CSIR and Australian Industry: 1926–49 Article Number: HR20012 Year: 2020 Journal: Historical Records of Australian Science URL

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Author: Garrett Upstill, Thomas H. Spurling and Terence J. Healy Title: CSIR and Australian industry: 1926–49 Article number: HR20012 Year: 2020 Journal: Historical Records of Australian Science URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1959.3/458202

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CSIR and Australian industry: 1926-1949

Garrett Upstill*, Thomas H. Spurling and Terence J. Healy Centre for Transformative Innovation, Swinburne University of Technology

*Corresponding author [email protected]

Abstract

The primary function of CSIR, founded in 1926, was to promote primary and secondary industries in Australia. In its first decade CSIR developed a successful model for delivering research of benefit to the primary sector. The period from the late 1930s was characterised by the expansion of CSIR, notably into secondary industry research, and its wide-ranging and effective response to the industry and government demands during the Second World War. In the post-war years CSIR placed increasing emphasis on longer term underlying research as the way to benefit Australian industry. This shift raised problems for technology transfer to the secondary industry sector; it also shaped the agenda of CSIR’s successor organisation, CSIRO, in the decades after its formation in 1949.

Introduction

This is the third paper in a series: previous papers have looked at the relationship between the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and Australian industry during the periods 1949 to 19791 and 1980 to 2000.2

The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the immediate predecessor of CSIRO, was established in 1926 as a federal statutory authority. Its primary function, as set out in its Act was:

the initiation and carrying out of scientific researches in connexion with, or for the promotion of, primary or secondary industries in the Commonwealth. 3

This wording, from the Institute of Science and Industry Act 1920,4 stayed in the legislation for CSIR and CSIRO until 1978.5

In this paper we discuss how CSIR carried out this function – research to promote Australian industry – over the period till 1949, when CSIRO took over its powers and functions and its research program.

1 Upstill (2019). 2 Upstill and Spurling (2020). 3 Commonwealth of Australia (1926). 4 Commonwealth of Australia (1920). 5 In 1978 the Act was amended to include ‘encouraging or facilitating the application or utilisation of the results of such research’ as a separate function. In the 1986 revision of the Act the first two functions, research and technology transfer, were designated to be CSIRO’s primary functions.

We analyse CSIR’s relationship with Australian industry against the background of a changing economic environment and national and international events. This is critical to understanding the way CSIR, heavily dependent on federal government funding, interpreted its legislated mandate, conducted its research program and managed its relationship with Australian industry.

We address three slices of CSIR’s history. The next section looks at the period 1926-1936 which covers the formative organisation-building years of CSIR and its almost exclusive focus on primary industries. The following section addresses the period 1937-1945 which covers CSIR’s expansion into secondary industry research and its response to the all-enveloping demands of the Second World War. Then we look at the post- war period and the organisation’s direction-setting before it was reconstituted as CSIRO in 1949. In the final section we draw out the findings of this analysis and the implications for the development of CSIRO.

We draw on previous studies of CSIR, notably the commissioned history by Boris Schedvin,6 as well as papers by White,7 Currie and Graham8 and Home9 and CSIROpedia10 and employ new data from the organisation’s annual reports. Our focus is CSIR’s relationship with Australian industry.

A model that worked: CSIR and Australian primary industry 1926-1937

CSIR replaced the Institute of Science and Industry, a federal scientific research agency established in 1920. The Institute had achieved modest success, notably through its work on prickly pear, hardwood timbers, and paper from eucalyptus trees but it foundered due to lack of funding and weaknesses in organisational design. By 1926 it was widely agreed that it was time for a durable well-structured replacement. Introducing the CSIR legislation to parliament Prime Minister Stanley Bruce said:

Certainly the institute has not been a complete failure, as some people would suggest, but I think everyone recognises that the time has come when it should be reorganized and placed on a different basis. 11

Bruce drove the creation of CSIR. In 1925 he convened a conference of senior academic, industrial and political leaders to discuss the structure and operations of a new federal agency and drew on the advice of the head of the UK Department of Scientific and Industrial Research who visited Australia.12 He also invited two men who were to shape the development of CSIR over the next two decades, George Julius and David Rivett, 13 to help draft the legislation for CSIR.

Under its 1926 Act, CSIR was established as a statutory authority administered by a Council comprising ”three members nominated by the Minister and appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom the Governor- General shall appoint to be the Chairman; the Chairman of each State Committee constituted under this Act;

6 Schedvin (1987) 7 White (1976) 8 Currie and Graham (1971) 9 Home (1988) 10 CSIROpedia (2020) 11 Bruce (1926) 12 Heath (1926) 13 William Newbiggin, the third member of the original CSIR Executive Committee was also involved.

2 and such other members as the Council, with the consent of the Minister, co-opts by reason of their scientific knowledge.”

The three members appointed by the Governor-General served as the Executive Committee of the Council and were responsible for day-to-day management of CSIR. The Committee comprised George Julius (Chairman of the Council ), David Rivett and William Newbiggin. Newbiggin died in 1927 and was replaced by Arnold Richardson (Table 1). In 1927, Rivett became Chief Executive and the sole full-time member of the Executive Committee 14 and the only member located in Melbourne, where CSIR had its headquarters. The three men had complementary skills. Julius was a successful consulting engineer with well-honed commercial and political skills; 15,16 Rivett, later a Fellow of the Royal Society, was a distinguished scientist and administrator well connected in Australian and British scientific circles,17,18 and Richardson was a proven academic administrator and a leading agricultural researcher.

