Minimal Music 1 Minimal Music

Typical instruments Piano, orchestra, tuned percussion, electronic musical instruments, electronic postproduction equipment

Mainstream popularity Low, except in the Experimental field

Derivative forms Postminimalism, totalism

Subgenres

[1] Drone music

Fusion genres

Repetitive music

Minimal music is a style of music associated with the work of American composers La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, and Philip Glass.[2] [3] [4] It originated in the New York Downtown scene of the 1960s and was initially viewed as a form of experimental music called the New York Hypnotic School.[5] Prominent features of the style include consonant harmony, steady pulse (if not immobile drones), stasis or gradual transformation, and often reiteration of musical phrases or smaller units such as figures, motifs, and cells. It may include features such as additive process and phase shifting. Minimal compositions that rely heavily on process techniques that follow strict rules are usually described using the term process music. Starting in the early 1960s as a scruffy underground scene in San Francisco alternative spaces and New York lofts, minimalism spread to become the most popular experimental music style of the late 20th century. The movement originally involved dozens of composers, although only five (Young, Riley, Reich, Glass, and later John Adams) emerged to become publicly associated with American minimal music. In Europe, the music of Louis Andriessen, Karel Goeyvaerts, Michael Nyman, Gavin Bryars, Steve Martland, Henryk Górecki, Arvo Pärt, and John Tavener exhibits minimalist traits. Steve Reich and at least two critics, Jonathan Bernard and Dan Warburton, suggest the origin of the term "minimal music" might be attributable to Michael Nyman while Philip Glass believes Tom Johnson coined the phrase.[6]

Brief history The word "minimalism" was first used in relation to music in 1968 by Michael Nyman in a review of Cornelius Cardew's piece The Great Learning. Nyman later expanded his definition of minimalism in music in his 1974 book Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond. Tom Johnson, one of the few composers to self-identify as minimalist, also claims to have been first to use the word as new music critic for The Village Voice. He describes "minimalism": The idea of minimalism is much larger than most people realize. It includes, by definition, any music that works with limited or minimal materials: pieces that use only a few notes, pieces that use only a few words of text, or pieces written for very limited instruments, such as antique cymbals, bicycle wheels, or whiskey glasses. It includes pieces that sustain one basic electronic rumble for a long time. It includes pieces made exclusively from recordings of rivers and streams. It includes pieces that move in endless circles. It includes pieces that set up an unmoving wall of saxophone sound. It includes pieces that take a very long time to move gradually from one kind of music to another kind. It includes pieces that permit all possible pitches, as long as they fall between C and D. It includes pieces that slow the tempo down to two or three notes per minute.[7] Minimal music 2

The most prominent minimalist composers are John Adams, Louis Andriessen, Philip Glass, Steve Reich, Terry Riley, and La Monte Young.[8] The early compositions of Glass and Reich are somewhat austere, with little embellishment on the principal theme. These are works for small instrumental ensembles, of which the composers were often members. In Glass's case, these ensembles comprise organs, winds—particularly saxophones—and vocalists, while Reich's works have more emphasis on mallet and percussion instruments. Most of Adams's works are written for more traditional classical instrumentation, including full orchestra, string quartet, and solo piano. The music of Reich and Glass drew early sponsorship from art galleries and museums, presented in conjunction with visual-art minimalists like Robert Morris (in Glass's case), and Richard Serra, Bruce Nauman, and the filmmaker Richard Snow (in Reich's case).[9]

Early development The music of Moondog of the 1940s and '50s, which was based on counterpoint developing statically over steady pulses in often unusual time signatures, had a strong influence on many early minimalist composers. Philip Glass has written that he and Reich took Moondog's work "very seriously and understood and appreciated it much more than what we were exposed to at Juilliard".[10] In 1960, Terry Riley wrote a string quartet in pure, uninflected C major. In 1963, Riley made two electronic works using tape delay, Mescalin Mix and The Gift, which injected the idea of repetition into minimalism. In 1964, Riley's In C made persuasively engaging textures from layered performance of repeated melodic phrases. The work is scored for any group of instruments. In 1965 and 1966 Steve Reich produced three works—It's Gonna Rain and Come Out for tape, and Piano Phase for live performers—that introduced the idea of phase shifting, or allowing two identical phrases or sound samples played at slightly differing speeds to repeat and slowly go out of phase with each other. Starting in 1968 with 1 + 1, Philip Glass wrote a series of works that incorporated additive process (form based on sequences such as 1, 1 2, 1 2 3, 1 2 3 4) into the repertoire of minimalist techniques; these works included Two Pages, Music in Fifths, Music in Contrary Motion, and others. By this point, development of a minimalist style was in full swing.

