be lead to able to it difficult find and of efforts, sustainability long-term comes”. “Aid rain saying the when comes by of funding slow dispersal the and cycle funding humanitarian the describes Taakulo NGO of local Farah of Nagaad. Jama Omer says Nafisa again,” Yusuf we have start to and funding we new get then it and stops, engage, then and for ayear, we train runs women’s [in a programme leadership], it “We have project-dependent. and term short- is funding where and sub-contractors as actors local sees often which system humanitarian ina difficult very is norms work long-term doing shift to that fact the raised with we NGOs spoke national and local All actors. national and international between power dynamics the change to can more easily adapt their progamming. progamming. adapt their easily more can actors all shared, and analysed researched, are differences the When crisis. climate the of effects gendered the visible make to work, important it is their in gender integrating fully to it comes when NGOs international and local of both limitations Given the relationships. of strong building the and discussions many time, do takes should and of what women can perceptions and norms changing that share organisations Prophet.” local our Many refuse cannot leader –people abusiness who was wife Prophet’s the for leaders, example who are Quran, the women women in about and men to “We talk strategy: appropriate culturally and acareful requires roles such NGO HAVAYOCO encouraging that explains of local Isak Hassan Kamal committees. IDP camp in for example making, to the government. the to going of this majority the with for Somalia, funding humanitarian for 3.5% of overall accounted actors of local/national funding 2017, In small. very direct non-State) remains (State and actors Somali local to available of funding amounts relative and absolute The Localisation –stillwaiting Interviewees are worried about the the about worried are Interviewees 6 www.fmreview.org/issue64 This has done little little done has This 27 28 strategies to respond to the effects of climate change and climate-related displacement. climate-related and change climate of effects to the to respond strategies of arange employing are Peoples Indigenous subregion, Mekong Greater the Across inclusion of local NGOs as leaders could. leaders as NGOs of local inclusion and recognition the and of funding kinds different and powerbut more shift not will alone building Capacity sector. the within leaders become truly to organisations for these and programmes sustainable create to organisations for local needed is women bear the brunt of the work to of the brunt the women bear communities, these strategy. Within adaptation an as migrate to forced being are and ways of life, traditional and livelihoods their to threats facing are Asia Southeast of subregion Mekong Greater the in Peoples Indigenous habitats. natural their to who closest live felt by those severely most are change of climate impacts The displacement climate-related Indigenous perspectives on gender, power and like countries In effects. crisis climate reduce to movements global with connect to and crisis climate the around narrative coherent a build to government, local and agencies international and actors, for local potential alot of is But there of communities. needs urgent the and crisis climate of effects the to responding on instead focusing changes, policy advocate for global and mobilise to capacity do have not the currently organisations Local country. the movement in justice climate alarge not is there crisis, climate by the created needs humanitarian to responding on been has reason for good and far thus Somalia/Somaliland in focus the As Climate justiceadvocacy agenda. localisation the for advancing adeadlock creates that cycle avicious cause and competence technical and quality managerial NGOs’ on local effect a negative development, have work for organisational exclude which spent, be can howon funds Sarah Pentlow www.fmreview.org/issue64 More flexible and longer-term funding funding and longer-term More flexible Climate crisisandlocalcommunities 7 https://heca.oxfam.org/countries/somalia Oxfam inSomalia/Somaliland Gender Officer Muna Hussein Influencing andCommunicationsManager Amy Croome [email protected] consideration. into fully gender taking shocks, climate andother drought by women affected and men support countries helpto poorer funds new providing in progress make to needs community international The change. climate to contribute that emissions for the responsibility greatest the bearing not despite crisis, climate by the displaced being are of people numbers large Somalia/Somaliland Women initiative care. livestock supply and food for the responsible are they,adapt as culturally, level and how communities are responding responding are how communities level and at acommunity change of climate impacts gendered the understand to Vietnam and Cambodia Laos, Myanmar, in communities Indigenous selected in levelresearch field 7. Oxfam(forthcoming2020)SomaliaHumanitarianAnalysis bit.ly/ODI-2018-funding-Somalia Humanitarian Policy Group,NEAR Network Funding tolocalhumanitarianactors:Somaliacasestudy 6. MajidN, Abdirahman K,Poole L andWillitts-King B(2018) bit.ly/AfricasVoices-Somalia-2017 citizens related tochildprotection andgender Africa’s Voices andUNICEF(2017) EU andSIDRA bit.ly/EU-SIDRA-Somalia-gender-2018 5. Ahmed SK(2016) be anautonomousregionofSomalia. 4. Somalilandisaself-declaredstate,internationallyconsideredto https://reliefweb.int/disaster/dr-2015-000134-som 3. ReliefWeb /UNICEF 2. bit.ly/Oxfam-climate-02122019 Somalia 1. UNOCHA (December2019)HumanitarianNeedsOverview: In this context, the Climate Smart Smart Climate the context, this In bit.ly/UNOCHA-Dec2019Somalia-needs [email protected] European UnionSomaliaGenderAnalysisStudy 1 undertook village- undertook Beliefs andpracticesofSomali June 2020

, ODI,

, FMR 64 FMR 64 same household obligations as women. as obligations household same do have not the they as scarce are resources employment of when search in to leave first the usually are –and labour hired or as forest, the in land, their on –whether jobs demanding physically more on take Men cooking. and care-giving to related household the within fulfil also they roles additional of the because poverty’ ‘time experience manage resources these they increasingly new ways to seek they As patterns. weather extreme and of unpredictable consequences the experience to first the are they means which home gardens, cultivating and weeding work of planting, frontline of the more involved in women are agriculture, Within of labour. division the in roles gender distinct are there a household’s livelihoods, crops.” other and rice her rescue to machine apumping purchase to husband her encouraged [oneand woman] also situation drought the with deal to authority local the from advice seeking in active always Teh women are Krang village, “In households: the powermore within women held However, Cambodia, in or adaptation.” change climate about know atwomen stay home. So, women do not “…only and said, go meetings to men respondent One forums. decision-making in participate to ability their limited literacy women’s Laos, in low level of communities In women’sto participation. and literacy relating particularly communities, the livelihoods. to linked roles labour and household the within roles gender examined teams level, research at acommunity impacts these To understand vulnerabilities. differentiated in resulting change, climate by exacerbated are inequalities Pre-existing Gendered impacts crisis. growing this to response in connections build and knowledge exchange to met region the across from representatives society civil and policymakers leaders, 2019, Women December in Indigenous Bangkok in At agathering resilience. build and knowledge order adapt, to share in June 2020 Although the whole family contributes to to contributes whole family the Although among of experiences arange was There Climate crisisandlocalcommunities 2

resources. However, threats from private private from However, threats resources. of natural management sustainable the in role their and Peoples’ rights Indigenous of recognition for and respect towards direction strong provides policy a national Cambodia, In exists. legislation appropriate when even or protected, always recognised not are rights but these lands their to rights Peoples hold ancestral Indigenous A questionofpoweroverland Cyclone Nargis hit Myanmar in 2008. in Myanmar hit Cyclone Nargis when seen was as care, health to or access shelter to access escape, own their hinder elderly may and people for children women’s or floods, responsibility typhoons cyclones, as such disasters event of natural the in And community. the in jobs and income lack they that homes; and their have destroyed for disasters work;travel that to independence women lack that alone; travelling unsafe are and work permits, and passports without migrate to forced are and migration safe on havenot information how women do observed for They women. displacement of impact differential the to for women. violence of gender-based risks increasing and people marginalised of already vulnerability the increasing is over how migration concern expressed participants conference, the during However, discussions change. in climate to adaptation alivelihood it as view people that commonplace so become has work. This no agricultural is there when periods lean the during families entire their with villages result. as a suffer consequently and men as status same the having women as do recognise not which communities in remain households Female-headed of men. that lower be to than of women continues status the equality, gender in gains as seen However, husband. be what might despite her by sent remittances the managing as well as production agricultural as such activities household the of all management on take to had she employment opportunities, better for Malaysia to migrated husband her when Women interviewed in Laos also pointed pointed also Laos in Women interviewed workers leave their seasonal Many that told us woman one Myanmar, In www.fmreview.org/issue64 29 30 stakeholders (including networks of networks (including stakeholders local with by working adaptation change climate example, have NGOs supported or Myanmar. Laos in favourablyspoke –than communities the of which –INGOs Cambodia in NGO presence international astronger is there that relevant It doubtlessly is Myanmar. and Laos in communities the to contrast in communities, leave to their needing without livelihoods their able maintain to are and strategies adaptation employed successful have to appear Cambodia in communities selected the Women initiative, Smart Climate by Cambodianwomen) prevent the effects of climate change.” know whichonestocutandkeep one oftheresources toprotect usfrom flooding. We lands withourfamilysowecansurvive.Trees are “When there isflooding,weknow tomovehigh Woman leaderfromMyanmar) try toimprove crop productivity.” (Indigenous myself, Idon’tknowhowtodealwiththis,but They don’tknowhowtosolvetheseproblems. Even to doaboutthefuture dueto different weather. “Local villagesfeelhopelessanddon’tknowwhat change: of to climate adaptation possibility the concerning communities within perspectives and of views diversity awide is There strategies Knowledge sharingandotheradaptation gone.” be will lives their forests, without separated; be cannot forests Peoples and “Indigenous activist, words of one the But in land. to do have not access they where sites to relocated have been and projects hydroelectric by large displaced have been communities Some companies. sold offto private been has land cases, other In herbicides. to resorting without food sufficient produce to require practices farming traditional their than plots smaller given are but households government of land. loss and deforestation degradation, rapid environmental in resulting of developers, interests the against rights these have pitted companies www.fmreview.org/issue64 In Pu Chhorb village in Cambodia, for Cambodia, in village Chhorb Pu In by done the research the from Judging by the allocated is land Laos, In Climate crisisandlocalcommunities (from report (National Network of Rural Women of Rural Network (National Kabar women –May Doe of rural network national first country’s the created finally level, and regional at the self-organised then coordination, of better sake for the clusters higher-level formed gradually first groups village-level individual These nutrition. and health violence, gender-based and trafficking workshops on awareness-raising and training vocational provide to as well as women, rural for building capacity and activities generation income- support to developto networks created were groups’ leading ‘township as known organisations society civil led women- local Programme, Development committee.” disaster the on especially levels, at all representatives Indigenous have to government Cambodian the want better. We information access we could “We that think saying are communities Indigenous Cambodia, In displacement. of climate-related challenge the to responding in call of port first the be cannot management. for business capacity built and systems, irrigation supported networks, farmers’ and cooperatives agriculture group,producer and established model farmer a implemented have successfully they groups; enterprise and business community in now active more are Members communities. of Indigenous empowerment economic the to contributed has groups savings up of setting NGO-led the where Teh Cambodia Krang in in found were experiences Similar gardens. home for irrigating as well as consumption for household round, year water all with village supply to the reservoir asmall build to Youth) Women of Indigenous and Indigenous Climate Smart Women Connect conference conference Women Connect Smart Climate the from emerge to recommendations and 18 messages the key Within another. to generation one from practices adaptation and of farming knowledge their on pass and other each with share they as Women Indigenous among exists sharing government. the and development actors donors, with needs their share to and country the women across rural connect In Myanmar, with the support of the UN UN of the support the with Myanmar, In NGO on intervention However, reliance A culture of learning and knowledge knowledge and of learning A culture 3 June 2020 ) – to ) –to

FMR 64 •  •  displaced people. global agendas–reflect the experiences andinsights of help ensurethatpolicymakingandprogramming – and We strive to includeawidevariety ofvoices inFMRto Whose voices areheardthroughFMR? FMR 64 example of MDK is a model of how local amodelof how of MDK local is example The participation. political local and skills literacy, leadership increase to women for building capacity for specific call clear barriers. gender and norms social down break to starting in it successful was where CARE’s Remote Ethnic WomenCARE’s programme, Ethnic Remote of part as Laos in used was method This approach afamily-oriented take should equality or gender strategies adaptation climate or workshops on training any activities, livelihood involved in are families whole which way in the and members community between sharing knowledge of nature inter-generational Given the Recommendations forprogramming exchange. and sharing knowledge to relate 2019, December of them in Bangkok half in 1,000 women across 31 different townships. 31 different women across 1,000 by over used May being app 2020, is the of As government. national and local with and women, rural other with share then can they which migration, or safe violence gender-based as such of concern issues on app the through evidence gather women can Rural storytelling. and surveys detailed polls, opinion through heard voices their women have to rural by MDK enable to developed Women was app which Inspiring iWomen the is Myanmar in exchange English. in primarily exists equality gender and rights human change, climate around information of the much that is reality Additionally, the countries. within but countries between only not Asia, Southeast Peoples in Indigenous among of languages ahuge diversity is there language: around is exchange knowledge actors canbroaden and/or practitioners your reach. Consider co-authoring… ‘buddying’ withother local would beofmostuse to other FMRreaders. Think aboutwhatyou have learnedorexperienced that June 2020 Emerging from the research was a was research the from Emerging One tool being used for knowledge for knowledge used being tool One for local challenge persistent One Perhaps you could: Climate crisisandlocalcommunities . 4

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practices and knowledge traditional document communities. their in needed what is into who have people insight local the it is – and norms gender shift to intervention technical a just than however, more needs it often helpful; been has development organisations by provided assistance technical the that clear it is examples, Myanmar and Cambodian the In networks. larger with bridges build to influence their using interventions, community-led supporting to limited be able participate. to be to skills requisite However, networks. the women need evolve national into can groups village Cuso International Gender Equality Consultant, untilrecentlywith Sarah Pentlow [email protected] information about]ourchallenges.” change decision-makingprocesses and[share policy levelonwomen’sparticipationinclimate them…. Therefore, wehavetoworktogetherata challenges wehaveinMyanmarandIlearnedfrom that womeninothercountriesalsohavethesame “After attendingtheconference, Ihave realised said: Bangkok in participant one policy. As influence to and knowledge 5. Seebit.ly/CARE-Laos-Remote 4. bit.ly/2HurOJd Network. 3. Also knownoutsideMyanmar astheMyanmar RuralWomen’s Pact. bit.ly/2Sxzdxu convened byCusoInternationaland Asia IndigenousPeoples’ 2. Thiswas ajointresearch projectandknowledge-sharingevent for amoreinclusive climatepolicydialogue. focus was onengagingwithIndigenousWomen inSoutheast Asia and Global Affairs Canada Volunteer Cooperation Programme; the Environment InstituteaspartoftheirStrategicCollaborationfund and Asia IndigenousPeoples’ Pact, was fundedbyStockholm 1. Thisone-year project,implementedbyCusoInternational •  A final recommendation is to is recommendation A final should actors external of role The and advice. –we’llsuggestions for provide articles feedback www.fmreview.org/writing-fmr andsendus Look atourguidancefor at authors If you write, they willread. readership. diverse FMR hasahuge and in order to preserve Indigenous Indigenous order preserve to in https://cusointernational.org www.fmreview.org/issue64

31 32 the face of accelerating climate vulnerability. climate accelerating of face the in communities and households people, of agency and actions the into insights offer region the from Case-studies diverse. and numerous are Islands Pacific the in mobility of Types between community leaders and members, members, and leaders community between collaboration and partnerships through facilitated and making, decision and planning in roles key playing leaders and members community with community-initiated was move The markets. and roads main services, educational and health to access improved and activities, livelihoods and farmland to access infrastructure, and housing improved offers –and land clan customary on –situated inland 2km about is location new The inundation. and erosion coastal to 2014 in exposure reduce to ground higher to Vanua for example, relocated in Levu, risk of environmental away sites from communities and livelihoods homes, their of relocating process the – have undertaken NGOs and donors ministries, government of support the with –some villages Several water sources. potable and farmland arable into intrusion saltwater and surges, storm erosion, shoreline grounds, burial ancestral and of homes inundation experience variously that sites coastal low-lying are concerned communities The risks. change climate to response adaptive apotential as relocation for planned government Fijian by the identified havebeen villages 42 Fiji, In at least Relocating –Fiji impacts. of climate because by 2050 displaced or be migrate will region the in people up 1.7 to that million suggest estimates Some impacts. change climate to region’s of the vulnerability light in mobility climate-related around debates global in prominently feature Islands Pacific The communities Islands Pacific in mobilities Multiple islands), and cross-border migration. cross-border islands), and (or main towards areas urban to rural from migration of communities, relocation planned ways, including various in itself manifests Yee, SabiraCoelho,TimWestbury, Sharon JamesandFrances Namoumou Fanny Thornton, Karen McNamara,OliviaDun,Carol Farbotko, CeliaMcMichael,Merewalesi www.fmreview.org/issue64 The coastal village of Vunidogoloa village coastal The Climate crisisandlocalcommunities 1 Such movement Such 2

pursue sustainable livelihoods activities. livelihoods sustainable pursue can members community all that so planning livelihood levels; and community and at household infrastructure and markets) education, (health, services to access including of living, standards or improved maintained of communities; lives cultural and of spiritual continuation relocation; following and to, prior during processes making decision- for: inclusive need the including attachment. place and livelihoods lives, daily to disruption limited has households a few of retreat Short-distance proofing. cyclone for upgraded were houses other while zone, inundation donor support), the beyond (with built were houses 2015 new four just Vanua for example, in in Levu, Vunisavisavi settlement coastal the In community. entire their relocating not are some although donor support, and government without and with both shorelines, encroaching from retreating also are villages Fijian Other infrastructure. incomplete and of achurch) construction community-funded through addressed being is (which of worship place of a to lack place, attachment disrupted centres), urban to access due easier to least (not lifestyle and diet in changes included have of relocation Challenges ministries. government and Council Provincial the and donor agencies networks, church part of their income towards efforts to build build to efforts towards income of their part channel migrants urban of Some people. numbers large attract already islands main and centres urban where region Islands Pacific the in risk climate facing communities among including building, resilience and diversification for livelihood strategy apositive be can migration urban to Rural Drawn tothecity–Fiji These planned relocations offer lessons, lessons, offer relocations planned These June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 encroachment of the shoreline over recent over recent shoreline of the encroachment the witnessed had he and coast the to close very situated was house current his that given house, new his build to where exactly worker considering was weather. Another inclement during family for his protection greater would provide timber and concrete of iron, one to construction leaf a thatched from house his how upgrading explained For worker example, one Islands. Solomon in or upgrade housing construct to Australia in earning were they money use to planned all interviewed, migrants SWP Island Solomon 12 Of workers originate. which from countries the development in economic to contributing gaps while labour Australian fill to is purpose The sectors. accommodation and agriculture Australian the in work to temporarily Leste and Timor- countries Island Pacific nine from citizens 2012, permits since (SWP), operation in Worker Programme Australia’s Seasonal Going abroadforwork–toAustralia households. for rural outcomes livelihood help to improve are migration internal as such strategies livelihood if needed are another one complement and connect sectors these that ensuring in authorities public from, support by, engagement Greater of income. and sources non-agricultural and of agricultural mix aprecarious on depends people’s survival areas, involve rural risks). In also it can of mobility, types most with true is as though, (even disaster and change environmental to resilience away as of building used increasingly is but also livelihoods sustainable achieve help people can only not region, the in elsewhere and Fiji, in migration urban to Rural environments. urban to have migrated who those to produce local send villagers while village, the in who remain those to cash send also migrants Urban of disaster. times in centre evacuation an as used is which hall Lobau’s community repairing and building as –such facilities and projects community to directed is income of their but part centres urban in economy cash the in working to farming subsistence and agriculture from for of Lobau, example, have moved village Fijian rural of the residents Some areas. remote and rural in capacity adaptive and resilience June 2020 Climate crisisandlocalcommunities into international labour mobility. labour international into mainstreamed better be could risk climate of how example addressing one is SWP the –into relevant geographically and contextually culturally, time same at the is –which housing climate-ready building in training integrating this, offshore. Given of work opportunities pursuit migrants’ Island of Pacific part key village. the in projects environmental establish to NGOs help attract might this that premise the on guesthouse, of avillage construction the to Finally, worker one contributing years. was Water tanks and solar panels supply water panels solar and Water tanks capital. the in employment paid some with livelihoods subsistence their supplement easier to source source to easier are materials handicraft and livelihoods, subsistence partial at provide least cultivation food household and Fishing village. the to in-migration driving is this and itself, capital the in life with compared life traditional a more live to opportunity the value all members community present The over time. have varied numbers population meant have capital the in urbanisation increasing as such people, but changes for Funafuti of settlement area an been historically has site Tuvalu’s in landholders village The capital. also who are group indigenous same the of part of Funafuti, people indigenous the case? the this is Why increasing. is of households number the contrary, the On leave. to plans nobody yet rise, sea-level from stemming that particularly risk, change of climate aware well are Funafala comprise 10that The households true. is opposite the fact but in out-migration experiencing be to expected be economy, reasonably might no cash has which community, island remote This erosion. coastal experiences and atoll of Tuvalu, all alow-lying on is with as Funafala, motorboat. away hour by small an nation’s the to capital, service ferry public no with and or roads shops no schools, with limited, is there Infrastructure by sea. Tuvalu in accessible only is village Funafala Tuvalu – Renewing culturalattachmenttoplace In short, climate resilience building is a is building resilience climate short, In Funafala land is traditionally owned by owned traditionally is land Funafala here. Most households households Most here. www.fmreview.org/issue64 33 34 a range of mobility strategies to lower their lower to their strategies of mobility a range pursuing are communities island Affected Policy context feasible. become reclamation land as such projects large-scale should considered carefully be to need also will impacts environmental and social cultural, local many, are fortification physical achieving to challenges financial and technical the While Tuvalu’s partners. international by prioritised highly more be to needs that issue an is long term, the in land indigenous on remain to communities enable to probably necessary is which islands, of low-lying fortification Physical situ. in Tuvalu change adapt to climate to in priority policy national the with aligns example Funafala The resilience. livelihoods as well as social and cultural building time, still is there while land to connections indigenous their renewing are but meanwhile future the in point some at uninhabitable Tuvaluabout becoming debates wider prominent of the aware well are people Funafala erosion. and storms flooding, with associated damage from reparable easily relatively are houses simple the and unsafe, physically feels nobody Currently, change. of climate risks term longer- the against balance carefully they which –priorities health and culture their to preserving attach they importance the established. is aschool once Funafala to move to likely are families young more that agree residents The cohort. a younger lacking currently is of Funafala population the indeed, and school attend can children their that so Funafala and capital the between time their split children with Currently, families further. increase to likely is of Funafala population the built, it is when government; national by the promised been has which for aschool, lobbied has community The hall. acommunity and chapel anew built has community The erosion. coastal against protection as planted have been mangroves and additions, recent are walls sea constructed and sourced Locally houses. power all to and www.fmreview.org/issue64 Community members speak about about speak members Community Climate crisisandlocalcommunities

www.unimelb.edu.au Research Fellow, University ofMelbourne Olivia Dun www.uq.edu.au Associate Professor, University ofQueensland COP24 2018, in at launched Guidelines, Relocation Planned national developed has government Fijian the For example, instruments. policy dedicated some are there context, change climate the in processes and pressures of mobility account taking broadly only being, time for the is, region the in policymaking migration much outcome. Although and direction motivation, of variety their in distinctive are level, and community and family individual, at the undertaken are strategies these capacity; adaptive and resilience increase to and risk Karen EMcNamara www.canberra.edu.au Associate Professor, University ofCanberra Fanny Thornton innovative, flexible mechanisms of support. of mechanisms flexible innovative, incorporate should and mobile, of being act the through and live they where places multiple the across indirectly) and (directly risk climate address people that recognise development should policy Importantly, making. decision their at play in factors the and strategies of people’s mobility reality of the understanding asound on based be to development needs policy any meantime, the In prove to challenging. continues Islands Pacific for the arrangements implementation and directives clear to principles guiding and goals policy broad from moving However, occurs. displacement where approaches systems-oriented and sectoral implementing in actors non-governmental and authorities public guiding instrument an Displacement, Disaster and Change Climate on Policy aNational established Vanuatu has Meanwhile, impacts. change due climate to or who relocate displaced are people who for fund world’s relocation first 2019): in Assembly the General UN at the People’s Displaced (launched Fund Trust and Relocation up aClimate set also has government Fijian The change. climate to response in of relocation process of the stages [email protected] [email protected] 3 to guide stakeholders in all all in stakeholders guide to [email protected]