Table 1 about here

CSIR was founded at a time when Commonwealth revenue was benefiting from the wool boom of the mid- 1920s. Funds were put aside in a Treasury trust account as a financial buffer for the first few years. Even so it faced financial pressures during the straitened years of the Great Depression and required supplementary injections of funding from government agencies and other sources.19

An early challenge for CSIR related to State-Federal rivalry, namely that under the Australian Constitution responsibilities for agriculture were generally retained by the States. This matter was resolved at a special meeting with State representatives in 1927 which acknowledged a legitimate role for CSIR in rural research because of the size and cross-border nature of many agricultural problems, as well as the benefits of additional concentrated and specialised effort.20 This outcome carried the proviso that ‘State departments accepted exclusive responsibility for dissemination of agricultural and husbandry techniques’.21 (This followed the approach of early advocates for federal government involvement in rural research, 22 based on the US model of a Bureau of Agriculture plus a system of land grant universities and state-based experimental stations.) For CSIR it meant technology transfer23 to rural industries was largely the responsibility of state- funded rural extension agencies

The economic setting

14 David Masson, Rivett’s mentor, had advised him at a meeting in March 1926 that he ‘considered the job too big for part time’ notwithstanding Prime Minister Bruce’s view (mindful of state politicians’ views) ‘that appointing three full time Directors was politically impossible’.(Rivett (1926) Julius’s persuasive efforts with both Bruce and Rivett led to the latter becoming full-time Chief Executive on 1 January 1927. 15 White (1976). 16 Currie and Graham (1971). 17 White (1976). 18 Rivett (1972). 19 Schedvin (1987) pp. 117-121. 20 White (1976) p. 634. 21 Schedvin (1987) p. 66. 22 Quick (1901). 23 By the term “technology transfer” we refer to all modes by which scientific knowledge generated in a research organisation may be transferred to industry and the marketplace.

In the mid-1920s Australia faced chronic balance of payments pressures, underpinned by its war debt to the United Kingdom and aggravated by swings in commodity prices and the terms of trade (Figure 1). The rural sector dominated Australian exports and wool exports alone accounted for almost 40% of the total (Figure 2).

Figure 1 about here

Figure 2 about here

It was expected that CSIR would give priority to primary industries in its research. Indeed, the notion that science and technology could improve the productivity and scope of Australia’s rural industries had been a driving factor behind the creation of CSIR. Australia’s membership in the British Empire was another factor: Britain, the main market for Australia’s exports and the principal source of imports and investment, was pushing to increase commodity trade within the Empire. The priority of rural research was affirmed in 1928 by Julius who “returned from UK more than ever convinced that the future of Australia was wrapped in agriculture and that CSIR and Council should focus on this sector – indeed he feared overproduction in manufacturing!”24

Approach to research

CSIR’s approach to research was established from the start. On 12 April 1926, the day before its first formal meeting, the Executive Committee met informally to draw ‘up a list for Julius to consult Prime Minister about the next day’ and reached broad agreement on the way they would manage the new organisation.25 According to Rivett’s notes they agreed:

1. not to act as scientific directors and judges of research; 2. to determine on the best available advice what problems should be attacked; 3. to find the best man to put in charge of the investigation of such problems; and 4. to provide full opportunity to such men to solve their problems; if necessary severely curtailing the list of problems to be tackled in order that those chosen may be concentrated upon and not made to suffer from lack of funds or attention.

CSIR’s adherence to these principles underpinned its success and growth in the decades which followed.

The first, devolution of responsibility for the scientific research required to solve the problem, signalled the importance of a scientific ethos and scientific independence as well as the intent, to the extent possible, to avoid the hands-on involvement of politicians and bureaucrats.26 The independent scientific spirit, extended overseas as well, as can be seen in a letter from Thorburn Brailsford-Robertson, the Chief of Animal Nutrition to Rivett in 1929: 27

I feel with you that we must make strong stand against any kind of paternal dictation which would reduce us to the status of lab-boys of British scientific administrators. We have our own judgments, weak or strong, as time will show, and for better or worse we must stand by them

24 Julius (1928). 25 Rivett (1926). 26 This did not exclude a continuing detailed interest in CSIR’s scientific research by Rivett. 27 Quoted in Schedvin (1987) p.82.

The second, determining project priorities on the best advice available signalled the need for a systematic process to weigh up the benefits of investing in one industry problem rather than another. 28

The third, putting the best man in charge signalled a commitment to excellence. At an early meeting this was made clear:

in the opinion of this Council the problems awaiting solution are so vast and difficult that it is essential that men of outstanding quality should be secured to devote the whole of their time to efforts at solution29

(The underlying assumption in this statement and in Rivett’s notes - that scientists were men - reflected the attitudes and practices of the time. We return to this matter in the concluding section)

Under its Act, CSIR had considerable discretion in appointing staff “on such terms and conditions as it felt necessary” subject to the Minister's approval. In the first five years the Executive appointed 12 Chiefs of Divisions or Officers-in-Charge of Sections (Table 2). CSIR had inherited 17 ‘investigations’ from the Institute: some of these were abandoned, some combined into more coherent programs, and some continued under the same leader. A. V. Lyon30, the horticulturist at Mildura, E. S. West31, the irrigation expert at Griffith and I. H. Boas, the pulp and paper expert were in the latter category. Each had deep connections with the users of their results, which were published in trade magazines and CSIR pamphlets rather than in international science journals. F. L. Stillwell had been a consultant for the Institute but was not, in 1926, employed by the Institute. For the Division of Animal Health, the Executive chose an experienced administrator, J. A. Gilruth32, under whose ‘inspired guidance the scattered activities of existing organisations working on animal health were co-ordinated’ and for work on entomology, botany and animal nutrition and soils it chose internationally established scientists who could develop their disciplines in Australia. J. R. Vickery (food preservation & transport) and I. Clunies Ross (animal health) were first sent overseas for training. Note that Stillwell, Clunies Ross and Prescott were Foundation Fellows of the Australian Academy of Science in 1954 and Vickery a Foundation Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences in 1975. The task of recruiting top scientists from overseas became easier as CSIR’s scientific reputation grew, and it was supplemented by a government funded scheme, the Science and Industry Endowment Fund,33 which enabled promising scientists to study overseas and return to Australia.

Table 2 about here

The fourth, the commitment to focusing on fewer problems and applying sufficient resources to research them in depth, demarcated researchers in CSIR from those of State-based agencies who were required to respond to a wide range of issues. It meant dedicated teams could tackle significant national problems in a concentrated way.

Research activity

28 The approach to priority setting is reminiscent of the National Research Priority Framework adopted by CSIRO in the 1990s. 29 CSIR (1926). 30 CSIROpedia (2020) 31 CSIROpedia (2020) 32 CSIROpedia (2020) 33 Smith and Spurling (2015).