Minimalism in pop music Minimal music has also had some influence on developments in popular music. The Psychedelic rock act The Velvet Underground had a connection with the New York down-town scene from which minimal music emerged, rooted in the close working relationship of John Cale and La Monte Young, the latter influencing Cale's work with the band. [11]

During the 1970s progressive rock, experimental rock,[12] art rock, krautrock and avant-prog genres demonstrated the influence of experimental music, including minimalism, for example acts such as The Soft Machine, King Crimson, Brian Eno, Robert Fripp and Mike Oldfield. In the 1980s and 1990s, artists working in alternative rock, shoegazing, post rock, and other genres, including the bands Spacemen 3,[13] Experimental Audio Research,[14] and Explosions in the Sky, continued in a similar vein. [15] Following the minimal electronic music of Brian Eno and the krautrock band Tangerine Dream, 1990s electronic dance music was influenced by changes in technology that lead to the use of production methods based on repetition, especially the genres of trance, minimal techno and ambient. Well-known artists include The Orb, Orbital, Underworld and Aphex Twin. Sherburne (2006) suggests that the noted similarities between minimal forms of dance music and American minimalism could easily be accidental. Much of the music technology used in EDM has traditionally been designed to suit loop based compositional methods, which may explain why certain stylistic features of minimal techno and other forms of electronic dance music sound similar to minimal art music.[16] One group who clearly did have an Minimal music 3

awareness of the American minimal tradition is the British Ambient act The Orb. Their 1990 production Little Fluffy Clouds features a sample from Steve Reich's work Electric Counterpoint (1987).[17] Further acknowledgement of Steve Reich's possible influence on EDM came with the release in 1999 of the Reich Remixed[18] tribute album which featured reinterpretations by artists such as DJ Spooky, Mantronik, Ken Ishii, and Coldcut, among others. [17]

Minimalist style in music Leonard Meyer described minimal music in 1994: Because there is little sense of goal-directed motion, [minimal] music does not seem to move from one place to another. Within any musical segment there may be some sense of direction, but frequently the segments fail to lead to or imply one another. They simply follow one another.[19] David Cope (1997) lists the following qualities as possible characteristics of minimal music: • Silence • Concept music • Brevity • Continuities: requiring slow modulation of one or more parameters [implying length] • Phase and pattern music, including repetition [implying length] Consonant harmony is a much noted feature: it means the use of intervals which in a tonal context would be considered to be "stable", that is the form to which other chords are resolved by voice leading. The "texture" of much minimalist music is based on canonic imitation, exact repetitions of the same material, offset in time. Famous pieces that use this technique are the number section of Glass' Einstein on the Beach and Adams' Shaker Loops. These traits have precedents in the history of European music—Richard Wagner, for instance, opened his opera Das Rheingold with several minutes of static tonality on an E-flat chord, with a linear crescendo of figurations.

Critical reception of minimalism Ian MacDonald says that minimalism is the "passionless, sexless and emotionally blank soundtrack of the Machine Age, its utopian selfishness no more than an expression of human passivity in the face of mass-production and The Bomb".[20] On the other hand, Kyle Gann, himself a minimalist composer, has argued that minimalism represented a predictable return to simplicity after the development of an earlier style had run its course to an extreme and unsurpassable complexity.[21] Parallels include the advent of the simple Baroque continuo style following elaborate Renaissance polyphony and the simple early classical symphony following Bach's monumental advances in Baroque counterpoint. In addition, critics have often overstated the simplicity of even early minimalism. Michael Nyman has pointed out that much of the charm of Steve Reich's early music had to do with perceptual phenomena that were not actually played, but resulted from subtleties in the phase-shifting process.[22] In other words the music often does not sound as simple as it looks. In Gann's further analysis, during the 1980s minimalism evolved into less strict, more complex styles such as postminimalism and totalism, breaking out of the strongly framed repetition and stasis of early minimalism, and enriching it with a confluence of other rhythmic and structural influences.[23] Minimal music 4

