Technology of Breadmaking VISIT OOR FCOD OCIEI:\(E SI'IE eN" 'IHE 1A1EB

http://WJWJ . fcxxk:i.a:m e-nail crd3:s: dira:t.cr~itp3.m.uk Technology of Breadmaking

Edited by

STANLEY P. CAUVAIN and UNDA S. YOUNG Carnpden and Chorleywood Food Research Association Chipping Campden Gloucestershire, UK

SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC First edition 1998 © 1998 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Blackie Academic & Professional in 1998 I(f)p·

Typeset in 1O/12pt Times by Cambrian Typesetters, Frimley, Surrey

ISBN 978-1-4613-5922-7 ISBN 978-1-4615-2199-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2199-0 AH rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers. Applications for permission should be addressed to the rights manager at the London address ofthe publisher. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-76696

El Printed on acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSlINISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence ofPaper) To Bill (T.R.) Collins An inspiration to so many Contents

List of contributors xvii

Preface xix

1 Bread - the product 1 STANLEY P. CAUVAIN Introduction 1 Quality characteristics of bread 3 The character of bread 5 Bread flavour 6 Bread types 8 Assessing bread quality 11 External character 11 Internal character 13 Texture/eating quality and flavour 14 Nutritional qualities of bread and its consumption 15 Conclusions 16 References 17

2 Breadmaking processes 18 STANLEY P. CAUVAIN Functions of the breadmaking process 18 Cell creation and control 21 Major breadmaking process groups 22 Straight dough bulk fermentation 24 Yeast level 24 Flours 25 Water levels 27 Optional ingredients 27 Process variations 28 Creation of bubble structure 28 Sponge and dough 29 Role of the sponge 29 Formulations 30 Improvers 31 Flours and other ingredients 31 Process variations 31 viii CONTENTS

Rapid processing 32 Activated Dough Development (ADD) 32 No-time doughs with spiral mixers 33 The Dutch green dough process 33 Role of improvers and other ingredients in rapid processing 34 Mechanical dough development 34 Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP) 35 Breadmaking processes, bread variety and bread quality 42 References 43

3 Functional ingredients 45 TONY WILLIAMS AND GORDON PULLEN Dough conditioners and their composition 45 Ingredients 46 Fats 46 Soya flour 49 Additives 50 Emulsifiers 50 Flour treatment agents 55 Preservatives 61 Processing aids 62 Enzymes 62 Alpha-amylases 62 Hemicellulases 66 Proteinases 67 Novel enzyme systems 68 Summary of small ingredients 68 Bakers' yeast 69 Where does yeast come from? 69 Principal forms of yeast 69 Other yeasts 71 Biology of yeast cells 71 Overview of commercial yeast production 73 Baking with yeast 75 Conclusion 79 References 80

4 Mixing and dough processing 81 DAVID MARSH Functions of mixing 81 Types of mixer 82 CBP-compatible mixers 83 High-speed and twin-spiral mixers 85 Spiral mixers 88 CONTENTS ix

Low-speed mixers 90 Continuous mixers 92 Dough transfer systems 94 Dough make-up plant 95 Dividing 95 Dough damage during dividing 96 Two-stage oil suction divider 96 Extrusion dividers 98 Single-stage vacuum dividers 99 Rounding and premoulding 99 Types and shapes of rounders 101 Conical rounders 101 Cylindrical rounders 102 Rounding belts 102 Reciprocating rounders 103 Non-spherical premoulding 103 Intermediate or first proving 103 Pocket-type prover 104 First prover charging methods 105 Indexing conveyors 106 Pusher in-feed systems 107 Pallet in-feed systems 107 Discharging 108 Conveyorized first provers 108 Moulding 108 Sheeting action 111 Curling 112 Final moulding 115 Four-piecing 115 Cross-grain moulding 115 Other sheeting and moulding systems 116 Equipment for small bread and rolls 116 Small bun divider moulders 116 Integrated multi-lane roll plants 118 References 119

5 Proving, baking and cooling 120 CHRIS WIGGINS Introduction 120 Psychrometry 123 Definitions 123 The proving process 124 Practical proving 126 Prover checklist 127 X CONTENTS

Modern prover design 128 Airflow 128 Ambient conditions 128 Mechanical handling 129 Developments in proving 130 Higher proof temperatures 130 Shorter proof time 131 Prover to oven 131 The baking process 131 Crumb structure 131 Yeast activity 132 Starch gelatinization 133 Enzyme activity 133 Baked temperature 133 Crust formation 133 Gloss formation 135 Crust crispness 137 Oven break 137 Practical baking 138 Oven design 138 Developments in baking 139 Oven to cooler 140 The cooling process 141 Practical cooling 142 Cooler design 143 Developments in cooling 143 Part-baked processes 145 Frozen processes 145 Ambient processing 146 Processing economics 146 Weight loss 146 Life cycle costs 147 References 148