The Executive Committee drew on State committees and consultative industry committees in the process of deciding research programs with the potential to contribute significantly to industrial productivity and exports. These fell within the priority areas of plant pests and diseases; animal pests and diseases, food storage and transport; economic entomology, forest products, horticulture, irrigation, soils and mineragraphic investigations. (Fuels research was deferred in favour of programs underway in Britain whose results were expected to be shared with Australia.) Research divisions were established in the selected areas, and targeted programs developed under the oversight of the Executive Committee, in consultation with State and industry committees.

CSIR’s revealed priorities can be seen in Table 3 which tracks the allocation of resources over the period 1926-1937. The table lists scientific staff by Division, drawing on data in CSIR’s Annual Reports,34 and shows the dominant primary production component of CSIR research, and complementary research for the (food and timber) primary processing industries. Exceptionally CSIR also maintained a small radio research group in a program with the Department of Defence and the Post Master General’s Department. Over the decade the number of CSIR scientific staff rose to 184.

Table 3 about here

CSIR’s approach was problem-driven. A common feature of early research was investigating local problems using existing knowledge and finding solutions appropriate to Australian conditions, for example, in the detection of trace element deficiencies affecting the pastoral and cropping industries and in the identification of technology improvements to reform the timber industry.

Rivett stressed the importance of research into underlying systemic issues. In most cases divisions approached their tasks by “linking research to specific field problems”35 and working toward industry outcomes by understanding the problem. There was limited longer term, fundamental research apart from areas such as animal nutrition and entomology. At the time just two categories of research, fundamental or applied, were in use: overall it seems appropriate to classify this activity predominantly as “strategic basic research”.36

While its research was framed by industry objectives, CSIR was not directly involved in its transfer to rural producers, this being the province of state-funded extension agencies. This meant there was limited contact with research users other than in the food, irrigation, and forest products industries. Patenting was not pursued. The main technology transfer activity was via the CSIR Bulletins (from 1927 to 1948) and the Journal of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (1927-1948) for informed industry readers and the scientific community. These provided information on results of CSIR research to rural producers, technology studies of agricultural problems, and complemented an effective state-based extension service.

34 CSIR Annual Reports (1926-1949). 35 Schedvin (1987) p. 175. 36 CSIR research followed the tradition of the English philosopher. Francis Bacon, whose ‘outlook was one of an encyclopaedic science that sought to establish where things fit’ and of the Royal Society the charter of which charged the Fellows with ‘further promoting by the authority of experiments the sciences of natural things and of (the) useful arts…to the advantage of the human race. ‘ In modern terminology it was predominantly “strategic basic research”.

Research programs and outcomes

CSIR’s research activities for the pre-war period are well covered in Schedvin (1987).37 Briefly they comprised animal health and nutrition (Sydney and Adelaide) whose veterinary and nutritional research focused on livestock industries and the problems arising from Australia’s distinctive environment. This included animal disease control through investigations into trace element deficiencies, and vaccine development; plant industry (Canberra) investigation into noxious weeds, plant pathologies and physiology studies of crops, plants and weeds; soils and irrigation (Griffith and Merbein) research addressed problems associated with salinity in the Murray-Murrumbidgee irrigation areas, and did a survey of Australian soils; entomology, (Canberra) focused on the biological control of weeds and insect pests affecting the pastoral and cropping industries, for example blowfly strike in sheep; forest products (Melbourne) focused on seasoning, timber preparation and preservation and termite control affecting the local timber industry, and food preservation and transport (Sydney) addressed beef, butter and fruit preservation problems related to refrigerated exports to the UK.

By 1937 CSIR had notched up a number of scientific achievements of economic importance (Table 4) and had developed a robust model for linking science and economic development, and a template which was later adopted by other countries in the British Empire.38 The CSIR historian Boris Schedvin observed that: 39

one of the remarkable features of the early history of (CSIR) is that the alien culture of science was nurtured within a public corporation and was able to mature sufficiently to become self- sustaining and to establish its own identity

Table 4 about here

From a difficult beginning it had survived the financial pressures of the Depression years, managed to recruit many excellent scientists and had grown to a total of 184 scientific staff. It had built a solid reputation for helping Australia’s primary industries, through the way it selected its projects, conducted its research programs, and delivered its scientific outcomes. In the introduction to the Proceedings of a national seminar on science in Australia held in 1951, Oliphant noted that:40

[Rivett] was able to attract and keep men of the highest calibre, provide them with good salaries and conditions of work, and allow them great freedom in their methods of attack upon the fundamental as well as the practical aspects of their problems. Results of outstanding importance were obtained and applied to primary industries so that CSIR earned the support of both farmers and governments. The scope of its activities increased and by the time war broke out in 1939 it outshone the universities completely in both fundamental and applied science. 41

Contributing to Australia’s defence: 1937-1945

37 Schedvin (1987) pp. 126-170. 38 India, South Africa and Pakistan [Schedvin (1987) p. 177] 39 Schedvin (1987) p.38. 40 Oliphant et al. (1952), p.vi. 41 In primary industry research; CSIR conducted minimal secondary industry research before the second world war.

By the late 1930s the Australian economy had diversified. It continued to depend on its primary industries to maintain its balance of trade, but its secondary industries were also important for economic growth and employment. The manufacturing sector had expanded with the growth of metal products, machinery, and appliance industries. It was primarily directed toward import replacement, rather than international markets. Domestic manufacturing was encouraged behind a wall of tariffs and quantitative controls.

During the 1930s the political tensions in Europe and Asia intensified. There was a growing concern to reduce dependence on manufacturing imports and to improve Australia’s self-sufficiency in the event of war and disruptions to trade. This led to the Federal government’s decision in 1935 to establish the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation, and in 1936 to commission a Secondary Industries Testing and Research Committee (SITRC) to plan development of the manufacturing sector and to minimise the dependence on supplies external to Australia.

CSIRO and secondary industry research

George Julius, Chairman of CSIR, was a central figure in the SITRC review, helping draft the terms of reference and chairing the Review Committee.42 The Government adopted the Committee’s recommendations to support Australian industry, namely: 43

• a National Standards Laboratory be established in CSIR, to provide standards referencing as well as facilities for scientific measurement, calibration and testing services. This addressed a serious bottleneck affecting precision operations in the manufacturing sector; • an Aircraft and Engine Testing and Research Laboratory (shortly to become the CSIR Division of Aeronautics) be established; • a research service for secondary industries covering the fields metallurgy, chemistry, physics and engineering (which became the CSIR Division of Industrial Chemistry) be set up; and • a technical information service be created in CSIR to support secondary industries.