Minimalist composers

Notable composers Notable minimalist composers include: • John Adams (born in the US) • Louis Andriessen (born in the Netherlands) • David Behrman (born in Austria) • Barbara Benary (born in the US) • David Borden (born in the US; and his ensemble Mother Mallard's Portable Masterpiece Company) • Gavin Bryars (born in the UK) • Joseph Byrd (born in the US) • Tony Conrad (born in the US) • Julius Eastman (born and died in the US) • Ludovico Einaudi (born in Italy) • Brian Eno (born in the UK) • Frans Geysen (born in Belgium) • Jon Gibson (born in the US) • Philip Glass (born in the US) • John Godfrey (composer) (born in the UK) • Karel Goeyvaerts (born and died in Belgium) • Henryk Górecki (born in Poland) • Michael Harrison (born in the US) • Christopher Hobbs (born in the UK) • Terry Jennings (born and died in the US) • Scott Johnson (born in the US) • Douglas Leedy (born in the US) • Angus MacLise (born in the US, died in Kathmandu) • Richard Maxfield (born and died in the US) • Robert Moran (born in the US) • Phill Niblock (born in the US) • Michael Nyman (born in the UK) • Mike Oldfield (born in the UK) • Pauline Oliveros (born in the US) • Charlemagne Palestine (born in the US) • Rabinovitch-Barakovsky (born in Russia) • Steve Reich (born in the US) • Terry Riley (born in the US) • Arthur Russell (born in the US) • Howard Skempton (born in the UK) • Dave Smith (born in the UK) • Ann Southam (born in Canada) • Yoshi Wada (born in Japan) • John White (born in the UK) • La Monte Young (born in the US) Minimal music 5

Contemporary composers Other more current minimalists include: • Australia • Andrew Chubb • Robert Davidson • Nigel Westlake • Belgium • Wim Mertens • Canada • Peter Hannan • Kyle Bobby Dunn (based in the United States) • Estonia • Arvo Pärt • Finland • Petri Kuljuntausta • Erkki Salmenhaara • France • Yann Tiersen • Germany • Peter Michael Hamel • Hauke Harder • Hans Otte • Ernstalbrecht Stiebler • Walter Zimmermann • Hungary • Zoltán Jeney • László Melis • László Sáry • László Vidovszky • Italy • Fulvio Caldini • Roberto Carnevale • Giovanni Sollima • Japan • Jo Kondo • Yoshi Wada (based in the United States) • Yasunori Mitsuda (freelance game music composer, most noted for his works in the Chrono series) • Latvia • Armands Strazds • Netherlands • Simeon ten Holt • Poland • Henryk Górecki • Zygmunt Krauze Minimal music 6

• Tomasz Sikorski • Russia • Vladimir Martynov • Anton Batagov • Serbia • Vladimir Tošić • United Kingdom • Joe Cutler • Graham Fitkin • Orlando Gough • Steve Martland • Andrew Poppy • United States • John Adams • John Luther Adams • Glenn Branca • Harold Budd • Lawrence Chandler • Richard Chartier • Rhys Chatham (based in France) • Philip Corner (based in Italy) • Kurt Doles • Arnold Dreyblatt (based in Germany) • Daniel Goode • Rafael Anton Irisarri • Tom Johnson (based in France) • Ingram Marshall • Meredith Monk • Tim Risher • Frederic Rzewski • Wayne Siegel (based in Denmark) • Stars of the Lid (Adam Wiltzie & Brian McBride)

Mystic minimalists A number of composers showing a distinctly religious influence have been labelled the "mystic minimalists", or "holy minimalists": • Henryk Górecki • Alan Hovhaness (the earliest mystic minimalist) • Giya Kancheli • Hans Otte • Arvo Pärt • John Tavener • Pēteris Vasks Minimal music 7

