DEVELOPMENT OF IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION WITH AN OVERVIEW OF CULTURE, WILD TROUT AND by Robert W. Wiley Fisheries Research Supervisor Wyoming Game and Fish Department ivi.e.S • 528 South Adams Laramie, Wyoming 82070

Wild trout and planted trout; the natural as opposed to the manmade. A virtual tug-o-war among interests has developed over wild and planted trout. Fish culture and fisheries management, plus the expectations of society, are entwined in a web of contrdversy about trout management. What caused and fuels the trout debate; what roles have fish culture and fisheries management played; and where is the balance between wild and planted trout? A historical perspective on in Wyoming (and the rest of the Rocky Mountain Area), the development of fish culture, and &iota:410-K fisheries management gives foctis to the issue. EARLY TROUT FISHING AND FISH CULTURE Trout fishing in parts of Wyoming Territory in the late 19th Century was excellent. In July 1876, General Crook's soldiers reported catching 15,000 trout (on hook and line with and grasshoppers) from streams in the valley of Tongue River near Sheridan (Bourke 1891). When they moved on, the soldiers had enough smoked and salted trout, packed in barrels, to last many days. Wyoming appointed its first sh commissioner in 1879 to control fishing and stock streak (Table 1). Trout arrived and were planted in 1880 and Ar'state fish hatchery was completed in 1884. The hatchery was built because streams and lakes were either devoid of trout or existing trout stocks were depleted by overharvest, pollution, dam building, unscreened irrigation diversions, and the use of dynamite to harvest fish. Trout Were also considered a food source by residents and economic benefit because anglers would come to fish and spend money (Barkwell 1883). _ Commissioners Louis/Miller (1890) and Gustave Schnitger (1895) felt that annual :planting, like yearly reseeding of agricultural crops, was necessary to maintain good trout fishing. Schnitger (1896) thought tliat Wyoming's waters could support 2,500 trout per acrer54re Wyoming6 trout culture system flourished under this premise. By 1918, it was estimated that every water in the state had been stocked- with trout and there was interest in raising even more 1notxt (Lenihan 1918). Table 1. Historical record.of fish culture, fisheries management, trout introductions, and fishing regulations in Rocky Mountain states( haee.44-.5 A reePX; RUAFT, DATE) A

State Fish Fish Trout Fish Fish admin laws introduced hatchery management

Arizona 1887 1887 01900 1922 1950

Colorado 1877 1872 1872 1881 @ 1950

Idaho 1900 1883 1889 1897 1938 Montana 1895. 1865 621880 1908 1947 Mew Mexico 1897 * 1883 1950 Utah 1874 1853 (31877 1899 1950 Wyoming 1879 1869 1880 1884 1950

Trout fishing and trout culture followed about the same course throughout the Rocky Mountain Region (Rawley and Rawley 1972; Sigler and Sigler 1986; Wiley 1993; Table 1). As human population rose, the number of trout hatcheries and the number of planted trout also increased. There was some awareness OF -native trout, but the idea that trout fishing and trout populations could be improved by stocking was the buo16,1„e6 / order of the day. In Wyoming, early (1920-1949) FISHEAKILGWALMAESSIII6tr pegodebelieved that 80-90% of the trout planted in state rearing ponds survived to be caught by anglers (Cook 1936). The outlook appeared to be the same wherever trout were planted. THE ROLE OF FISH CULTURE

Trout were planted in virtually any water that looked suitable and were often introduced where there had been no trout. For example, good trout fisheries in the Laramie and Platte rivers (where trout are not native) were reported by the 1890's (Miller 1890) and eggs for the state fish hatchery were collected from these streams. By the turn of the centuryitT;put hatcheries were operating in most Rocky Mountain statesplanting millions of trout each year. Most "biological" surveys before 1950 were conducted by fish culture people. They were looking for suitable fish *planting sites, places to build more fish hatcheries, or sites for additional rearing ponds. A few surveys in Utah were conducted by university professors who catalogued th productivity of various waters (Sigler and Sigler 1986), 11the information was probably used to decide where to locate additional hatcheries to raise and stock more trout.