This expansion of CSIR into secondary industry research created a new role for science in the Australian economy and, according to Home 44 was ‘a major turning point in Australian scientific life.’ It meant a change in CSIR’s relationship with industry. On the one hand the rationale for CSIR’s involvement in standards and the supply of technical information was similar to that for rural research, namely that this would deliver benefit to industry generally and not to specific firms. On the other hand how CSIR would choose projects and transfer technology in the rest of its secondary industry research was not clear.

The government saw the country benefiting from increased employment through the SITRC initiative. Prime Minister Joseph Lyons stated: 45

The proposal to extend research in secondary industry marks an important step forward in the development of Australia and although it will impose increased financial obligations upon the Government the money will be

42 Currie and Graham (1971). 43 SITRC (1937). 44 Home (1988) p. 221. 45 Lyons (1936).

well spent if we secure more economical production and a widening of the field of employment. The contraction of world markets for primary products has forced us to realise that the expansion of secondary industries is not only essential to the provision of an increased home market for primary products, but it is necessary to place Australia in a position to carry a progressively larger population.

Moreover, the government was committed to funding the SITRC initiative, the Federal Treasurer Richard Casey stating in February 1938: 46

there need be no delay on the score of availability of money to push on rapidly with the development of secondary industry research

Research activity

The Second World War had a major impact on CSIR, especially after the attack on Pearl Harbour. Early in the war CSIR’s research program had focused, in the main, on rural productivity and food production while its secondary industry research had grown slowly. From 1941 though there was a hectic scramble to increase Australia’s defence capacities and to expand essential production by drawing on the nation’s scientific workforce.47 CSIR and the universities channelled their research to address pressing national problems.

In late 1941 CSIR was instructed by Minister John Dedman48 ‘to give careful consideration to its programme of work in order to ascertain what investigations could be held in abeyance during wartime with a view to concentrating energies on problems connected with the war effort.’ In a subsequent address to the full Council he was reported as saying: 49

under existing conditions, it was not easy to carry on all activities associated with peace time… Minister Dedman realised that certain peace-time activities had already been set on one side by CSIR and this must continue progressively for some time. Some investigations might have to be discarded for the time being. It was essential to devote all activities to winning the war. He was more than sympathetic with peace-time projects, but sacrifices must be made.

CSIR responded robustly. By 1942 the Divisions of Food Preservation and Transport, Forest Products, Aeronautics, Industrial Chemistry, the National Standards Laboratory and the Lubricants and Bearings Section were practically full-time on direct war work. The contribution was wide-ranging and included collaboration with universities in a number of areas. Table 5 shows CSIR’s research over the 1940-45 period in areas of industry metrology, defence materiel, food and food processing, tropic related research and import replacement based on Australian materials. In addition, the Division of Radiophysics was set up in secret as part of the Allied program on radar.

Table 5 about here

A prominent example of CSIR’s wartime work is the Division of Industrial Chemistry which was headed by Dr Ian Wark who had been recruited from the Electrolytic Zinc Company. The Division had a wide mandate: “to

46 Cited in Currie and Graham (1974). 47 Schedvin (1987) p.281. 48 Dedman (1941). 49 CSIR (1941).

promote greater technical efficiency in established industries; to stimulate the establishment of new industries; to encourage the use of raw materials of Australian origins; to see substitutes for raw materials at presently imported; and to find uses for by products not now utilised”.50 This included development of processes to make essential chemicals using Australian materials, for example, ergot, a drug essential for gynaecology, was separated from rye by means of novel flotation process, based on mineral beneficiation. It also contributed directly to the Defence effort via the manufacture of the plasticiser used in the nose caps for bullets and shells.

Moreover, and in addition to the activities in Table 5, CSIR supported industry through its problem fixing and technology advice, counselling on scientific and engineering matters, implementing process improvements, as well as testing and calibration services.

CSIR’s valuable contribution was rewarded by a rapid growth in funding and resources. Table 6 shows that the number of scientific employees grew from 228 to 642 over the period 1939-45, with the total of those involved in secondary industry research alone surging from 14 to 361. The number in primary industry research also grew.

Table 6 about here

Looking back in 1976, former CSIRO Chief Executive Frederick White reflected: 51

it is questionable whether the activities recommended by the Secondary Industry Testing and Research Committee would have been accepted, let alone made such rapid progress, if the war had not occurred. Because CSIR agreed to undertake important wartime work, money was readily available and growth was rapid.

Promoting Australian industry

During the war CSIR went from being predominantly an agricultural research organisation to one with an equal capability in the physical sciences. The problems it addressed were largely determined by the needs of the war-time economy and the government shaped the research priorities for both primary and secondary industries. It was a matter of responding to the pressing demands articulated by government, and indirectly, by industry. The careful project planning and selection processes of the pre-war period were no longer applied.

The war also served to camouflage the potential problems in technology transfer issues that arose with CSIR’s expansion into secondary industry research. This was because during the war the arrangements for the transfer of results were largely set out in advance. In addition, scientists were in contact with industry users in the design and conduct of projects, in implementing process changes and in the scaling-up of laboratory operations. CSIR also contributed more widely via the technical information service for Australian firms that was set up by the SITRC Review.

50 Wark (1979) p.12. 51 White (1976), p. 636.

Another consequence was the shift toward more applied research. Home 52 notes that almost none of the work during this time was new fundamental research but rather involved adapting existing processes to Australian ingredients and operating conditions, and identifying and scaling up the processes to obtain key materials from Australian resources. This focus on applications and industry support was a source of concern for Rivett who worried about CSIR becoming “a mob of testers”, and who lamented in 1943 that “if we are not careful our whole secondary industrial side will just become a mechanised crowd of housekeepers for factories”. 53 This concern appears overstated in hindsight. The importance of building a deep understanding of the problems being addressed was common to much of CSIR (and not just radar research). For example, Wilf Ewers, a researcher in the Division of Industrial Chemistry has noted the approach at the time was: 54

Whatever practical problem you are faced with you should take it to as fundamental level as you need to. That meant understanding your solution.

