The Sokol Movement" — a Tribute to the National Revival and Culture of the Czechoslovak Nation

"The Sokol Movement" — A Tribute to the National Revival and Culture of the Czechoslovak Nation

MILADA LEJKOVÁ-KOEPPL

The period of cultural and political progress of the Czechoslovak nation in the nineteenth century is generally known as the time of its national revival. Until then the nation was dying, culturally and nationally, and did not truly exist as a sovereign state. But by the twentieth century, it had regained its independence and taken its place among the progressive and independent nations of the world. A great deal of credit for the change belongs to the "Sokol movement". To study this sociological process, one must examine the part played by the whole nation, as well as the roles of some leading individuals, although one must admit that actually the national revival of Czechs and Slovaks was mainly influenced by individuals. Nevertheless, one must recognize the importance of the internal response, the subconscious will, and the patriotic feelings of the whole nation. The founder of the Czechoslovak republic Dr. Tomás G. Masaryk, recognized several periods in the process of national revival which he identified according to their leaders' names. But he did not underestimate the importance of the social revival in progress. Many of the basic elements of the Czechoslovak national program are to be found in the program of individual revivalists. Among the most important leaders here were Josef Jungmann, Ján Kollár, Josef Safafík, Frantisek Palacky, Karel Havlicek Borovsky, and Miroslav Tyrs. Each of them - and many others - played an immense part in the formation of cultural progress and the later political independence. This study primarily concerns Dr. Miroslav Tyrs and his immortal work, the Sokol movement. Dr. Miroslav Tyrs, a professor at the Charles University in Prague, a commentator on culture, and an aesthetician, realized from the very beginning that the real executive power of the national program, the carrier of the whole tradition and character of the nation, are people - people who, therefore, must be properly brought up, educated, and well 1464 Milada Lejkova-Koeppl prepared for the duties of citizenship. In his revival efforts, Tyrs carried on the ideas of Borovsky and Palacky, but, at the same time, enriched the Czechoslovak national program with a new element: The importance of harmony between the physical and mental education of every individual. To him, physical education seemed the only way to achieve "a complete man", well grown, nobly mature through his reason, feelings, will power, and physical fitness. He tried to find a practical and effective way to develop the self-consciousness of all the social classes. His Sokol movement served this purpose, and therein lies the great value of Tyrs' contribution to the education of our nation. He constructed his Sokol philosophy and ideas on practical philosophical fundamentals and on the understanding of the practical needs of the revival process in the nation. He presented the ancient Greeks as examples, following especially the tradition of the philosopher Plato and his belief that a body without training is like a mind without education, without value. Tyrs, however, in his demands for emotional and progressive culture, advanced even further. "To the heritage of romanticism he added the philosophy of Schopenhauer, who became very close to him because of his vitalistic and voluntaristic philosophy, so different from other abstract philosophers of that day." 1 It is interesting that in the beginning Tyrs was mostly attracted by Schopenhauer's pessimism, but later he found a still more profound harmony in his aesthetics when he tried to brighten his pessimistic mood in an artistic ideal, mainly in classical art. This refinement represented an important change in Tyrs' life and character. Tyrs' philosophy and the way to its final formulation were examined by others many times, very often with different resulting opinions. But on one point all agree: That Schopenhauer had a great influence upon Tyrs. As for Tyrs, "he never denied his enthusiasm and admiration for Schopenhauer's philosophy." 2 The center of Tyrs' thoughts - like that of other national revivalists - was the principle that a nation is a fundamental social unit. The history of the world was to him the history of nations. As an ardent disciple of the new renaissance movement, he saw the main task of his nation in the aesthetic movement, as did the ancient Greeks. He came to the conclusion that the ideal of the Czech nation should be an ideal of a perfectly harmoniously developed man. Only then could the nation