June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 own relocation. their to manage challenges legal and environmental overcame Brazil in community coastal atraditional how examines researchers and members community between A collaboration conservation reserve led to the expulsion expulsion the to led reserve conservation 1962 in aState as moreover, designation its sea; ever unpredictable more of an force destructive by the caused by erosion years. over the vulnerability environmental socio- community’s the to a contributor and identity traditional of their part both is location physical this estuary; the and sea worlds two –the between located is Enseada activities. crafts and tourism sustainable extractivism, fishing, artisanal agriculture, itinerant include live, and they of where characteristics particular the on depend livelihoods people, their Caiçara As community. Baleia da Enseada the home to is of Brazil, coast south-east Paulo the on of São state the in do Cardoso, Ilha The Brazil in community self-managed relocation of the Nova Enseada When the two seas met: preventive and Merewalesi Yee www.unimelb.edu.au Senior Lecturer, University ofMelbourne [email protected] Celia McMichael www.unimelb.edu.au Research Fellow, University ofMelbourne Industrial Research Organisation Research Scientist,Commonwealth Scientificand Carol Farbotko [email protected] www.uq.edu.au Doctoral Researcher, University ofQueensland www.unescap.org/subregional-office/pacific Commission for AsiaandthePacific Associate, United NationsEconomicandSocial Tim Westbury [email protected] Migration www.iom.int/asia-and-pacific Program Manager, International Organizationfor Sabira Coelho www.uq.edu.au Doctoral Researcher, University ofQueensland Giovanna Gini,Tatiana MendonçaCardoso andErika PiresRamos June 2020 The island has long been affected affected long been has island The [email protected] [email protected] Climate crisisandlocalcommunities

www.csiro.au;

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in 2013 the Forestry Foundation – which –which Foundation 2013 Forestry in the and situation the into investigation an launched Prosecutor State the 2008, In wall. asea construct to them 1990s, prompting the in critical become to began of erosion effects the members, Enseada to According Malaquias Cardoso and needstogoanewplace plantitsroots.” “We needtostartagain.Ourfamilyisa bigtree Decision torelocate island in two and forcing a relocation. arelocation. forcing and two in island the splitting was, Enseada where place the destroyed forces of these combination the years, several After way of life. sustainable a maintain to remain who those for difficult it makes and communities Caiçara of many 3. www.refworld.org/docid/5c3c92204.html The authorsgratefullyacknowledgethefundingsupportreceived. Geographic Societygrant‘Navigatingrisingseas’ (HJ2-194R-18). mobilities inachangingclimate’ (LP170101136)andtheNational Research CouncilLinkageProject‘Transformative human 2 Contentinthisarticlewas producedaspartofthe Australian bit.ly/UNESCAP-Campbell-Warrick-2014 Issues inthePacific,UNESCAP:Suva 1. CampbellJR andWarrick O(2014)ClimateChangeandMigration Merineta Kitara. contributions to thispaperofTeresia Powell and gratefullyThe authors acknowledge the Sharon James Churches Programmes Manager, Pacific Conference of Frances Namoumou Migration www.iom.int/asia-and-pacific Project Manager, International Organizationfor https://pacificconferenceofchurches.org [email protected] [email protected] 1 www.fmreview.org/issue64

35 36 on the island for relocation were security security were for relocation island the on agreement. reach to needed were community the within consultation and negotiation much home, and known only leave to courage their up the how was summon to big question The option. only the was Leaving matter of hours. a in submerged community would leave the strip of the rupture total The of relocation. process the begin to community the urged that situation it this was and metres, of two awidth to strip the reduced undertow tidal 2016, October strong In avery 12 to metres. 22 from sea open the from estuary the separates that of sand strip the reducing surges, tidal frequent and of strong aresult as accelerated no fruit. bore relocation organise to early attempts However, first relocation. these potential about held being of discussions light in respected, was island the on remain to right the that ensure to group working of the meetings in participating began Defender Public State the community, the of request At the area. the monitor to group up aworking –set reserve the manages

Carol Mendoça www.fmreview.org/issue64 The criteria for choosing a new area area anew for choosing criteria The 2015 2016 process and erosion Between the Climate crisisandlocalcommunities drinking water, fruit trees and fishing places. places. fishing and trees water, fruit drinking – resources essential it all had that community the who assured matriarch former by the past the in inhabited identification: its determined what finally was land the with link personal The of researchers.² by agroup a study in corroborated was location’s viability new the community, of the request At the income. sustainable generating and activities traditional of maintaining possibility the of view) and point (from ageographical that was overcome by the community by community overcome by the was that obstacle an – assistance financial no State was there authorisation, receiving Despite everything is for the common good.” “People whoworkdon’tgettired because Portuguese). (AMEB, the Baleia da from of Enseada of Residents Association the as themselves organised who had of Enseada, women by the undertaken was engagement this All Park’s bodies. the management with dialogue aconstructive order ensure to in society of wider support the elicit and bodies of public support the involved, obtain entities different the together bring to necessary was It tricky. extremely is communities, traditional of rights the questions that environment political anational in especially area, aconservation within relocation Negotiating Environment. of the Secretary State the and Prosecutor’s Office Defender’s the Office, Public of the intervention the involving process, difficult a after came only relocation process. relocation the in key been has which of solidarity, principles on based feminism political and of economic a system to according organised been has community 2010, Since the organisation. political of socio- system their and traditions, their lifestyle, their communities), other with and community the (within relationships their change would fundamentally these since community, by the rejected were options Both city. nearest of the periphery the to transfer or island the on community another into integration members: Enseada to solutions two offered authorities municipal and State Difficulties The authorisation for self-organised for self-organised authorisation The Jorge Cardoso June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 system ofmobilisation.” ... allpredominantly through usingthemutirões you havetobuyandtransportthematerialsneeded “Without resources, thetestofourresolve begins: materials. of the transport the organised and materials and activities construction of cost cover to the funds raised they networks, community such Through countries). and regions other from family and friends (tourists, community extended of the participation involved the help. These mutual free, on based goal, acommon achieve to mobilisation instituted community the objectives, To their achieve Strategies location. new the in rebuilt being house of each metres of square number original the exceed to allowed not were were they since park, of the administrators the with negotiated be to had structures house original the to improvements Any first. placed were vulnerable most the where of priority a pyramid establishing houses, for of land area of the division the arranged a lot of work. and AMEB traditions, solidarity, creativity, their on drawing broke through the strip of sand in August August in of sand strip the through broke 2017. finally June sea of the force the When in Nova Enseada, called location, new the in up took residence community The skills. reinvent to ability the with combine traditions where of resistance, example work an as saw their community of work. The search in cities to emigrated who had community the from people young attracted This of knowledge. sources new use and seek to opportunity the and of renewal atime was it people younger but for the of relocation required. effort emotional and physical of the because deteriorated people of many health The trees. the in hammocks their who missed children the soothed and community, for the cooked Women land, worked the activities. income-generating any pursuing from them prevented work that –construction homes their day worked rebuild to every community June 2020 The elderly had long been living in fear fear in living elderly long been had The entire the process, the Throughout mutirões – a system of collective of collective –asystem Tatiana Cardoso Climate crisisandlocalcommunities Caiçara communities on Cardoso Island. Cardoso on communities Caiçara of the permanence and territory, life the of integrity the threaten that island the of management the privatise to proposal aState-backed from and sector private the from speculation from especially territory, their defending continue to plan currently They arises. crisis anew before community their ways protect to devising of hopeful are islanders the relocation, of process difficult long and this through built been has that of solidarity spirit the in and started, been has work that the By continuing happening. what is understand attemptto an in communities the between of dialogue –that beginning is era anew and changes, experiencing also are island the on live that communities Other island’s the vegetation. and salinity, water of fishing, dynamics the change to continuing are crisis climate the of effects The danger.” ErciMalaquias(formermatriarch) “I’m verysadtoleavehere, butweare forced toby New challenges had to be devised by the community. This This community. by the devised be to had strategies of ad hoc aseries meant contexts for these governance institutional and Legal invisibility: reasons: following the we identify of Enseada case the In reasons. several for invisible remain communities local many change, of climate impacts by the affected of those protection and recognition for need the around awareness global greater Despite State. by the abandonment their given injustice, of climate a case However, awareness. also it is political and of empowerment by years enabled of relocation, case asuccessful is community Nova Enseada of the experience The of living.” “Each communityhasitswayofworking, What havewelearned? successfully created a new beginning. anew created successfully by then had community the past, material community’s of the much 2018, destroying Antonio MarioMendonça The lack of normative of normative lack The www.fmreview.org/issue64 37 38 an inter-community capacity to cope with with cope to capacity inter-community an emerged practices these from And approach. ona top-down based strategies than efficient more and intrusive less are solutions based mutirões of use The relocation. and fairer effective to facilitate knowledgesystems different of harmonisation the in resulted studies scientific and academic with combined wisdom Traditional State. by the respected were rights and identity, culture their that ensure and territory the in stay to fight their to essential was of nature forces of the face the in vulnerability experiencing population Caiçara traditional as a self-identification invisibility: Political authorities). local and management park communities, involved (neighbouring or indirectly directly either who are parties different the between conflicts by the and stress economic and by emotional exacerbated – precariousness and vulnerability community increases invisibility legal

Carol Mendoça www.fmreview.org/issue64 demonstrated that community- that demonstrated The strategy of strategy The Climate crisisandlocalcommunities Erika PiresRamos da Baleia(MAE),IlhadoCardoso, Brazil Womenof theGroup oftheEnseada ofArtisan the EnseadadaBaleiaCommunityandmember Student ofSocialSciences,Caiçararesident [email protected] Tatiana MendonçaCardoso University,Mary London ofGeography,PhD student,Department Queen Giovanna Gini created ourselves.” “I gowithmybroken heart...itwashere thatwe place. new the to them linking memories construct to and environment changing adapt the to and understand to learned also but had before as structures physical same the rebuilt had only not they until complete would be not process relocation the that recognised also they process; making decision- the in included feel to everyone for and process relocation the during heart lose to not it crucial was knew community Enseada of the involved. Members impacts emotional the to gave no consideration invisibility: Emotional realities. local and arenas international in narrative the between a disconnect demonstrates relocation the forced that erosion relentless the and storms frequent the to State by the response of political lack However, obstacles. the and risks shared https://resama.net Network for Environmental Migrations(RESAMA) Paulo; Founder/researcher, SouthAmerican PhD inInternational Law atUniversity ofSao 07/15/PATC/CDR/DPVR/UR Cananéia-SP, Processo Administrativo de Tutela Coletiva No. y geológicafrentealproceso deerosiónenlaIslaCardoso’, Baleia bajolosaspectosdeseguridadantropológica, ambiental del áreadereasentamientolacomunidad deEnseadada Paulo. NUPAUB-USP (2016)‘Informede evaluación técnica 2. BasedatNUPAUB, aresearchcentreattheUniversity ofSão www.youtube.com/watch?v=qu1b5AhfWIc&feature=youtu.be Ajude aNovaEnseada!IlhadoCardoso www.youtube.com/watch?v=NrRdQ-8EDs4; Alta damaré expulsapescadores devilacentenária https://curtadoc.tv/curta/cultura-popular/vazantes/; come http://oamanhaehoje.com.br/eng/;Vazantes taken fromthefollowingaudiovisualrecordings:Tomorrow has 1. All thequotationsarefrommembersofcommunity, andare [email protected] Débora Mendonça [email protected] www.qmul.ac.uk The local authorities authorities local The

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FMR 64 FMR 64 have been rigorously tested in the field. the in tested rigorously been have which guidelines standardised comprehensive, require will estimates trafficking of accuracy the Improving inadequate. are trafficking of prevalence the measuring for guidelines Current for an anti-trafficking programme, the programme, anti-trafficking for an of success metric auseful order provide to In level. at anational are GSI provides the that estimates granular most The governments. and by organisations cited frequently are and figures its attention media considerable slavery.¹ modern in of people It receives number of the estimates regional and national (GSI) Index provides Slavery Global The Current metrics to implement. trafficking) fighting in engaged of those proportion considerable (a organisations for smaller challenging are and inclusive not are guidelines Existing scepticism. and criticism have faced far so published have been that estimates prevalence Those comparisons. prevalence to do themselves lend not and use general broaden out to for difficult are field-testing, systematic from benefit do not specific, context- although that, methodologies and instruments develop survey researchers means This methodologies. estimate prevalence implement to use feasibly could organisations employed by these or researchers academics which guidelines standardised no comprehensive, are there because of success indicator an as of victims prevalence do include not organisations most However, of trafficking. victims) detected of (the number prevalence the reducing is programme anti-trafficking an that proof for empirical estimates these to look also They governments. other with engage and design, programme inform allocation, resource plan to estimates these use Donors industry. or region target ina trafficking of of victims number the order estimate to in research survey conduct to recipients grant their upon call increasingly Donors estimates The same ruler for everyone: improving trafficking Joshua Youle andAbigail Long June 2020 Trafficking andsmuggling household or establishment surveys.³ surveys.³ or establishment household randomised on 2018 focus largely that in labour of forced measurement the on guidelines ILO, published by the convened is which Statisticians, of Labour Conference International The audience. research wider a targeting methods additional include to them expand to now it time is we believe and point” “a starting guidelines these called itself ILO The limited. are guidelines the country their in labour of forced picture full the obtain to looking for governments useful Although analysis. data on guidance and considerations ethical tools, assessment definitions, including labour, forced on asurvey implement to governments national for steps detailed contain which guidelines² survey (ILO) published Organization trends. of indications provide only can figure GSI the programmes, or regional for national Thus always not possible. is which collection, of GSI data timing with intervention its coordinate to would need organisation the abaseline it as use to organisation For an years. two every out approximately carried only is exercise the index the of compiling expense immense due the to future, the in estimates sub-national able produce to be to likely is and methods its refine to continues GSI the level. 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These of form some require does that legislation anti-trafficking domestic have enacted governments However, national some trafficking. constitute to required not is movement Protocol, Palermo Under the level. at anational norms international surveys. ‘act’ in the always include to need scientists andwhether trafficking; of prevalence the order demonstrate to in ILO’s by the standards labour forced measure should for example, scientists whether, for researchers: questions key raises This ILO’s of the definition. part not are which or receipt, harbouring transportation, ‘acts’, the around recruitment, as such arises for measurement confusion definitions, both across same the be might services labour for individuals of compelling ‘purpose’ the and or coercion of force, fraud ‘means’ the While of others. or services labour the from) (and profiting compelling to refer both trafficking labour and labour forced language, technical the Despite purpose. and means act, an requiring as trafficking defines Protocol⁴ Palermo the instead of apenalty; threat the and involuntariness both 29, Convention ILO in requiring labour of forced definition the law uses international example,For definitions. national and international overlapping sometimes and of different existence the due to part in eluded researchers, has trafficking of definition statistical A common Legal definitions aprogramme. with connection direct have a rarely and manner ad hoc an in implemented generally are prevalence measure to data of collecting means Other population. of ahidden members identify better to fields other in proven have been which sampling), snowball (such as methods sampling referral-based upend using organisations many Consequently, these. implement to afford cannot and budgets limited have trafficking on focused agencies or government However, organisations most www.fmreview.org/issue64 Another difficulty is applying isapplying difficulty Another Trafficking andsmuggling household or establishment surveys. surveys. or establishment household traditional conduct to ability the limiting severely and sampling based referral- of difficulties measurement the exacerbating scenario, each in differ may routes migration Forced networks. smuggling may use and move irregularly but instead channels formal do use not flow. migration the in population trafficked total the but have not captured exploitation to subject were themselves returnees how many may have identified low. too be research That probably will estimate prevalence resultant the method, sampling or network-based a referral using if and networks or isolated social small may have individuals example, exploited study. the For may limit that factors several account into take must returnees with research However, transit. in who are or those countries destination workers in than accessible more be can who returnees, interviewing by trafficking of prevalence attemptto measure studies flows. 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With enough waves enough With networks. social their of members of experiences trafficking of the know what they on report to respondents victims. trafficking under-report to likely therefore is sampling random and problematic this make lists, these from obscured often however, who are Hidden populations, population. alarger to results the generalise to able are researchers survey, the the in included of being likelihood same the had population the in everyone Because of trafficking. victims who may be respondents identify to attempt they questions, survey their Using census. agovernment as such list, complete a from establishments or households of sample arandom select methods sampling survey traditional most The estimates. prevalence calculate to of methods variety wide a used have researchers Trafficking Common methodologies Additionally, forced migrants often often Additionally, migrants forced entails asking asking entails sampling Snowball June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 budget to carry out new data collection. out data new budget carry to insufficient is there where develop estimates to or even estimates validate to upon relied heavily be could these stronger, were practices management and collection data If organisation. every into integrated are principles practice best before change a sea take indeed but it will practices, management and collection data of strong importance and value the see increasingly Organisations success. programme for measuring data trafficker. their from retribution fear they because or of trafficking; victims are they that may know not respondents because of confidentiality); assurances the strong (no matter how of stigma of fear because be may This trafficking. experienced having as themselves identify to of respondents or unwillingness inability frequent the and trafficked being to vulnerable particularly are individuals which in of situations awareness of lack researchers’ on centred have difficulties chief The drawbacks. its has correlatively, each and, or populations environments crimes, of types certain evaluating to relation in advantages has method Each experiences. victims’ or of the crime of the extent of the picture acomplete provides method single no of trafficking, prevalence the into insight systems. data have strong that countries income employed high- in frequently most is technique This victims.⁵ 80 of around aminimum with sources different from lists two have at least to acountry It requires authorities. by local recorded and detected victims of trafficking lists sampling. snowball and by random produced estimates the between somewhere be to likely is estimate prevalence true The population. general the in of trafficking prevalence to over-report likely is estimate final the Consequently, themselves. victims who are or victims to connected who are of people group aknown with start to tends studies anti-trafficking in However, sampling snowball selected. of being probability equal an had population of the member every not though even population, general of the representative being as seen are results the of sampling June 2020 Another problem is the reliance on primary primary on reliance the is problem Another atremendous provide methods these While Multiple systems estimation Trafficking andsmuggling is based on on based is justice to the experiences of the victims. victims. of the experiences the to justice does that response interdisciplinary rigorous, scientifically a requires trafficking Combatting progress. much-needed help make and insights new unearth can perspectives fresh Their health. public demography and work, economics, social sociology, criminology, as such fields from possibly arena, trafficking the in engaged customarily not academics and scholars emerging target should organisations for partners, looking When of researchers. variety and number of agreater focus the from would benefit topic that interdisciplinary Involve new academics: new Involve programmes. existing expand to whether about decisions inform to and programmes for new used be certainly it should programme for every used have not be to does methodology evaluation impact this While programme. the of impact the to attributed be prevalence in achange can group up acontrol setting through but only or adecrease increase show an can implementation programme of end and beginning at the estimates prevalence comparing and Conducting methodology: evaluation impact an Utilise methodology. of each implementation the in and guidelines development of the the in consulted be should Survivors prevalence. on had has a programme that effect the detect able confidently to be to researchers order for in possible, estimates precise most the returning on focus must They method. of each testing further be to needs there that meaning evidence-based, be should guidelines These constraints. timing budget and their and of trafficking type factors, demographic on based use to method which determine order help to groups in needed are guidelines estimate, comprehensive afully provides guidelines: standardised comprehensive Develop prevalence: of trafficking estimation accurate leadmore to and management and collection data better would help drive we feel that recommendations three make to us leads This Recommendations Given that no methodology no methodology Given that www.fmreview.org/issue64

Trafficking is an is Trafficking 41 42 services but also on building survivors’ capacity to engage in treatment and support. support. and treatment in to engage capacity survivors’ building on also but services of delivery the on only not focus should trafficking of to survivors assistance providing Those hand that leads to injury and persecution. persecution. and injury to leads that hand the also therefore is safety to apath promises and shelter gives and feeds that hand The coercion. and violence work involves sexual work, that must and victims these obtain but to shelter and food with them provide to traffickers their on rely Victims security. and trust with victim’s relationship the hijacking by caregiving disrupts trafficking delivery. Sex service hinder severely can which systems, and individuals giving of care- amistrust developing survivors (PTSD). disorder stress post-traumatic and self-harm depression, anxiety, include health mental their on impacts The injury. of physical effects prolonged the suffer and abuse, alcohol and substance to succumb issues, gynaecological experience infections, HIV with dealing may be Survivors world. social the in effectively navigate to ability their alter profoundly can that illness mental lasting but also ailments physical short-term just not for developing at risk acutely them puts which violence psychological and sexual physical, extraordinary to subjected women are exploitation, sexual for trafficked When trafficking to inform delivery service Understanding the psychological of sex effects office-to-monitor-and-combat-trafficking-in-persons for-civilian-security-democracy-and-human-rights/ www.state.gov/bureaus-offices/under-secretary- of State orthe USgovernment.the USDepartment andare notauthors anofficialpolicynor position of The views expressed inthispaper are those of the Monitor andCombatTrafficking in Persons Office Contractors, the USStateto Department, and Cherokee NationMissionSolutions, Program Advisors, Everwatch Solutions Corporation Abigail Long Joshua Youle Jennifer McQuaid www.fmreview.org/issue64 Violent exploitation may also result in in result may also Violent exploitation [email protected] [email protected] Trafficking andsmuggling

have a far greater chance of success. chance greater have afar experiences for these account adequately that of care Systems of distress. idioms cultural in manifest and categories outside diagnostic fall may also distress of psychological symptoms and Signs understood. not well often and profound wide-reaching, are trafficking of sex effects told, the All challenging. be can relationships interpersonal and emotions difficult Regulating meaning. and identity for search personal their in lost feel Many training. job and education missed about angry and victimisation, past their about ashamed skills, life with competent feel to struggling hopeless, and helpless feeling report survivors servitude, forced and of autonomy aloss isolation, of imposed periods After services. with engage and emotionally themselves rebuild situations, to leave exploitative ability their affecting and of self sense their –disrupting survivors on impact have asignificant can relationships diagnostic means of describing distress and and distress of describing means diagnostic a as PTSD on reliance traditional The The roadmap of complexPTSD bit.ly/Johansen-UNODC-MSE-2019 trafficking andreportingonSDGindicator16.2.2’ Estimation (MSE)toassistcountriesinmeasuringhuman 5. JohansenR (2019)‘UNODC’s useofMultipleSystems bit.ly/UN-Palermo-Protocol Transnational OrganizedCrime’ (knownasthePalermo Protocol) Children, supplementingtheUnitedNationsConvention against and PunishTrafficking in PersonsEspecially Womenand 4. UNGeneral Assembly (2000)‘ProtocoltoPrevent, Suppress Geneva, 10–19October 2018bit.ly/ILO-ICLS20-Oct18 20thInternationalConferenceofLabourStatisticians. labour’, 3. ILO(2018)‘Guidelinesconcerningthemeasurementofforced bit.ly/ILO-HardtoSee-2012 2. ILO(2012)‘Hardtosee,hardercount’ bit.ly/Global-Slavery-Index 1. TheWalk FreeFoundation(2013)GlobalSlaveryIndex This severe rupturing of attachment of attachment rupturing severe This June 2020 1