Moreover, the war was a time when a number of strategic research capabilities were seeded in CSIR which formed the basis of numerous Divisions in later years.55

Charting new directions 1945-49

With the end of the war Australia moved into a period of nation building and economic and population growth. The rural industries remained the centrepiece of its exports (Figure 1) and improving rural productivity continued to be a national priority. In particular, there were worries about the growing competition that wool, Australia’s principal export, faced from synthetic textiles. The manufacturing sector had accessed advanced technologies as part of the war effort. There was a desire to encourage its further growth after 1945 as a central component of a modern economy and as source of employment, something that would become still more important with growing post- war immigration. The approach adopted was to build strong domestically focused manufacturing industries behind tariff walls and, in the main, rely on technology imports.

CSIR emerged from WWII greatly enhanced and dominated Australia’s scientific landscape56. It had contributed to a wide range of war-related activities and established itself as the national flag carrier for science. Moreover, it was a beneficiary of the growing awareness of the power of science and technology engendered by the transformative changes in fields such as air and land transport, medical technologies, and new materials. CSIR stood to benefit from this new climate of “scientific optimism”.

Schedvin57 notes that federal politicians now saw CSIR as an” indispensable national institution”” and supported growth in its funding. 58 Indeed, the growth in Treasury funding in the aftermath of the War allowed the number of scientific staff to grow from 642 to 891 in the four years from 1945 to 1949 (Table 6).

52 Home (1988) p. 240. 53 Schedvin (1987) p. 288. 54 Ewers and Spurling (2012). 55 For example, the Division of Industrial Chemistry spawned the Divisions of Chemical Physics, Physical Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, Mineral Chemistry, Applied Mineralogy, as well as the Wool Textile Research Laboratory. 56 University research was largely restricted to pockets of excellence and suffered because of small staffs, heavy teaching loads, restricted facilities, and salaries which lagged well behind CSIR because universities were financed by States and not by the federal government (Oliphant et al, (1952) p.vii). Substantial change did not occur until after the Murray Report (1957). 57 Schedvin (1987) p. 310. 58 Schedvin (1987) p. 318.

By 1949 the total employment (including non-scientific staff) was 2479, making it one of the largest public research organisations in the world. 59

Public funded research was not a high priority in nation building after 1945 60 and the broader role of science and innovation in industry and employment policies was largely neglected. The areas in which the government 61 looked to CSIR to expand its research were in defending wool as a textile fibre, promoting livestock production, developing northern Australia, conducting building research, and supporting the coal industry. It no longer sought CSIR’s involvement, for example, in engines research, it being understood that technologies for the automotive and other industries would come from overseas direct investment.

The complexity of the new enlarged CSIR meant that management systems needed an overhaul. The Executive was increased to five members and now included Ian Clunies Ross and Frederick White, two men who were later to become successive chairmen of CSIRO. With the retirement of Julius, Rivett, who had shown astonishing capacity as chief executive, moved to Chairman (Table 1). In addition, the expansion of CSIR led to a devolution of power and influence to Divisional Chiefs.

CSIR was caught up in a political controversy after the war as a result of tensions between the need for military-level secrecy (e.g. in areas such as aeronautical research) and the competing need for scientific freedom to conduct first class research and publish results (See Figure 3). This culminated in 1949 in the transfer of the Division of Aeronautics to the Department of Supply and the reconstitution of CSIR as CSIRO.

Research activity

Looking beyond the political turbulence, CSIR was in a highly favourable position in the late 1940s. With its political and public standing, Treasury funding support and having relinquished its war-time commitments, it was in a strong position to exercise discretion in charting its future path.

Scientific employment in CSIR continued to grow after 1945. On the primary industry side important areas of growth were areas of plant industry and animal health & nutrition. In part this reflected an expansion of research related to the wool industry (which continued into the 1960s62) covering the supply chain from pasture improvement and sheep health through to fleece removal and textile research. Other important areas were pasture research to help develop northern Australia and work on myxomatosis to control the rabbit population (which achieved success in the early 1950s.)

Among the secondary industry divisions, the Division of Radiophysics moved into radioastronomy, in which it was to become a world leader, and meteorological physics (directed toward cloud seeding as an approach to drought management). It invented the world’s first solar radio-spectrograph in 1948,63 and in 1949 CSIRAC,64

59 Schedvin (1987) p. 286. 60 CSIR’s administration and organisation was reviewed after the war (Dunk and Coombs, 1948) but not the broader context of science and technology (including universities) in post war national development. In retrospect this can be seen as a missed opportunity. 61 Schedvin (1987) p. 311. 62 The wool industry contributed 12.7% of CSIR’s budget in 1949/50 (15.5% of CSIRO’s budget in 1959/60). The industry was the preponderant source of non-Treasury funding in the decades following the war. 63 CSIROpedia (2020b). 64 CSIR Annual report 1948/49 p.93, CSIROpedia (2020c). It was used in-house in CSIR and CSIRO until 1955 but not pursued commercially.

the world’s fourth electronic computer. The Division of Industrial Chemistry developed an advanced capability in methods and instruments for chemical research, which led to the invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy in 1952. Other areas included industrial fermentation, heavy metals extraction, materials properties and metallurgy. A new Division of Building Materials was also created, which undertook applied research linked to Australia’s post war housing and construction boom.

New directions

CSIR effectively was given responsibility for interpreting anew its legislative mandate to promote Australian primary and secondary industries. The government allowed latitude to CSIR in choosing its post war path and deciding the best means to conduct research which would promote Australian industry, as required under its legislated mandate. In the more devolved management structure this translated to increased power to Divisional chiefs, who had important personal roles in deciding the Division’s research and selecting research priorities.