1 Josef Censky, Ph. Dr. Miroslav Tyrs (Praha, Osveta, 1884). 2 See Tyrs' articles, "Duse", "Egoismus", and "Heuristika", Riegruv naucny slovnik, II. The Sokol Movement 1465 find its place in the history of nations. The aesthetic element forms a fundamental part of his Sokol system. Schopenhauer's philosophy - leading to a certain passivity - could not fully satisfy Tyr§ in the end because it contradicted his desire for action. Therefore, before the founding of the Sokol organization, he completed his first preparatory draft of principles with some addi- tional thoughts on the Darwinian theory - quite new and revolutionary at that time. However, he did not accept this theory strictly from the natural science standpoint; he applied it to his philosophy of national history. "Tyrs accepted for his philosophy some thoughts from Darwin without leaving some principles of Schopenhauer's philosophy." 3 He was well aware that "the battle of existence and survival" is a necessary condition of progress and that the stronger and more resistant individual wins. Tyrs believed that, for a small Czech nation, large material defenses would be useless if the nation lacked moral character. Therefore, he aimed at the moral revival of the Czech individual, for a new, harmoniously developed and physically fit individual when he said: "We must preserve our nation in that general vigor, that does not allow a nation to die, in that steady and fresh strength, in that physical, spiritual and moral health that will not allow any decay to set in, and no stagnation or reaction, those worst, even criminal actions perpetrated upon nations." 4 Tyrs strongly believed that only the nation which possesses will power, enthusiasm, and moral health can conquer a superior power in the struggle for life. In this transfer or adaptation of Darwin's theory to the historical progress of his nation appears Tyrs' independence in philo- sophic thoughts. His originality also lies in the fact that he was not satisfied with lifeless thoughts, but demanded principles which could be transformed into practice. Tyrs arrived at the conviction of physical and mental identity, that is, philosophy of "identity".5 After Tyrs realized the importance of physical education for the cultural progress of nations, he looked for a way to realize his aesthetic

3 V. Havlicek, "Vliv Darwinovy nauky na TyrSe", Sokolsky sbornik, VII (Praha, COS, 1923). As a member of the Educational Board of COS, he analyzes outside philosophical influence on Sokol ideology. 4 Miroslav Tyr5, "Nas ukol, smer a cil", Sokol (Praha, Sokol Prazsky, 1871). Translated into English by James L. Cihak, under the title Our Task, Aim and Goal (Chicago, ASO, 1958). In this study the Sokol ideological credo was fully expressed. 5 Josef Tvrdy, "Jest Tyrsova filosofie positivismem?" Tyrsuv sbornik, I (Praha, COS, 1920). Study on Tyrs' belief in some of Schopenhauer's and Darwin's philosophical principles. 1466 Milada Lejkova-Koeppl ideals for man. Such an ideal man would not misuse his all-round physical fitness for his own pursuits nor to suppress others, but for a life of brotherhood and general benefit, only. Tyrs' philosophy was different from the other philosophers' efforts toward a superman because of his views on social progress and the influence of physical culture on this progress. Tyrs defined historical progress from the standpoint of society and nations. Therefore, his ideal man - a Sokol - had a social and democratic character. Tyrs' correct conclusion that physical education was a powerful means and a part of general cultural endeavour, was proved, not only by Sokol education and its influence upon the Czechoslovak national life, but later by the results of scientific research demonstrating the dependence of physical condition upon the mental state and vice versa. Dr. Maurice Boigey, a French scientist and physician, stated in one of his numerous theses that "a systematical training increases not only the output of a greater muscular exertion but it perfects even those mental and moral qualities like will power and the ability of coordination. Nobody doubts the great value of strong will power. The result of good coordination is a better utilization of physical strength, increased accuracy and self-confidence, courage, and finally a desire for greater accomplishment. If the training is carried on in groups, then we have to add competition, effort for a greater result, impulse for more beauty and development, and of course: A necessary personal discipline and regard for society. The value of every man is expressed in a totality of his physical, mental and moral qualities, inherent as well as acquired. If he practises these qualities upon his fellow man, family, community and state, the total sum of such qualities had to be regarded as a general value - a culture." 8 Tyrs worked out his ideological and organizational concepts very thoroughly and, therefore, the formation of the Sokol society was not an event which happened by mere chance. It represented a profound belief and endeavour to bring - in a practical way - a revival of the national esteem and culture to all strata of society, to every individual. Now, after many years, it is possible to comprehend fully the pro- gressiveness and the superior thoughts of Tyrs' philosophy which became a part of the foundation of the nation. To understand better the milieu in which the Sokol physical educa-