There is no dou that trout hatcheries are important to good , conspfving and protecting stocks of native fish, maintainin fisheries in lakes and reservoirs, and jar' reintroductio4,following natural disasters or pollution. However, anglers and fisheries biologists can expect too much from them. Modern surveys show that 55-96% of trout standing stocks in streams in the western United States are 160 pounds per acre (Platts and McHenry 1988; Wiley 1993)C. Virtually all trout streams in Wyoming have stocks of 200 pounds per acre or less, far lower than the 2,500 pounds per acre surmised by Gustave Schnitger (1896). The outlook during the early years focused on trout culture, trout planting, and trout harvest as a commodity, like an agricultural crop. Extensive trout culture and • planting began throughout the West in the 1880's and 'led people to believe in and expect that good fishing was the result of trout planting. Hobbs (1948) reported that 75 years of trout planting had caused generations of New Zealanders to expect trout to be planted. He believed that trout planting in New Zealand was beneficial, but that much of it was unnecessary. Recent angler surveys in Wyoming show almost universal support for stocking hatchery trout (Anderson et al. 1990). Trout culturists have done their job wery well. Generally, hatchery-reared trout are in good condition, healthy, and apparently ready for post-planting life. Livingston Stone (1872)yeported that the and trout he raised were healthy l ,Blat the also wondered if the fish, even. though he lthy, could survive better in the hatchery than in the wild after planting. Over a century of trout management literature shows that planted trout often survive poorly after planting..(Wiley et al. 1993). To assess the health and condition of planted and wild trout, Goede (1986) developed an autopsy-based fish analysis system. With this method, biologists and fish culturists can determine how well planted fish are suited for post-planting life in the wild and how well they adjust to life in streams and lakes after planting. .14,TILD TROUT AND HATCHERY TROUT Wild trout seem to occupy stream habitat to its productive capacity (Platts and McHenry 1988). Supplementing wild trout stocks is usually not successful in increasing trout standing stocks unless the population has been reduced from some disaster. Hatchery trout do not survive any better than wild trout in stream habitat, whether pristine or degraded because they have the same biological requirements.