Precedent composers Other composers whose works have been described as precedents to minimalism include: • Jakob van Domselaer, whose early-20th century experiments in translating the theories of Piet Mondrian's De Stijl movement into music represent an early precedent to minimalist music. • Alexander Mosolov, whose orchestral composition Iron Foundry (1923) is made up of mechanical and repetitive patterns • George Antheil, whose 1924 Ballet Mecanique is characterized by much use of motoric and repetitive patterns, as well as an instrumentation made up of multiple player pianos and mallet percussion • Erik Satie, seen as a precursor of minimalism as in much of his music, for example his score for Francis Picabia's 1924 film Entr'acte which consists of phrases, many borrowed from bawdy popular songs, ordered seemingly arbitrarily and repetitiously, providing a rhythmic counterpoint to the film. • Colin McPhee, whose Tabuh-Tabuhan for two pianos and orchestra (1936) features the use of motoric, repetitive, pentatonic patterns drawn from the music of Bali (and featuring a large section of tuned percussion) • Carl Orff, who, particularly in his later theater works Antigone (1940–49) and Oedipus der Tyrann (1957–58), utilized instrumentations (six pianos and multiple xylophones, in imitation of gamelan music) and musical patterns (motoric, repetitive, triadic) reminiscent of the later music of Steve Reich and Philip Glass • Yves Klein, whose 1949 Monotone Symphony (formally The Monotone-Silence Symphony, conceived 1947–1948) is an orchestral 40-minute piece whose first movement is an unvarying 20-minute drone and the second and last movement a 20-minute silence,[24] [25] predating by several years both the drone music works of La Monte Young and the "silent" 4'33" of John Cage. • Morton Feldman, whose works prominently feature some sort of repetition as well as a sparseness • Alvin Lucier, whose acoustical experiments demand a stripped-down musical surface to bring out details in the phenomena • Anton Webern, whose economy of materials and sparse textures led many of the minimalists who were educated in serialism to turn to a reduction of means.

References

[1] Young, La Monte, "Notes on The Theatre of Eternal Music and The Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys" (http:/ / www. google. com/

search?q=cache:www. melafoundation. org/ theatre. pdf) (original PDF file (http:/ / www. melafoundation. org/ theatre. pdf)), 2000, Mela Foundation, www.melafoundation.org — Historical account and musical essay where Young explains why he considers himself the originator of the style vs. Tony Conrad and John Cale. [2] Mertens, W. (1983), American Minimal Music, Kahn & Averill, London, (p.11). [3] Michael Nyman, writing in the preface of Mertens' book refers to the style as "so called minimal music"(ibid p.8). [4] "The term 'minimal music' is generally used to describe a style of music that developed in America in the late 1960s and 1970s; and that was initially connected with the composers La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, and Philip Glass." Sitsky, L. (2002), Music of the twentieth-century avant-garde: a biocritical sourcebook,Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. (p.361) [5] Kostelanetz and Flemming 1997, 114–16. [6] Kostelanetz and Flemming 1997, 114). [7] Johnson (1989:5) [8] Potter 2001; Schönberger 2001. [9] Bernard 1993, 87 and 126. [10] Glass, P. (2008) Preface. In: Scotto, R. (2008). Moondog: The Viking of 6th Avenue. New York: Process

[11] Unterberger, Richie (1942-03-09). "John Cale" (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ artist/ p3818/ biography). AllMusic. . Retrieved 2010-11-08.

[12] "Explore: Experimental Rock" (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ explore/ style/ d4437). AllMusic. . Retrieved 2010-11-08.

[13] "Dreamweapon An Evening of Contemporary Sitar Music by Spacemen 3 @ ARTISTdirect.com - Shop, Listen, Download" (http:/ / www.

artistdirect. com/ nad/ store/ artist/ album/ 0,,271068,00. html). Artistdirect.com. 1988-08-19. . Retrieved 2010-11-08.

[14] http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ artist/ p182845/ biography

[15] Post-Rock. "Explore: Post-Rock" (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ explore/ style/ d2682). AllMusic. . Retrieved 2010-11-08. [16] Sherburne, Philip. "Digital Discipline: Minimalism in House and Techno," in Audio Culture, New York: Continuum, 2006, (p.322). [17] Emmerson, S. (2007), Music, Electronic Media, and Culture, Ashgate, Adlershot, (p.68).

[18] Reich Remixed: (http:/ / www. discogs. com/ release/ 27570) album track listing at www.discogs.com Minimal music 8

[19] Meyer 1994, 326. [20] MacDonald 2003, . [21] Gann 1997, 184–85 [22] Nyman 1974, 133–4

[23] Gann 2001 (http:/ / www. newmusicbox. org/ article. nmbx?id=1536).

[24] Perlein and Corà 2000, 226 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=baJPAAAAMAAJ& q="This+ symphony,+ 40+ minutes+ in+ length+

(in+ fact+ 20+ minutes+ followed+ by+ 20+ minutes+ of+ silence)"& pgis=1#search_anchor): "This symphony, 40 minutes in length (in fact 20 minutes followed by 20 minutes of silence) is constituted of a single 'sound' stretched out, deprived of its attack and end which creates a sensation of vertigo, whirling the sensibility outside time."

