Hydrogeology of the Damascus Basin (Southwest-Syria)

HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE DAMASCUS BASIN (SOUTHWEST-SYRIA)

Reinhard WOLFART Bundesanstalt für Bodenforschung, Hannover

ABSTRACT The description of the geology and hydrogeology of the Damascus Basin is based on research carried out in Syria in 1961/62. Relations between tectonics and groundwater collective systems are demonstrated. The investigation of thegroundwater chemistry showed that there are four chemical types of groundwater restricted to parts of the Damascus Basin. Favourable conditions for extraction of groundwater only exist in the range of the collective systems. The Damascus Basin covers 8450 km2. Framed by mountaineous ranges the basin opens in the Damascene plain iowards east to the Syrian desert.

1. GliOLOGY

The Damascus Basin is situated at the northern slope of the Arabian shield where sedimentation since Cambrian time partly was marine-epicontinental, partly terrestrial. From the Damascus Basin itself prejurassic deposits are not known. In the area of the Syrian-Lebanese mountains in the Jurassic sedimentation of limestones and dolomites (more than 1.400 m thick) prevailed. After sedimentation of marls and biohermal limestones (100-150 m) the Jurassic terminated with a regression which lasted till the Aptian. The formation of the basis sandstone during the continental Neocomian — in the Lebanon up to 200 m thick — in the area of the Syrian-Lebanese mountains indicates the beginning of the great marine transgression of the Cenomanian. During Aptian and Albian marine limestone and terrestrial sandstone were sedimented which grade into lagoonal faciès with gypsum towards east. In the Cenomanian and Turonian marine limestone (up to 600-700 m) were deposited all over Syria. Preponderately marly-chalky sediments were formed from the beginning of the Coniac till the end of Eocene, only for short periods interrupted by sedimentation of chert and banked limestone. The thickness of the sedimentary beds of the Upper Cretaceous and of the Lower Tertiary amounts to 1,500 m in the Damascus Basin. The regression of the sea during Oligocène was followed by differentiation of tectonical movements during Miocene/Pleistocene causing the formation of depres- sions and raising areas. The tectonical events were accompanied by intensive volcanic activity which culminated in the eruption of "plateau-basalts (up to 1,500-1,600 m thick) in the southern part of the Damascus Basin (Jebel Druse). The foreland depres- sions were filled with the debris of the raising mountains; the zones of most intensive subsidence shifted repeatedly. During Miocene and Pliocene the synclines of Barada and Emjar el Aassal were filled with fluviatile conglomerates and lacustrine marls or limestones of a thickness of up to 700 m. At the end of Pliocene/beginning of Pleisto- cene the decisive step in the structural formation of the Damascus Basin happened by subsidence of the Damascene depression. In a first period the Damascene depression was filled up with fluviatile sediments probably at a climate which was relatively poor in rainfall. In a second period in the centre of the Damascene besides fluviatile sediments lacustrine limestones and marls were precipitated at a more humid climate. Total thickness of the sedimentary filling of the Damascene depression amounts to about 450 m. Structure of the Damascus Basin is marked by the concordant NE and NW lines of the lincamcnttectonical joint system. Where the most important rhegmatic zones — "Sirhan-Zonale" (SE-NW) and "Palmyra-Zonale" (SW-NE) — cross one another

402 there is situated the deepest part of the Damascene depression. While the Sirhan-Zonale mainly consists of a group of more or less parallel faults and joints, in the area of the Palmyra-Zonale besides this a system of NE striking anticlines and synclines is developed. Frequently the synclines run into faults. The anticlines show diapiritic features. According to this the germanotype orogenesis is modified by the passive participation of evaporites in the region of the Palmyra-Zonale. The western frame of the Damascus Basin shows germanotype tectonics. It is part of the graben-horst-complex of Lebanon and Syria which is principally formed by tectonical movements within the meridional rift zone; as a whole, however, it follows the NE direction of the rhegmatic system. According to this, the deflexion of the Syrian-Lebanese graben-horst-complex from the SN to the SW-NE direction should essentially to be traced back to the pre-cxistencc of the SW-NE running Palmyra- and Bckaa-Zonale.