« Maurice Boigey. Vseobecna fysiologie telesne vychovy. Translated by K. Hil- gartner (Praha, J. Springer, 1923). The author was a leading physician of the French Physical Education Institute in Joinville. The Sokol Movement 1467 tion arose, it is necessary to consider the history of physical education in Europe, especially in the Bohemia of Tyrs' time. The classical teachers of physical education were, without a doubt, the Greeks. The philosopher Plato called "the love for gymnastics and the love for wisdom 7" the main features of Greek character. It is a fact that gymnastics was a part of the education of each community, the interest of the state, and a great honor to its participants. Greek names like Solon, Lykurgos, Pindar, and others, as well as Olympia (Olympic games), are all inseparably connected with physical education and its influence upon the human soul, man's character, morality, artistic ex- pression, and life goals. In contrast to the Greeks, the Romans' physical education had only a military purpose. The schools of gladiators and the contests (life-and- death struggles) performed in arenas did not serve the true aims of physical education; rather, they contributed to the downfall of morality. During the Middle Ages, all-round physical training was offered only to combatants, that is, to the nobility. The knights' tournaments, fencing, combat, and horseback riding prevailed over any real physical education interest. Incidentally, one of the best-known fencing schools was in Prague. One historical document even mentions that in Bohemian higher schools, climbing, wrestling, and running were established educational subjects in the 16th century. The Middle Ages, with their sharp disapproval of physical beauty and strength, did not remain influenced by the common appreciation for fresh air, cleanliness, and hygiene. Not until the arrival of the Renaissance and Reformation, however, with their revived interest in and deeper appreciation of physical education, did educators once again begin to recognize its importance. The great pedagogue, Jan Amos Komensky (Comenius),8 often re- ferred to as a teacher of nations, was an ardent pioneer of this movement, and he emphasized the value of modern physical training and hygiene instruction for national schools. John Locke9 in England, French writers like Montaigne, J. J. Rous- seau 10 (Emile), Rabelais (Suggestion For Physical Education System), the

7 Miroslav TyrS, Foundation of Physical Culture. Translated from Czech by James L. Cihak (Chicago, ASO, 1958). 8 Jan Amos Komensky, Ordo studiorum. Czech edition (Praha, 1873). * John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education. 10 Jean J. Rousseau, Smile (Paris, 1762). Emile not only influenced education, but propagated the idea that fresh air, movement, and hygiene were essential to children's upbringing. 1468 Milada Lejkova-Koeppl

Germans, Basedow,11 Salzmann,12 and Guts-Muths,13 the Frenchman Villaume (Physical Culture jor the Youth of Both Sexes), the Swiss Pestalozzi,14 and others - all these return to general physical education, largely in theory only, in their philosophical and pedagogical principles. Not even the well-known Friedrich Jahn,15 the creator of the movement for mass physical training and the founder of Turnverein, was a real physical instructor yet. His real aim was the military fitness of the youth. Far more comprehensive method of physical education was evolved by Jahn's assistants and pupils. Eiselen 16 and Spiess.17 The year 1848, with its national liberating and revolutionary movements, had a profound effect on physical education as well. Germany, France, Switzerland, England, Denmark, and Russia made efforts to enlarge their general physical education programs. In Sweden, these changes were brought about by the efforts of Ling 18; in Denmark, by Nachtegall and Mueller; in Norway, by Bukh; and in France, by Demen, Delacroix, and Hebert. But let us return to Bohemia and follow the physical education movement there.