6 Dough retarding and freezing 149 STANLEY P. CAUVAIN Introduction 149 Retarding fermented doughs 150 Suitability of breadmaking processes 150 Recipe and yeast level 151 Retarding temperature 153 Storage time 156 Proving and baking 157 Guidelines for retarding dough production 159 CONTENTS xi

Retarding pizza doughs 160 Freezing fermented doughs 161 Breadmaking process, recipe and yeast 161 Processing and freezing doughs 163 Defrosting and proving 168 Freezing proved doughs 169 Factors affecting the formation of white spots on retarded and frozen doughs 170 Causes of quality losses with retarded and frozen doughs 172 Skinning 172 Crust fissures 172 Ragged crust breaks 173 Small volume 173 White spots or small blisters 173 Waxy patches 173 Black spots 174 Large blisters 174 Dark crust colour 174 Uneven or open cell structure 174 Areas of dense crumb 175 Principles of refrigeration 175 Retarder-provers and retarders 176 References 178

7 Application of knowledge-based systems 180 LINDA S. YOUNG Introduction 180 Examples of systems for use in bread technology 182 Bread Faults Expert System 182 Retarding Advisor 188 Conclusions 195 References 196

8 Baking around the world 197 JOHN T. GOULD Introduction 197 History 197 The breadmaking process 201 Flour and dough development 202 Water 205 Yeast 205 Salt 206 Other improvers 206 Dividing 206 Xll CONTENTS

Resting 207 Moulding 207 Panning and pans 208 Final proof 209 Baking 209 Cooling 210 Slicing and packing 210 Packaging 211 The international market 211 References 213

9 Speciality fermented goods 214 A.J. BENT Introduction 214 Hamburger bun 214 Production rates 214 Formulation 215 Liquid brews and fermentation 215 Mixing 217 Dough transfer 218 Do-flow unit 218 Dividing 219 AMF Pan-O-Mat 219 Flour recovery and pan shaker units 220 Proving 220 Seed application 221 Baking 221 Depanning and cooling 221 Part-baked breads 222 Introduction 222 Use of part-baked bread 223 Manufacture of part-baked breads 223 Baking nets 224 Proving and baking 224 Depanning and cooling 225 Storage of part-baked breads 225 Freezing of part-baked bread 226 Second and final baking 226 Quality of the final product 227 The Milton Keynes Process 227 Yeasted laminated products 229 Introduction 229 Formulations 229 Ingredients 230 CONTENTS xiii

Flour protein 230 Fat addition to the base dough 231 Sugar levels 232 Yeast levels 232 Laminating or roll-in fat 232 Dough mixing 234 Methods of adding the roll-in or laminating fat to the dough 236 Lamination 237 References 237

10 Bread spoilage and staling 240 IRENE M.C. PATERAS Introduction 240 Microbiological spoilage of bread 240 Mould spoilage 240 Bacterial spoilage 242 Yeast spoilage 243 Control of microbiological spoilage 243 Bread staling 248 Crust staling 248 Role of the main bread components in crumb staling 248 Staling inhibitors 252 Enzymes 253 Emulsifiers 254 Pentosans 254 Alcohol 255 Sugars and other solutes 256 Freezing of bread 256 References 259

11 Principles of dough formation 262 CLYDE E. STAUFFER Introduction 262 Flour and dough components 263 Starch 264 Gluten 265 Pentosans 265 Lipids 266 Water-soluble proteins 267 Ash 268 Flour components and water absorption 268 Wheat gluten proteins 270 Amino acid composition 271 Gliadin 272 xiv CONTENTS

Glutenin 272 Stages in dough fonnation 274 Hydration 275 Blending 276 Gluten development 277 Breakdown 280 Unmixing 281 Air incorporation 281 The gluten matrix 282 Dough rheology 283 Gluten structure 287 Bonding between protein chains 288 Gluten elasticity 289 Gluten viscosity 290 Extensibility 291 References 292

12 Flour milling 296 PAUL CATTERALL Introduction 296 In the beginning 296 The modem flour-milling process 297 Delivery of the wheat 298 Wheat testing 299 Wheat storage 302 The mill screenroom 302 Conditioning 304 The mill 304 Break system 305 Scratch system and bran finishers 306 Scalping, grading and dusting 306 Purifiers 306 Reduction system 307 Flour dressing 307 Storage and packing 309 Food safety and product protection 309 Foreign bodies 310 Chemical contaminants 311 Biological contaminants 311 Recent developments in flour milling 313 Controlling flour quality and specification 313 Grist versus blending 314 Additives 315 Ascorbic acid 316 CONTENTS xv

Enzymes 316 Nutritional additions 317 Other flour types 318 Brown 318 Wholemeal (wholewheat) 318 Self-raising flours 318 Malted grain flours 319 Flour testing methods 319 Protein and moisture content 319 Flour grade colour 320 Water absorption 321 Hagberg Falling number 322 Flour rheology 323 Farinograph 324 Extensograph 325 Alveograph 325 Use of testing equipment 326 Glossary of milling terms used in this chapter 327 References 328