2. OROGRAPHY

The Damascene plain ("Damascene") — in the centre situated at an elevation of 590-600 m above sea level — is surrounded by a mountaineous frame locally incised by valleys which partly radially run into the Damascene. Thus, the Damascene Basin is a closed basin. Some wide shallow valleys furnished with low water divides crossing those valleys are cut through the mountaineous frame connecting the southern and eastern part of the Damascus Basin with the neighbouring closed basins. The highest elevations of the mountaineous frame are to be found in the Mount Hermon (2,814 m above sea level), Antilebanon (2,420 m), Jebel Druse (1,799 m) and in the region of the Palmyrean Chaines (up to 1,500 m).

3. CLIMATE

In the different parts of the Damascus Basin climatic conditions are strongly modified by the Orography. In Hermon and Antilebanon region there prevails moun- tain climate with frost and precipitation up to 1,500 mm in wintertime. The other parts of the mountaineous frame in the south and north are belonging to a subtropical area with winterrains (about 200 to 350 mm); periods of frost happen rarely. East of Damascus the Damascene and the eastern part of the mountaineous frame arc to be classified as a subtropical zone of arid steppes with precipitation less than 200 mm/ annum. Annually the Damascus Basin receives about 1,600 millions m3 of rainfall. The precipitation has an average content of dissolved solids of about 6 ppm. Mean annual temperature of Damascus amounts to 17.7°C. Around Damascus the annual potential evaporation is estimated to be about 1,500-1,800 mm.

4. HYDROGRAPHY

Closed basins are situated nearly all around the Damascus Basin. There are regions draining to the Mediterranean Sea only west and northwest of the Damascus Basin. Amongst the closed basins of southern Syria only in the Damascus and in the Dead Sea Basin perennial drainage of surface water takes place. The two main rivers of the Damascus Basin — Nahr elAouaj and Nahr Barada — reach the centre of the basin (about 590 m above sea level) only at rise. They are fed by karst springs in the western

403 mountaineous frame. The biggest one of those springs (Ain Fijé) has a mean annual discharge of 6.4 nvVsec. at a quotient of fluctuation of 2.5. Maximum discharge is to be observed 2-3 months later than maximum of rainfall; accordingly maximum discharge falls into the arid time.

5. HYDROGEOI-OCY OF THE DAMASCUS BASIN

According to the existing knowledge of the conditions in the mountaineous frame of the Damascus Basin — Hermon, Antilebanon, Palmyrean Chaînes and basaltic area in the southern part — it can be considered as a fact that there are developed several groundwater storeys which are relatively weakly permeable outside of the tectonical zones. Within taphrogenetic and rhegmatic zones the existing groundwater storeys are locally broken through by joint systems. Consequently, within those zones there is developed only one single body of groundwater prcponderately of vertical extent which runs into the different storeys. In the Damascene, there are developed groundwater storeys of relatively great horizontal extent corresponding to the alternation of gravel, lacustrine limestone and marl. The different groundwater storeys hydraulically are but weakly effective in the Damascus Basin, because (here are no beds between them really acting as aquicludes and because there is a very effective communication between the different storeys in the range of the tectonical zones. Therefore, the hydrogeological circumstances can be considered as if a single ground water body would be present in a first storey. In the Damascene the substratum consisting of marine deposits in general acts as a base for this first storey. In the Damascus Basin the groundwater table is adapted to the base level, i.e. to the groundwater table in the area of the former lakes in the eastern Damascene. According to the geological conditions in great regions of the western and northern mountaineous frame the groundwater table is situated at a relatively high level within those regions compared with the base level in the Damascene. Consequently, the groundwater table is rather steeply sloped between the Damascene and the northwestern frame. Thus, Zcbedani and Jairoud Graben, for example, are hydrologically rather independent from the Damascene. Different from the sedimentary part of the mountaineous frame the groundwater table in the basaltic areas (Jebcl Druse etc.) essentially is adapted to the base level in the Damascene showing normal sloping towards the base level. Consequently to relatively low rainfall and to recently raised exploitation of groundwater there is to be observed a permanently progressive falling of the groundwater table in the area of the Damascene. In the area of the former lakes in the eastern part of the Damascene the groundwater tabel was 3-5 m below surface in 1962. In the Damascus Basin the drainage system can be outlined as follows. Within the mountaineous frame there is developed a network of groundwater collective systems within the tectonical zones. Functionally this network of groundwater collective systems is comparable with a surface drainage system. Just as a river a groundwater collective system acts as a local drainage base level. After collection in the tributary collective systems of the mountaineous frame which run parallel to the border of the Damascene frequently, the groundwater pours into the main collective systems radially directed towards the collective basin of the Damascene. Consequently to the hydrogeological conditions sometimes springs rise at the conjunction of tributary and main collective systems. Therefore, the groundwater originated in the area of the mountaineous frame is transferred by means of the main collective systems into the aquifers of the Damascene partly as groundwater pa.tly as surface water. Finally the situation of the groundwater table is controlled by evaporation in the centre of the Damascene depression.