11 J. B. Basedow, 1723-1790. Pioneer reformer of Prussian state education. He based his view on those of Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau. He organized a model school, "Philanthropium", in Dessau. 12 Ch. G. Salzmann, a philanthropical educator inspired by Rousseau and Base- dow. He became an educational writer dedicated to the education of youth. The German Institute for Education was founded by him. 13 J. Ch. F. Guts-Muths, German pedagogue and co-founder of the German Turners. Teacher of Physical Education and Geography. Basing his work on Salzmann, he wrote many manuals for physical education, especially for gymnastics: Lehrbuch des Turnens; Turnbuch flier Soehne des Vaterlandes, and many others. 14 J. H. Pestalozzi, 1746-1827. His theory of education is based on the importance of a pedagogical method which corresponds to the natural order of individual development and of concrete experiences. This theory and Pestalozzi's methods of applying it have influenced both European and American education. 15 Friedrich L. Jahn, 1778-1852. German patriot, a high school teacher, active in efforts to free Germans from Napoleon's rule. To build strength and fellow- ship, he organized the Turnverein, which became a center of nationalism and the movement to unify Germany. This nationalist movement in Germany, down to and including National Socialism, kept many features of Jahn's training. " E. W. B. Eiselen, 1792-1846. German physical education pedagogue and founder of the first educational institute for girls. Jahn's disciple. He wrote many books on physical education. 17 A. Spiess, a founder of the German School of Physical Education. Inspired by Jahn and Pestalozzi. Author of various practical educational manuals. 18 P. H. Ling, 1776-1839. Swedish author, noted as the founder of the Swedish medical-gymnastic system which is described in The Gymnastic Free Exercises of P. H. Ling. He organized the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute in Stockholm. The Sokol Movement 1469 Some time after 1842, Rudolf Stefani, a teacher, first introduced physical training a la John to Prague. His gymnasium was reserved for the nobility, for their relaxation, limbering up, and recreation. Stefani was followed by the German, Gustav Stegmayer, from Berlin. They both were pupils of Eiselen. Not until 1848, when Jan Malypetr 19 and his colleague Schmidt20 founded the first public physical education institute, was there any real Czech physical education. At the same time, in Prague there existed an Utraquist, academic physical training society, led by a then-Sokol member, Adolf Hajek. With other Sokol members, Dr. Tyrs also exer- cised in Schmidt's institute. From this milieu, and under the pressure of efforts to encourage political and cultural revival, there developed the idea of founding a Czech society aimed at the harmonious physical and mental development of the Czech people, which would assist it in its efforts to achieve political and cultural equality among free nations. The creator of this idea was Dr. Miroslav Tyrs. From his practical philosophy arose the Sokol movement, which has no rival in any other ideal or theory, because of Tyrs' scientific method and principles, his educational doctrine, and his physical education system and unique terminology. With full justification, Dr. Miroslav Tyrs is counted among those few national revivalists who looked for and found a way to enhance the national consciousness of the whole nation. His gymnasiums and fields where the spirit of brotherhood, unity, discipline, and respect for mankind dominated became the schools of national purification, growth, and self-consciousness. From the start, he was preparing the nation morally for its future role among free nations. He was educating the Czech people in their duties to the family, community, nation, and mankind. The Sokol movement is not involved in physical fitness only: It includes principles of eugenics, modern hygiene, and the education of intellectuals, and it takes into account both practical needs and public economy. There is no doubt that at the end of this period of our nation's history, Tyrs' concept of nationalism gained the victory, and that through his efforts he brought into our history a new national spirit. Out of the formation of the first Sokol unit, "Sokol of Prague", in