Wild trout do best in streams becaus they111e' were born there and are attuned to the vagaries of7 habitat. Hatchery trout are reared in circumstances much different fr9m natural streams (i.e.) densities hundreds of times those in the wild, virtually constant water temperature and flow, regular feeding, and no predators). Survival rates from egg to planting of 80% are common for hatchery-reared trout. Survival rates of wild trout from eggs to the end of their first year are 1-5%. frA lie Early fish culturists (Stone 1872; Schn ger 1892) realized that they were altering natural se ection by raising trout in protected hatchery environments. tone was concerned that the trout he raised might not do well after planting. Research in the ensuing century has shown his concerns to be well-founded, as a rule hatchery trout do not survive well in streams. Trout do not reproduce in many lakes and reservoirs, so to maintain populations, hatchery-reared trout must be stocked. Trout stocked in lakes survive best when there are few or no competing fish, including carryover trout from previous plantings (Wiley et al 1993). Where large predatory trout are present or where zooplankton of the size trout prefer is depressed, planted trout survive poorly. So, even with regular planting, trout populations fluctuate similar to their wild counterparts. -T-M/ lf,d . E THE: ROLE OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT h=== Fisheries managers, exclusive of fish culturists, were first employed.in the Rocky Mountain Region in 1938 in Idaho (Table 1). Management based on stream and lake surveys and fish planting protocols were proposed for Wyoming in 1940 (Simon 1940), 10 years before fish management crews were established. Simon knew that native clarki were being extirpated from much of their range by non-native trout planted earlier. His management protocol was that golden trout 0. aguabonita would be planted at highest elevations, followed in descending progression by . cutthroat trout,. fontinalis, rainbow . trout 0. my-kiss, and trutta. It provided further that brown trout would be planted only with forage fish and that Salvelinus namaycush would be planted with no other . Fish planting was not permitted without stream and lake surveys to determine productivity and presence of competing species. Wyoming's first fish managers were hired in 1950, coinciding with the federal aid to sport fish restoration program. Greene (1950) reported closure of many state-sponsored trout rearing ponds because biological surveys showed that they were producing at about 15% of anticipated yield. Some of the ponds had been operating for 30 years. Currently, rearing ponds are used at fish hatcheries where trout are fed and production is monitored. ----- lita_aaart_Eialaing_Inatitm±g. The Sport Fishing . Institute (SFI), an organization dedicated to good management of fisheries in North America, began about 1960. It's slogan, To Shorten the Time Between Bites, characterized fisheries management philosophy of the 1960's. In concert with the slogan, the principle of Maximum Sustained Yield (MSY) guided fisheries managers from about 1960 to the 1970's. Proponents. of MSY believed that about one-half of the biomass of fish stocks could be harvested annually without harming the population. Taken to the extreme, some people believed that virtually entire stocks could be removed, then replenished yearly with hatchery fish. In 1970, SFI's slogan changed to The Quality of Fishing Reflects the Quality of Living; a change from the commodity-based, harvest aspects of fisheries management to a more recreational interest, where catching and keeping fish was no longer the primary purpose of angling. Many fisheries biologists felt that SFI's new slogan was wrong and that fisheries management should continue emphasizing production, harvest, and a high probability of a full creel during each angling triP. • Exp1oitation and Habitat. During the 1960's and 1970's, fishing effort (sport, commercial, and subsistence) kept increasing. Coupled with continued loss of habitat caused by pollution, poor land management practices, dam and reservoir construction, irrigation, and natural disasters, inland and anadromous trout fisheries declined despite continued and increasing trout planting. Some fisheries /4=e believe that they are responsible only for the fish, not the habitat that supports them. This is shortsighted because good fish populations depend on diverse habitat (White 1973; Griffith 1993). Fisheries biologists, recreational anglers, and commercial fishers must work with land management agencies (Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, Soil Conservation Service, etc.) to insure that fisheries are represented in all land management policies. 0,01'41/ WILD TROUT AND PLANTED TROUT; BALANCING THE SCALE The controversy over wild and planted trout is illustrated by statements suggesting that the nation's waters are polluted with hatchery trout (Beckstrom 1991), that fish hatcheries have become a narcotic served to pacify society (Francis 1990), and that fish hatcheries are feed-lot hyperconcentrations of fish (White 1992) that may look good in the hatchery, but survive poorly after planting. Trout fisheries have been traditionally managed for paying users, sport anglers (Schupp 1994). Today other parts of society are demanding that management effort be directed towards other interests S native , non-sport fishes, noncosumptive uses, more wild trout, fewer hatchery trout, etc. Trout fisheries should be managed according to the productive capacity to support fish. For example, if wild trout occupy stream habitat to its productive capacity, no amount of trout planting will increase the population.

Planting trout that can be harvested immediately (catchables) artificially elevates production. But, catchables usually do not survive to the next fishing season and they cause demand for such artificial fisheries. Catchables are best used in urban areas where fishing effort is high or where angling can be sustained by no other means. Balance between 'what waters can provide naturally in the way of trout and what can be stocked safely and cost-effectively does .not depend solely on public demands (Mullan et al 1992; Wiley et al. 1993). Trout stocking programs can accelerate demand, resulting in increased and unnecessary dependence on hatchery trout (Hobbs 1948; Wiley et al. 1993). Biologists know that habitat governs the productive limits of the waters they manage. They also know that hatcheries can outstrip natural production, that hatchery trout often die shortly after plahting in streams, and that planting hatchery trout can create.unrealistic demand. But, biologists also realize that hatchery trout are very. valuable when used properly.- What constitutes proper use has not been defined even though trout have been planted for more than a. century.