FMR 64 FMR 64 experienced by survivors of sex trafficking. of sex by survivors experienced are that functioning psychological to disruptions deep the way describe to accurate most the as suggested been has been shown to impede recovery. impede to Psycho- shown been has events life for negative oneself to blame For example, attributing symptoms. of trauma or remission maintenance the in roles world the play important in place one’s and of self appraisals idea that the in anchored is approach delivery. This service may enhance of model PTSD cognitive treatment: evidence-based of elements Incorporate healing. for psychological stage the sets needs health-care general and nutrition recovery: their for stage the sets needs unmet asurvivor’s for providing that Recognise this: doing help in could steps Several engagement. and need between divide the bridge to capacities their build can workers aid humanitarian and clinicians approach, their into complex trauma of understanding an By incorporating approach Incorporating acomplex-traumainformed of meaning. systems and consciousness of self, conception relationships, interpersonal of emotion, regulation the to disturbances as well as hyper-arousal) and oravoidance numbing, (re-experiencing, of PTSD symptoms defining core the Complex includes PTSD campaigns. torture or organised genocide of slavery, of modern situations forms other and trafficking sex violence, domestic abuse, child include of complex trauma examples Well-accepted constraints. or social environmental maturational, psychological, due physical, to possible not is escape which from and nature, in interpersonal and repeated prolonged, is that – trauma trauma complex of effects the understanding for aframework as developed was PTSD’ ‘complex Instead, trauma. debilitating such of effects long-term the of capturing short falls treatment guiding subsequently then June 2020 Attending to physical safety, to physical Attending Integrating ideas from the the from ideas Integrating 2 Complex PTSD Trafficking andsmuggling 3 even in situations of extreme adversity. of extreme situations in even and hopelessness helplessness fight that skills build individuals helps IPT distress. of symptoms –with isolation and/or social transitions role conflict, interpersonal grief, – events life linking on focused treatment evidence-based an (IPT), Psychotherapy Interpersonal incorporating consider Also programming. into interwoven be – can of self-worth sense victims’ decrease and isolation deploy create to perpetrators that strategies the –particularly violence sexual of effects the about education reflect on what is happening. Ask yourself Ask yourself happening. is on what reflect and pause to we need when moments very the or work, are goals agreed-upon or rejects disengages asurvivor which or in ineffective, feel we, providers, as which in Moments distress: communicating of way a be may treatment rejecting that Realise or assault. harm impending signalled have situations similar past the in because survivors, in dissociation even and anxiety may trigger of fear feelings ensuing the and of will loss that remember should providers autonomy. circumstances, these In and freedom restricting by a trafficker of memories triggers provider service a if collapse suddenly can relationship trusted A difficult. especially be can others’ to or ‘harm self’ to ‘harm addressing Similarly, tone. interventions authoritative or overly apunitive with undertaken are they if may backfire parenting effective safe, about For example, conversations or disenfranchising. controlling as perceived is that framework or programmatic legal a introduces provider clinical intentioned awell- when fraught become might Arelationship autonomy: and choice for opportunities incorporate and interactions triggering of awareness Develop in low- and middle- income countries. income low- middle- in and workers community health non-mental supervised and by trained delivered be can that for depression treatment first-line Humanitarian Guide Intervention mhGAP Organization/UNHCR Health World the in recommended is treatment www.fmreview.org/issue64 as an effective effective an as 5 4 The The 43 44 consultation and provide staff with adequate adequate with staff provide and consultation group implement should providers Service providers. care to transfer can trauma of effects paralysing and isolating traumatisation: vicarious Address children. their with connection intimate of in moments confident more possibly and responsibilities, parenting their manage to equipped better understood, better feel may group, mothers the in moments these through By working symptoms. experiencing re- of cascade off a or set of vulnerability feelings trigger children with interactions when – moments ‘flashpoints’ processing to attention pay particular can leaders group Parenting guidance. and information gain space, and asafe in feelings share to mothers, other from support experience to survivors enable groups Parenting attachments. building and others on relying women explore to encourage leaders group and survivors by fellow provided support practical and connection emotional validation, The overestimated. be cannot groups support survivor in of participating effects The mistrust. and helplessness learned shame, in result by traffickers imposed isolation forced and abuse strategic The support: social for opportunities Increase services. in engage to needed steps the taking in survivors order support to in collaboratively solve problems and relationship the into empathy bring to time the Take trafficked. of being result a as opportunity and time lost to related self-blame and irritability disappointment, of feelings activate might situations these that possibility the Consider training. job or classes educational attending resisting is Perhaps asurvivor do agree. not they which with something in ensnared becoming are they like it may feel exploitation, sexual of But for asurvivor necessary. even and logical feel might requirement educational or plan housing acertain perspective, aprogrammatic For example, from insights. for their acolleague help ask to also can It history. trauma survivor’s of the light in interaction the understand you can if www.fmreview.org/issue64 Trafficking andsmuggling The The asylum/ https://medicine.yale.edu/intmed/genmed/ Lab, Teachers College, ColumbiaUniversity Medicine; Affiliate Scholar, GlobalMentalHealth Clinical Instructor, Yale Center for Asylum programming in primary care settings. care primary in programming health mental include routinely to actors humanitarian upon calls Guide Intervention in primary care: health mental include to recommendation WHO/UNHCR the Consider alone. of weight stories the holding and independently working from comes that burnout the decreasing while supervision peer and reflection for staff allows This groups. of support co-leadership establishing consider also should They supervision. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.15.156919 emergencies’, BulletinoftheWorld HealthOrganization S (2015)‘Improvingmental healthcareinhumanitarian 6. Ventevogel P, van OmmerenM,SchilperoordMandSaxena www.who.int/mental_health/publications/mhgap_hig/en Intervention Guide 5. World Health Organization(2015)mhGAPHumanitarian www.who.int/mental_health/mhgap/interpersonal_therapy/en/ Group InterpersonalTherapy(IPT)forDepression, mhGAP 4. World Health OrganizationandColumbiaUniversity (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331205X.2017.1278841 trafficking’, CogentMedicine4:1278841 3. LevineJ(2017)‘Mentalhealthissuesinsurvivors ofsex https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jts.20697 Traumatic Stress 24(6):615–627 of theISTSSExpertClinicianSurvey onBestPractices’, B CandGreenL (2011)‘Treatment ofComplex PTSD:Results 2. CloitreM,CourtoisC A, Charuvastra A, CarapezzaR,Stolbach https://sanctuaryforfamilies.org period of12years atSanctuaryforFamiliesinNewYork City. gender-based violence,primarilywomen andchildren,over a 1. Thisarticleisbasedontheauthor’s work withsurvivors of Jennifer McQuaid groups. for parenting venues ideal are clinics health maternal and care, medical with associations positive build survivors help to position aunique in are area this in working Clinicians of distress. asource are examinations because visits or antenatal gynaecological avoid routine may exploitation of sexual survivors care, obstetrical and for gynecological need their Despite clinics. or maternity care primary in practitioners health mental placing consider should providers Service

mhGAP Humanitarian mhGAP The [email protected] June 2020 93:666–666A Journal of 6

FMR 64 FMR 64 trafficking movement. movement. trafficking anti- the in stakeholders legitimate as organisations their and them recognise and agency, and decisions sexworkers’ respect must industry sex the in trafficking to combat Efforts prevention, protection and prosecution. prosecution. and protection prevention, Protocol: UN the outwork in laid as of anti-trafficking ‘pillars’ three of the or aspects more one in engage groups and Children in 2000. in Children and Women Especially inPersons, Trafficking Punish and Suppress Prevent, to Protocol UN of the adoption the since increased greatly has activism Anti-trafficking recognise the contribution of sex workers Addressing trafficking in thesex industry: time to groups, and even for-profit even entities. and groups, faith-based unions, trade movements, rights labour and rights migrants’ rights, women’s the from organisations society civil organisations, international institutions, government now include These of actors. set of adiverse activity the and funding in of dollars millions have attracted efforts on their lives, work well-being. lives, and their on hugely impacts negative workers, with of sex marginalisation the reinforced and work anti-trafficking have shaped views Such consent. meaningfully women cannot which to women, against of violence form work a of sex as North Global the from thinkers by feminist conceptualisation the by shaped been recently more has exclusion workers, this of sex views stigmatising and moralistic traditionally in Rooted new. is nothing them affect that of policies development the from organisations their workers and of sex exclusion The industry. sex the in of people interests the representing however, organisations have been response, institutionalised the from Notably absent groups. working multi-stakeholder international and national various through institutionalised been it has then, Since actors. between coordination and collaboration for effective more need the – emphasising –partnerships ‘pillar’ added afourth Clinton Borislav Gerasimov June 2020 In 2009, US Secretary of State Hillary Hillary of State 2009,In US Secretary 1 Anti-trafficking Anti-trafficking Trafficking andsmuggling 3 2

These These areas for work, how to communicate and and for work, how communicate to areas workers safe about sex new to information provide Several status. immigration their or about managers, and clients with disputes to relation in including referral, or through workers, directly sex to advice legal provide organisations the work. All up other take and industry worker leave to the sex decides the if but also avoid and miscommunication) prices and (for services example, negotiate to clients for work only not with useful are classes workers. These for sex classes language English and Thai Empower organises individual’s needs. by the dictated as referrals, making and intervening advising, workers –listening, sex to outreach conduct also organisations the All services. health and counselling groups, support to classes language from of services, arange access also can They them. concern that issues discuss and friendships establish meals, share can members community where centre, drop-in accessible an as serves which aspace operate each workers. They sex supporting to approach same the take by GAATW interviewed were representatives whose worker sex organisations the contexts, different in operating Despite Knowledge ispower partners in the fight against trafficking. fight against the in partners key as viewed be to need they that clearly demonstrates It of trafficking. instances including industry, sex the in exploitation and coercion violence, address and prevent employ to organisations their workers and sex that strategies the documents based, (GAATW) Traffic in Against Women Alliance For example, in Thailand the organisation organisation the Thailand For example, in Research published by the Global Global by the published Research 4 in 2018, on which this article is is article 2018, this in which on www.fmreview.org/issue64 5

45 46 of migrants, deported. Removing the stigma stigma the Removing deported. of migrants, case the in and, for prostitution jailed and arrested be instead but will believed be not will they police go the to they if that them convincing control, their under victims order keep to in stigma and criminalisation this exploit traffickers because important is work. of sex This stigmatisation and criminalisation the address –to advocacy or policy media the work with rallies, –lectures, activities public in engage also with work. such in engage organisations trafficking anti- many and trafficking, including abuse, low-wageand and workers exploitation to of migrants vulnerability the reduce to practice good established of work an is conditions and laws, about rights provision of information kind This charge. to prices what and avoid, advertise to where how and to clients which and clients with negotiate worker. asex of murder the for atrial during Africa South in protest workers Sex www.fmreview.org/issue64 All the organisations whose staff we spoke spoke we staff whose organisations the All Trafficking andsmuggling solution. Traditional anti-trafficking measures measures anti-trafficking Traditional solution. best the order find to in have creative get to workers sex cases, some in or conventional; always not obvious are solutions the that is common have in GAATW research the in community. that to returned never he that impact an such had women committee the by taken action the again, escaped pimp the Although police. the to them referred and girl, the to and them to counselling provided parents, her contacted a minor, indeed she was that her, verified found members Committee girl. the took pimp the where who discovered area, that in counterparts their alerted committee The area. brothel another to away ataxi in girl the took pimp the investigate, to brothel the to went members committee When aminor. was by apimp her to brought agirl that who suspected of abrothel,

What these and other cases documented documented cases other and these What Lesego Tlhwale (VAMP) was worker sex collective Veshya Parishad of the Anyay Mukti exploitation. for sexual of children trafficking of the cases Africa’s largest of South of one prosecution successful the to eventually led This police. the matter to the reported staff helpline the and called, who later girls, the to helpline organisation’s of the number the give to managed they condoms, of distributing guise Under the nearby. standing by apimp controlled who being were girls adolescent and women young encountered Sisonke organisation the from educators outreach peer Africa, South Durban, In peers. to assistance offer to resources own their workers use sex shows that also research Our Community solutions victims of trafficking in the industry. the in of trafficking victims of self-identification) (including identification the would facilitate police, the workers and sex between relationship arespectful establishing as work, well for sex as penalties administrative and criminal the and approached by the madam madam by the approached In India, one of the committees committees of the one India, In June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 relating to their position on sex work. sex on position their to relating members other from due hostilities to Coalition Counter-Trafficking Cape SWEAT Western leave to had the Africa, South In network. NGO anti-trafficking national the in aplace denied was Hetaira organisation the Spain, In levels. policy and institutional excluded at the are organisations VAMPwork with trafficking. prevent to to need the recognise officers police some India in and Line, Resource Trafficking Human National the with collaborated have occasionally SWEAT Sisonke and Africa, South in example, For of trafficking. cases suspected address to NGOs and bodies State with uneasy, cooperation sometimes if pragmatic, have formed organisations worker sex research, our we conducted industry. of the realities the to sensitive and person-focused are by contrast, interventions, peer-led the shows that research Our and find employment. In anti-trafficking anti-trafficking In employment. find and community the to women return helping and mediation; family and counselling psychosocial providing needs; basic meeting authorities; immigration and courts police, the with and dealing complaints filing with: assistance offer workersex organisations trafficking, including violations of rights cases In or empowerment. awareness-raising prevention, as to referred commonly is this field, anti-trafficking the In violations. rights of cases help in seek to where and conditions, working and rights about information provide workerexample, sex organisations of GAATW. members are For which NGOs anti-trafficking work of the the to similar very work is At level, their some actors. non-State and by State respected are constituents their of rights labour and political social, economic, human, the that ensure to is mandate primary whose organisations workers’ rights are workerUltimately, sex organisations A sharedagenda of trafficking. victims workers and sex both for events traumatic and violent typically are police by or NGOs by the led operations ‘raid rescue’ as and such victims identify to June 2020 However, in most cases sex worker sex However, cases most in which in countries of the some In Trafficking andsmuggling 6

Review www.antitraffickingreview.org Women Advocacy, Traffic GlobalAllianceAgainst in Programme Coordinator Communicationsand Borislav Gerasimov [email protected] trafficking. human combatting in partners essential as them recognises and agency and workers’ decisions sex respects that approach anew lead to can GAATW research the that workers. We of sex hope rights the respect can organisations anti-trafficking and trafficking, of situations address can organisations worker sex incompatible: not Yet are two the workers’ organisations. of sex work that and and agenda their between similarities the seeing from organisations anti-trafficking many prevent exploitation, as prostitution all of view the and trafficking, work sex with all services. inclusion (re)integration or social as to referred broadly are these programming 1: 149–165https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.201219 Health andWell-Being ofSexWorkers’, Anti-Trafficking Review,Vol ‘rescued’...”: When Anti-Trafficking ProgrammesUnderminethe 6. Ahmed A andSeshuM(2012)‘“We have therightnottobe bit.ly/GAATW-Organising-for-Change-2018 representation, communitymobilisation,andworkingconditions 5. GAATW (2018)SexWorkers Organising forChange:Self- advice ofGAATW. www.fmreview.org/peopletrafficking understanding vulnerabilites’,was producedwiththesupportand 4. A 2006issueofFMR,‘People trafficking:upholdingrightsand 1655–1728, bit.ly/Chuang-2010 Law andPolicy’, UniversityofPennsylvaniaLawReview,Vol 158(6): Ideological Capture:ProstitutionReformand Anti-Trafficking 3. SeeforexampleChuangJ(2010)‘RescuingTrafficking from Politics ofFreedom, TheUniversity ofChicagoPress 2. BernsteinE(2018)Brokered Subjects:Sex,Trafficking, andthe 1. bit.ly/UN-Palermo-Protocol Twitter orFacebook. www.fmreview.org/request/alerts orjoinuson Alternatively, at signupfor emailalerts •  •  •  podcasts? Do you like to readonlineorinprint,listen to Options for accessingFMR and web links):www.fmreview.org/request/print accompanying Editors’ briefing(withQRcodes Request aprintcopy ofthefullmagazineorits uk/series (search for ‘forced migrationreview’) Listen to FMRpodcastsathttps://podcasts.ox.ac. www.fmreview.org inhtmlorpdfformat:format orindividual articles Read eachissueonline,eitherthefullinpdf The automatic, inaccurate conflation of conflation inaccurate automatic, The www.gaatw.org; Editor,Anti-Trafficking www.fmreview.org/issue64

47 48 questions about the legitimacy of Dublin transfers of those who have been trafficked. been have who those of transfers Dublin of legitimacy the about questions serious raises seekers asylum vulnerable for conditions reception Italy’s of inadequacy The allows, or at a later stage. A written statement statement Awritten or stage. at alater allows, capacity immediately, if –either collected are data Biometric station. police local at the application asylum of an lodging the with seekers). asylum registering involved in are who officers those alwaysnot from (and then even police local the from come few very centres; employed by reception workers social trained from come referrals or cases, of their most who refer personnel own their that is it report NGOs trafficking Anti- obligations. of these short it falls and for vulnerabilities screening ageneral lacks survivors. assisting and identifying in qualified and trained are who have staff authorities its ensure must State Member each how outlines Beings Human in Trafficking against Action on Convention of Europe Council The exploitation. further from them protect to and claim, asylum their present properly to which in conditions possible best the them order grant to in crucial is procedure asylum the in of trafficking transfers’. ‘Dublin of these legitimacy the overdoubt casting and met, identified inadequately areoften – of trafficking victims includes –which seekers asylum vulnerable of needs specific the Italy, that in means developments legal and political recent with combined pressure, of this result The one. is EU, Italy of the of borders which external the of part form also borders whose countries of those systems asylum the on pressure disproportionate places Regulation of this The application asylum. of country first their in for asylum applied previously who has seeker asylum an back take to State Member by another requested be can State Member Through the Dublin III Regulation III Dublin the Through protecting victims of trafficking The return of vulnerable asylum seekers to Italy: Lucia DellaTorre, Adriana Romer andMargarite Zoeteweij www.fmreview.org/issue64 The asylum procedure in Italy begins begins Italy in procedure asylum The However, Italy’s procedure asylum victims potential of identification Early Trafficking andsmuggling 1 an EU an guidelines published has Interior of the Ministry theItalian Office, Support Asylum European identified. properly being before procedure asylum the in time of amount a significant spend they that means this trafficked, been who have For those procedure. asylum the into months afew at place least takes Commission the before appearance an accordingly, and, processed is statement the after only issued is applications) asylum for examining responsible is (which Commission Territorial local the before appear to invitation The registered. first is application the after months afew or sometimes weeks afew taken is which recorded, also is conditions in Italy, in conditions reception on OSAR report 2019 of an part as protection. for international claim individual’s for the relevance its and trafficked have to been applicant’s claim the of assessment its Commission Territorial the gives organisation the applicant, the interviewing After guidelines. the in NGO, recommended local as specialised a to referred is applicant the period, this During trafficked. may have been applicant an believes Commission the if months four for up to halted be to procedure asylum for the allow they Commissions, Territorial for specifically Designed protection. international for amongapplicants trafficking in referrals is good news, the funding and and funding the news, good is referrals in increase this But although increased. has Commissions Territorial the from coming of referrals number the that and collaboration, their on impact havepositive had a staff to provided training the and guidelines government of the publication the that reported Commissions Territorial and NGOs In cooperation with UNHCR and the the and UNHCR with cooperation In In interviews conducted in September September in conducted interviews In 2 for identifying victims of victims for identifying 3 employees of these local local employees of these June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 they cannot offer the level of service that that service level of the offer cannot they as centres, these administering continue to organisations charitable of some part the on unwillingness have an to led changes These measures. appropriate take and vulnerabilities residents’ identify to time necessary the it personnel give nor does of trust, of a relationship building for the allow not does time and contact personal of lack The week. per seeker asylum each with minutes afew than more spend to unable are personnel entirely. Qualified removed support psychological and reduced, drastically havebeen staff medical and assistants social mediators, cultural as such staff of professional Numbers night. the through on duty have to staff expected not 150 are than of less acapacity with Centres fifty-to-one. to ten-to-one employees from to seekers of asylum ratio the changed and personnel of centre experience and level of qualifications the in afall to led has €18 day. just to €35 per around This from reduced was centres reception collective these in accommodated those towards State of the centres. collective larger, access to entitled now only are categories these into fall not who do those children; asylum-seeking or unaccompanied status protection international with for people now reserved are These programmes. reception individual offer which centres reception access longer can no – trafficked who have been those –including seekers asylum vulnerable protection), international receive to criteria the meet not who did seekers for asylum extent aconsiderable to used been had (which status protection humanitarian abolishing as well As further. even deteriorated has of trafficking for victims situation the law, migration of Italian articles several 2018, amended October which in Decree Salvini of the force into coming the With conditions The SalviniDecreeandreception them. to referred who are those all assist adequately to capacity lack NGOs local accordingly. aresult, As increased have NGOs not local to available resources June 2020 Concurrently, the financial contribution contribution financial the Concurrently, Trafficking andsmuggling 4

Court of Justice of the European Union. European of the of Justice Court law of the case to contrary is This country. European another to on moving before Italy in accommodated previously were they because conditions reception material all to right have to the lost likely –are seekers asylum vulnerable includes –which Regulation III Dublin the under Italy to returned are who Those prefecture. by the revoked once accommodation to right the regain to time-consuming and difficult extremely is it –and hours 72 for than more centre the from absent are they if accommodation to reported. been have also centres the inside rape including abuse of sexual cases and takeplace, may re-trafficking and trafficking of supervision, lack the to Due prostitution. in engage to night at centres reception leave the frequently individuals that observe NGOs survivors. trafficking on effect have anegative centres first. dignity human place necessarily not and profitdo on focus that organisations by taken is place their instances, many In minimum. absolute the be to deem they for the individual and also explicitly declare declare explicitly also and individual for the responsibility take to agree explicitly must State,which that inform to it has claim, the for assessing responsible is State another that nonetheless decides State the if passed, has period. reflection and recovery this providing is that State the to applications asylum these for assessing responsibility transferring for grounds sufficient be itself in might residence temporary this Regulation, III Dublin of the provisions of the light In Party. State of the territory the in remain can they time which days, of 30 during period reflection and arecovery given be should trafficked who have been those Convention, of Europe’s anti-trafficking Council of the terms Under the Regulation. of the provisions the as well law as rights by human bound are States seekers, asylum of vulnerable transfer the prohibit explicitly not does Regulation III Dublin the Even though Dublin transfers Asylum seekers also lose their right right their lose also seekers Asylum reception collective the in conditions The After the recovery and reflection period period reflection and recovery the After www.fmreview.org/issue64 5 49 50 properly inform judicial processes. processes. inform judicial properly to and victims protect and identify to help order in understood better be must exploitation sexual for women Nigerian of trafficking the in beliefs traditional of influence The report their traffickers to the police. police. the to traffickers their report not and traffickers the respect debt, the pay to off –women promise oaths juju as vows –known these world. Through spirit the and family their traffickers, their women and between ties the strengthen oaths traffickers, their and Europe to migrate to women who want between the pact sealing By networks. trafficking Nigerian in role play acrucial Oaths investigations criminal and oaths ritual Trafficking, reforms, legislative by recent exacerbated have been system reception Italian the conditions. reception concerning basis case individual an on guarantees furnish to required are authorities Italian that ruled tribunal 2019 Swiss the judgement Italy. in aDecember For example, in situation problematic the recognised partially also have courts German several as well as Tribunal Administrative Federal Swiss The arrival. their upon guaranteed be not could care health of adequate provision the as Treatment or Punishment, or Degrading Inhuman Cruel, Other and Torture against Convention the under rights their infringe would torture to subjected been who had seekers of asylum transfer the that cases two in decided Torture against Committee Italy. to 2018, In UN transfers the of Dublin legality the regarding decisions issued also of Europe’s Convention. Council the and Rights Human on Convention European – the to law, –but limited not European including in provisions of relevant contravention in are conditions reception subsequent the nor harm) or psychological of physical risk of potential (because itself transfer the neither if do so only can atransfer make to requesting State The transferred. being upon care appropriate the receive will they that Ana DolsGarcía www.fmreview.org/issue64 Pre-existing precarious conditions in in conditions precarious Pre-existing have bodies treaty international Other Trafficking andsmuggling www.refugeecouncil.ch Lawyers, SwissRefugee CouncilOSAR [email protected] Margarite Zoeteweij Adriana Romer [email protected] Lucia DellaTorre Italy. to seekers asylum of these transfers Dublin instigating from refrain should States fulfilled), be cannot guarantees these practice in doubt that to reasons are there givennot are if (or trafficked have been who seekers of asylum reception proper the to regard with guarantees individual explicit, If questionable. highly are provision of adequate the facilitation and trafficking of victims of identification timely the and van asielzoekers,12November 2019bit.ly/CJEU-c233-18 5. CJEU,CaseC-233/18,HaqbinvFederaalAgentschapvoordeopvang https://rm.coe.int/greta-2018-28-fgr-ita/168091f627 Human BeingsbyItaly’,p66,§284 Council ofEuropeConvention on Action againstTrafficking in 4. GRETA (2019)‘Reportconcerningtheimplementationof bit.ly/OSAR-Italy-2020 beneficiaries ofprotection,inparticularDublinreturnees,Italy’ in Italy:Updatedreportonthesituationofasylumseekersand 3. SwissRefugeeCouncilOSAR (2020)‘Receptionconditions bit.ly/UNHCR-Italy-trafficking-2016 internazionale eproceduredireferral’ ‘L’identificazione dellevittimeditrattatraIrichiedenti protezione 2. UNHCR andItalianMinistryoftheInterior(2016) bit.ly/DublinRegulation the Council,commonlyknownasDublinRegulation. 1. Regulation(EU)No 604/2013oftheEuropeanParliament andof consider that, having accepted the oath, they they oath, the accepted having that, consider awoman’s upon badly family. Women also reflects that of dishonour act an as seen is pact the breaking Furthermore, debt. their do repay not they if families their and them befall will madness, and death illness, including things, terrible that persuaded Women are breached. is agreement the if expected is whom retaliation from spirits, Oaths directly ties women with the the women with ties directly Oaths [email protected] June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 them to seek spiritual counsel, if requested. if counsel, spiritual seek to them assist and legal, not are may have signed they contracts any women that the inform victims andsupporting NGOs officials law inforcement that recommends (NAPTIP) inPersons of Trafficking Prohibition the for Agency National Nigerian the victims, in created is To that fear the combat Breaking theoath difficult. more processes judicial and police subsequent renders and actors enforcement law by victims as identification their hinders turn in which constraints, from free relatively appear women Nigerian trafficked that is this of result The of control. means other exert to need not may traffickers sometimes that countries. destination in and Nigeria in both networks, trafficking involvedmay be in churches some that and churches, Pentecostal some in sanctioned being also are pacts times at that suggest accounts Anecdotal woman. the control can packet the has whoever ‘packet’. that asmall It believed make is awoman’s to as such underwear elements symbolic other and extractions corporeal these use Priests relatives. female of her one from and oath-taker the both from taken generally are which or hair, blood menstrual sweat, blood, fingernails, to addition in used usually are or herbs alcohol oil, palm kola blood, nuts, water, animal including Items bodies. made their to may be incisions Small concoctions. or eat specific drink and baths, take clothes, remove to their asked women may be ceremonies, oath-taking of these course the In justice. for delivering Ayelala, known deity who is the to shrines in usually ceremonies, theatrical and symbolic have over them. madams their that authority the reinforce to serves this and of exploitation situation the have accepted example, at least 10 victims agreed to to agreed 10example, at least victims for Netherlands, the in operation an In aprosecution. forward help to bring advisors of religious intervention the recommends also and aprosecution, in oaths of ritual effects the emphasise to witnesses expert on call to actors law enforcement It encourages June 2020 Fear of breaking the pact is so intense intense so is pact the of breaking Fear in performed is oath of the taking The Trafficking andsmuggling 1

and improve prosecution of traffickers. improve prosecution and victims protect better to approaches their adapting are actors law enforcement investigations. criminal have affected might revocation how about this available no data are there although traffickers, their flee to women some to gave strength Reportedly, this oaths. such who administers doctor native any on invoke to acurse womento and administered been already had that curses oath the neutralise to aritual performed Nigeria southern in Kingdom of Benin ruler) oaths. the breaking to linked fears any overcame and police the trust to victims leader encouraged religious of the authority the moral that claimed general attorney Dutch The trafficked. been formerly who had awoman and of apastor intervention the following authorities the with collaborate Interviewing potentialvictims recalling the consumption of concoctions. consumption the recalling when or gagging choking for example oaths, the to referring when language body their women may change as essential, also is communication to non-verbal attentive Being gesture. arespectful interlocutor’s is eyes an into directly looking not cultures, African West However, in lying. or were generally them to listening not women were the that believing directly, at them avoided looking women when uncomfortable and nervous feeling reported officers police Some cursed. of being asign as interviewer by the displayed or malaise discomfort physical interpret Women may older to interviewers. positively more women respond that means for elders respect traditional that suggests my research of course the in gathered evidence Anecdotal officers. by specialist conducted are victims potential with interviews that recommend guidelines anti-trafficking International welcome steps, further progress is needed. is progress further welcome steps, other However, and networks. these despite trafficking African on focus who officers of specialist agroup has police national the and networks of these understanding their bolster to training specific receiving are officers police Spain, in For instance, In destination countries in Europe, Europe, in countries destination In 2018, (traditional Oba March the In www.fmreview.org/issue64 2