19 Jan Malypetr, Czech patriot, educator and teacher of natural science and physical education. Director of the Physical Education Institute in Prague. Ferdinand Schmidt, a lawyer who organized a private school for physical education where many Sokol instructors were trained. 1470 Milada Lejkova-Koeppl 1862, there emerged a national movement which later became international, with its principles joining all its members, regardless of pro- fession, sex, social class or religion, in a true brotherhood. At its birth, the most prominent political, public, and cultural intellectuals gathered to work on the Sokol national task. Besides scientists, professors, and students, there were workers, employers with their employees, clerks, and men and women of all occupations. It is evident that from the start the Sokol organization was a national movement. It arose at a time when a frank avowal of belonging to a Czech nation meant an open manifestation of patriotism, as well as a demand for the social and cultural equality of Czechs with the German elements which at that time governed the Austro-Hungarian Empire, of which the present Czechoslovakia formed a part. The name "Sokol", meaning falcon, a bird known for its courage, endurance, speed, and love for soaring high, was taken from the Yugo- slavs, who called their heroes "Sokols". Tyrs' dream of the national Sokol movement was fulfilled. Prague's example was soon followed by other towns and villages. Everywhere new Sokol units were founded, with their proud volunteers striving for the cultural and political rights of their country and their people. These units increased so greatly that they had to be organized into districts, which were united into a central body called the Czechoslovak Sokol Organization (COS: Ceskoslovenska obec sokolska). The most eloquent proof of the progress of the Sokol movement is its numbers, taken from the year 1947, after the Nazi occupation, when the revived Sokol organization had 52 districts, 3,360 units, and 1,200,000 members. Every tenth citizen of the Czechoslavak republic was a Sokol. All units had their gymnasiums, outdoor (athletic) fields, and buildings where administrative activities, regular meetings, and social activities took place. The district secretarial offices were under the direction of the COS headquarters, located in Prague. Millions of crowns were spent on regular schools or courses for gymnastic instructors and for other educational functions, held throughout the year. More than 40,000 instructors and leaders, men and women, worked for the Sokol physical training program, while a similar number were in administrative, medical, and organizational departments. Sokol physicians cooperated in the physical training program by voluntarily examining every new nember. Remuneration was not needed, for to work for Sokol was the highest honor. The Sokol, as a selective organization, imposed certain conditions which had to be accepted and followed by The Sokol Movement 1471 every member. During its existence, members of the Sokol organization were devoted "brothers and sisters", united by the Sokol ideas of moral and physical culture, and bound by a voluntary but strict discipline marked by opposition to human, social, and national tyranny, suppression, and dictatorship. Sokol units were organized, not only in Czechoslovakia, but throughout the world. Sokol units could and can still be found in Austria, England, Germany, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden (before World War II, even in Hungary), Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and some African countries. The best proof of the Sokol impact on the life of Czechoslovaks is the presence of wide-spread Sokol organizations in the United States, where one of the first units was founded in St. Louis, Missouri, just one hundred years ago - only three years after the appearance of the Sokol in Prague. The American government recently acknowledged the importance of the Sokol when it issued a commemorative Sokol physical fitness stamp in February 1965, to mark the one-hundredth anniversary of the founding of the Sokol in the United States. Following the Czech example, Sokol organizations were established in Yugoslavia in 1863, in Poland in 1867, and in Bulgaria. Before the First World War, Sokol units existed even in Russia, where Sokol leaders and instructors taught physical education at Russian high schools and at the Military Academy in Petrograd. In 1862, when the Czech Sokol movement was founded, Tyrs origi- nated through the "Sokol Slets" (festivals) the modern revival of the Olympic tradition and spirit. Pierre de Coubertin followed him with the idea of the Olympic Games much later, in 1896. The Sokol Festivals in Prague were held every sixth year as a tra- ditional manifestation of Sokol progress. These unique national cele- brations always demonstrated the personal sacrifice and effort of every individual and devotion to the nation and democracy. The whole nation truly manifested itself in the Sokol Slet. The last Slet, held in Prague in 1948, brought together over one million people for its final performance. On the Sokol stadium, over 370,000 participants in unique mass calisthenics and other performances took their turn, adults as well as youth. Certain parts of the Slet program had over 33,000 participants performing at the same moment. Only the best were allowed to represent the Sokol movement, and, therefore, each Sokol Slet was preceded by widespread examinations, held in every unit and district throughout the Republic. One has to 1472 Milada Lejkova-Koeppl bear in mind that all expenses of the Sokol Slet were covered by Sokol funds, without any State support. The last Sokol budget reached 130 million crowns, and still the financial results was more than