A challenge for CSIRwas finding the right balance of research. It was widely felt within the organisation that the pendulum had swung too far towards applied research and short-term problem solving during the war, and there was a need to change.65 Rivett had foreseen the need for CSIR to move to fill the gap likely to arise at the end of the war when universities would be heavily encumbered by an influx of post war students. He wrote in 1944: 66

CSIR would have to carry considerable and increasing responsibility in connection with fundamental research in Australia and hence must not confine its attention to assisting industry only on short-term housekeeping problems

The desire to strengthen the long- term underlying research in CSIR was shared by the Executive and Divisional Chiefs at the end of the war and it continued in following years. This was reflected in the scientific recruitment to the organisation but also in the output of published research. Table 7 shows how the number of academic publications grew rapidly in the years after the war, during a time when CSIR (then CSIRO) built a pre-eminent position in a number of research fields.67 Looking at the organisation as a whole there was a shift in the “centre of gravity” along the spectrum from applied research and toward fundamental research.

Table 7 about here

A related challenge was technology transfer. As discussed CSIR had a robust model in place for working with primary industry. Individual rural producers had many important problems in common but none had the resources to solve them. This justified taxpayer funded intervention, and schemes were introduced under which rural producers contributed to the costs via industry levies. For secondary industry research, though, the situation was less clear. CSIR did not seek to do research for the exclusive benefit of individual

65 Rivett had strong views on this: ”we shall fail in the end unless quite 50% of our effort is directed to finding out how the machine of nature works without a thought as to whether that knowledge may or may not be useful in this decade or the next century in showing farmers how to save sixpence or politicians how to increase revenue from taxation” (Rivett, 1941). 66 Rivett (1944). 67 A similar shift to greater emphasis on fundamental research can be observed, internationally, in public funded research in the decades following World War II.

companies, believing rather that this was something they should do themselves. One alternative was to set up research associations of small firms for which it would work on problems common to the individual industry. In the event though this approach had only limited success.68

Rather, CSIR shared the post-war mindset of a number of other countries about transferring industrial research to industry. The simple model was that that excellent research would by itself lead to commercially valuable results: it was enough for research organisations to focus on excellent research, make the results known and then leave the implementation to others. This perspective, which sidestepped the problem of technology transfer to the manufacturing sector, held sway in Australia and elsewhere well into the 1960s.69

Conclusions

CSIR had established itself as a key national institution by 1949. It had built a solid reputation for its primary industry research and, following the decision to expand into secondary research, it had burnished this reputation through its contributions to Australia’s war-time economy and defence, as well as to radar development. After the War, it held a position of high political and public standing and was well poised to play a substantial role in the growth of the national economy.

The question of how CSIR managed its primary legislative function – promoting primary and secondary industries in Australia – is illuminated by looking at three periods from 1926 to 1949.

From 1926 until the Second World War CSIR focused on support for Australia’s primary industries, the bulwark of national exports. During this time the way it promoted Australian industry was by identifying areas of national economic importance, conducting research on priority problems, identified in consultation with state and industry committees, and focusing on practical outcomes. Transferring technology, or taking research results into the marketplace, was generally not the concern of CSIR. Instead, under a 1927 agreement the main responsibility for technology transfer to rural industries rested with State-funded rural extension agencies.

The second period, from the late 1930s to 1945, was initiated by the government’s decision in 1937 to expand CSIR’s capacity for secondary industry research. This broadened CSIR’s scientific capabilities, particularly in the physical sciences, but posed problems for technology transfer because the approach adopted for the rural industries did not apply to manufacturing industries. This problem was hidden from view during the Second World War as CSIR mobilised its resources for the national war effort and addressed technology bottlenecks, found replacements for critical imports, increased supplies of food and Defence materiel, and developed radar technologies. Promoting Australian industry during these years was a task mediated by the government’s strong role in a war-time economy. It meant being responsive to government and industry demands and working directly with industry users in the conduct and uptake of the research.

The third period began in 1945. CSIR had more than tripled in size during the war and benefited from continuing strong funding support from Treasury. Although it was expected CSIR would largely resume its agenda of research for primary industry it would also expand its research in several areas highlighted by

68 Upstill (2018) p. 5. 69 Upstill (2018) p. 4.

government . CSIR nonetheless remained well resourced and was able to exercise considerable discretion in deciding its post war directions. It did this at a time of post-war optimism about the power of fundamental science to transform societies.

We argue that CSIR changed its approach to promoting Australian industry in the post war years. The view at the time, and one shared by other research organisations around the world was that strong underlying research was the key to economic progress and industry growth, and that technology transfer was not a primary concern of the research organisation (Upstill, 2018). CSIR came to place reduced emphasis on practical industry outcomes in favour of more emphasis on longer term underlying research. The change was not radical – CSIR’s research for rural industries continued largely as before – but it can be a seen as shift in the “centre of gravity” of CSIR’s research portfolio along the spectrum toward fundamental research. This approach to promoting Australian industry shaped the agenda of CSIR’s successor organisation, CSIRO, well into the 1960s.70 The scientific strength and standing of CSIR/CSIRO would grow but transferring the benefits of this research to manufacturing industry would remain a problem.

As a closing note we come back to CSIR’s 1926 commitment71 to recruit “men of outstanding quality”. The gender bias that pervaded Australian science at the time continued in the decades that followed. The photograph of the CSIR chiefs and Officers-in-charge in 1949 is of 29 men in suits. Notwithstanding several women making their mark at the time, such as Jean McNamara72 (who worked with CSIR on myxomatosis) Jean Haney-White, 73 Enid Plante, 74 Betty Allan 75 and Ellinor Archer 76 the number of women research scientists was small. The source data for CSIR’s scientific employment show the proportion of females in ranged from 5 to 16 percent with an average of 11 per cent over the years 1926-1949.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interests.

Acknowledgements

This research did not receive any specific funding.