404 TABLE 1 Stratigraphy of the Damascus Basin

Thick- Era Period Stage ness Lithological composition of the stages Locality (metres)

Holocene Fluviatile gravel, clay and marl laterally grading Quaternary Pleistocene up to 450 into lacustrine siltit, limestone and gipseous marl. Damascene (upper Pliocene ?) Pleistocene?/ 200—225 Alternation of lacustrine limestone, "gj Emjar el Aassal Pliocene dolomite and marl. , ^ valley Upper part : sandstone and siltite. Pliocene/ n3 80 Lower part : alternation of conglomerates (limy matrix), dolomites and travertine. te a u - Barada valley near Miocene n2 up to 300 Conglomerates (limy matrix). 0. Achrafié and Bassimé Alternation of sandy, redbrown marl and clay ( = Neogene = n) nl up to 300 with small banks and lenses of conglomerates. At the base several metres conglomerates. Tertiary e5 up to 475 Alternation of chalk, marl and chert-banks. Maarct Saidnaya c 40-50 Thickly banked limestone. Eocene/ b 20-22 Thinly banked limestone. 5 of Mninc d a 60 Massive limestone. e3 125-200 Chalk and marl. Paleoccne e2 125-150 Alternation of chalk and marl with chert. el E ofTell/Mnine •> 370-450 Chalk and marl. m*

Upper Maastrichtiarl m1 18—20 Alternation of chalk, marl and limestone with chert- banks (thickness up to lm).

Campanian Santonian 5 140-160 Chalk and marl Coniacian "Senonian " Cretaceous a 70 Banked limestone. Barada valley. Turonian t\ 85 • Alternation of limestone and marly limestone. SE of Doummar Cenomanian c 500-600 Banked limestone and partly dolomite. near Scrrhaya and Bloudane Albian ab 50-100 Marly limestone. Lower Aptian/base «3 Clayey sandstone Towards E intercalation Mount Hermon, Cretaceous Cretaceous al > 100 Limestone. of gypsum/anhydrite. near Majdel Chams a\ Clayey sandstone.

i Portlandian jl 10 Yellow limestone. Kimmeridgian ./6 10- 50 Limestone with Lovcenipora. Oxfordian, upper Callovian fi 100 Yellow marl. Jurassic Mount Hermon Lower Callovian, (after DUBERTRET Bathonian 700 Banked grey limestone. 1949 and 1954) Bajocian ? P 100 Brown limestone with thin marly layers. Bajocian 72 600 Dark, dolomitic limestone.

Lias ? 7'1 120 Alternation of marl with lignite and some banks of dolomite. Sandstone and limestone with lacustrine gastropods Prejurassic not exposed. 6. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE GROUNDWATER

Chemically there are four groups of groundwaters within the Damascus Basin.

1. Bicarbonate waters from the mountaineous frame of the Damascus Basin and from the western part of the Damascene. Within the mountaineous frame the bicarbonate water in general has a total content of dissolved solids of 200-500 ppm; towards the eastern part of the Damascene the total content rises up to 1,000 ppm.

2. Chloride-sulphate waters from tectonical zones in the mountaineous frame and at the border of the Damascene. The chemical nature of those groundwaters is influenced by waters from the depth. Their content of dissolved solids probably origi- nates partly from cvaporites. Total content of dissolved solids between 200 and 3,000 ppm.