[25] See also at YvesKleinArchives.org a 1998 sound excerpt of The Monotone Symphony (http:/ / www. yveskleinarchives. org/ works/

works14_us. html) (Flash plugin required), its short description (http:/ / www. yveskleinarchives. org/ works/ works14_texte_en. html), and

Klein's "Chelsea Hotel Manifesto" (http:/ / www. yveskleinarchives. org/ documents/ chelsea_content_us. html) (including a summary of the 2-part Symphony).

Sources • Bernard, Jonathan W. 1993. "The Minimalist Aesthetic in the Plastic Arts and in Music". Perspectives of New Music 31, no. 1 (Winter): 86–132. • Bernard, Jonathan W. 2003. "Minimalism, Postminimalism, and the Resurgence of Tonality in Recent American Music". American Music 21, no. 1 (Spring): 112–33. • Cope, David. 1997. Techniques of the Contemporary Composer. New York, New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-864737-8. • Fink, Robert. 2005. Repeating Ourselves: American Minimal Music as Cultural Practice. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24036-7 (cloth). ISBN 0-520-24550-4 (pbk). • Gann, Kyle. 1997. American Music in the Twentieth Century. Schirmer. ISBN 0-02-864655-X. • Gann, Kyle. 1987. "Let X = X: Minimalism vs. Serialism." Village Voice (24 February): 76.

• Gann, Kyle. 2001. " Minimal Music, Maximal Impact: Minimalism's Immediate Legacy: Postminimalism (http:/ /

www. newmusicbox. org/ article. nmbx?id=1536)". New Music Box: The Web Magazine from the American Music Center (November 1). • Gann, Kyle. 2006. Music Downtown: Writings from the Village Voice. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22982-7. • Garland, Peter, and La Monte Young. 2001. "Jennings, Terry". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. • Gotte, Ulli. 2000. Minimal Music: Geschichte, Asthetik, Umfeld. Taschenbucher zur Musikwissenschaft, 138. Wilhelmshaven: Noetzel. ISBN 3-7959-0777-2. • Johnson, Timothy A. 1994. "Minimalism: Aesthetic, Style, or Technique? " Musical Quarterly 78, no. 4 (Winter): 742–73. • Johnson, Tom. 1989. The Voice of New Music: New York City 1972-1982 – A Collection of Articles Originally Published by the Village Voice. Eindhoven, Netherlands: Het Apollohuis. ISBN 90-71638-09-X. • Kostelanetz, Richard, and R. Flemming. 1997. Writings on Glass: Essays, Interviews, Criticism. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press; New York: Schirmer Books. • Linke, Ulrich. 1997. Minimal Music: Dimensionen eines Begriffs. Folkwang-Texte Bd. 13. Essen: Die blaue Eule. ISBN 3-89206-811-9. • Lovisa, Fabian R. 1996. Minimal-music: Entwicklung, Komponisten, Werke. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. • MacDonald, Ian. 2003. "The People's Music". London: Pimlico Publishing. ISBN 1-84413-093-2. • Mertens, Wim. 1983. American Minimal Music: La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass. Translated by J. Hautekiet; preface by Michael Nyman. London: Kahn & Averill; New York: Alexander Broude. ISBN 0-900707-76-3 Minimal music 9

• Meyer, Leonard B. 1994. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture, second edition. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-52143-5 • Nyman, Michael. 1974. Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond. London: Studio Vista ISBN 0-289-70182-1; reprinted 1999,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65383-5. • Perlein, Gilbert, and Bruno Corà (eds). 2000. Yves Klein: Long Live the Immaterial! Catalog of an exhibition held at the Musée d'art moderne et d'art contemporain, Nice, April 28 – September 4, 2000, and the Museo Pecci, Prato, September 23, 2000 – January 10, 2001. New York: Delano Greenidge Editions, 2000, ISBN 978-0-929445-08-3. • Potter, Keith. 2000. Four Musical Minimalists: La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass. Music in the Twentieth Century series. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48250-X. • Potter, Keith. 2001. "Minimalism". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers; New York: Grove's Dictionaries of Music. • Schönberger, Elmer. 2001. "Andriessen: (4) Louis Andriessen". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers; New York: Grove's Dictionaries of Music. • Schwarz, K. Robert. 1996. Minimalists. 20th Century Composers Series. London: Phaidon. ISBN 0-7148-3381-9. • Strickland, Edward. 2000. Minimalism: Origins. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Corrected and somewhat revised version of the original 1993 hardback edition. ISBN 0-253-21388-6. • Sweeney-Turner, Steve. 1995. "Weariness and Slackening in the Miserably Proliferating Field of Posts." Musical Times 136, no. 1833 (November): 599–601.