References

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Table 1. Federal Government Ministers and CSIR Executive 1926-1949

Government Minister responsible for CSIR** CSIR Executive Committee Nationalist/Coalition 1923-29 Prime Minister George A. Julius (Chairman) 1923-29 A. C. David Rivett (Chief Executive) Prime Minister Stanley Bruce William J. Newbiggin (1926-27) Arnold E. V. Richardson (1927-45) Labor 1929-32 E. J. Holloway 1929-32 Prime Minister James Scullin United Australia Party/Coalition 1932-37 A. J. McLachlan 1932-39 1937-38 R. G. Casey Prime Minister Joseph Lyons 1939-40 Prime Minister 1940 H. S. Gullett 1939-41 1940-41 H. E. Holt Prime Minister Robert Menzies Labor 1941-49 J. J. Dedman 1941-45 Prime Minister John Curtin

1945-49 A. C. David Rivett (Chairman) (1946-49) Prime Minister Ben Chifley Arnold E. V. Richardson (Chief Executive) Stewart H. Bastow * Frederick W. G. White * Ian Clunies Ross *

* In 1946 the CSIR Executive was increased from 3 to 5 members ** Excluding Ministers/Prime Ministers serving less than two months

Table 2. First Chiefs of divisions (or Officers-in-charge of sections) in CSIR*

Publication record Division/Section on appointment* Service Age when (at retirement) appointed Isaac H. Boas Forest Products 0 (0) 1928- 1944 50 BSc MSc Thorburn Brailsford Robertson Animal Nutrition 116 (117) 1928- 1930 44 BSC, PhD, DSc Ian Clunies Ross McMaster Animal Health 0 (0) 1931- 1937 32 BVSc, DVSc Laboratories Bertram T Dickson Economic Botany 5 (6) 1928- 1951 42 BSc, BA, PhD John A. Gilruth Animal Health 1 (1) 1930-1935 59 MRCVS, DVSc (Honorary)

A.V. ‘Bill’ Lyon Research Station, Merbein 0 (0) 1928- 1950 42 MAgrSci

Charles J. Martin Animal Nutrition 55 (55) 1931- 1933 64 BSc, MRCS, LSA, MB, DSc James A. Prescott Soils 8 (12) 1927- 1947 37 BSc, MSc, DSc Frank L. Stillwell Mineragraphic 0 (0) 1927- 1953 39 DSc Investigations Robin J. Tillyard Economic Entomology 23 (32) 1928- 1934 53 MA, ScD (Cantab), DSc Sydney), FRS James R. Vickery Food Preservation & 0 (0) 1931- 1967 29 BSc, PhD Transport Section Eric S. West Research Station, Griffith 1 (5) 1926-1957 30 BSc, MS * Information sourced from Australian Dictionary of Biography (2020), Web of Science (2020), Scopus (2020), and CSIRO Research Publications Repository (2020).

Table 3. CSIR scientific staff by Division, 1926-1937

192 192 192 193 193 193 193 193 193 193 193 CSIR Divisions 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Division of Plant Industry (a) 1 6 14 15 17 19 23 28 31 35 34

Division of Soils (b) 3 6 6 8 9 9 9 11 11 15 Irrigation Settlement Research (c) 10 11 10 11 13 13 13 13 14 14 Division of Economic Entomology 2 14 18 22 22 23 17 17 19 24 Division of Animal Health & Nutrition (d) 17 20 23 25 31 33 37 33 35 36 38 Division of Forest Products 6 9 9 11 11 17 17 17 20 27 27

Division of Food Preservation & Transport (e) 2 4 6 5 7 9 8 11 10 10 Fisheries Investigation Unit 3 6 Ore Dressing Investigations 3 3 3 Mineragraphic Investigations 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

Radio Research 2 6 6 5 4 5 6 8 7 Other (f) 1 3 5 4 4 3 4 2 4 2 4

Total 26 56 89 102 116 129 140 133 153 170 184

Data drawn from CSIR Annual Reports for each year. These figures do not include Head Office and other corporate staff, nor “typists, laboratory assistants and miscellaneous workers.” A number of units and divisions had name changes during the period 1927-1937 as footnoted : (a) Division of Economic Botany 1927-29; (b) Murray River Soil Investigation Unit (1927-29); (c) Commonwealth Research Stations Griffith (1927-39) and Merbein (1927-49); (d) Animal problems (1927-30), Division of Animal Nutrition (1927-1933), Division of Animal Health (1931-35); (e) Cold Storage Investigations Section (1926-31); (f) Comprising: Mineral deficiency of pastures investigation (1928-45); Flying fox investigations 1929-31; Fuel research 1929-30; Thrips investigation (1934-36); pottery investigations (1927-28; and Wood taint in butter investigations (1931-33).

Table 4. Significant commercial and scientific research outcomes

Outcome Description

Prickly pear control Introduction of cactoblastus cactorum moth led to restoration of grazing lands overrun with prickly pear ( initiated by the Institute of Science and Industry) Chilled beef New procedures for high quality exports to Europe Bovine pleuropneumonia Development of safe and effective vaccine Control of Ccoast disease in sheep Identification of cobalt and copper deficiencies in soil Control of Denmark disease in cattle Identification of element deficiencies Black disease in sheep Characterisation of disease and vaccine for its prevention treatment necrotic hepatitis Zebu cattle crossbreeding Introduction to northern Australia cattle industry Blue mould affecting tobacco leaf Development of spray to control mould and enable exports St Johns wort Biological control via introduced beetle

Bitter pit disease in apples Techniques for harvesting to avoid bitter pit and enable shipped exports National pedology survey Studies of soils of Australia relating to vegetation and climate Rising salt in irrigation areas Techniques to manage fertility of irrigated soil Timber seasoning Industry wide kiln drying improvement program Timber preservation Treatment procedures and protocols

Table 5. Examples of war-time research – CSIR 1940-1945

Upgrading industry metrology (National Standards Import replacement, Australian materials (Industrial Laboratory) Chemistry)

• calibration and testing for industry • medicines from plants – morphine, hyoscine, • precision gauges/slip gauge hyocyamine, digitalis • optical glass testing • production of chemicals for pharmaceutical • high-temperature pyrometry drugs (ethylene chlorohydrin for novocaine) • pilot plant for ergot production Defence (Radiophysics, Aeronautics, Lubricants & • agar from seaweed Bearings, Forest Products) • newsprint from eucalyptus

• timber kiln drying technology • radar • • aluminium sheeting in airframe timber substitutes in aircraft (aluminium • air filters to minimise cylinder wear shortage) • aerodynamic testing of new aircraft • new plywoods, veneering • aerodrome runway construction • manganese dioxide, and battery grade graphite • measurement of muzzle velocity from local sources • photoelectric chronometer • gelation for flame-thrower fuels • beryllium copper alloys, low- tin solders, • casting technology (with CAC and Lempriere Pty production of titanium metal powder Ltd) • monazite and rutile investigations • bearings (CuPb alloy) • cerium oxide, chromium from chromite ore • improved lubricants for piston wear • tin from cassiterite • safe handling of explosives • enzymes to improve recovery of wool from pelt - • synthetic resins additive for use in fighter fellmongering aircraft • Increased recovery of wool wax • native timbers in aircraft manufacture • shrink proofing of wool • synthetic rubber research Food and Food Processing (Food Preservation & • cement improvements --aggregate reaction Transport, Fisheries, Entomology) • charcoal burners for motor vehicles