successful, for the Sokols built their own stadium for 170,000 spectators with a complex of buildings for participants and administrative offices. The Sokol organization arranged the transportation, food, and lodging for all Slet participants, while they covered their personal expenses. All this was possible through a voluntary tax, contributed by all Sokol members, which netted about 30 million crowns. As at the ancient Olympic Games, so, at the Sokol Festivals, com- petitions among artists, poets, authors, singers, painters, scientists, and sculptors took place. Every active participant of the "Slet" had to pass an examination in Sokol ideology and national and Sokol history. The Sokols competed, not only physically in gymnasiums and athletic fields, but also in total physical fitness which included spiritual and moral fitness as well. Many were amazed at how many artists, sculptors, and painters were inspired by the Sokol idea. The close cooperation of all artists, the contests of theatrical groups, choirs, puppet ensembles, and musical and ideological contests proved Tyrs' concept of a program of moral and physical education based upon the Greek "kalokagathia" and the ancient Olympic Games. The harmony between the aesthetic and physical elements of the Sokol program pervaded the whole of Czechoslovak culture: Artists like Josef Manes, Jaroslav Preissler, Josef Zenisek, Karel Cermak, Mi- kulas Ales, Stanislav Sucharda, Karel Rabl, Jin Mucha, Franti- sek Kafka, Eduard Milen, Max Svabinsky, and others: composers like Josef Suk, Leos Janacek, Jan Sebor, and Jaroslav Pospisil; poets and authors like Ignat Herrmann, Jan Neruda, Josef Sladek, Adolf Heyduk, Karel Domorazek, Svatopluk Cech, Jaroslav Kvapil, Karel Hlavacek, Karel Capek, and Jaroslav Seifert; and numerous architects, dramatists, choreographers, and educators all made a significant contribution, through the Sokol, to the nation and to the culture of the world. In general, the individual parts of the Czechoslovak Sokol Organiza- tion's life effectively demonstrated the validity of its goals and results. The Sokol was always a democratic and progressive organization. Its leaders, instructors, and officials were elected to office. Sokol women received administrative and voting rights in the Sokol organization before these were given them in public life. The relationship of the Sokol to all political parties was quite extraordinary. It did not prefer The Sokol Movement 1473 any of them. Indeed, political speeches were not tolerated in the Sokol and no member tried to present them. However, the membership of Sokols in democratic political parties was self-evident and their resistance to anti-democratic parties equally obvious. The Sokols clarified their attitude toward Communism right after the First World War through a resolution. No Communist could become a member of the Sokol. Communism denied freedom and all the democratic principles for which the Sokol stood and rightly de- fended. When the first Czechoslovak president, Dr. Tomás G. Masaryk, a Sokol member from his student years in the 1870's, decided to go into exile to fight for the independence of Czechs and Slovaks, he left his home with a promise of positive help from the Sokols. His closest co- workers abroad, Dr. Edvard Benes, Dr. Milan R. Stefánik, and the active members of the underground movement at home, all were Sokols. Among them also was Dr. Josef Scheiner, the chairman of the Sokol organization which was officially dissolved by the Austro-Hungarian government. The first financial support for the resistance movement came from Sokol funds. Dr. Masaryk, as well as Dr. Benes, affirmed many times later how much this practical help meant to them and what an extraordinary part Sokol education played in eliciting the voluntary discipline and creative patriotism that went into the founding of the Czechoslovak legions (íeskoslovenské legie) in Russia, France, and Italy. The elite of the legions consisted of former Sokol leaders and instructors. The Sokol identity card and Sokol emblem were honored and trusted symbols everywhere. The members of legions said "thou and thee" to each other, according to Sokol style, and both sol- diers and officers used the Sokol greeting, "Nazdar". When the revolution came and Czechoslovakia was proclaimed an independent state on the 28th of October, 1918, there were Sokols who, with the utmost zeal, undertook the task of acting as guardians of the security of the people. They disarmed the Austro-Hungarian troops and achieved a successful course of revolution without any bloodshed. And later, in 1919, when Hungarian Communists under the leadership of Béla Kun attacked Slovakia, the first opposition came from the volun- teer regiments of Sokols. In the free Republic, the growth of the Sokol organization was quite rapid, now that all Sokol goals could be proclaimed openly and public- ly. Tyrs' physical education system was adopted even in the new Czechoslovak army. The first supervisor of the military force was the 1474 Milada Lejkova-Koeppl chairman of the Sokol