13 Other cereals in breadmaking 330 STANLEY P. CAUVAIN Introduction 330 Rye bread 330 Sour dough methods 331 Doughmaking 332 Baking 333 American rye breads 333 Keeping qualities of rye breads 334 Triticale 334 Other grains and seeds in bread 335 Multi-grain breads 335 Modifying nutritional properties with non-wheat sources 336 Malted barley 336 Wheatless breads 337 Formation of cake batters 338 Bread without wheat 338 Unleavened breads 342 Recipes for unleavened breads 343 Flours for unleavened breads 344 Conclusions 345 References 345

Index 347 Contributors

Alan Bent International Centre for Baking Technology, South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SEI OAA, UK

Paul Catterall Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association, Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire GL55 6LD, UK

Stanley P. Cauvain Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association, Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire GL55 6LD, UK

John Gould 106 Kopanga Road, Havelock North, New Zealand

David Marsh Benier UK Ltd, 56 Alston Drive, Bradwell Abbey, Milton Keynes MK13 9HB, UK

Irene M.C. Pateras Demokratias Avenue 18, Drosia, Athens, Greece

Gordon Pullen DCL Yeast Ltd, Salatin House, Sutton, Surrey SM25IE, UK

Clyde E. Stauffer TFC, 631 Christopal Drive, Cincinnati OH 45231, USA

Chris Wiggins APV Bakery Ltd, Manor Drive, Paston Parkway, Peterborough PE4 7 AP, UK

Tony Williams British Arkady, Skerton Road, Old Trafford, Manchester M16 ONI, UK

Linda S. Young Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association, Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire GL55 6LD, UK Preface

Not another book on breadmaking! A forgiveable reaction given the length of time over which bread has been made and the number of texts which have been written about the subject. To study breadmaking is to realize that, like many other food processes, it is constantly changing as processing methodologies become increasingly more sophisticated, yet at the same time we realize that we are dealing with a food• stuff, the forms of which are very traditional. We can, for example, look at ancient illustrations of breads in manuscripts and paintings and recognize prod• ucts which we still make today. This contrast of ancient and modern embodied in a single processed foodstuff is part of what makes bread such a unique subject for study. We cannot, for example, say the same for a can of baked beans! Another aspect of the uniqueness of breadmaking lies in the requirement for a thorough understanding of the link between raw materials and processing meth• ods in order to make an edible product. This is mainly true because of the special properties of wheat proteins, aspects of which are explored in most of the chapters of this book. Wheat is a product of the natural environment, and while breeding and farming practices can modify aspects of wheat quality, we millers and bakers still have to respond to the strong influences of the environment. The quality of the baker's main raw material, wheat flour, varies and so special knowledge is needed to ensure the right product qualities are formed in the bread for the consumer. Since some of the most significant changes in wheat quality are related to the environment in which it is grown, a most important tool for bakers is knowledge, without it they cannot adjust recipes or processing methods to ensure consistent product quality. It is because breadmaking requires constant reaction to 'natural' changes and it has been the subject of scientific and technological study that there is room for another book on the subject. New ideas are being presented to bakers from wheat breeders, millers and ingredient and equipment suppliers, which are coupled with consumer and legislative pressures. These have to be integrated with 'natural' changes. It is the purpose of this book to provide a useful tool to help bakers, scientists and technologists to cope with those changes. We hope that when you read through the contributions you will find something to make your particular job easier, or even something to enjoy. As you read through the various chapters there will be occasions when you say to yourself 'I've read about that before'. When you get different authors to write about breadmaking, they have to consider the same common themes but xx PREFACE they will approach them from their own special angles. The most common theme of course is the conversion of wheat to flour to bread. Each individual involved in that conversion process has a contribution to make, but in order for that contribution to be successful they must understand what part they play, and because of this they have different needs in their understanding. These different needs will be evident as they discuss common issues such as gluten develop• ment, so • the cereal scientist seeks to understand the molecular reactions; • the bakery technologist seeks to apply the understanding and solve bakers' problems; • the flour miller seeks to ensure a consistent product by understanding the links between wheat, flour and bread quality; • the ingredient suppliers seek to understand the contribution of their ingredi• ents to bread quality; • the equipment manufacturers seek to understand how dough behaviour inter• acts with their equipment; and • bakers seek to make bread for their customers. Editing a book of this type, just like breadmaking itself, is a team effort and so we would like to thank the members of our team: • The authors of the individual chapters who having agreed to write a contribu• tion discovered like so many before that it is not as easy as it looks when you read a book written by someone else. We thank all of you for patience and perseverance. • The publishers without whom this book would not have seen the light of day. • Our many supporters, both moral and material. • Our scientific mentors.

Why thirteen chapters? That is easy to answer - thirteen is the traditional 'bakers dozen'.

Stanley P. Cauvain and Linda S. Young