3. Chloride-sulphate waters from the eastern part of the Damascene. Conse- quently to the mineralization of groundwater under the physico-chemical conditions in a closed basin the chloride-sulphate waters are developed from the bicarbonate waters. Total content of dissolved solids generally between 1,000 and 4,000 ppm.

4. Chloride waters from the creek of Mesmiye. At locally relatively low content of dissolved solids the high percentage of chlorides and nitrates can only be traced back to anthropogene contamination. Total content of dissolved solids between 400- 1,800 ppm. In the Damascus Basin the regional features of the chemical composition of the groundwaters can be outlined as follows. The bicarbonate groundwaters from the mountaineous frame mainly coming into the Damascene through the collective systems of the Nahr cl Barada arc moving within the aquifers of the Damascene towards east, gradually diminished by evaporation. In the eastern part of the Damascene the bicarbonate groundwaters are surrounded by a belt-shaped body of chloride-sulphate groundwaters which is opening towards west and developed trom the bicarbonate waters by evaporation of groundwater. In the zone of strong mineralization the first storey is probably filled with mineralized groundwater down to its base. The western boundary between mineralized and fresh groundwater is relatively sharp and runs steeply towards the depth; in the east this boundary is not as homogeneous as in the west. The highest content of dissolved solids amounts to about 5,000 ppm in the centre of the zone of mineralization. In the Damascus Basin the salts dissolved in the groundwater come from rainfall, rocks and anthropogene contamination. Especially the stockage of salts within precipitation can be considered to be of great importance. It can be accepted that during the last 10,000 years — provided unchanged climatic conditions — salts have been transported by rainfall into the Damascus Basin in the order of 100 millions of tons.

7. Temperature of groundwater On its course from the northwestern mountaineous frame with low mean air temperatures (about 12-13°C) towards the centre of the eastern Damascene with relatively high mean air temperatures (about 18°C) groundwater gradually warms from 14 to more than 20°C according to the rising mean air temperatures. Thus, there are developed zones of different temperature in the first groundwater storey of the Damascus Basin showing by their characteristic arrangement and telescopelike shape pretty exactly course and direction of the main streams of groundwater flow. Accordingly the knowledge ot groundwater temperature represents an important aid for groundwater research.

405 Pliocene 2 Miocene

^7-ZpÇ 6

[Z27ZJ

Kimmcrido.

1 \Ucpgr CallQvifn Lower Callovian Bathonian a«?-

Fig. I — Stratigraphy and permeability of rocks in the Damascus Basin. 1. porous aquifer — 2. groundwater on joints — 3. aquiclude — 4. limestone 5. marly limestone — 6. dolomite — 7. conglomerate with limy matrix 8. chalk and marl — 9. marl — 10. sandstone —11. sandy marl — 12. chert 13. fluviatile deposits — 14. lacustrine marl and limestone.

8. Possibilities of groundwater exploitation in the Damascus Basin

According to the recent investigations in the Damascus Basin certain conclusions on the capacity and yield of the aquifers can be drawn from the tectonical, morpholo- gical and climatical features. By far the best possibilities for development of ground-

406 J.Hatma Jebel Charqi

continued

|o •** g £ SI p~o

vertical scale exaggerated by 2

Fig. 2 — Geologic cross section from the Damascus Basin. 1. fluviatile deposits (Holocene/Pleistocene) — 2. conglomerate with limy matrix (Pliocene/Miocene) — 3. undificrentiated marine deposits mainly consisting of chalk (Upper Cretaceous/Lower Tertiary) — 4. chalk and chert (Lower Tertiary, es) — 5. limestone (Lower Tertiary, e,») — 6. chalk (Lower Tertiary, e3) — 7. alternation of chert and chalk (Lower Tertiary, e2> — 8. marl und chalk (Lower Tertiary, ei and "Senonian", S3) — 9. banked chert ("Senonian", S2) — 10 chalk and limestone ("Senonian", si)— II. Limestone (Turonian) —• 12. limestone (Cenomanian) —• 13. basalt (Upper Tertiary). I j

Fig. 3 — Structure plan of the Damascene depression. 1. basalt — 2. marine Cretaceous and Eocene — 3. geological section — 4. flexure 5. fault — 6. fault or rhegmatic joint zone (presumed) — 7. base of fluviatile and lacustrine deposits (Pliocene (?) Pleistocene), metres above sea level 8. geoelectrical measuring point (BAUDIC, DKPPEKMANN) — 9. boreholes.