3 51 52 important not to dehumanise the women by the dehumanise to not important it is examinations such conducting In of trafficking. context the made in cuts and medicine traditional to linked body the to made cuts scarifications, tribal between rituals. it juju to may link they as performed, procedures of the relevance and purpose the women the to explain to essential it is tests, for DNA or saliva blood obtaining as such examinations forensic conducting When Collecting physicalevidence better with criminal proceedings. criminal with better order cope to in need they that tools and security confidence, the women with the provide can NGOs by specialised victims of accompaniment the And situations. exploitative from themselves extricate to of how possible example it is a concrete women with provide and victims with engagement ease can – of trafficking networks. Nigerian involving work cases in to afraid be and powers spiritual of effects the in believe also may themselves others oaths; juju like concepts of crucial aware may be not oaths. power of juju the in believe also people Guinea in that officer police the to explain to had interpreter The Nigerians. to relevant only were oaths ritual that saying suggestion, the dismissed police The oaths. ritual about inquire to police the asked NGO representative same the Guinea, from victim apotential with interview an For example, during risks. of protection evaluation the and victim the of identification ritual.” do to ajuju hair pubic and nails her removed had they that wrote police However, the drink. to had she out, which came blood until forehead her rubbed they which with of lime akind took they how and sides and back chest, her in cuts made how they explained how: “a victim toldFor NGO example, one respondent court. in value less has over-simplified or automatic repetitive, is that statement of a transcription thoroughly. Any and www.fmreview.org/issue64 Cultural mediators – usually survivors survivors –usually mediators Cultural interviews during used interpreters Some the may influence Stereotypes accurately collected have be to Statements 4 It is also crucial to differentiate differentiate to crucial It also is Trafficking andsmuggling

human manifestations of juju threats. of juju manifestations human mere to reduced are they that features physical their on emphasis much so placing linked to the cases. the to linked aspects cultural the for explaining and victims of the behaviour the contextualising for both essential was beliefs spiritual sub-Saharan on of experts intervention verdict. adopt to asound which upon base evidence judges agreater gives threats, juju to alluding conversations telephone or of rituals, remnants as such evidence, of physical presentation The exploitation. their to victims of the consent apparent and testimony in inconsistencies vulnerability, the understand to which within framework a with court the order provide to in trial the in on early addressed be should issues consent-related that recommends (UNODC) Crime and Drugs for Office Nations United The prosecution. development of atrafficking and preparation the in considered be should networks of Nigerian dynamics particular The Oaths incourt to the oaths and spiritual powers. powers. spiritual and oaths the to are many also inaccuracies references in There sentence. the of justification the in not facts, of the description the in mainly it is decisions court in mentioned are juju and oaths Where decisions. court in how reflected it is and NGOs and actors lawenforcement by oaths the to attributed importance the between amismatch is There Judicial considerations that intensely influences women’s influences behaviour. intensely that of control amechanism become how oaths on evidence expert providing increasingly may fear that it will be used to curse them. curse to used be it will that may fear victims as of exploitation, place their from removed be should victim the to belonging object personal Any police. of the hands the in is packet their once only situation exploitation their report victims Some wish. so they if victim the to these return should police documentation After detail. possible greatest the in correctly, documented and preserved collected, be must These ritual. oath the during In at least two cases in the UK, the the UK, the in cases two at least In Police may recover the ‘packets’ created created ‘packets’ Police the may recover 6 Psychologists are also also are Psychologists June 2020 5

FMR 64 FMR 64 and protecting victims. When criminal criminal When victims. protecting and trafficking of preventing task dual the to equal world been not of the has parts many in approach justice criminal the trafficking, to relating framework legal a well-ratified framework. trauma-informed within a victim-centred, and accountability an avenueprovide for justice may litigation Civil scope. in limited are offences trafficking of prosecutions Criminal just 4% related to labour trafficking. 4% labour to just related 2018, in of which over 11,000 prosecutions low. just exceedingly were Globally, there is offences of trafficking prosecutions criminal of number the persons, trafficked of number estimated the with Compared accountability? to approach Civil litigation on behalf of trafficking survivors: a new the women to their traffickers. Traffickers Traffickers traffickers. women their to the binding at effective very are oaths ritual the way this In consequences. avoid dire the can owe, women what they –by repaying paid be to debt for the feasible it is that fact the on is based oaths ritual of effectiveness the However, debt. their repay women never that is objective traffickers’ the that claim Some judges networks. trafficking in played role by oaths of the understanding or no faith. weaker with those in even distress, or psychological of fear situation a may create ceremonies such that fact the ignore courts Furthermore, oaths. of the power the in believe cannot of education level acertain with victims that assumed have also Tribunals oaths. by ritual coerced feel cannot Christian herself who declares awoman that judges assert some and societies, sub-Saharan in syncretism religious of prevalence of the of knowledge alack also is There reasoning. judicial the to value any adding without beliefs these discredit to serve these like Comments credulous. beliefs such ‘backward’, who hold people them or the or consider to superstitions as beliefs these Henry Wu Henry June 2020 Frequently, there is a lack of alack is Frequently, there underestimate to is mistake A common Trafficking andsmuggling 1 Despite Despite survivors is a radically different approach. approach. different aradically is survivors of behalf on litigation civil strategic prosecution, for criminal asubstitute merely being than Rather accountable. traffickers hold and of victims rights uphold the can lawsuits civil option, an not is prosecution Ana DolsGarcía who work trafficking. combat to those equip better to practices best based empirically develop to comprehensive, needed is More evidence possible. long as for as them away from breaking victim the prevent to loyalty, and seeking secrecy of submission, feelings reinforce to oath the instrumentalise bit.ly/ATMG-UK-Trafficking-Criminal-Justice-2013 Examining theUK’s CriminalJusticeResponsetoTrafficking 6. The Anti Trafficking MonitoringGroup(2013)‘IntheDock. bit.ly/Carling-IOM-Nigeria from NigeriatoEurope’,IOMMigrationResearchSeries 5. CarlingJ(2006)‘Migration,HumanSmugglingandTrafficking 4. Seeendnote3. www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15614263.2017.1347786 University ofPortsmouth, UK Considerations forVictim CooperationinUKCriminalInvestigations 3. Dunkerley A (2005)Juju,NigeriaandHumanTrafficking: http://dehesa.unex.es/handle/10662/6228?locale-attribute=en Extremadura referencia aldelitodetratasereshumanos)’,Universidad de a lacreenciayejerciciodebrujeríavudúenEspaña(especial García (2017)‘Tratamiento jurídico-penaldelosabusosvinculados in Spain,undertakenaspartoftheauthor’s doctoralthesis.Dols information obtainedfromlawenforcementactorsandNGOs 2. Thisarticleisbasedonanalysisofcourtdecisionsand http://gaatw.org/publications/AtJHandbook_Final.pdf Service Providers Trafficked PersonsinNigeria.AHandbookforLegalActorsand 1. NAPTIP, GAATW andUNIFEM(2008) to recover compensatory damages for loss, for loss, damages compensatory recover to persons trafficked allows litigation Civil criminal action Structural differences betweenciviland Independent researcher [email protected] www.fmreview.org/issue64 Access toJusticefor

, 53 54 in a US civil trafficking case. It is important important is case. It trafficking aUS civil in judgement victim single largest the damages, and restitution in million US$8 than more in the criminal context. criminal the in not ordered often are restitution like measures remedial because prosecution criminal through achieved not are –that employment and housing stable as –such outcomes substantive may seek For example, survivors interests. their with aligned as system justice criminal the may view not status, migration irregular work sex or having involvement in due to or deportation criminalisation face ‘justice’. who may themselves Survivors, as understand what survivors with align terms prison lengthy like outcomes justice retributive that case always not it the is And ordeal. traumatic and astressful may be court in appearing testify to willing are they when but even authorities with for cooperating not was just 12 years old. 12 years just was she when starting hours, uncompensated 40,000 work to her than more forced cult, leader a nationwide ofa trafficker, her that alleging of Kansas, District for the Court District the US in case civil a filed Ross Kendra survivor trafficking Labour approach A trauma-informedandvictim-centred testify. to them compel inorder to persons trafficked detained have temporarily authorities For example, victims. to atmay come acost convictions obtain prosecutors by which process but the terms prison by lengthy accompanied convictions obtain to often is prosecution of trafficking goal primary The survivors. of trafficking interests and goals the to framework prosecution criminal the than responsive more is that a framework within proceeds action Civil survivor-led. is context civil the in however, justice that is cases, criminal and civil between difference important most The acts. similar deter and accountable financially holdto traffickers damages punitive award may also courts jurisdictions, some In suffered. or harm injury likely to be successful in a civil proceeding. acivil in successful be to likely be more may persons trafficked of proof, a lowerstandard require often cases civil www.fmreview.org/issue64 2 Survivors may have various reasons reasons may have various Survivors 4 Ross was awarded awarded was Ross 3 Finally, because Finally, because Trafficking andsmuggling

trust. of building process agradual described has Ross, representing team bono pro the led who attorney an Hutson, Betsy approach. victim-centred of atrauma-informed, part be by survivors. exhibited courage the and litigation of process lengthy the belittle can judgements monetary on focusing And trafficker. convicted the due from are that themonies collect to difficult it very making assets, inaccessible hiddenhave or often Traffickers compensation. financial any received actually has asurvivor that indication an not are sums note,to however, large that needs and their journey to recovery. to journey their and needs evolving autonomy, their support can and of their arecognition is damages civil seeking of process very the case, the in role active an has survivor atrafficking because And context. civil the to unique is that feature acrucial it is ready pursue to is survivor a when only proceeds case acivil that fact The needs. and goals her about Ross with in checking continually for and empathy space a creating questions, open-ended asking by approach atrauma-informed facilitated Hutson proceeded, case the As meeting. first the after half and a a year until filed not was case her her,and meeting after months six until complaint her drafting start not did Her attorneys meetings. initial in reticent Israel. and Uganda, Belgium Australia, including countries of other anumber in cases been also have there in courts, US filed have been cases trafficking of civil majority vast the Although Civil litigationinaninternationalcontext certain instances of labour exploitation as as exploitation of labour instances certain view to unwilling may be law. courts Second, law or labour tort as such frameworks, legal alternative of existing, variety awide may use attorneys context, civil the In prosecution. criminal through cases trafficking labour bring to prosecutors for difficult be it may therefore and trafficking labour to regards with limited often are statutes criminal First, reasons. of number for a cases trafficking labour to well-suited is litigation Civil exploitation. sexual than rather involve mostly labour cases This case also shows how civil cases can can cases shows how civil also case This 5 6 Because of her past trauma, Ross was was Ross trauma, past of her Because In contrast to criminal cases, civil civil cases, criminal to contrast In June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 recruitment and labour exploitation. exploitation. labour and recruitment labour exploitative of deterring purpose stated for the damages punitive additional him and awarded suit civil his in plaintiff favour of the in ruled 2015,In court the accountable. traffickers hold to his unable was plaintiff the agencies, of government avariety and Commission Rights Human survivors. of trafficking behalf on litigation civil of model how advance to auseful as serves the US, in based a non-profit organisation (HTLC), Center Legal Trafficking Human The A modelforincreasingaccesstojustice him. harass to services security various used defendants the authorities, local help from sought plaintiff the When conditions. inhumane and cruel pay work to in without him forced and passport his confiscated defendants work to Instead, amanager. as recruited been initially had national, Lebanese a plaintiff, the 2012 which of Uganda in in Court High the in filed was case For example, acivil of justice. administration proper the subvert traffickers when approach promising of contract. breach to relating claims like action of causes traditional with familiar more be may courts context, civil the In statutes. slavery modern or trafficking labour under applicable attorneys working on a pro bono basis, the the basis, bono on a pro working attorneys private costly. By engaging incredibly be can completion to case acivil litigating result, a As case. of the nature the on depending years, up several to take can cases civil First, co-counsel. as serve may also and assistance technical provide HTLC the from Attorneys basis. bono apro on cases on take who attorneys private to survivors refers then HTLC the and eligible is case the if to determine survivors interview may first attorneys HTLC organisations. assistance direct other and NGO partners local from referrals receives HTLC The sector. private the in attorneys skilled highly to survivors trafficking connects that –one organisation abridge as serves HTLC the importantly, Most lawfirms. international at of attorneys June 2020 Civil litigation can also be an especially especially an be also can litigation Civil This structure has several advantages. advantages. several has structure This 8 The HTLC has trained thousands thousands trained has HTLC The 7 Despite contacting the Uganda the contacting Despite Trafficking andsmuggling that is involved in civil litigation. Alternative Alternative litigation. civil involved is in that process fact-finding detailed the through trauma additional to asurvivor subject may attorneys trained Improperly risks. damages. for traffickers their sue to victims laws may permit not countries’ other and the US, in exists as such attorneys by private service bono of pro culture established an be may not there countries other In efforts. litigation civil for expanding challenges legislative and however,are, practical world. the There around organisations similar for establishing and HTLC the like organisations of for donors bridge support the and survivors; represent to willingness their in litigators civil and lawyers rights of human engagement the flowcases; of asteady creates which organisations, anti-trafficking and NGOs with collaboration effective includes This stakeholders. society of civil involvement of anumber the on depends model of the replicability The survivors: for trafficking litigation civil to access increase to elsewhere replicated be could that steps highlight courts. in federal US filed cases civil of over 400 database to its access with attorneys provides also HTLC The staff. permanent asmall with overheads low, its operate keeping can and while cases trafficking civil facilitate can HTLC the means also structure This representation. of kind this through fulfilled be can that obligation –aprofessional service bono pro of of hours number aminimum provide to required be may practice in private attorneys country, the on Depending to survivors. no cost at representation high-quality ensures HTLC

to litigatethesecivilcases. increasing thepracticalknowledgerequired trafficking casesfilings,asafirststepin resources, suchasaglobaldatabaseofcivil facilitation ofaccesstoinformation requiring considerableadditionalfunding meaning impactcanbescaledwithout training forattorneysfromtheprivate bar, providers andlawyers an intermediaryrolebetween directservice support forbridgeorganisations,whichplay Finally, civil litigation is not without without not is litigation Finally, civil model HTLC of the aspects key Certain www.fmreview.org/issue64 55 56 question by poor evidence and weak data, and its troubling policy implications. policy troubling its and data, weak and evidence bypoor question into called is financing terror and trafficking between relationship acausal of assertion The trafficking, terrorism, and terror finance”. terror and terrorism, trafficking, “human between nexus for agenuine evidence provide to claimed that a report (CTED) published Directorate Executive 2019 UNSC’s in And the Counter-Terror financing.¹ terror to contributor a major is trafficking that of 20172388 asserted Resolution significantly, Most instruments. (UNSC) Council Security of UN series a made in have been terrorism and trafficking between connections the about 2015, bolder assertions Since progressively nexus Challenging trafficking–terror the so-called finance at theHumanTrafficking LegalCenter. Oxford. Theauthorwas a2019 Research Fellow Rhodes Scholar-Elect for 2020,University of WuHenry strategy. anti-trafficking global acomprehensive, within aplace deserves litigation civil risks, these Despite context. criminal the in severe more may be and cases, civil to unique necessarily not are However, disadvantages for survivors. these stressful may be context acivil in testifying costly. exploitatively may be Finally, client, the to paid amount final of the percentage a receive lawyers where arrangements fee contingency including arrangements, fee that irregular migration was being driven driven being was migration irregular that claims European substantiate to used was that evidence offer to seemed stories news These there. operations trafficking from profiting affiliates of IS reports and Libya in sold at slave auctions being migrants African sub-Saharan about reports media to response in 2388 Resolution around discussions ‘crisis’.refugee initiated France the 2015 after migration irregular contain to efforts renewed States’ EU Member EU and and Iraq, and Syria in group (IS) State Islamic of the rise of the context the Craig DamianSmith www.fmreview.org/issue64 Claims about the nexus developed in in developed nexus the about Claims [email protected] Trafficking andsmuggling

2 fields. policy disparate seemingly two between pairings for productive order push to in employed often is rhetorically ‘nexus’ ‘nexus’. term by the Moreover, term the implied relationships causal necessary the on and comparability their doubt on casts methodology research science social basic troubling, undoubtedly are cases these Although Africa. central in Army Lord’s by the soldiers Resistance of child recruitment forced the and of Africa; Horn the in by Al-Shabaab ransoming Nigeria; in by Boko Haram recruitment forced and marriage forced kidnapping, Sahel; the in affiliates by Al-Qaeda smuggling human and Syria Iraq,Turkey; in IS by trafficking and enslavement alongside trafficking, human from profiting groups of terror trend dynamics. by complex migration than rather networks trafficking by transnational 8. www.htlegalcenter.org Uganda atKampalabit.ly/Eltermewy-Awdi 7. ElTermewy vAwdi &3Ors(2015)‘Judgement’,HighCourtof 6. https://sherloc.unodc.org bit.ly/Hutston-trauma-civil-2018 Trauma-Centered Approach toCivilLitigation’,Trafficking Matters 5. HutsonB(2018)‘FromEnslavement toEmpowerment: A bit.ly/Hauser20180525 Million: ‘TheyTook MyChildhood’’, 4. HauserC(2018)‘Woman Trafficked byCultIs Awarded $8 Victims’, HumanTrafficking LegalCenterbit.ly/Levy-HTLC-2019 to OrderMandatoryCriminalRestitutionforHumanTrafficking 3. Levy A (2020)‘UnitedStatesFederalCourts’ ContinuingFailure Cases’, Human Trafficking Legal Center of MaterialWitness Warrants inFederalHumanTrafficking 2. Wu HandLevy A (2020)‘Prosecutionat Any Cost?TheImpact 2019 bit.ly/US-TIP-2019 1. USDepartmentofState(2019)Trafficking inPersonsReportJune research to provide evidence for it. evidence provide to research commissioned then nexus, finance terror trafficking– ofa existence the affirmed it UNSC’s since agenda the about policy The UNSC cites Libya as part of a global of aglobal part as Libya cites UNSC The 3 There is reason for concern for concern reason is There New York Times bit.ly/Wu-Levy-HTLC-2020 June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 tell us little about overall trafficking rates, rates, trafficking about overall little us tell widely, vary statistics of these reliability and nature The statistics. level prosecution State- to limited is inPersons Trafficking on Report Global (UNODC) Crime and Drugs on Office Nations United the For example, studies. annual relevant the examining evidentwhen is trafficking on of data paucity the First, variables. between relationships causal about observations make to which from data comparable strong, of absence the is finance terror and trafficking between of anexus existence the claiming to impediment main The Weak anduncomparabledata the US, Turkey,the Europe. and Nigeria Egypt, in law enforcement international and tanks, think offices, regional and at headquarters organisations international from respondents expert with interviews and research desk on based are My data. findings reliable and research detailed more without claims such avoid to and disseminating scepticism with nexus’ finance ‘trafficking–terror purported the approach to researchers and policymakers financing. terror and trafficking between nexus of aclear claim its support not does it presents evidence caveats, the of these some included report CTED the While channels. migration legal and safe ensuring and causes, of root alleviation the approaches, victim-centred to relating practice best ignore and agendas policy militarised more lead to would potentially tactics terror anti- with trafficking addressing Fourth, trafficking. international orchestrate rarely and territory their traverse that routes migration exploit irregular groups terror comparison with other sources. other with comparison in insignificant be to likely it is although trafficking, from derive groups terror which of funding proportion the estimate to impossible it make in general financing terror and trafficking on data weak Second, of anexus. evidence provide not did and idiosyncratic were cases the First, findings. main four Idelivered report. CTED the to aconsultant Iwas because and of resolutions June 2020 The purpose of this article is to persuade persuade to is article of this purpose The I make this claim based on the chronology chronology the on based claim this I make Trafficking andsmuggling 4 Third, Third, 5

Office about unverifiable data. unverifiable about Office Accountability US Government the from criticism following abandoned was this rates, trafficking estimated incorporate to used TIP Although trafficking. combat to efforts law and international with by compliance States ranking influential, most the perhaps are reports (TIP) inPersons Trafficking Department’s US State The statistics. global to extrapolation against caution and limitations, data highlight to pains take marriage, forced and labour forced on focus reports Slavery of Modern Estimates Global Organization’s Labour International The statistics. trafficking global form to extrapolated be cannot and of ‘modern slavery’ (and is widely cited, (and cited, widely of ‘modern is slavery’ form as a trafficking framing by influence gained (GSI), has Index Slavery which collection. data frustrate ways that in behave to incentives strong have trafficking) of survivors often (and traffickers Furthermore, methods. identification case and terminology regimes, legal in disparities around particularly trafficking, on research comparative to exist barriers fundamental that recognised also it was indicators, common through reached being tools monitoring for robust more 16.2’s Goal Development call Sustainable UN on focus arenewed placed Migration Regular Orderly and forCompact Safe, demonstrate solidarity against human trafficking in eastern Sudan. eastern in trafficking human against solidarity demonstrate to together came community host and refugee the of Members Sudan. camp, refugee Shagarab at banner #EndHumanTrafficking aUNHCR on handprint his puts refugee Eritrean A 17-year-old

UNHCR The Walk Free Foundation’s Walk Free The Global Global the around discussions While www.fmreview.org/issue64 6