External links

• Art of the States: minimalist (http:/ / artofthestates. org/ cgi-bin/ genresearch. pl?genre=minimalist) minimalist works by American composers, including audio samples.

• Art and Music Since 1945: Introduction to Minimal Music (http:/ / arted. osu. edu/ 160/ 11_MinimalMusic. php), from Ohio State University's Department of Art Education.

• Minimal Music, Maximal Impact (http:/ / www. newmusicbox. org/ page. nmbx?id=31tp00), by Kyle Gann, with a more comprehensive list of early minimalists. Article Sources and Contributors 10 Article Sources and Contributors

Minimal music Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456094936 Contributors: 1exec1, Abiyoyo, Acb58, Alan Liefting, Alfietucker, Alpha Quadrant, Andi Vincent, AngelOfSadness, Angela, Angr, Arminius, Art LaPella, BRUTE, Badagnani, Bassedancer, Benitoelbonito, Beyond silence, Bfinn, BigrTex, Boy wonderuk, Brentdax, Brian G. Wilson, Bsimmons666, COGDEN, Camembert, Canticle, Captain-n00dle, Cassandraleo, Catalina 123, Centroclinal, Charles Matthews, Chubbaustralia, Chubbles, Cielomobile, Clashwho, Coatbutton, Colonies Chris, Crash Underride, CrucialCoconut, Curps, D6, Danielpatrickquinn, DarkAudit, Darktremor, Dbmag9, Delirium, Deskford, Doktor Who, Drawn Some, Droidus, Dsreyn, Duncharris, EJF, El C, EqualRights, Erianna, Eric-Wester, Esprit15d, Evanreyes, Exir Kamalabadi, Experimusic, F Notebook, FaZ72, Famewhatsyourname, Faridsaavedra, Felipenet, Flamurai, Foxnhound33, Frank Lofaro Jr., Funks, Gamer007, GcSwRhIc, Gibbl011, Gil mo, Gingermint, Gloworm, GoodNoise, Gorgo d, Graham87, Gzkn, HaeB, Henchren, Hike395, Hyacinth, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Iamcuriousblue, Iner22, Isnow, J Heath, J04n, JackofOz, Jengirl1988, Jerome Kohl, Jerry Zhang, Jessica.xoxox, JoanneB, Johnbod, Johnsmithpie, Jonathan.s.kt, Justin Foote, Kalogeropoulos, Karmalife, Koavf, Kumul, Kylegann, La Pizza11, Lexor, Lichtconlon, Limideen, Litis, Littlespaceboyrocks, Lynx10, MER-C, MTN, Magister Mathematicae, Mandarax, Measles, Mikething, Mild Bill Hiccup, Milliot, Mindiscored, Missmarple, Monkey Tennis, MossadElectronics, Mr Mamety, Mrdoc, Mrycraft, Musicman91196, Neurolysis, Nick C, Nick123, Ninly, Noctibus, Noosphere, Notinasnaid, O, OlEnglish, Ollie31770, Oniscoid, Opus88888, Paul Barlow, Pavel Vozenilek, Pgk, Philip G.W.Henderson, Picapica, Pigsonthewing, Pil56, Pontificake, Quentar, Rainwarrior, Ramana40, Red King, Regancy42, RexNL, Rigaudon, Rmaramone, Roedelius, RottweilerCS, Rowan McLeod, Rubberpuphfx, Sage Veritas, Salix alba, Sardur, Schaefer, Schmloof, Scottandrewhutchins, Scroteau96, Scwlong, Semitransgenic, Smorzandi, Snigbrook, Sophie, Sparkit, Splash, Statolith, Stephenb, Stirling Newberry, Strazds, Suicidalhamster, Sylvapram, Symphony19, T-1, TJRC, Tamorlan, Tassedethe, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, Therewillbehotcake, Thinking of England, Tobias Bergemann, Tommy2010, Topologyrob, Travis.Thurston, Uncle Dick, Unixer, Unused0029, Vaniac, VectorPosse, WesUGAdawg, Wickethewok, Wikimol, Woohookitty, Wutschwlllm, Xeno, Zantastik, Zinatree, ZipZapZopZoup, 468 anonymous edits License

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/