408 •-6:3-] 1 • I 2 [!_rA"7J5

Fig. 4 — Groundwater table in the Damascus Basin. 1. groundwater isobath (metres above sea level) — 2. measuring point — 3. road 4. water divide — 5. elevation (metres above sea level) — 6. lake, mostly dry.

409 .• ^\ r-— £ ' ••••' -••-

Fig. 5 a

410 I in V iu.ii IV n rv m f 30 X sor;cr Mg* :, °dH O 21 t/) 320, 1400 " c CO E tu ° * 3 2*0- XJ "S CO £ w 1280 _ / id e 31 m .C t_ c 1200-1 100 Q_ o ea en 1000 500 I 3 0 ro 6

Fig. 5b — Chemical composition of groundwater in the Damascus Basin. 1. Surface water — 2 gravel (Pliocene (?)-Holocenei — 3. Damascene gravel (Pliocene (?)-Holocenc — 4. lacustrine limestone (Pliocene (?)-Holocene) — 5. conglomerate (Ncogene) — 6. basalt (Miocene-Quaternary) — 7. chalk ("Seno- nian"-Eocene) — 8. limestone (Jurassic-Cretaceous) — 9. evaporitcs (Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous) — 10. Zone of strong mineralization of groundwater — 11. Analysis after citation of BURDON (1958), without total hardness — 12. analysis from WOLFART (1961/62). — 13. road — 14. water divide — 15. elevation (metres above sea level) — 16. lake mostly dry. Thelithological nature of the aquifer is characterized by the signature below the horizontal line in each diagram. The concentration (ppm) and total hardness (" German hardness dH) are to be seen from the dimension of the whole column. The black part of a column situated above the horizontal line indicates raised concentrations beyond a certain limit. The tolerable concentration is to be seen from the diagrammatic scale. Each diagram shows the quantity (ppm resp. degrees of German hardness) of a group of dissolved solids in groundwater. The vertical lines on the scales indicate the dimensions of the columns. water exist in the groundwater collective systems of the first main storey. Beyond those collective systems an economical exploitation of groundwater is rather impossible. The yield of the collective systems situated within the mountaineous frame of the basis is relatively small, whereas in the collective basin of the Damascene extraction of groundwater is possible at a large scale. In order to find out the maximum extraction rate which is possible there are usually carried out calculations on the hydrological balance of an area. Stating a hydrological balance of the Damascus Basin is not possible, because the existing basic informa- tions on the following factors arc not sufficient: infiltration rate, extraction of groundwater for irrigation and domestic water supply, reinfiltration of water from springs, irrigation and waste water, capillary evaporation of groundwater, loss of groundwater by evapotranspiration and location of the groundwater divides. At present, there is no over-extraction of groundwater in the collective systems of the mountaineous frame. In the area of the Damascene, on the contrary, the over- development seems to be attested by the falling groundwater table.

9. Deep groundwater storeys

The knowledge of the hydrogeological conditions in the depth is mainly based on theoretical considerations. In the depth the zones of the rhegmatic joint system also will be of special hydrogeological importance. Presumably those zones are primarily bearing groundwater.

411 m va I %

I *} ce 2GQ-500 ppm S 130-200 ppm \ J + CC.500- WOO ppm O 500-3100 ppm |

Fig. 6 — Chemical characteristics of the groundwaters from different parts of the Damascus Basin. 1. Bicarbonate waters, springs and wells in the NW mountaineous frame of the basin and wells from the western part of the Damascene. — 2. Chloride-sulphate waters, wells in the eastern part of the Damascene. — 3. Chloride-sulphate waters from the springs and wells in tectonical zones; chemical nature of the waters influenced by deep groundwater. — 4. Chloride waters, wells in the creek of Mesmiye.

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