57 58 trafficking are more often localised, there there localised, often are more trafficking and smuggling Since trafficking. from profits their of portion asignificant earned or IS Boko Haram Al-Qaeda, like groups that claim the support to or otherwise) (classified of no statistics knew they adamant were Iinterviewed UNODC respondents instruments, UNSC the in cited cases the criticisms about its reliability. its about criticisms pointed made rather my research during interviewed Experts data. collate and estimate and cases detect to organisations international and by law enforcement used largely is that factor –the element border do have not across- which of activities range a from derived strategies estimation shaky on but relies metrics, global and country-level offer to by CTED), purports including in general. in migration irregular from proceeds tracing with difficulties the emphasised – has watchdog organisation inter-governmental an convergence. operational overlap with geographical of conflating atrend noting terrorism, and criminality transnational between connections the around policymakers among of misunderstanding deal agood is there that argued respondents Likewise, statistics. cite official simply often researchers review, instead and independent for made not available are Assessments issue. the over-emphasising in interest a vested have who agencies from intelligence classified on based areoften figures financing terror how relayed Europe in Cooperation and for Security Organization the from and UNODC from However,personnel financing. for activity criminal on rely groups terror that evidence no doubt strong is There issues. major into we run again Here groups. terror made by earnings trafficking-related of scale the estimate to would be nexus problems. complex to estimation solution a provide to GSI appears the because partly and Foundation Walk Free by the lobbying of intense because level, partly at UN estimates of the acceptance widespread is rigour, there statistics’ over the scholars among scepticism anticipated despite that www.fmreview.org/issue64 The Financial Action Task Action Force (FATF) Financial – The acausal identifying in step next The 8 While they were familiar with with familiar were they While 7 They argued argued They Trafficking andsmuggling activity to measure in the first place. first the in measure to activity transnational limited be well very might money and taxing local populations. local taxing and money ransom antiquities, oil, like sources other against weighed when group for the revenue” of source asa lucrative trafficking human to envisage “it difficult that is acknowledges FATF aside, the sophistication organisational but, committee IS by adedicated organised involved logistics complicated this peak, andSyria toTurkey. or trafficked its At rape, sold locally systematic to subjected of war, spoils as who given were Iraq in girls of Yazidi women and thousands for profit. notoriously, Most enslaved IS trafficking of terrorists case obvious most the is IS out by carried Trafficking Opportunism, oppressionandrecruitment vulnerable to trafficking in areas controlled controlled areas in trafficking to vulnerable now are Migrants forces. allied its and regime the by controlled Libya in were trafficking in 2011,and toppled Qaddafi was smuggling General Before routes. migration irregular revenues. their jeopardising was group the of presence the because IS fight against the bankrolled smugglers of Sabratha, town coastal Libyan the Forborders. example, in move to across people necessary corruption and bribery, collusion the to unconducive is which attention, political court terrorists clandestine, remain to seek traffickers couple of decades.” More broadly, whereas for a we’ve combatting exploitation been of types with trafficking conflating be to seems Council Security “The observed, administration Obama the who worked in respondent one As Libya. and Iraq Syria, on focus new the with abuses rights human and crimes long-standing bundle therefore Resolutions UNSC trafficking. international however, to practices, do amount not these of Most soldiers. child and of combatants recruitment forced in engage routinely and populations, local or terrorise to members, reward and retain recruit, to marriage forced and slavery use Groups financing. than rather purposes ideological and for operational crimes allied and trafficking use often more Armed groups have long operated along along have long operated groups Armed groups terror that Evidence suggests June 2020 9

FMR 64 FMR 64 problem in their territory? [It means] they they [It means] territory? their in problem abig is du jour threat the yes, indeed, that Council Security the to confirms government authoritarian an you when it tell does “What asked: specialist post-conflict senior one As control. political domestic consolidate to and aid military order procure to in migration irregular and Islamism with preoccupation leverage to Western regimes authoritarian and allows autocratic terror with trafficking of pairing The security. State and migrants, of rights the norms, protection international to detrimental are policies migration extremism. supressing towards geared often broadly, more are operations which humanitarian and peacekeeping international around occur dynamics same The forces. UN NATO among demand and meet to girls and women Yugoslavia former trafficked the in groups armed other and Army Liberation theKosovo example, For for trafficking. markets create also They displacement. for acatalyst as act and extremism, and resentment foster regions, and States alike. victims trafficking and security for international results adverse unintended, creating risked issue security ahard as trafficking treating that worried Several policy. counter-terrorism with associated tactics of militarised kinds the using against cautioned respondents of my each official, security Nigerian of one exception the With nexus. migration–development the with case the was –as pairing policy productive a offers nexus finance a trafficking–terror to reference the is whether question A final Avoiding unproductivepolicypairings Qaddafi. of fall the after militants did than degree greater toa and – trafficking in engage now routinely and routes of the control assumed have basically Migration) Illegal for Countering Directorate and coastguard, Forces, its Deterrent Special Libyan the (namely community international by the funded entities Indeed, States. EU Member with deals migration given Libya leaving to barriers but now greater face alike, militants by Accord and of National Government by the June 2020 There is ample evidence that securitised securitised that ample evidence is There destabilise often operations Military Trafficking andsmuggling and best of all they want it off the books.” the it off want they of all best and […] services for security funding more want bit.ly/FATF-finance-ISIL-2015 Organization IslamicState inIraqandtheLevant (ISIL)’,p13 9. Financial Action Task Force(2015)‘FinancingoftheTerrorist Human Trafficking’ bit.ly/FATF-finance-trafficking-2018 8. Financial Action Task Force(2018) ‘FinancialFlowsfrom https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.20121786 Slavery Index?’,Anti-Trafficking Review8:90–112 7. SeealsoGallagher A T(2017)‘What’s Wrong withtheGlobal www.state.gov/trafficking-in-persons-report/ Trafficking inPersons Report bit.ly/ILO-Estimates-Slavery-2017; USDepartmentofState Estimates ofModernSlavery:Forced LabourandForced Marriage www.unodc.org/unodc/data-and-analysis/glotip.html; ILOGlobal 6. UNODCGlobalReportonTrafficking in Persons UNHCR andOSCE. UNODC, theInternationalOrganizationforMigration,UN, 5. Respondentsdrawnfrominternationalorganisationsincluding interest groups,andpoliticalagendas. are theresultofaratherbroaddivergence indesignationcriteria, sanctions forterrorandterror-financing activities.Thedifferences organisations; andtheUNdesignates82entitiesastargetsof organisations; theUSStateDepartmentidentifies67terrorist in identifyingterrorgroups.TheEUlists21entitiesas 4. Another issuewiththepurportednexusiswidedivergence forms ofdevelopment and(im)mobility. reinforcing andcomplexcausalrelationshipsbetween different the migration–development nexusdescribesaseriesofmutually between two ormorephenomena.To takeaprominentexample, 3. Theterm‘nexus’ impliesasetofnecessarycausalrelationships bit.ly/CTED-trafficking-terrorism-2019 Trafficking, Terrorism, and Terror Financing 2. CTED(2019)IdentifyingandExploringtheNexusBetweenHuman http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/2388 1. Forafulllistofresolutionsandassociatedstatementssee Toronto in MigrationandIntegration, Ryerson University, Governance, CanadaExcellence Research Chair Senior Research Associate inMigration [email protected] Craig DamianSmith first place. the in trafficking to vulnerability foster –which agendas control of migration part as States or authoritarian autocratic with cooperation on reliant increasingly are 2388 who Resolution developed members UNSC the Unfortunately, routes. migration irregular on trafficking to vulnerability alleviate also could channels migration legal and safe to Access regimes. legal victim-centred around and development provision, and education livelihoods, around particularly organisations, rights and practitioners advocated by scholars, practices best ignore would trafficking fight against the in Finally, deploying anti-terror policies policies anti-terror Finally, deploying www.ryerson.ca/cerc-migration/about/ www.fmreview.org/issue64

RSC 59 60 technologies and platforms that are being used to tackle forms of exploitation. of forms to tackle used being are that platforms and technologies emerging of pitfalls the and promise the both show Asia Southeast from Examples which involve labour exploitation. When When exploitation. involve labour which for products demand reduce to is exploitation ways of preventing effective most of the One Technology for prevention exploitation. facilitate to used be also can they hands wrong for many, the freedom in promise technologies emerging these However, of harm. although forms other and these prosecute and prevent to technology power of the harnessing are governments killed. sometimes and punished are escape to or no pay.try little who with Those hours for long conditions inhumane in working at atime, or years for out months atbe sea can they where boats on people trap instead who offer Jobhope labour. brokers forced into lured are home country their in opportunity economic of lack or harm fleeing who are people industry, when fishing the in place move. the on already are they because exploitation such to vulnerable are Others Thailand. and Philippines the in hubs major to place, including takes exploitation online the moved where places to have been children some trafficking, as defined be to nature this of for acrime aprerequisite not movement is physical Although exist. images the long as so continues harm the exploitation, in-person age of 18. the Unlike under of children videos or images explicit of sexually making the labour. forced and exploitation sexual child online are vulnerable are migrants which to of exploitation forms of the two Asia, help. Southeast or how In access to language the understand to inability and risks, potential and of rights awareness insufficient status, of legal lack insecurity, and displacement –include of destination place move or at the their on –while exploitation to vulnerable migrants make Factors that Tackling exploitation through ‘technology for freedom’ Christa Foster Crawford andAshley Kafton www.fmreview.org/issue64 Technology companies, NGOs and and NGOs companies, Technology takes of exploitation form Another involves exploitation sexual child Online Trafficking andsmuggling labour contracts and wage payments. and contracts labour or document to labour, forced made using it not was that verify to process production entire the through aproduct track to for instance, used, be It can accountability. and transparency greater promote to helps of transactions, record immutable an creates which Blockchain, of exploitation. free is process production entire the that ensure to incentivised are companies supply chain, the in hidden no longer is labour forced internet (due to limitations on infrastructure infrastructure on (due limitations to internet the to of access lack of devices, cost high the However, responses. effective and problem of the understanding evidence-based an inform so and users the about data generate also tools Such agents. transportation and brokers job unscrupulous about warnings and brokers, job ethical to access migration, for safer resources providing and rights their about migrants by educating harm help prevent platforms, online through as well as devices and phones mobile through Migration, Facebook’s like Miss supply side. Chatbots process. production of the stages all into built is accountability that ensure must industry and governments and goods, fungible and inputs constituent tracks accurately technology that ensure must Developers have involved exploitation. which inputs some contain will products end most that means supply chain global complex, inter-related the that is reality the Second, unchecked. continues process packing and sorting the in butexploitation industry) fishing the (in at sea exploitation address to will political current is there For instance, inputs. cover all scrutiny. from producers shield and security of sense afalse what may be consumers give may therefore and products, exploitation-free guarantee cannot However, technology Prevention efforts must also address the the address also must efforts Prevention may not accountability supplyFirst, chain 2 and apps that can be accessed accessed be can apps that and June 2020 1

FMR 64 FMR 64 damage the use of such technology can bring. can technology of such use the damage potential the how mitigate to decide must community, international the and NGOs governments, with collaboration in designers, Technology abuses. commit to individuals and by governments used be equally can However, technology same awareness. the raising through abuses rights of ending goal the with time, real in of villages destruction the order document to in visualisations data and geodata as well as imagery satellite and drone use can groups Now monitoring for decades. industry fishing international the in exploitation and displacement internal have faced Myanmar in people Rohingya For instance, abuses. of rights awareness rebuild. to unable are move to they if them that may force or floods fires as such crises of context the in especially trafficking, to vulnerability their reduces turn in This credit. to andeven access wage payments, verified receive to ability the accounts, bank to access possible makes identity, blockchain online an By providing credit-worthiness. or finances identity,their confirm to of documentation lack their is barrier primary The payments. non-cash receive to unable or even lenders to predatory vulnerable them making finance, of means traditional or other banks to access lack of trafficking at risk are that communities For example, many opportunities. economic new by creating part in risk, mitigate indirectly to used be can Technology migration. crisis by compounded often is which exploitation, to vulnerable more are communities People poor empowerment. in economic through level, including community information. such presenting and developing when account into taken be also must barriers potential other and of literacy, numeracy issues and relevance cultural And community. every in available not are which readers, data require still they although this, to response one are or computers, devices of mobile use the without data transmit can which tags, (RFID) identification radio-frequency and effectively. and widely codes QR shared being information to barriers common are languages local in of resources lack and freedom) and June 2020 Technology can also be used to raise raise to used be also can Technology at the focused be must Prevention Trafficking andsmuggling help if needed. help if get to where and rights migration and labour their about migrants inform can tools other Apps, and QR codes rights. human and legal one’s enjoy to ability of and awareness the involved. are data biometric when case the particularly is This them. control and order monitor to in individuals tracking and tagging ways of unbreakable efficient employers unethical and traffickers give also can However, technology same the way home. their how find to do know not they if live they where about information by providing and for services, eligibility their prove to individuals by enabling including exploitation, against help protect to identities Digital documentation. government-issued to alternative an as documents identity independent to provide identifiers biometric optional and technology blockchain using created be can identity adigital Furthermore, conditions. slave-like and exploitation labour of cases potential to NGOs and enforcement law alert to then and vessels fishing off allowed are how often workers document to blockchain with combined be can records ‘false flags’. under geolocation In fact, sailing ships as such practices corrupt through hidden or are trace, to harder even them making documentation, lack they if even at sea found be can migrants vulnerable that help ensure tags RFID apps and Mobile locations. remote of their regardless victims, assist and identify to them enable also technology geolocation and images in embedded metadata software, recognition but facial of children, images of exploitative of millions hundreds of the some circulation remove from and locate to law enforcement permit intelligence artificial does only not For instance, or elsewhere. out at sea, online, are they whether victims, assist and identify to help law enforcement technologies Emerging Technology forprotection services to send home remittances. And other apps Andother home remittances. send to easier and it safer making and payment, withholding illegally employers from preventing accountability, and transparency wages, providing legal and fair paid are Also essential to protection is having having is protection to essential Also 4 can help ensure that migrants migrants that help ensure can 3 Blockchain and e-payment e-payment and Blockchain www.fmreview.org/issue64 61 62 and control those whom they exploit. whom they those control and it track to use or even technology, the confiscate will exploiter the that risk real very by the compounded are which there are real accessibility concerns, prevention, on focused tools with As accessible. are they which to extent the and use they information the as good as only systems may escape this type of detection. type this may escape systems banking formal through do operate not who of lower-level perpetrators number vast the Furthermore, evidence. digital applyto also identification perpetrator with arise that privacy around issues the and create a culture of freedom. aculture create and transactions exploitative recognise easily more can stakeholders other and investors industries, and liable, criminally and financially hold to perpetrators evidence that use can Governments crimes. their from profit to system banking international of the use make to who need operations, large-scale with traffickers against evidence clear providing of transactions, record immutable an institutions financial and banks accountable. hold them and perpetrators identify to it harder make protected, be should that values and rights core although which, encryption and privacy, anonymity greater towards is sector technology the within However, trend harm. the future help prevent of content) can kinds certain or blocking use computer (preventing restrictions technological convicted, Once prosecution. and arrest their to leading of perpetrators, location and identity the reveal can images exploitative in embedded identifiers unique other and data geolocation metadata, the exploitation, sexual child of online victims identify to used be can they Just as of enforcement. forms other and prosecution for criminal evidence provide to and perpetrators, locate and identify to both used being is Finally, technology Technology forprosecution worker. the empowering terms, employment and conditions working monitor and document to it easier make services and www.fmreview.org/issue64 However, such technological tools are are tools However, technological such Similarly, blockchain technology gives gives technology Similarly, blockchain Trafficking andsmuggling 6 However,

5 New York City, 10 June2019. presented at theBlockchainforSocial ImpactConference 2019, Use CasesforEnding Child SexTrafficking andModernSlavery’ first includedinCrawford CF(2019)‘SexandShrimp:Blockchain 7. Theserecommendations andtheframework forthisarticlewere Programme https://libertyshared.org/operational-research 6. Forexample,LibertySharedOperational Research and Analysis 5. Forexample,theeMinprojectbit.ly/Diginex-Verifik8-eMin 4. Forexample,SaverAsia www.saverasia.com of Torture andthePayap CenterforHumanRightsLaw). resources duringdetention(seethe Association forthePrevention Macau, andwork byWinrock International)andtorights Apprise pilotstudybeingconductedbythe UNU Institutein industry (forthreeexamples,seewww.MASThuman.org, the and governments, relatingtorightsandresourcesinthefishing number ofpartnershipsbetween technologycompanies,NGOs 3. Forexample,inThailandappsarebeingdeveloped bya 2. www.facebook.com/MissMigration Slavery’ bit.ly/MekongClub-blockchain-2018 1. TheMekongClub(2018)‘UsingBlockchaintoCombatModern considered. be should principles key so, several doing In avoidable most harms. the mitigate must and good greatest for the harnessed be must power of technology the Instead, exploiters. by led often advances those advance, with to continue for it will of role technology, the www.ohio.edu/cis and SoutheastAsianStudies,OhioUniversity Graduate student, International Development Ashley Kafton Payap University, Thailand Associate Director, Center for HumanRightsLaw, www.FreedomResource.org; Founder, Freedom Resource International [email protected] Christa Foster Crawford of harm. forms of rapidly face evolving the adapt to in and needs those meet to designed be should solutions and need what they asked be should Communities communities. by informed be must Finally, technology data. involves biometric this when especially beings, of human location and identity the tracking in safety and dignity rights, human for implications many are there implications, ethical few has of products location and identity the tracking While people. on focus to is principle second The for harm. used be can how they account into take must policymakers and but developers for freedom, technology of elements essential are encryption and privacy anonymity, bigger.just Increased The answer to these pitfalls is not to hinder hinder to not is pitfalls these to answer The 7 The first is to scale better, not scale to is first The [email protected]

June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 that begins as smuggling can also involve trafficking and other forms of exploitation. of exploitation. forms other and trafficking involve also can smuggling as begins that action of course a where phenomenon fluid acomplex, is to Europe migration Vietnamese and psychological burden. Smugglers and and Smugglers burden. psychological and financial enormous an assume they Europe, to journey the undertake and money borrow country. aEuropean to Vietnam from stage first pay to for the amount total of the half at least borrow Families employment. plus UK the to passage safe guarantee to claim or and more US$50,000 charge now UK), smugglers of the south-east the (in Essex in lorry arefrigerated dead in found were 392019 Vietnamese which in October in tragedy the Following Zalo. Facebook and as such channels messaging and media social word and of mouth overseas. and Vietnam in groups crime organised by Vietnamese-led controlled operations by people-smuggling operated now Cold the are after these War,but continued migration facilitating Services the world.in country remittance-receiving highest ninth now the is today, Vietnam and exist still routes migration and trade These Moscow, Kiev, Warsaw, Berlin. and Prague in communities of diaspora establishment the to led which countries, Soviet-bloc former with programmes abroad study and Europe. to of migrants bulk up the make work overseas of seeking along history with provinces from who come and access this lack who Vietnamese areas. urban in concentrated mostly and unequal or is employment education through for upward mobility Vietnam’s economy, opportunities to access in steady growth Despite overseas. prospects economic have better they believe they because primarily journey dangerous and long the who undertake provinces northern and of central-north a handful from boys and men young are majority The Europe. into trafficked and smuggled who are for those countries top source of the one is Vietnam Smuggling and trafficking fromVietnam to Europe Mimi Vu andNadiaSebtaoui June 2020 If a Vietnamese person decides to to decides person aVietnamese If through is Currently, recruitment export labour had 1980s, Vietnam the In Trafficking andsmuggling of migrants as they cross borders. borders. cross they as of migrants tracking the prevents agencies analogous their and countries between coordination and of communication Finally, alack sight. plain in and radar the under both operate to groups criminal organised led Vietnamese- allows response enforcement law of coordinated alack and borders, own their within activities about know only often also authorities and responders First situation. and smuggling trafficking of the knowledge who have translators of official number alimited and safety; of their migrants reassure and age assessments accurate make to interviews, conducting when it difficult, makes which context, cultural Vietnamese workers; of of knowledge alack social and officials law enforcement speaking Vietnamese- insufficient include: These of trafficking. victims Vietnamese potential supporting and identifying in challenges many and face NGOs, officials enforcement France. and Belgium Netherlands, Germany, the Republic, Poland, Czech Ukraine, Russia, as such countries transit in exploitation of sexual forms or other prostitution forced and rape to vulnerable are particular in Women children and drugs. counterfeit or selling sweatshops in working as such route en situations exploitative into them forcing journey, often the throughout migrant the leverage control to as indebtedness the use gangs criminal asked our team to provide interpretation interpretation provide to team our asked border, French at the detained minors for unaccompanied administrators ad hoc as acting Cross, Red French The nationals. Vietnamese were Haiti) through transiting route smuggling new of afairly (part airport at Paris-Roissy arriving minors 2018, unaccompanied In 50% of all nearly Building trustasfirstresponders First responders in Europe, including law including Europe, in responders First www.fmreview.org/issue64 63 64 adults, Mai and Tuan, and Mai adults, young by the given stories initial the that indicators us. trust to begin would they so possible as connections personal many as forged and France, in of staying advantages the and situation legal their explained we together we spent hours six the During would flee. they that possibility astrong was there that early, knowing status. official their on aruling awaiting while housing with provided and services, protection child into released France, in leave remain to temporary granted been had They of trafficking. victims potential as identified been who had female, one and male people, one Vietnamese young for two support social/cultural and and football player, Mai’s about joked and football and food Vietnamese favourite their as such topics lighthearted help. to Wewanted discussed who volunteers we only were that explaining and drinks, and show empathy, food offering route. en exploitation or sexual abuse to due have been also could story false her for giving however, reasons Mai, the as with We sensitive be to had orphans. non-paying on take rarely gangs criminal reality, In asked. when authorities to give to migrants tell frequently smugglers that one is story This escape. her helped and Europe to journey to pay her asked) for never who had offered she (whose name man aChinese met she day one that claimed She years. for several slave labour endured she where China, to 10 brought old and years was she when kidnapped been –who had otherwise indicated accent her –although Tri Province Quang from orphan an was she that stated Mai untrue. and rehearsed were www.fmreview.org/issue64 There were clear clear were There very hotel migrants’ at the We arrived The first step in building trust was to was trust building in step first The 1

migrants before they enter the UK hidden in lorries. lorries. in hidden UK the enter they before migrants Vietnamese for point transit last the often France, City’, ‘Vietnam in migrants Vietnamese reflects A mirror

Nadia Sebtaoui Trafficking andsmuggling hotel, social services notified us that Mai Mai that us notified services social hotel, uncle’s and debt. aunt his repay to money the for earning responsible be would then Tuan and sum pay to the elsewhere from funds would borrow uncle and aunt His UK. the reached he until cost journey his much Tuan how Mai, would know not sister. Like disabled and mother his family, including entire the support to money earn to UK go the to out and drop to him encouraged uncle and aunt at but university, his politics law and Tuan debt. in studying was family actions. subsequent her motivated that weights enormous were family her supporting it and of repaying burden the and €50,000, around be to likely was This owedshe them. anumber. than rather sign animal their with respond to for Vietnamese customary it is as ages, their about inquire to zodiac ( brother’ each other – ‘big sister’ ( sister’ –‘big other each address to terms appropriate We the used salon. nail a good find to woman Vietnamese it for every was how important and nails Less than two hours after we left the we left after hours two than Less Tuan’s the leaving died, had father Tuan and trust to slowlyMai began em ) – and used the Vietnamese Vietnamese the used ) –and would tell her how her much would tell smugglers the – before destination – the UK UK –the destination final her until wait to but would haveFrance reach to transport air used that route ‘VIP’ the taken had She was. idea debt how her much no had family.her Mai for provide and debts the repay to duty her now it was and earlier, months afew Europe from deported been had father her after journey this on embarked had She much. very family her missed and herself, by of travelling 18, scared over just was Mai stories. true of their more reveal to enough comfortable felt eventually and us chị ) and ‘little sister/ ‘little ) and June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 exploitation: or of trafficking victims potential and migrants protecting and identifying in responses overall improve their to recommendations following adopt the should NGOs and authorities European Recommendations France. in stay to able decide to would feel they that so debt their repay could how they about constructively and openly speak to and them with trust build to time more we needed Lastly, smugglers. the with communication prevent to phones mobile removeto their services social have asked We also should journey. their stage of ata later trafficked of being risk of their light in especially Europe, in persons vulnerable as protection to rights Tuan and of their Mai to reassurance offer and explain adequately to unable were we responders, first As experience. this from lessons valuable several Wenetwork. learned smuggling of the part was we assume that car apassing into Tuanand jumped had June 2020 address economicpush factors prevention programmes inVietnam that engage private sectoractors todeploy used bytraffickers andsmugglers briefing onthespecificcontrol mechanisms conduct culturallysensitive interviews,and to theVietnamese contextandhowto how toprovideinformationthat isspecific with potentialvictims.Thisshould include enforcement officialswhoare in contact representatives, socialworkers andlaw specialised trainingfortranslators,NGO provide mandatory, additional diaspora communities enforcement officialsfrom Vietnamese recruit andtrainsocialworkers andlaw effective response trafficking andsmugglingtodesignamore focus ontheblurredlinesbetween enforcement agenciesandNGOs and networking between Statebodies,law crime andincreaseinformationsharing approach towards Vietnamese organised adopt amulti-countryandmulti-agency of traffickingacrossEurope collect comprehensive dataaboutvictims Trafficking andsmuggling alternate path to a better future in Vietnam. in Vietnam. future abetter to path alternate an providing programme, placement job and scholarship school vocational NGO’s the to viewers existing introduce to used also were announcements The models. role and heroes considered are players team national and Vietnam, in sport popular most the is Football team. football Vietnam’splayers national from star featuring channels, media social and traditional via delivered announcements, service public used campaign The sector. private the and governments Vietnamese and UK the NGO, anti-trafficking aVietnam-based between partnership a through developed was programme Independent trafficking experts programmes. employment and schools or vocational secondary to scholarships as such for advancement of opportunities provision with activities awareness-raising combine must They causes. root address and involvepronged, stakeholders multiple multi- be should programmes These journey. or her his on embarks migrant the after not Vietnam, in hands changed has money once begins repayment since incurred being debt to prior place take must programmes prevention All debt. of considerable accumulation the thataccompany trafficking and exploitation of risks increased the clear make and Europe in of working reality the depict which Vietnam and Europe in campaigns for awareness-raising aneed is There campaigns Prevention andawareness-raising 1. Nameshave beenchangedtoprotecttheiridentities. Nadia Sebtaoui Mimi Vu [email protected] Union or by influential role models. role models. or by influential Union Women’s the as such leaders community by local delivered are they when received well generally are programmes Such come. of migrants majority the which from provinces the to specific characteristics linguistic and cultural to tailored be One example of a successful prevention prevention of asuccessful example One also must messages Prevention [email protected] www.fmreview.org/issue64