With some literary license) Leopold's (1933) wildlife management thesis can be adapted to fisheries. the resource can be conserved, protected, restored, and managed by creative use of the same tools that have depressed it - axe, tractor, cow, dam, industry, and fishing. Fisheries agencies are responsible for public perception of the resource because their actions create it (Clawson 1963). They should instill in the public a sound philosophy of habitat protection, conservcSn,- and management, and the idea that natural product vt-A limits ge..4eTn the size of fish stocks. This will assuage the controversy over wild versus planted trout. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, D, C. Phillips, and T. Krehbiel. 1990. Wyoming angler attitudes and preferences; application of strategic choice modeling. University of Wyoming Department of Statistics, Laramie. Barkwell, M. C. 1883. Report of the Board of Fish Commissioners for the two years ending December 31, 1883. .Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Cheyenne. Beckstrom, K. 1991. The right fish. North American , February-March 1991. Bourke, J. G. 1891. On the border with Crook. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Cook, F. 1936. Report of the Division of Fish Culture. Pages 15-19, in A. J. Martin, Biennial Report of the State Game and Fish Commissioner of Wyoming, 1935-1936. Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Cheyenne. Clawson M. 1963. Land and water for recreation. Rand Mc Company, Chicagoo .111144.olz-- Francis, R. C. 1990.

Goede, R. W. 1986. Management considerations in stocking of diseased or carrier fish. Pages 349-355 in R. H. Stroud, editor, Fish Culture In Fisheries Management. Fish Culture Section and Fisheries Management Section, American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.

. Greene, A. F. C. 1950. Report of the Fish Division. Pages 30-45 in Annual Report of the Wyoming Game and Fish . Commission, 1950. Wyoming Game and Fish Commission, Cheyenne. Griffith, J. S. 1993. Coldwater streams. Pages 405-406 in C. Kohler and W. A. Hubert editors., Inland Fisheries ) Management in North America. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland. Hobbs, D. F. 1948. !Trout fisheries in New Zealand, their development and management. Fisheries Bulletin No. 10, • New Zealand Marine Department, Wellington, New Zealand. Lenihan, J. J. 1918. Sixth annual report of the State Fish Commissioner, 1918. Wyoming State Archives, Cheyenne. Leopold, A. 1933. Game management. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.

Miller, L. 1890. Report of Louis Miller, State Fish Commissioner of Wyoming for the year ending September 30, 1890. Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Cheyenne.

Mullan, J. W., K. R. Williams, G. Rhodus, T. W. Hillman, and J. D. McIntyre. 1992. Production and habitat of salmonids in Mid-Columbia River tributary streams. Monograph No. 1, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Assistance Office, Leavenworth, Washington. Platts, W. S. and M. L. McHenry. 1988. Density and biomass of trout? and char 'in western streams. General Technical Information Report INT-241. U. S. Forest Servicege/ Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, Utah. Rawley, E. V. and L. Rawley. 1972. Utah Fish and Game', a brief hitory. Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Salt Lake City.

Schupp, B. 1994. Issues facing traditional fisheries management. Fisheries 19(4):24-25. Sigler, J. W.,and W. F. Sigler. 1986. History of fish hatchery development in the great basin states of Utah and Nevada. The Great Basin Naturalist 46 :583-594. Schnitger, G. 1892. Annual report of the State Fish Commissioner of Wyoming for the year 1892. Wyoming State Archives, Cheyenne. Schnitger, G. 1895. Annual report of the Sate Fish Commissioner and Game Warden for 1895. Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Cheyenne. Schnitger, G. 1896. Biennial report of the State Fish Commissioner of Wyoming for the years 1895 and 1896. Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Cheyenne. Simon, J. R. 1940. Report of the Fish Division. Pages 31-41 in Robert Grieve, Biennial Report of the Wyoming Game and Fish Commission, 1939-1940. Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Cheyenne. Stone, L. . 1872. Trout culture. Proceedings of the American Fish Culturists Association(D 1:46-56. American- d.

White, R. J. 1973. Stream channel suitability for coldwater fish. Proceedings of the 28th Annual Meeting of the Soil Conservation Society of America, 4.2.14m r--A-n-iimml-s-r and Man), Hot Springs, Arkansas. White, R. J. 1992. Why wild fish matter: balancing ecological and aquacultural fishery management. Trout, Autumn 1992. T lenna, lrginia. Wiley, R. W. 1993. Wyoming fish management, 1869-1993. Administrative Report, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Cheyenne. Wiley, R. W., R. A. Whaley, J. B. Satake, and M. Fowden. 1993. Assessment of stocking hatchery trout, a Wyoming perspective. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 13- :160-169.