organization, Dr. Josef Scheiner, while the Sokol chief physical director, Dr. Jindrich Vanicek, was in charge of the physical education department of the Ministry of Defense. Sokol physical education was introduced in all schools as well, of course. The real value of Sokol education also appeared later in a tragic period of the Czechoslovak nation's existence, when in 1938, at Munich, the Great Powers made the decision to hand the Czechoslovak republic over to its greatest enemy, Nazi Germany. The outlook for the betrayed Czech and Slovak people was very discouraging, but the national spirit recovered, buoyed by an impressively firm opposition which grew into a new resistance movement toward tyranny and dictatorship. The leader of this movement was again a Sokol, President Dr. Edvard Benes with another true and devoted Sokol member, Jan Masaryk, both of whom worked abroad very ardently for the recovery of Czechoslovak independence. At home, the underground movement was led by Sokols like General Elias, General Vojta, Bily, and thousands of others. It is very well known that the Sokol units in America, Canada, England, and elsewhere supported leaders like Benes, not only with moral, but with material help as well. The American Sokols, especially, contributed substantially to the liberation of Czechoslovakia. Meanwhile, severe persecution was launched at the whole underground movement. At first, it affected individuals, some leaders, and small groups; but as soon as the Nazis recognized the resistant spirit of the whole organization, their measures became more severe. In 1939, the first arrests and multiple trials took place. In 1941, the Gestapo swept almost all previously free members of the Sokol headquarters, districts, and larger units into concentration camps, gas chambers, and other places of execution, effectively exterminating those who had worked as leaders of the underground movements. The results of this anti-Sokol action were frightful. More than 12,000 Sokol leaders were dragged away, and almost 5,000 of them were executed. Among them were the national physical director, Dr. Augustin Pechlat, and the President of COS, Dr. Stanislav Bukovsky, with his vice-presidents. Almost 93 per- cent of the leaders from Sokol headquarters perished. The Gestapo strike temporarily paralyzed larger actions of the Sokol organization, which the Acting-Protector of Bohemia and Moravia. Karl H. Frank, characterised as "the center of assembly for secret and open resistance against the Third Reich." However, as soon as new leaders took their place, the Sokol determination to fight reappeared. Regardless of all losses, Sokols participated in other ways against the The Sokol Movement 1475 Nazis, and their actions were effective. Not only the active members, but even the nominal members helped persecuted people to cross the border, and they regularly provided support and financial aid for the families of arrested and executed Sokols. They handled an information service, maintained an illegal press, and kept alive the hope of the nation for a final victory. They hid and helped partisans and para- chutists. It never will be forgotten that the attack upon the Reichs- protector Reinhard Heydrich was able to take place through the Sokol underground movement. After the defeat of Nazism, the Sokol organization was fully revived, and its membership exceeded that of pre-war days. However, democracy in Czechoslovakia soon disappeared under a new attack: Communism. The Sokol Organization had to undergo another period of suppression. At the beginning, the self-appointed Communist régime tried to make use of the Sokol Organization for its own purposes, but in vain. The régime was very well aware of the great importance of the transfer of the Sokol Organization into the service of the Communist Party, and therefore, under cover of the unification of all physical education organizations, the Communists worked to weaken and annihilate the influence of the Sokol and its leaders. For this reason, they allowed the preparations for the last Sokol Slet in 1948 to go on, intending to use the Slet as a propaganda device for the new Communist régime. But to their surprise, the Sokol Festival became a national manifestation against Communist tyranny, and it clearly convinced the Communists that the Sokols were their ardent opponents, impossible to deflect from their democratic goals. For that reason, right after the Slet, when the Sokol leaders were resigning rather than cooperate with the Communists, the régime dissolved the Czechoslovak Sokol Organization, arrested and persecuted Sokols suspected of anti-Communist attitudes, and national- ized Sokol property valued at billions of crowns. At that time, many Sokol leaders had to go into exile, while many others who actively opposed the new régime faced trials. To this day, the Czechoslovak Sokol Organizations does not officially exist and the present national physical education program in Czechoslovakia has nothing in common with the former Sokol movement.

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