65 66 making these journeys and their defenders. their and journeys these making those for had has smuggling people against fight the that consequences negative the shows Mexico through travelling caravans seeker asylum and migrant the of treatment The criminalising this type of mobility, those of mobility, those type this criminalising time same at the while caravans, of the containment and control its legitimise to sought government the smuggling, people on waging it is that war the with caravans these of arrival the linking By fines. plus substantial years, sixteen and eight of between sentence prison a potential carries smuggling people Mexico, In caravan. the in individuals to danger a serious presented activities whose smugglers people were organisers caravan the among that maintained government coyotes as Mexico in (known of smugglers use the via territories and borders crossing to alternative an largely is of mobility form new this Although them. to responses for State and formation their for reasons the about questions key raises government Mexican by the managed suppressed. resolutely 2020 –have been in January left Honduras that one the and 2019 October of Tapachula in city Mexican southern the in originated that one the –including However, caravans subsequent year. of one it for aperiod through freely or move to country the in remain to them allowed that documentation temporary of 2019 given were beginning at the arriving Those so. do finally did although country, the through transit free their allow to reluctant who initially were authorities of 2018 end at the Mexican faced arriving Those in Mexico. arrival on fates different with have met caravans US. Different the reach to aiming who are Guatemala and Salvador El Honduras, from of people made up largely are together travelling of people of groups 2018. gatherings These of end the since Mexico in have arrived ‘caravans’ seeker asylum and migrant Several smuggling Migrant ‘caravans’ in Mexico and the fight against Eduardo Torre Cantalapiedra www.fmreview.org/issue64 The way these caravans have been have been caravans way these The ), the Mexican Mexican ), the Trafficking andsmuggling supported and accompanied the caravans. the accompanied and supported who activists those and who participated, had played as human rights defenders. defenders. rights played human had as they role the and activism of their because mobility over migrant US negotiations Mexico– during smuggling of people charges on arrested were Mexico in of migrants rights of the defenders prominent two addition, In Fronteras. Sin Pueblos organisation out the singled particularly and smuggling, people involved were in caravans the supporting activists the that suggested representatives government Mexican Several criminalised. acts. illegal with caravans seeker asylum and of migrant association the promoted it like others and statement This caravans. the promoting illegally were people same these that it suggested argument founded apoorly in operations; smuggling people involved were in they suggested that of transactions because frozen been had people of several accounts bank the that announcing Credit Public and Finance of Ministry by the issued release a press included These smugglers. by people part in at least organised been had caravans the that implied they which in statements made several representatives government of 2019,half first leading the Throughout Criminalising caravansanddefenders has been a very widespread strategy among among strategy widespread avery been has coyotes using that confirm of Mexico region border southern the in migration on survey a strategy. from Data asurvival as services their low-wage use from regions migrants have of coyotaje governments that view negative the to contrast In Caravans asanalternativeto coyotaje Migrant human rights defenders were also also were defenders rights human Migrant services, services, June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 Alternative avenues must be pursued. pursued. be must avenues Alternative communities. host and smugglers former their on as well as seekers, asylum and migrants on effects negative of a range had has Niger in smuggling human of criminalisation The control and security policies, and in 2015 in and policies, security and control migration EU on the with cooperating Niger Europe. began in arriving from West Africans preventing in interested increasingly became (EU) Union European 2010s, early the the during grew Sahara and economy. local to the substantially contributed eventually which emerged, system smuggling formalised arelatively context, this In Libya. via primarily Europe, reach to hoping seekers asylum and of migrants arange and region the in for elsewhere employment searching migrants contained movements mixed These Niger. northern through passed historically have seekers asylum and of migrants flows mixed West Africa, through routes migration traditional along position its to Due of Niger’sThe adverse effects law anti-smuggling US. the reach to Mexico who through travel people Guatemalan and Salvadoran Honduran, regardless of people’s financial resources. of people’s financial regardless assistance, and information – protection, numbers sheer through – offering migrants, way for of travel asafer provide caravans by coyotes offered services the using to alternative work an route. As en casual doing or routes, migration the along exists that of shelters network solidarity the on relying trains, freight or using foot on travelling may include This resources. or no economic few having despite travel to them allow that strategies of different acombination using caravans, or in groups small in alone, country the cross Hondurans Salvadorans. and coyotaje employ to money have enough Hondurans Spain and Morocco, and we can draw out we can Morocco, and and Spain US, the including countries other many in observed be also can defenders and seekers Colleen Moser June 2020 However, as flows through the Sahel Sahel the However,through flows as The criminalisation of migrants, asylum asylum of migrants, criminalisation The 1 services compared with Guatemalans Guatemalans with compared services However, the data suggest that fewer fewer that However, suggest data the Trafficking andsmuggling , 2

smuggling legislation. smuggling anti- national-level comprehensive passed 21, 1–23https://doi.org/10.21670/ref.2005047 participantes encaravanas demigrantes’,EstudiosFronterizos, Vol ‘Batallando confronteras:estrategiasmigratoriasentránsitode 2. Torre CantalapiedraEandMariscalNava DM(2020) México, 2019’ www.colef.mx/emif/ 1. EMIF(2020)‘EncuestassobreMigraciónenlaFronteraSurde offering small business projects to former to former projects business small offering and personnel border Nigerien training by efforts anti-smuggling supported has Niger, in million €253 worth projects has 2014 EUTF, The 2020 which alone. and between €1.2 billion including years, recent Niger to in allocated have been assistance source. their flows at migration irregular order prevent to in migration and control development, border in programmes fund to (EUTF) for Africa Fund Trust Emergency its EU created the Europe, in arrivals migrant and seeker asylum growing to response in and period over place this taken had that region the in engagement increased aspx?idinv=375438 http://investigadores.colef.mx/cvu. Frontera Norte Researcher, Cátedras Conacyt–ElColegio dela Eduardo Torre Cantalapiedra groups. or criminal authority by any harassed being work without humanitarian out their carry to them enable or practice); instead, discourse (either in defenders rights human criminalise finally, do not And smuggling. people with connections of perceived because of caravans) form the in case this (in refugees and of migrants mobility the Secondly, do criminalise not policies. control migration legitimise to smuggling people fight against of the discourse the do use not Firstly, States. for all lessons following the Enormous quantities of EU development quantities Enormous

www.fmreview.org/issue64 1 Building on the the on Building [email protected]

67 68 decrease from the pre-crackdown rates. pre-crackdown the from decrease fivefold estimated an with asuccess, been have policies Niger these northern through flows of limiting perspective From the alternative. alivelihoods as smugglers alike. Although the flows have decreased, flowshave the decreased, Although alike. region’s the population broader and clients would-be their for smugglers, risks security environment. challenging already an in pressures economic exacerbated further has continent African the on or elsewhere Libya Algeria, in opportunities employment seeking Niger of those through of transit curtailment the Furthermore, transit. in by those used shops and hotels restaurants, who ran those but also transporters former only not includes population Nigerien of 2015 2016. period and peak This the Agadez as during such cities who crossed seekers asylum and of migrants thousands of hundreds estimated the from earning been had they income the to no alternatives with left Nigeriens implementation abrupt ban’s The seekers. asylum and migrants to available opportunities economic the and world the – in countries poorest of the one in region isolated Niger –an northern in economy the both on impact asevere had has Nigeria. and Mali as such countries neighbouring in violence andother conflict armed flee to ability seekers’ asylum freely, by impeding and circulate to nationals of ECOWAS ability the by hindering fronts Niger’sboth on weakens efforts ban asylum seekers and refugees. and seekers asylum of migrants, rights the emphasises and of movement for ECOWAS freedom citizens prioritises Migration on Approach Common (ECOWAS), States of West African whose Community Economic of the amember is Niger country. the through legally migrate to permitted be Niger should northern through transited who have traditionally seekers asylum and migrants of those mobility. Many regional limits law unjustly smuggling anti- of Agadez, the north travelling from citizens non-Nigerien all by preventing Firstly, results. negative numerous to www.fmreview.org/issue64 Finally, this ban has created numerous numerous created has ban Finally, this smuggling on crackdown this addition, In However, this reduction has also led led also has reduction However, this 3 This movement This Trafficking andsmuggling 2

than the Mediterranean. desert Sahara the crossing die to estimated migrants many as twice with skyrocketed, have to appear mortalities unavailable, are data complete although aresult, As desert. the in passengers abandoning it means if even costs, at all military the and police avoid to smugglers now incentivises ban the personnel, security State-sanctioned by accompanied were vehicles smugglers’ before, Whereas, well-known. or less safe less are routes the where Chad, as such countries neighboring into shifting often locations, well-policed other Agadez and around routes alternative take to forced been have clients their and smugglers Instead, eliminated. entirely have been not they income previously generated through through generated previously income the of replacing terms in limitations and criteria, eligibility strict times, slow roll-out for their criticised have been programmes However, creation. these business of small funding their through largely smugglers, for alternative an as framed have been Sahara. the in toll death mounting the it way addressing would go some towards phenomenon, of this drivers underlying the address not does approach two-pronged this While passengers. stranded of their locations or the taken routes the divulge to willing for smugglers law enforcement Nigerien from of amnesty guarantees coupled with be could funding additional This desert. the in missions rescue and search life-saving conducting currently is (IOM) that for Migration Organization International the as such for actors assistance and logistical financial increasing consider should donors For instance, supported. better and extended be to law, need these anti-smuggling the under punishment who fear by smugglers abandoned being of at risk who are those protect to taken being are measures some Although Policy responsesandanalysis and the threat of non-State armed groups. armed of non-State threat the and downturn economic facing already aregion in sign aworrying have increased, populations migrant and native the between tensions EU-funded livelihoods programmes programmes livelihoods EU-funded 4 Furthermore, Furthermore, June 2020

FMR 64 FMR 64 happens when these policies are enacted. are policies these when happens actually what around evidence the of discussion little relatively is there yet smuggling tackle to attempt an in pursued being are policies security border restrictive world, the Across one of the largest multinational efforts efforts multinational largest of the one 2015 2017 and between route was transit Balkans Western the along of security enforcement The smugglers. detaining and Mediterranean, eastern the in patrols maritime launching barriers, other and fences physical building Balkans, the in borders land the militarising included These smuggling. prevent and borders its secure to of policies aseries enacted (EU) Union 2014 2015, between and European the refugees 1.5 of some million arrival by the Shocked Tackling smuggling in the Balkans: policy lessons swayed clearly were implementation and conception its authorities, by Nigerien enacted law was Niger. the Although northern in harm extensive have created enforcement border of European externalisation facto Agadez. through transit to attempting still migrants and seekers asylum towards hostilities alleviate also could pressures of economic easing Niger. This northern in tensions and vulnerability widespread the in adecrease to would contribute situation current improve to the steps clear process, ashort-term not is change economic systematic such that acknowledge to important it is While recipients. benefits directly and reaches actually assistance financial other and cooperation development broader that ensuring also while programmes, of livelihoods expansion the prioritise EU should the as such funders International activities. livelihoods for alternative funding limited already the able access to less industry) smuggling the in participated indirectly have to women (who likely with more were implications, have gendered also limitations These seekers. asylum and migrants to food of provision and housing transportation, Charles Simpson June 2020 Niger’s anti-smuggling law and its de its law and Niger’s anti-smuggling Trafficking andsmuggling US–Mexico border wall, Italy’s maritime Italy’s wall, maritime border US–Mexico the include These smuggling. prevent and border movements restrict to attempting are institutions State where contexts other for lessons offer research this of findings destination countries such as Germany. as such countries destination Turkey, into like Serbia, and countries Greece transit through Jordan, like asylum of first countries –from route of the study two-year policies. such of effects the about lessons memory,useful it offers recent and in https://graduateinstitute.ch Development Studies Graduate Institute ofInternational and Master’s Candidate inDevelopment Studies, [email protected] Colleen Moser refugees. and seekers asylum migrants, people, of local interests and needs the and context regional the to correspond better that policies alternative consider instead EU should the Niger and and repealed, be law should anti-smuggling The practices. smuggling dangerous and hardship economic conflict, generate to continue only will and flows mixed of these drivers underlying the completely eliminate never will policy of control-oriented type this Ultimately, funding. and by EU interests https://reut.rs/2yxSiZl likely twiceMediterraneantoll:U.N.’ Reuters 4. MilesTandNebehayS(2017)‘MigrantdeathsintheSahara www.clingendael.org/pub/2018/multilateral-damage/ routes’, ClingendaelReports Damage TheimpactofEUmigrationpoliciesoncentralSaharan 3. Tubiana J,Warin CandSaeneenGM(2018)‘Multilateral bit.ly/Chatelot-Niger-2018 migratoire del’Europe’, 2. ChâtelotC(2018)‘LeNiger, sous-traitantafricaindelapolitique relative autrafficillicitedemigrants’ bit.ly/Niger-Law2015-36 1. RépubliqueduNiger(2015)‘LoiNº2015-3626mai2015 jointly conducted a conducted I jointly period this During Le MondeAfrique www.fmreview.org/issue64

1 The The 69 70 police on the island of Lesvos on suspicion of smuggling. of suspicion on Lesvos Greek of by island the custody on into police taken is Turkey from sea Aegean the crossing refugees Syrian of agroup carrying aboat of wheel the at found A man operating costs, overcrowding dinghies far far dinghies overcrowding costs, operating their minimise to vessels old unreliable using began smugglers destroyed, and apprehended would be boats that Knowing crossing. 24km the navigate to horizon the on of alight direction the in agesture than more nothing computer, or often atablet acompass them giving instead refugees, accompanying 2014, after stopped smugglers arrest and Turkey. of interception risk growing Facing to returning afterwards islands, Greek the to Turkish coast the from crossing their on refugees accompany would regularly For 2014, to example, prior clients. smugglers refugee onto their risks and costs increasing their who able pass were to smugglers, the on than rather migrants the on mainly fell enforcement State of this impact The Impact onrefugees border. India–Bangladesh the including Asia, south across of borders militarisation the and crackdowns, Africa’s immigration South coast, Libyan the off operations www.fmreview.org/issue64 Trafficking andsmuggling nationalities or understand international international or understand nationalities different distinguish refugees, from smugglers how differentiate to in training Without detained. and asmuggler as police by identified mistakenly often was navigator refugee this island aGreek on arrival upon of role navigator; the arefugee to assigning began smugglers arrested avoidto being For for smugglers. example, mistaken were who refugees against actors by these violence or in actors, security State among of confusion incidents numerous in –resulted operations or border refugees with or no experience little had therefore and gaps, capacity fill to departments unrelated from transferred been of whom had –most actors security State land. dry on safely remained smugglers while drownings, and sinkings numerous in resulted adaptations These conditions. inclement in even at place night, taking began launches boat patrols, by maritime To board. on of aseat cost avoid detection the increasing and capacities, their beyond Furthermore, the increased presence of presence increased the Furthermore, June 2020

UNHCR/Achilleas Zavallis

FMR 64 FMR 64 Other expensive options options expensive Other dinghies. inflatable for cheap, rigid-hull lookout the on patrols by maritime detection order avoid to in cruise personal lavish a crew, and ayacht simulating involving operations as such emerged, packages smuggling costly extremely Elaborate, refugees. best-connected and wealthiest the to only available service a luxury became smuggling spiked, costs these As $10,000 to 2017. rose or after more crossing border per person per US dollars hundred apre-2014 level of several dramatically: smugglers. as or misidentified immigrants’ ‘illegal being as misperceived either they that refugees assaulting violently vehicles, all-terrain and dogs firearms, machetes, with who armed were groups paramilitary to governments by national delegated surreptitiously were that operations counter-smuggling from were risk of shifted incidents severe most cold. to The exposure and bites insect poisonous dehydration, hypothermia, ofsymptoms flu, suffering wilderness, the in of kilometres for hundreds who unaccompanied were refugees to spoke city. We atransit reached they until walking keep to them tell and direction ageneral in refugees 2014 after point they would refugees, accompanied had smugglers previously route. Where Balkans Western of the part land the on reported were clients refugee do. what to about or longer, unsure for months incarcerated refugees kept often and experiences these understand to law, unequipped were police humanitarian often still making approaches to newcomers newcomers to approaches making still often –although lenders or money traders barbers, workers, tailors, construction part-time as route the along cities into blending while savings on work, living other simply found smugglers most risk, real dodged any Having numbers. of absolute terms in Balkans the in of smuggling prevalence the reducing refugees, of most tolerance risk and means financial the exceed to begun had smuggling identity. fake the howon assume to coaching and tickets plane with passports June 2020 Costs as well as risks increased increased risks as well as Costs onto risk of shifting trends same The By the end of of 2017, end By the risks and costs the included fake fake included Trafficking andsmuggling from diapers to tents as smugglers saw smugglers as tents to diapers from for everything emerged economy market grey/black- abooming shrank, NGOs from handouts aid non-food volume of licit the as illustration, an As changes. the to adapted simplywho smugglers, disrupt to little did but humanitarianism, local limiting and society civil up of breaking effect the had efforts These services. its on who depend refugees the to accessible less far location a to station bus city’s central the near premises its from relocate to required was Miksaliste, of refugees, thousands reached NGO that For operate. to local example, one freedom NGOs’ local limiting on focused Turkish coast. the from crossing refugees of drownings to prevent attempts their in smugglers with collusion for alleged International Centre Response Emergency NGO for the of volunteers arrests included This operations. smuggling facilitating be to perceived were that NGOs pressuring began authorities Greek aresult, As operatives. lower-level to waters work Greek in risky Turkey delegating from remotely while operations who managed level smugglers high- detain to unable part most for the were authorities of Lesvos island Greek For NGOs. the example, on international larger, of offices or legal budgets dollar multi-million by the provided resilience the have of none that NGOs local small, were affected heavily most route, the Balkans Western the Along activities. market licit and illicit the between intersection of point first the as NGOs humanitarian targeted also institutions State smugglers, adaptive and evasive reach to Struggling Impact oncitizensassistingrefugees Greek cities from Athens to Thessaloniki. to Athens from cities Greek in basis aweekly on now appearing are Syrians Kurdish of smuggled hundreds Kurds, ethnic on of Turkish crackdowns result as a asylum. example,For of first country the in of staying risks the than lower relatively trip of the risks the make to emerged pressures new until dormant mostly remained networks smuggling These price. right the at to Greece crossing a offer to In Belgrade, Serbia, national policies policies national Serbia, Belgrade, In www.fmreview.org/issue64 71 72 suggestion based on the Western Balkans Balkans Western the on based suggestion policy realistic Amore leaders. of State pragmatic and forward-looking most but the by any pursued be to unlikely is emption pre- strategic of Admittedly,policy the Humanitarian organisationsasallies 2015. in refugees from $1.8 billion estimated made an smugglers $11.82 was Meanwhile, Sophia million. Operation mission EU’s counter-smuggling budget of the annual the that considering It worth is corridors. humanitarian de facto creating thus smugglers, by offered those than reliable and more affordable more safer, are that options transportation provide to companies, bus like businesses licit private including resources, national mobilise would policy ‘strategic pre-emption’ This actors. away illicit drawto demand from in order options migration profit-making safer, lower-cost, offer instead might States down, shut to smugglers trying than Rather ‘Strategic pre-emption’asanalternative refugees. to donated have been previously would that items sell to opportunity an method for accessing the promised asylum. promised the for accessing method and efficient safe a refugees affording and efforts, or policing military without smuggling preventing stream, revenue their lose and out-competed would be Smugglers countries. safe for reaching option cost reduced a even afford who cannot refugees other to protection and services providing to applied be might funds for adecade. These costs operating Sophia Operation meeting to equivalent $150 at least generated million, would have this Germany in currently refugees Syrian 600,000 the on based then of asylum, promise ambiguous its alongside Frankfurt) to Istanbul from of aticket cost the average (for a$250 flight, example, via Germany of reaching means a practical www.fmreview.org/issue64 images offaces orby pixellating faces. Seewww.fmreview.org/photo-policy. –by– unless it isobvious avoiding thatthisprecaution isunnecessary close-up Our policy, therefore, isthatwe should protect theidentity ofpeopleshown inFMR we cannot foresee –damagethemorundermine theirdignity. ourselves whether showing theirimagemight–atsome timeandinsomeway that People’s to faces bringwords areimportant to life. However, we have to ask Choosing imagesfor FMR 2 Had Germany offered offered Had Germany Trafficking andsmuggling www.bcars-global.org; www.refugeesintowns.org International Center, Tufts University Refugees inTowns Project, Feinstein forBoston ArabRegion Consortium Studiesand Charles Simpson alike. humanitarians and refugees of well-being and safety the improving while for smuggling demand reduce could States organisations, humanitarian criminalising avoiding and smugglers By out-competing consumers. their onto States by imposed risks the shift efficiently able to enterprises, private other like and, meet. ends make to themselves smugglers or work as narcotics sell to having sometimes economy, illicit the to turn to had refugees of migrants, hiring the on or restrictions NGO shutdowns with work for refugees; temporary cash-based provided often NGOs local Greece’s Similarly, cities, in Europe. northern to journey their continuing before houses safe in places obtain to smugglers to turn to had NGOs, however, refugees of humanitarian closure the After services. smugglers’ the undercut NGOs local these so, doing In transportation. of legitimate forms or other tickets bus buying sometimes and accommodation; overnight temporary safe, offering policies; border changing on refugees to information timely providing actively were NGOs local Balkans, the in NGOs humanitarian on crackdown the Before services. alternative provide to them allow to them, of criminalising instead and, allies potential as society civil humanitarian see to institutions security for State is route make apointaboutpolicy. Although aroughapproximation,thiscalculation issufficientto into Europein2015atalow-endestimateof $1,000perperson. 2. Thisestimateisbasedonthe1.8millionmigrants thatcrossed International Migration International StudyofSyrianForcedMigrationandSmuggling’, 1. MandićDandSimpsonC(2017)‘RefugeesShiftedRisk: An Smuggling networks are adaptive adaptive are networks Smuggling https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12371 [email protected] June 2020

FMR 64 COVID-19: early reflections 73 FMR 64 June 2020 www.fmreview.org/issue64 Refugee-led responses in the fight against COVID-19: building lasting participatory models Alexander Betts, Evan Easton-Calabria and Kate Pincock

The formal structures of humanitarian aid are struggling to respond to the consequences of COVID-19. The work of refugee-led organisations is now more relevant than ever, and they need to be far better supported – both now and in the longer term.

Some of the most devastating consequences community-level support rather than larger of COVID-19 will be in the developing NGOs or international organisations. world. Among the most vulnerable are refugees, 85% of whom live in low and Refugee-led responses in Uganda middle-income countries. Within refugee In Uganda, home to around 1.4 million camps, self-isolation and social distancing refugees, refugee-led organisations have measures are nearly impossible to been making important contributions to implement, and people are anxious amid help provide support in both camps and the spread of misinformation. Meanwhile, cities during the pandemic. In the Nakivale many international staff from NGOs and Settlement in the south-west of Uganda, the UN have been pulled out of refugee employees of the Wakati Foundation – who camps. Other international humanitarian ordinarily work on small-scale building organisations have significantly reduced projects – have been sewing and distributing their capacity and funding is stretched colourful face masks. The Foundation has to breaking point or has been diverted. also been raising awareness among the And in many cities, where humanitarian community about COVID-19. Further north, assistance has always been weakest, refugees in Arua, the Global Society Initiative for face exclusion from access to government Peace and Democracy has been building services including food distribution. an information campaign focusing on Below the radar, and in parallel to formal preventive measures relating to hygiene humanitarian assistance, many refugees and sanitation in the refugee camps to are working to fill these gaps. Refugee-led help slow the spread of the virus. organisations have long played an important Many of the most acute challenges, but neglected role in providing protection however, are actually in urban areas. Some and assistance to other refugees – and host refugees have reported being less afraid of communities – in camps and cities around the virus than of its secondary consequences: the world. It is evident that many are highly restricted access to food, medicine and valued by their communities, and some basic services. In Kampala in April 2020, operate on an impressive scale.1 However, for example, many refugees faced severe they rarely receive international funding food shortages because of the lockdown. or recognition as key operational partners The government announced on national from a humanitarian system that is still television that non-nationals would not premised upon a strong separation between get food aid, excepting those in refugee the provider and the ‘beneficiary’. This is camps. According to attendees, in its urban despite refugees consistently saying that they coordination meetings on COVID-19, UNHCR rely on community-level support as much, recognised that refugees in Kampala needed if not more so, than international aid. For urgent support, yet a combination of practical instance, when we surveyed refugees in and funding constraints meant it was Uganda and Kenya on their primary source struggling to meet food and medical needs. of social protection, over 90% said that Urban refugee-led organisations are in an emergency they would first turn to also trying to fill gaps. For example, in 74 COVID-19: early reflections FMR 64 www.fmreview.org/issue64 June 2020

Kampala, Hope for Children and Women UN and international NGOs. Meanwhile, Victims of Violence, which ordinarily national governments and national NGOs, supports refugees through vocational especially those that hold privileged status training, psychosocial support and English as UN implementing partners, are often lessons, has distributed food and soap to suspicious of refugee-led organisations. refugees and Ugandans in the Ndejje area In a pandemic, localisation absolutely of the city. Meanwhile, Young African cannot be a substitute for international donor Refugees for Integral Development (YARID) funding and assistance, or for health-related has distributed baskets of food to the most expert knowledge and technical interventions. vulnerable in the community, identifying However, localisation and the more systematic recipients through community networks. engagement of crisis-affected communities The response by refugee-led organisations and refugees themselves may have a crucial is of course not unique to Uganda. Refugee- complementary role to play. In the context of led assistance and protection can be found COVID-19, refugee-led (and other community) in every contemporary displacement crisis, organisations might play a number of roles from Myanmar to Venezuela, encompassing in supporting humanitarian response: activities as diverse as education, health, livelihoods, finance and housing. While Providing public information: One of many organisations lack capacity, they the biggest issues in refugee camps is often have a comparative advantage in countering misinformation about the terms of community-level trust, social virus. Since the effectiveness of mass networks, and adaptability – all of which communication campaigns is likely to be are crucial in the context of a pandemic. affected by how socio-culturally embedded they are, working through community- Localisation: needed more than ever level intermediaries will be crucial. There The World Humanitarian Summit in 2016 are already established networks within resulted in a Grand Bargain agreement many refugee camps and communities. which placed a strong emphasis on the Where gaps exist, refugee-led organisations, concept of ‘localisation’, which recognises especially those whose work intersects with and supports people affected by crisis as health, might play a crucial ‘bridging’ role. important first responders. However, a significant gap remains between the rhetoric Deploying community health workers: and reality surrounding this agenda, In recent years, community health workers especially when it comes to working with have been recognised as key actors in organisations run by refugees. For the most health delivery in developing countries, part, the few organisations that thrive have and they have increasingly been used done so by bypassing the humanitarian in refugee settings. They can be rapidly system altogether and by raising funding trained and affordably equipped, and can through international networks instead. play a range of roles from information UNHCR is willing to work with these sharing to tracking infections, as well as refugee-led organisations, particularly in providing support in basic prevention, the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, but rehabilitation and health promotion. funding for working this way is virtually non- existent. Most donor governments impose Tracking and monitoring: In contexts significant accountability and compliance in which social distancing measures are standards on grant recipients, which the inhibited by dense and open housing, majority of small-scale refugee-led groups tracking the spread of infection is even more are unable to meet. UN staff complain that important. Many humanitarian organisations refugee-led organisations can be challenging have already equipped displaced populations to work with, generally lack capacity, with mobile technology and apps capable and are sometimes highly critical of the of community-level reporting, on issues COVID-19: early reflections 75 FMR 64 June 2020 www.fmreview.org/issue64 YARID/Patrick Makombe YARID/Patrick

YARID staff delivering food during the pandemic to vulnerable refugees in Kampala, Uganda.

from the functioning of boreholes to At a global level, refugees are coordinating school attendance and birth registration, their responses, and there are growing voices and communities could use these to play of support for responses ‘by refugees for a key role in supporting virus tracking. refugees’ during the pandemic.2 The starting point needs to be the building of a coalition Supplementing capacity gaps: With many of people willing to take this seriously – one senior humanitarian staff absent from that includes refugee-led organisations, refugee camps and aid budgets under threat, donor governments, foundations, NGOs many social services in camps may become and academics. Its focus should be on stretched. Local staff and volunteers have mapping organisational capacity, building an important role to play in finding ways best practices, and piloting new delivery to deliver essential services like education, mechanisms to get resources into the food distribution and water and sanitation hands of frontline providers. Donors may under social distancing measures. need to be willing to accept higher levels of risk and reduce compliance standards. Influencing social norms: In wealthier Most government donors worry about countries, governments are widely accountability to their own electorates, using behavioural economics to design and this has been a particular issue in interventions to shape social compliance Uganda. Private money and pooled funds with public health policies. They have may be necessary to mitigate risk while access to big data and eminent social piloting new funding mechanisms. scientists to design responses adapted to Historically, there has been a glaring the cultural context. This approach is not asymmetry of power at the heart of readily available in many humanitarian the international refugee system. The settings. In refugee camps, for instance, participation of refugees, let alone their shaping social norms relies on building organisations, has rarely been encouraged. In community-level trust – and working the current crisis, there are strong imperatives proactively with refugee-led organisations to change this as a matter of necessity, may be the best available option of doing so. particularly as the world faces the likely 76 COVID-19: early reflections FMR 64 www.fmreview.org/issue64 June 2020

possibility of subsequent waves of infections Kate Pincock [email protected] that impede many normal humanitarian Researcher, Gender and Adolescence: Global operations indefinitely. If new partnerships Evidence (GAGE), ODI www.gage.odi.org can emerge, the COVID-19 crisis may 1. See Pincock K, Betts A and Easton-Calabria E (2020) The represent a unique moment of opportunity Global Governed? Refugees as Providers of Protection and Assistance, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press to build lasting models of participatory 3 2. See article by Alio, Alrihawi, Milner, Noor, Wazefadost and inclusive humanitarian governance. and Zigashane in this issue. See also recordings of the recent RSC seminar series ‘#ByRefugees: strengthening refugee-led Alexander Betts [email protected] humanitarian response during the COVID-19 pandemic’ Leopold Muller Professor of Forced Migration and bit.ly/RSC-ByRefugees International Affairs 3. A version of this article first appeared in The Conversation on 28 April 2020 Evan Easton-Calabria bit.ly/Betts-EastonCalabria-Pincock-Conversation-200428 [email protected] See also ‘The Localisation of Humanitarian Assistance as a Response to COVID-19’, COVID-19 Watch, Kaldor Centre Senior Research Officer Refugee Studies Centre, bit.ly/Betts-EastonCalabria-Pincock-Kaldor-localisation University of Oxford www.rsc.ox.ac.uk

By refugees, for refugees: refugee leadership during COVID-19, and beyond Mustafa Alio, Shaza Alrihawi, James Milner, Anila Noor, Najeeba Wazefadost and Pascal Zigashane

The response to COVID-19 calls for meaningful and substantive refugee participation and leadership.

The speed with which COVID-19 has spread Likewise, in Amman, Jordan, refugees worldwide has been as extraordinary as previously reliant on access to the informal the impact it has had on communities. This economy are no longer able to feed their includes refugee communities, but in very families. Anxiety is high in remote refugee particular ways. From those in remote and camps, like Kakuma in Kenya, and in isolated camps, to those living in precarious urban contexts, like Dar es Salaam in conditions in urban settings, to all whose Tanzania, due to a lack of information, movement has been blocked by the closing basic sanitation or any capacity to respond of borders and increased State controls, to the pandemic.1 And UNHCR has issued scores of refugees have been significantly guidelines2 in response to the particular affected both by the arrival of the virus and challenges it expects will be faced by refugee by State policies implemented in response. women, older persons, survivors of gender- In April 2020 the Global Refugee- based violence, children, youth, persons led Network (GRN) hosted a virtual with disabilities and LGBTI persons. international conference involving more Clearly, there is a need for urgent action than 100 refugee leaders. Participants for refugees. But equally important is the shared how refugees have been excluded need to recognise, support and amplify the from health-care systems in hard-hit action already being undertaken by refugees. countries like Iran, how the shutdown of the economy in Uganda has made Providing support, filling gaps previously self-reliant refugees destitute Refugee leaders and refugee-led and desperate, and how asylum seekers organisations have mobilised to provide in Greece remain in cramped conditions support and essential information in ripe for the rapid spread of the virus. response to the pandemic within their COVID-19: early reflections 77 FMR 64 June 2020 www.fmreview.org/issue64

regions. In countries around the world, is “increasingly being characterized by refugees are providing information limited mobility and access for international and training, food distribution, legal actors”. Yet the US$6.7 billion requested support, online mental health support, from donors is being directed to the very and transportation for those in need of multilateral actors that are constrained in medical care, and are filling critical gaps their ability to respond. Yet again, refugee- in basic services including in health, led organisations, even those with the proven education and protection. Refugees are capacity to manage donor funds and mount also mobilising to raise awareness of how effective responses, are not being included in their fellow refugees are being affected by a direct, meaningful and substantive way. both the virus and by State responses. For example, in Lebanon, local refugee- Honouring commitments to refugee led organisations like Basmeh & Zeitooneh participation and the Molham Volunteering Team are This marginalisation of refugee-led working to support tens of thousands of organisations comes just over a year after families in need through providing food the Global Compact on Refugees (GCR) baskets, hygiene kits and cash support to was affirmed by the UN General Assembly. pay monthly rents. Elsewhere, the Asia Its stated purpose is to “provide a basis Pacific Network of Refugees, one of the for predictable and equitable burden- and GRN’s regional chapters, has showcased responsibility-sharing among all United as part of its #Refugeesrise campaign the Nations Member States, together with many refugees and asylum seekers serving other relevant stakeholders… including… as health-care providers on the frontline refugees themselves”. In December 2019, of the pandemic response. The campaign at the first Global Refugee Forum, States, has included live online events featuring international organisations and a host of health-care providers answering questions other actors re-affirmed the importance of in Farsi, Dari and other languages. And meaningful refugee participation. Many in Kenya’s Dadaab refugee complex, took GRN’s Refugee Participation Pledge.4 whose first case was reported in May These commitments to refugee 2020, the refugee-led initiative Dadaab participation need to be honoured and Films has expanded its programming implemented, now more than ever. It to include public health information to is not only the right thing to do – given help prevent the spread of COVID-19. normative commitments from the GCR, These localised responses, by refugees the Grand Bargain and the New York for refugees, are just some of the latest Declaration – but it is also a good thing to examples of how refugees are typically do. Many research projects have painted first responders to crises that affect their detailed pictures of the contributions communities. These responses will need to refugees make to responding to the needs be more fully appreciated and supported of their communities.5 These valuable if we are to be able to effectively meet contributions complement the responses of the critical challenges facing refugees international actors such as UNHCR, and during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially their significance needs to be more fully where international actors – UN agencies, reflected in research, policy and practice. international NGOs and governments – are In practice, donors and humanitarian constrained by regulations that require actors should collaborate closely and them to restrict their movements. directly with refugee-led organisations In fact, when the UN launched its Global in developing and implementing their Humanitarian Response Plan for COVID-19,3 responses to COVID-19. This should it noted that the response would emphasise include direct funding to those refugee- “the importance of involving and supporting led organisations that have the capacity local organizations” especially as the crisis to deliver and report on their impact. 78 COVID-19: early reflections FMR 64 www.fmreview.org/issue64 June 2020

Refugee-led organisations should also be Research Network https://carleton.ca/lerrn included as part of the multilateral response Anila Noor [email protected] to COVID-19, not only as implementers Steering Committee Member, Global Refugee-led but as equal partners in planning. Network www.globalrefugeelednetwork.org In policy, refugee-led organisations need to be equal partners in discussions Najeeba Wazefadost around how State responses to COVID-19 [email protected] are affecting all communities, including Founding Member, Global Refugee-led Network refugees. They also need to be part of and Asia Pacific Network of Refugees the planning for how the international @APNORefugees community will continue to pursue global Pascal Zigashane [email protected] goals such as the Sustainable Development Executive Director, URISE Initiative for Africa Goals, both during and after the pandemic. https://uriseforafrica.org As detailed in GRN’s Guidelines for 6 1. See reports from LERRN partners on local contexts in Jordan, Meaningful Refugee Participation, this Lebanon, Kenya and Tanzania involvement in policy processes must https://carleton.ca/lerrn/covid-19-updates-from-our-partners/ be substantive rather than cosmetic, and 2. UNHCR (2020) ‘Age, Gender and Diversity Considerations – have the capacity to affect outcomes. COVID-19’ www.refworld.org/docid/5e84a9dd4.html 3. UN (2020) Global Humanitarian Response Plan Likewise, research on the impact bit.ly/UN-Global-Plan-COVID19-2020 of COVID-19 on refugees must include 4. www.globalrefugeelednetwork.org/pledge/ refugees in all stages of the research 5. See for example process, from design to data collection bit.ly/LERRN-Refugee-Participation-Kakuma-Nairobi; and analysis and the presentation of bit.ly/RSC-Refugees-Social-Protection-Kenya-Uganda findings. The inclusion of refugees will 6. Global Refugee-led Network (2019) Meaningful Refugee Participation as Transformative Leadership: Guidelines for Concrete lead to research that is better informed by Action bit.ly/GRN-Refugee-Participation-Guidelines-2019 the realities it seeks to explain and more 7. A version of this article first appeared as ‘By refugees, for likely to alleviate the suffering it studies. refugees: Refugee leadership during COVID-19, and beyond’ in These are important lessons not only the Kaldor Centre’s COVID-19 Watch blog, 20 April 2020 bit.ly/Kaldor-Refugee-Leadership-200420 for our response to COVID-19 but beyond. It remains to be seen if governments, international organisations, NGOs and other actors will emerge from the pandemic #ByRefugees – during COVID-19 willing to recognise the role that refugee- In May–June 2020, the Refugee Studies Centre led responses can play, or simply default hosted a series of seminars on ‘Strengthening to the old model of viewing refugees as refugee-led humanitarian response during the the passive recipients of assistance. As COVID-19 pandemic’. The panellists, which the global refugee regime seeks to rebuild include practitioners, policy influencers, funders from this pandemic, it will be important and community responders (and of which the to recognise how strong, meaningful and majority are refugees), looked at how refugees substantive refugee participation can are responding to the current crisis, reflected on help ensure that we build back better.7 how they can be supported by external actors, Mustafa Alio [email protected] and considered the prospects for creating lasting forms of participatory humanitarian governance. Managing Director and Co-Founder, Jumpstart Refugee Talent www.rcjp.ca Series conveners: Shaza Al Rihawi, Anila Noor, Najeeba Wazefadost and Mustafa Alio (Global Shaza Alrihawi [email protected] Refugee-led Network) with Alexander Betts and Interim Chair, Global Refugee-led Network Andonis Marden (Refugee Studies Centre). www.globalrefugeelednetwork.org Recordings of all webinars available at James Milner [email protected] bit.ly/RSC__YouTube Project Director, Local Engagement Refugee COVID-19: early reflections 79 FMR 64 June 2020 www.fmreview.org/issue64 Counting urban refugees during COVID-19 Florence Lozet and Evan Easton-Calabria

A case-study from Uganda demonstrates that authorities cannot provide the services and assistance that refugees need if they do not have good data on the refugee population. The COVID-19 pandemic highlights this issue while exacerbating the challenges facing urban refugees.

Like most countries around the world, order to collect their food rations. However, Uganda has not been immune to COVID-19, because of the ban on vehicle journeys this and the situation in Arua Municipality is no longer possible and there is no way to highlights some of the most challenging travel to the settlements. Although residing lockdown issues affecting refugees. The in urban areas while remaining registered district in which Arua Municipality is in camps is not technically permitted in located hosts more than 250,000 South Uganda, this is the reality for many refugees. Sudanese refugees (of a total of more than The failure to collect data on urban refugees one million across the country), with is side-stepping this reality, and putting self-settled urban refugees making up refugees in difficult and risky situations. an estimated 24%1 of its total population. Access to food has also been restricted Despite these large figures, refugees are as only recognised market vendors can not included in the national census and now sell their products in Arua, meaning there have been challenges in documenting that informal businesses and street vendors them at the municipal level. This is have been forced to stop selling. This true for secondary cities across Uganda reduction in market vendors has led to (and even the capital Kampala has only an overall reduction in the food supply estimates of the actual number of refugees and has resulted in an inflation of food in the city). This lack of data makes it very market prices with a subsequent impact on difficult for cities to adequately plan and Arua’s entire population. In addition it has provide for all their residents, and results devastated the livelihoods of many refugees in increasing pressure on public services and members of the host communities including health and education. In times of who usually survive from day to day emergency like this, it becomes even harder through selling in the informal sector. to understand the level of support needed Mayor Kato of Arua Municipality and where those in need actually reside. has acknowledged this tension: While there have only been 264 “We want to protect the population from confirmed cases in the country (and very COVID-19 but it seems at the same time that little testing), up to 19th May, the challenges there are many restrictions on the market, causing of day-to-day survival are growing. In hunger and panic among people.” addition to closing places for public assembly (including schools), the government has While this situation is difficult for banned public transport and non-food everyone, it is particularly challenging for markets, and has closed shopping malls refugees as the government does not offer and non-food stores. One of the biggest them food rations (although at least in challenges refugees are facing in lockdown Kampala this stance appears to have changed is access to food. Usually, the poorest due to international attention). Even if rations commute to the city to work, then go back to were available, however, it is unlikely that the settlements where their families reside refugees would be eligible to receive them and where they can get their food rations. as they are not officially registered as living Others depend on a monthly trip back to in Arua. One refugee said that, even in the settlement where they are registered in exceptional circumstances such as these: 80 COVID-19: early reflections FMR 64 www.fmreview.org/issue64 June 2020

“Since there is no data on how many refugees instead are more intertwined. Yet such are in the city, there is no special consideration institutional flexibility does not address for the refugees in terms of food provision by the the larger issue: that urban refugees are organisations.” often unseen and unaccounted for. This is an issue which COVID-19 – and No official back-up plan for urban refugee responses to it – exacerbates rather than food distribution exists as the local authorities causes. If urban refugees were properly lack capacity as well as the data required to accounted for, the municipalities in which identify numbers and locations of refugees. they reside could receive more resources from the central government to support Gaps in urban refugee policy their populations, including refugees. The This challenge is twinned with another. amount of emergency support provided, UNHCR and other international such as food rations, could then reflect the organisations rarely provide material actual number of those in need. Stronger assistance such as food or shelter in urban health-care systems designed for the real areas as, in most cases, urban assistance number of inhabitants of municipalities, provision is not part of their mandate. In rather than just their citizens, could be Arua, almost all international organisations created. And in turn the health and well- are based in the municipality but operate being of both urban refugees and Ugandans solely in the camps. Urban refugees are could be improved. The current pandemic expected to become self-reliant – yet it is highlights the need for the inclusion of unclear how this is meant to happen during urban refugees in censuses and government a lockdown when freedom of movement planning, and should be a wake-up call and the informal street vending that most to international NGOs to address the rely on are restricted. This leaves urban extreme vulnerability of those urban refugees caught between already stretched refugees so often deemed ‘self-reliant’. government support and humanitarian systems of support – and effectively eligible Florence Lozet [email protected] 2 for neither. Urban Analyst, Cities Alliance In Arua, the World Food Programme www.citiesalliance.org (WFP) has agreed to change its policy and Evan Easton-Calabria allow urban refugees to fill in forms so [email protected] that friends or family in the settlements Senior Research Officer, Refugee Studies Centre, can collect their food rations for them. University of Oxford www.rsc.ox.ac.uk This change is crucial if WFP is to fulfil its 1. AGORA (2018) Urban community assessment: Arua, Uganda – commitment to reducing food insecurity, August 2018 bit.ly/AGORA-Arua-August2018 and other international organisations should 2. Cities Alliance is conducting two projects in Arua funded by the consider similar changes in order to meet Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. One of these is urban refugees’ needs. It also reflects the a research project led by the Refugee Studies Centre on the role of local authorities in managing migration in Arua: reality of refugees’ lives, which often are bit.ly/RSC-uganda-ethiopia-cities not centred solely on camps or cities but

Collaborate with FMR to boost your research or programme funding bid Funders want to see how your findings, outcomes and learning will be disseminated to the widest possible audience, including to policymakers. And they want evidence of impact. This is where FMR can help. FMR has been included in several successful programmatic and research funding bids (both large and small) to the mutual benefit of all parties. Consider including an issue of FMR or an FMR mini-feature in your proposal (and budget) to enhance the dissemination and impact of your project outcomes. We can provide tailored information and budgets, plus evidence of outreach and impact. To discuss options, contact the Editors at [email protected]. COVID-19: early reflections 81 FMR 64 June 2020 www.fmreview.org/issue64 Supporting evidence-driven responses to COVID-19 Domenico Tabasso

The challenges of gathering data about displaced people and host communities are further complicated in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the need to assess the impact of the pandemic is also driving innovations in collection, methodology, analysis and the sharing of expertise.

In mid-May 2020, two cases of COVID-19 inferring the characteristics most likely to were reported in the Cox’s Bazar refugee predict whether or not an individual in the camp in Bangladesh. The news caused great population as a whole is infected can be concern because of the potentially devastating a valid approach to limiting the spread of implications. Several features characterising the virus and ultimately reducing deaths. the living conditions of forcibly displaced persons can facilitate a fast spread of the Testing and resources virus: the population density in refugee This strategy is certainly appealing but it camps; limited access to health services; relies on a very important precondition: the and existing levels of malnutrition, poor ability of national and local health authorities health and limited financial resources. to conduct a sufficient number of tests, In the first four months of the COVID-19 which cover a representative sample of the pandemic the reported incidence of population. This condition is not easily met in infection among displaced people was quite many countries which are currently dealing limited. However, a precise assessment with the largest numbers of displaced people. of incidence of the disease in the context of displacement is constrained by the persistence of a long-known phenomenon: the paucity of reliable, publicly available data on the living conditions of displaced people, both within and outside camps. Some of the defining characteristics of the disease have made the need for the collection and analysis of data on displaced people even more relevant. Several features of COVID-19 make it particularly hard to estimate its true spread across any studied population, even in developed economies. Symptoms are common to many other illnesses, a high percentage of infected individuals may not show any symptoms, and many of those who have died after contracting the virus already

had severe underlying health conditions. UNHCR/Louise Donovan This has led many experts to call for the strengthening of the collection and analysis Front-line health workers in UNHCR’s newly opened Isolation and of data in order to build more reliable and Treatment Centre, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, May 2020. comparable systems for monitoring and Estimating the number of tests that have forecasting infection. A study conducted been conducted in every country is of course by researchers from the London Business very difficult, but the information available School1 indicates how testing random indicates that some of the countries which samples of the population, recording their host large numbers of displaced people have socio-demographic characteristics and conducted the lowest numbers of tests per 82 COVID-19: early reflections FMR 64 www.fmreview.org/issue64 June 2020

million people. Many of these are countries invited researchers within its own network that have been crippled by conflicts and to outline their plans to analyse the impacts prolonged political instability and whose of COVID-19 on displaced people. The health-care systems are already severely results show that the COVID-19 crisis underfunded. As an example, consider the has led to an additional and accelerated case of South Sudan, which at the end of effort in implementing innovative 2018 was home to more than two million research and data collection methods. displaced people, including almost 300,000 refugees. According to recent reports, in Adapting research methodologies April 2020 the country’s health system had The responses collected by the JDC, as well available just four ventilators and 24 beds as notes on methodologies released by other in intensive care units for a population of actors in this period, indicate that high- 11.7 million, more than half of whom lack frequency phone surveys represent one access to primary health services.2 As in other method of data gathering that is becoming countries in the region, the COVID-19 crisis more common as a result of the difficulties has worsened an already complex socio- in conducting interviews in person. Hence, economic situation where food insecurity, several institutions, including the World malnutrition and poverty are widespread. Bank, have stepped up their efforts in this In under-resourced contexts like these, the direction. After being anonymised and direct and indirect costs of conducting the appropriately aggregated, mobile phone tests are such that the collection of health data can also be employed for tracking the records and information on the incidence mobility patterns of displaced people. The of COVID-19 among displaced people is ability to measure mobility has gained in simply not feasible. Moreover, the pandemic importance in the current circumstances and the strategies for its limitation also have given the need to evaluate the socio-economic important consequences for the collection integration of displaced people, and to of individual and household-level data compare it with pre-pandemic levels. among those who have been displaced. The widespread use of technologies in For example, restrictions on travel and the the gathering and analysis of data, as well as need to reduce social contact have severely in the tracking and monitoring of movement, hindered the ability to gather data using are also gaining momentum at a global level traditional face-to-face interview methods. as a way of controlling and limiting the To some extent, these hurdles exacerbate spread of COVID-19. This risks exacerbating already existing difficulties. Those the differences between the responses of providing humanitarian assistance and developed countries (where access to new those researching displacement are often technologies is simple and affordable) and working in the data-constrained contexts those of developing countries. Moreover, it of emergencies. Accordingly, the need for poses some important questions regarding evidence-based decisions has required the the way digital information is stored and development of initiatives for the systematic handled. In this respect the humanitarian collection, rigorous analysis and open sector has plenty of experience to offer.4 publication of data. One such example is the UNHCR and other humanitarian actors, who recently created World Bank–UNHCR Joint have developed practices and guidelines Data Center on Forced Displacement (JDC), for dealing with highly sensitive data, a collaboration between the two multilateral can bring useful insights to this debate, institutions which aims to improve the which is of interest to governments and quality and quantity of microdata to support institutions around the world, not just those evidence-based policy decisions and in countries hosting displaced people. response to global displacement crises.3 Modern technologies are also being In addition to the knowledge and best employed in other exercises to assess the practices that already exist, the JDC has response of humanitarian programming to COVID-19: early reflections 83 FMR 64 June 2020 www.fmreview.org/issue64

the threat posed by COVID-19. New online- during this period of social and economic based communities are emerging for sharing insecurity. As the pandemic is leading to data, information and best practices among a severe economic crisis, this may foster practitioners and humanitarian actors. One xenophobic acts or discrimination against such example is the COVID-19 Humanitarian displaced persons. A quantification of these Platform,5 which aims to facilitate knowledge effects can prove extremely useful for the exchange relating to field experiences during development of policies to prevent the spread the pandemic. These collaborative efforts can of these attitudes throughout future crises. help overcome some of the limitations of data As the virus began to spread, international gathering being reliant on a widespread use organisations launched their appeals of internet and mobile technologies, which for funds to protect the most vulnerable otherwise risks systematically excluding the people around the world. For example, poorest and the most isolated communities UNHCR increased its appeal for funds from from relevant surveys and, ultimately, from US$255 million to $745 million. At a time access to financial and material resources. when governments around the globe face unprecedented economic uncertainty, there Evaluating additional effects needs to be additional care in the way that In many instances, it is not only data resources are managed and allocated. Thus, collection methods but also the research the availability of up-to-date data is crucial questions that are undergoing adaptation. If in informing these resource management data are appropriately collected, the shock decisions, as well as the policy decisions caused by the pandemic can offer researchers taken by local and national governments. the possibility of evaluating how both the Domenico Tabasso [email protected] disease and the preventive strategies can exert World Bank–UNHCR Joint Data Center on Forced different effects on the socio-demographic Displacement (JDC) bit.ly/WBG-UNHCR-JDC characteristics of displaced people and host communities. The virus has hit in different The opinions expressed in this article are those ways communities that share many common of the author only and do not necessarily reflect features; similarly, containment strategies the views of the JDC or its founding institutions. have been implemented following different 1. Surico P and Galeotti A (2020) ‘The economics of a pandemic: protocols and strategies. These differences the case of Covid-19’ bit.ly/Surico-Galeotti-COVID-19 will influence the lives of the affected 2. International Rescue Committee (2020)COVID-19 in humanitarian crises: a double emergency, individuals, for example in terms of their bit.ly/IRC-COVID-19-Humanitarian-Crisis employment or educational opportunities. 3. Among its activities, the JDC is currently organising its second A comparison of life trajectories based on annual conference on forced displacement. The call for papers is detailed data can allow the effects of the available at bit.ly/JDC-2nd-conference pandemic on these variables to be isolated 4. Zwitter A and Gstrein O J (2020) ‘Big data, privacy and COVID-19 – learning from humanitarian expertise in data from effects that can instead be attributed protection’, Journal of International Humanitarian Action 5(4) to other factors. Moreover, research efforts bit.ly/Zwitter-Gstrein-COVID19-Big-Data-2020 are also being devoted to the assessment of 5. www.covid19humanitarian.com changes in attitudes towards displaced people

FMR International Advisors Advisors serve in an individual capacity and do not necessarily represent their institutions. Lina Abirafeh Matthew Gibney Khalid Koser Marcel van Maastrigt Lebanese American University Refugee Studies Centre GCERF UNHCR Nina M Birkeland Rachel Hastie Erin Mooney Marcia Vera Espinoza Norwegian Refugee Council Oxfam UN Protection Capacity/ProCap Queen Mary University of London Jeff Crisp Lucy W Kiama Kathrine Starup Richard Williams Independent consultant HIAS Kenya Danish Refugee Council Independent consultant New-look Editors’ briefing

Issue 64 As part of our ongoing drive to reduce the environmental impact of June 2020 Issue 64 Climate crisis and local communities / June 2020 Climate crisis and loca Trafficking and smuggling / COVID-19 l communities This Editors’ briefing provides an overview of FMR, we have combined two existing FMR products to produce a p Climate crisis and local communities and Trafficking and smuggling, plus somelus early Early refl on COVID-19ections

reflections on COVID-19, with links to the relevant articles. Traffi cki FMR issue 64’s and smugglingng feature theme articles on New-look Editors’ briefing! This new-look Editors’ briefing new-look Editors’ briefing. provides headline analysis CLIMATE CRISIS AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES of the content of each issue Local communities around the world have been coping with the effects PLUS a list of all articles (with of a changing climate for decades. The articles published in this feature links to the digital version). focus on the impact on local communities, their coping strategies, lessons arising, and broader questions of access, rights and justice. (A future Visit www.fmreview.org/issue64 issue of FMR will focus on international response and policy.) to access and/or print off the Editors’ briefing, the full magazine Impact on communities and individual articles in English, Communities whose livelihoods depend on the surrounding natural resources, Arabic, Spanish and French. whether land or sea, are particularly vulnerable to the impact of the climate If you regularly receive a print copy crisis on those resources, whether from sea level rise, inundation and salinisation This new six-sided A4 briefing provides four pages of headline of the full magazine but think the (Gini-MendoncaCardoso-PiresRamos new Editors’ briefing meets your or drought (Porges; CortesFerrandez; Croome-Hussein; Ndikintum-AgMalha; needs, please ask us to switch Schoening) or sudden-onset events such; Das-Hazra as flooding; Pacific-mobilities and storms ( ; Geiger) you to this new product. This Porges), with accompanying reduced access to resources to sustain livelihoods. will save us money and reduce In many contexts, people’s coping mechanisms our environmental impact. As the narrow strip of land on which the Enseada community in coastal Brazil lived was reduced drastically in size by changing sea levels, the communitySchoening had; analysis of the content of FMR 64 plus a list of all articles (with title, Forthcoming features: Recognising to make the decision to relocate (Gini-MendoncaCardoso-PiresRamos are failing to keep pace. refugees / Effective practices on little or no State assistance, the community had to internal displacement / Mental health Drawing on traditional knowledge and supported by academic research, they and psychosocial support / identified a new site and reconstructed their houses, prioritising the most Public health and WASH. Details vulnerable and drawing on support from the extendedmanage community, their own including relocation). With . at www.fmreview.org/forthcoming. tourists, to fund their costs. The physical and emotional toll was considerable, and Request notifications at only their strong collectivism, determination and sense of urgency enabled them author, author affiliation, introductory sentence/s and web/QR code www.fmreview.org/request/alerts. to continue. The legal and political invisibility of such communities hinders their FMR 64 has been sponsored by Rosa protection and access to justice and assistance, despite their obvious vulnerability. Luxemburg Stiftung with funds from Nomadic-pastoralists such as Kenya’s Turkana people have long had their the Federal Ministry for Economic own ways of tackling the impacts of climate change (Nabenyo). To protect Cooperation and Development of resources, they control and rotate grazing, and share access to pasture; when the Federal Republic of Germany. necessary, they move into neighbouring regions to access greener pastures. The content of this publication is As herders increasingly need to move more frequently and further, there are a links to the digital version). growing number of clashes and conflict with other groups competing for the same the sole responsibility of Forced Migration Review and does not resources. Bilateral negotiations by the countries involved to allow reciprocal grazing necessarily reflect the position of can help reduce conflict over pasture. Some Turkana have adopted agro- Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung. pastoralism and fishing as are needed to help communities diversify, recover and rebuild livelihoods. alternative livelihoods For pastoral communities in Ethiopia’s Somali region, the 2015–17 drought displaced more than 300,000 people and led to huge butlivestock more supportlosses, forcing and training Marion Couldrey and Jenny Peebles people to adapt. Consecutive years of drought and food insecurity have severely Forced Migration Review Editors depleted communities’ coping mechanisms and resilience; in the region there is [email protected] • www.fmreview.org therefore considerable focus on resilience building among committees of IDPs If you/your organisation regularly receives a print copy of the full +44 (0)1865 281700 @fmreview and host community grassroots organisations. The participation of the whole community in disaster risk reduction committees has had some success but in magazine, and you think the new Editors’ briefing

FMR issue 64 contents listing FMR issue 64 contents listing Issue 64 June 2020 meets your/your organisation’s needs, please can CLIMATE CRISIS AND Civil litigation on behalf of trafficking survivors: a Tackling smuggling in the Balkans: policy lessons Charles Simpson (Tufts University) new approach to accountability? Issue 64 LOCAL COMMUNITIES June 2020 Henry Wu (University of Oxford) Across the world, restrictive border security policies are being Resilience, adaptation and learning: Malian refugees Multiple mobilities in Pacific Islands communities Criminal prosecutions of trafficking offences are limited in scope. pursued in an attempt to tackle smuggling yet there is relatively little discussion of the evidence around what actually happens and their Mauritanian hosts Fanny Thornton, Karen McNamara, Olivia Dun, Carol Civil litigation may provide an avenue for justice and accountability within a victim-centred, trauma-informed framework. when these policies are enacted. Climate crisis Fouda Ndikintum and Mohamed Ag Malha (UNHCR / Farbotko, Celia McMichael, Merewalesi Yee, Sabira Coelho, and local communities Refugee Council, Mbera Camp) Tim Westbury, Sharon James and Frances Namoumou www.fmreview.org/issue64/wu www.fmreview.org/issue64/simpson Malian refugees in Mbera, Mauritania, have brought with them (University of Canberra / University of Queensland / Challenging the so-called trafficking–terror finance you let us know that you would be happy to switch the skills and experience they gained in managing the effects of University of Melbourne / Commonwealth Scientific and COVID-19: EARLY REFLECTIONS nexus climate change in their home country, and are learning new skills Industrial Research Organisation / IOM / UN Economic in exile. Both refugee and host communities are benefiting. Craig Damian Smith (Ryerson University) Refugee-led responses in the fight and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific / Pacific The assertion of a causal relationship between trafficking and against COVID-19: building lasting participatory plus www.fmreview.org/issue64/ndikintum-agmalha terror financing is called into question by poor evidence and weak Early reflections Conference of Churches) Climate crisis and local communities / on COVID-19 Types of mobility in the Pacific Islands are numerous and diverse. data, and its troubling policy implications. models Trafficking Environmental challenges and local strategies in Alexander Betts, Evan Easton-Calabria and Kate Pincock and smuggling Western Sahara Case-studies from the region offer insights into the actions and www.fmreview.org/issue64/smith agency of people, households and communities in the face of (University of Oxford / ODI) Trafficking and smuggling / COVID-19 Matthew Porges (University of St Andrews) The formal structures of humanitarian aid are struggling to Sahrawi refugee-nomads are finding ways to tackle the accelerating climate vulnerability. Tackling exploitation through ‘technology for freedom’ respond to the consequences of COVID-19. The work of refugee- This Editors’ briefing provides an overview of FMR issue 64’s feature theme articles on to this product? interconnected climate-related challenges that they face. Their www.fmreview.org/issue64/Pacific-mobilities led organisations is now more relevant than ever, and they need to Christa Foster Crawford and Ashley Kafton (Freedom responses show the importance of flexible, refugee-driven be far better supported – both now and in the longer term. initiatives. When the two seas met: preventive and self- Resource International / Ohio University) Climate crisis and local communities and Trafficking and smuggling, plus some early www.fmreview.org/issue64/betts-eastoncalabria- www.fmreview.org/issue64/porges managed relocation of the Nova Enseada Examples from Southeast Asia show both the promise and the reflections on COVID-19, with links to the relevant articles. community in Brazil pitfalls of emerging technologies and platforms that are being pincock used to tackle forms of exploitation. Climate-induced involuntary migration: nomadic- Giovanna Gini, Tatiana Mendonça Cardoso and Erika By refugees, for refugees: refugee leadership during pastoralists’ search for elusive pastures in Kenya Pires Ramos (Queen Mary University / Enseada da Baleia www.fmreview.org/issue64/crawford-kafton Ekai Nabenyo (Article 43) COVID-19, and beyond New-look Editors’ briefing! CLIMATE CRISIS AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES community / University of Sao Paulo/RESAMA) Mustafa Alio, Shaza Alrihawi, James Milner, Anila As the impacts of climate change grow more severe, Turkana A collaboration between community members and researchers Smuggling and trafficking from Vietnam to Europe Local communities around the world have been coping with the effects Mimi Vu and Nadia Sebtaoui (Independent trafficking Noor, Najeeba Wazefadost and Pascal Zigashane (Jumpstart This new-look Editors’ briefing nomadic-pastoralists are increasingly being forced to move, rather examines how a traditional coastal community in Brazil overcame of a changing climate for decades. The articles published in this feature than choosing to move. Their voices must be heard at the local environmental and legal challenges to manage their own experts) Refugee Talent / Global Refugee-led Network / Carleton provides headline analysis Vietnamese migration to Europe is a complex, fluid phenomenon focus on the impact on local communities, their coping strategies, lessons and international level, and their knowledge and insights must relocation. University / Asia Pacific Network of Refugees / URISE of the content of each issue inform policymaking. where a course of action that begins as smuggling can also involve Initiative for Africa) arising, and broader questions of access, rights and justice. (A future www.fmreview.org/issue64/gini-mendoncacardoso- trafficking and other forms of exploitation. PLUS a list of all articles (with Editors’ briefing www.fmreview.org/issue64/nabenyo piresramos The response to COVID-19 calls for meaningful and substantive issue of FMR will focus on international response and policy.) The is lighter and therefore www.fmreview.org/issue64/vu-sebtaoui refugee participation and leadership. links to the digital version). Community strategies for diversification in Ethiopia www.fmreview.org/issue64/alio-alrihawi-milner-noor- Pablo Cortés Ferrández (Internal Displacement Monitoring Migrant ‘caravans’ in Mexico and the fight against Visit www.fmreview.org/issue64 Impact on communities TRAFFICKING AND SMUGGLING wazefadost-zigashane Centre) smuggling to access and/or print off the Communities whose livelihoods depend on the surrounding natural resources, Eduardo Torre Cantalapiedra (Cátedras Conacyt–El Colegio The 2015–17 drought in the Horn of Africa displaced more than The same ruler for everyone: improving trafficking Counting urban refugees during COVID-19 Editors’ briefing, the full magazine whether land or sea, are particularly vulnerable to the impact of the climate 300,000 pastoralists in the eastern part of the Somali region of estimates de la Frontera Norte) Florence Lozet and Evan Easton-Calabria (Cities Alliance / crisis on those resources, whether from sea level rise, inundation and salinisation Ethiopia. Many who lost their livestock have instead engaged in The treatment of the migrant and asylum seeker caravans and individual articles in English, Joshua Youle and Abigail Long (Everwatch Solutions University of Oxford) (Gini-MendoncaCardoso-PiresRamos; Das-Hazra; Pacific-mobilities; Geiger) grassroots action to improve livelihoods recovery and to build Corporation/Cherokee Nation Mission Solutions/US State travelling through Mexico shows the negative consequences that A case-study from Uganda demonstrates that authorities cannot Arabic, Spanish and French. resilience. Department) the fight against people smuggling has had for those making these provide the services and assistance that refugees need if they or drought (Porges; CortesFerrandez; Croome-Hussein; Ndikintum-AgMalha; cheaper to produce and send to readers. Reducing journeys and their defenders. www.fmreview.org/issue64/cortesferrandez Current guidelines for measuring the prevalence of trafficking are do not have good data on the refugee population. The COVID-19 If you regularly receive a print copy Schoening) or sudden-onset events such as flooding and storms Schoening( ; inadequate. Improving the accuracy of trafficking estimates will www.fmreview.org/issue64/torrecantalapiedra pandemic highlights this issue while exacerbating the challenges of the full magazine but think the Trapped or resettled: coastal communities in the Porges), with accompanying reduced access to resources to sustain livelihoods. require comprehensive, standardised guidelines which have been facing urban refugees. new Editors’ briefing meets your Sundarbans Delta, India rigorously tested in the field. The adverse effects of Niger’s anti-smuggling law In many contexts, people’s coping mechanisms are failing to keep pace. Colleen Moser (Graduate Institute of International and www.fmreview.org/issue64/lozet-eastoncalabria needs, please ask us to switch Shaberi Das and Sugata Hazra (Jadavpur University) www.fmreview.org/issue64/youle-long As the narrow strip of land on which the Enseada community in coastal Brazil When local communities face the brunt of the impacts of climate Development Studies) Supporting evidence-driven responses to COVID-19 you to this new product. This lived was reduced drastically in size by changing sea levels, the community had change, how able are they to make choices in their response? And Understanding the psychological effects of sex The criminalisation of human smuggling in Niger has had a range Domenico Tabasso (Joint Data Center on Forced whose responsibility is it to provide support? of negative effects on migrants and asylum seekers, as well as on will save us money and reduce to make the decision to relocate (Gini-MendoncaCardoso-PiresRamos). With trafficking to inform service delivery Displacement) our environmental impact. the number of print copies of the full magazine in www.fmreview.org/issue64/das-hazra Jennifer McQuaid (Yale Center for Asylum Medicine) their former smugglers and host communities. Alternative avenues The challenges of gathering data about displaced people and little or no State assistance, the community had tomanage their own relocation. must be pursued. Those providing assistance to survivors of trafficking should focus host communities are further complicated in the context of Forthcoming features: Recognising Drawing on traditional knowledge and supported by academic research, they Climate crisis and local communities in South East not only on the delivery of services but also on building survivors’ www.fmreview.org/issue64/moser the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the need to assess the Asia: causes, responses and questions of justice capacity to engage in treatment and support. impact of the pandemic is also driving innovations in collection, refugees / Effective practices on identified a new site and reconstructed their houses, prioritising the most Laura Geiger (Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung) www.fmreview.org/issue64/mcquaid methodology, analysis and the sharing of expertise. internal displacement / Mental health vulnerable and drawing on support from the extended community, including Civil society networks with experience, knowledge and passion www.fmreview.org/issue64/tabasso and psychosocial support / tourists, to fund their costs. The physical and emotional toll was considerable, and are fighting climate injustice and promoting the rights of those Addressing trafficking in the sex industry: time to Public health and WASH. Details only their strong collectivism, determination and sense of urgency enabled them displaced by the impacts of climate change. recognise the contribution of sex workers www.fmreview.org/issue64/geiger Borislav Gerasimov (Global Alliance Against Traffic in Forced Migration Review (FMR) provides a forum for the Collaborate with FMR to boost your research or at www.fmreview.org/forthcoming. to continue. The legal and political invisibility of such communities hinders their circulation will not just lighten our environmental Women) regular exchange of practical experience, information Request notifications at protection and access to justice and assistance, despite their obvious vulnerability. Lessons from internal climate migration in Mongolia programme funding bid Simon Schoening (Consultant/Humboldt University of Berlin) Efforts to combat trafficking in the sex industry must respect sex and ideas between researchers, refugees and internally www.fmreview.org/request/alerts. Nomadic-pastoralists such as Kenya’s Turkana people have long had their workers’ decisions and agency, and recognise them and their Rural communities in western Mongolia are increasingly displaced people, and those who work with them. It is FMR has been included in several successful programmatic own ways of tackling the impacts of climate change (Nabenyo). To protect abandoning their traditional livelihood systems. Strengthening the organisations as legitimate stakeholders in the anti-trafficking and research funding bids (both large and small) to the FMR 64 has been sponsored by Rosa movement. published in English, Arabic, Spanish and French by resources, they control and rotate grazing, and share access to pasture; when rural economy may lessen the need to migrate to urban areas but mutual benefit of all parties. Consider including an issue Luxemburg Stiftung with funds from www.fmreview.org/issue64/gerasimov the Refugee Studies Centre of the Oxford Department necessary, they move into neighbouring regions to access greener pastures. must take into account the long-term impacts of climate change. of FMR or an FMR mini-feature in your proposal (and the Federal Ministry for Economic of International Development, University of Oxford. As herders increasingly need to move more frequently and further, there are a www.fmreview.org/issue64/schoening The return of vulnerable asylum seekers to Italy: budget) to enhance the dissemination and impact of your Cooperation and Development of growing number of clashes and conflict with other groups competing for the same impact and reduce distribution costs but will also Climate crisis, gender inequalities and local protecting victims of trafficking Sign up for FMR email alerts to be notified about project outcomes. We can provide tailored information the Federal Republic of Germany. Lucia Della Torre, Adriana Romer and Margarite Zoeteweij resources. Bilateral negotiations by the countries involved to allow reciprocal response in Somalia/Somaliland new issues at www.fmreview.org/request/alerts. and budgets, plus evidence of outreach and impact. To The content of this publication is Amy Croome and Muna Hussein (Oxfam in Somalia/ (Swiss Refugee Council OSAR) grazing can help reduce conflict over pasture. Some Turkana have adopted agro- The inadequacy of Italy’s reception conditions for vulnerable We would like to thank Carmela Buehler (Swiss Federal discuss options, contact the Editors at [email protected]. the sole responsibility of Forced Somaliland) pastoralism and fishing asalternative livelihoods but more support and training Various factors intersect when looking at the gendered effects of asylum seekers raises serious questions about the legitimacy of Department of Foreign Affairs), Khalid Koser (GCERF) and Migration Review and does not Dublin transfers of those who have been trafficked. Disclaimer: Opinions in FMR do not necessarily reflect the views of are needed to help communities diversify, recover and rebuild livelihoods. climate crisis on local communities in Somalia/Somaliland. Roger Zetter (Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford) for necessarily reflect the position of www.fmreview.org/issue64/dellatorre-romer-zoeteweij the Editors, the Refugee Studies Centre or the University of Oxford. For pastoral communities in Ethiopia’s Somali region, the 2015–17 drought www.fmreview.org/issue64/croome-hussein their assistance as advisors to the feature themes. We would Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung. also like to thank the Government of the Principality of Copyright: FMR is an Open Access publication. For details visit displaced more than 300,000 people and led to huge livestock losses, forcing Indigenous perspectives on gender, power and Trafficking, ritual oaths and criminal investigations Ana Dols García (Independent) Liechtenstein, Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung Manila, the Swiss www.fmreview.org/copyright. people to adapt. Consecutive years of drought and food insecurity have severely help to ensure that we are using our resources to climate-related displacement The influence of traditional beliefs in the trafficking of Nigerian Sarah Pentlow (Consultant/Cuso International) FDFA, UNHCR Division of Resilience and Solutions and the Cover images: Project Survival Media/Joe Lukhovi / Nadia Sebtaoui depleted communities’ coping mechanisms and resilience; in the region there is women for sexual exploitation must be better understood in order Marion Couldrey and Jenny Peebles Across the Greater Mekong subregion, Indigenous Peoples to help identify and protect victims and to properly inform judicial Australian Research Council Linkage project ‘Transformative therefore considerable focus on resilience building among committees of IDPs are employing a range of strategies to respond to the effects of processes. human mobilities in a changing climate’ for funding this issue. Forced Migration Review Editors climate change and climate-related displacement. and host community grassroots organisations. The participation of the whole www.fmreview.org/issue64/dolsgarcia www.fmreview.org/issue64/pentlow [email protected] • www.fmreview.org community in disaster risk reduction committees has had some success but in +44 (0)1865 281700 @fmreview prioritise the printed magazine for readers with 5 www.fmreview.org/issue64 limited digital connectivity. Please get in touch with any thoughts and feedback by emailing the Editors at [email protected].

Forthcoming FMR 65, November 2020 Recognising refugees (submissions now closed) plus mini-feature on Effective practices on internal displacement – learning from GP20 Provisionally planned for 2021 Main features: • mental health and psychosocial support • public health and WASH (including a focus on COVID-19) Mini-features: • data • missing migrants • non-party States • connectivity and mobility • host-inclusive refugee programmes Details at www.fmreview.org/forthcoming. If you would like to be notified when we post concept notes/calls for articles for future themes, please sign up at www.fmreview.org/request/alerts.

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