• vegetable seed development & disease control • irrigation cultivation methods Tropic Related (Food Preservation & Transport, • disease control and pasture improvement Entomology) research • epidemiology of sheep infestation • quinine replacement (malaria) • improved process to reduce Vitamin C loss • mosquito control and sprays • canning technology • insect repellents and sprays (pyrethrum • survival ration packs research) • food composition tables for rations • anti-mould treatment of gun cotton bags • dehydrated foodstuffs – vegetables • tropic proofing of electrical equipment • wheat storage treatment • butter for tropical theatres (non- refrigerated • pilot-plant drying milk to powder transport) • fishing efficiency e.g. trawling Tasmania • dehydrated foodstuffs

Sources: Schedvin (1987), Home (1988), Wark (1979).

Table 6. CSIR scientific staff by Division, 1938-1949

193 193 194 194 194 194 194 194 194 194 194 194 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PRIMARY Division of Plant Industry 36 39 40 41 41 51 47 49 62 87 103 112 Division of Soils 15 18 19 20 20 20 25 29 33 40 38 44 Irrigation Settlement Research (a) 15 16 14 14 18 15 18 24 23 27 29 32 Division of Economic Entomology 24 24 21 21 21 25 27 27 34 36 36 42 Division of Animal Health & Nutrition 47 48 56 55 76 53 55 Division of Animal Health & Production 45 51 63 68 79 Division of Biochemistry & General Nutrition 21 22 22 27 27 Division of Fisheries 12 13 13 13 16 14 17 18 18 20 25 26 Mathematics Statistics Section (b) 2 2 4 4 4 6 6 10 11 11 14 15 Flax Research Section 5 6 8 9 Coal Research section 6 Other Primary (c) 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2

PRIMARY PROCESSING Division of Forest Products 31 35 42 42 44 46 53 52 49 61 70 74 Div. of Food Preservation & Transport 12 13 18 18 24 30 28 34 36 39 42 44 Ore Dressing Investigations 3 3 2 2 3 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 Dairy Products Section 1 1 3 3 5 7 5 6 5 5 5 Wool Textile Research Laboratories 4 8

SECONDARY Division of Industrial Chemistry (d) 26 26 39 72 78 75 77 79 94 112 Division of Tribophysics 6 9 16 17 17 17 22 26 26 Division of Radiophysics (e) n.a. n.a. n.a n.a. n.a. n.a. 75 63 60 74 73 Building Material Research Section 3 12 24 29 36 Other Secondary (f) 4 13 18

Mineragraphic Investigations 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 Radio Research 8 6 2 2 3 6 6 12 12 10 5 8 National Standards Laboratory 3 22 22 38 67 81 7 8 9 9 10 Division of Electrotechnology 19 19 18 25 27 Division of Metrology 25 18 24 23 23 Division of Physics 20 24 24 23 25 Division of Aeronautics (g) 3 19 19 30 41 49 65 77 94 88

TOTAL 209 228 303 311 393 476 524 642 685 793 887 891

The classification into primary and secondary industries follows CSIR’s conventions of the time.

Data drawn from CSIR Annual Reports for each year. These figures do not include Head Office and other corporate staff, nor “typists, laboratory assistants and miscellaneous workers.” A number of units and divisions had name changes during the period 1927-1937 as footnoted:(a) Commonwealth Research Stations Griffith (1927-39) and Merbein (1927-49); (b) Biometrics Section (1941-44); (c) Includes Mineral Deficiency of Pastures Investigation (1928-45) and Oenological Research (1946-49; (d) Includes Cement and Ceramics, Chemical Physics, Leather & Fellmongery, Organic Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, Wool Textiles, Chemical Engineering, and Materials Utilisation; (e) the Division conducted secret radar research during the war; Divisional scientific employment was first reported in the 1945 Annual Report; (f) Physical metallurgy, Meteorological Physics, Tracer Elements, Atomic Physics;(g) Moved to Department of Supply in 1949.

Table 7. CSIR/CSIRO publications 1926-1960

Journal Conference Book Year papers papers Reports chapters Books Total

1959/60 711 80 52 14 6 863 1958/59 649 71 48 18 3 789 1957/58 607 66 40 16 3 732 1956/57 512 41 29 5 4 591 1955/56 457 65 30 12 2 566 1954/55 452 64 32 16 3 567 1953/54 390 18 25 6 1 440 1952/53 390 19 24 5 0 438 1951/52 310 10 21 1 1 343 1950/51 255 16 9 8 6 294 1949/50 267 11 1 4 6 289 1948/49 170 10 21 3 0 204 1947/48 144 4 5 3 1 157 1946/47 146 3 4 4 18 175 1945/46 130 3 4 3 7 147 1944/45 102 4 1 0 2 109 1943/44 70 2 2 0 0 74 1942/43 86 8 7 2 0 103 1941/42 83 0 9 3 2 97 1940/41 69 0 1 3 3 76 1939/40 59 1 3 3 6 72 1938/39 61 1 1 5 0 68 1937/38 69 4 0 2 1 76 1936/37 72 0 1 0 7 80 1935/36 68 1 4 0 5 78 1934/35 53 0 2 1 2 58 1933/34 57 0 1 1 4 63 1932/33 67 2 1 1 0 71 1931/32 67 0 3 1 1 72 1930/31 34 1 1 1 0 37 1929/30 26 1 0 1 0 28 1928/29 28 1 0 1 1 31 1927/28 16 1 1 0 0 18 1926/27 9 0 4 0 0 13

Source: CSIRO Research Publications Repository (2020)

Figure 1. Australia’s terms of trade 1900-2016

Data calibrated relative to 2013-2014 base of 100

Source: Bingham (2016)

Figure 2. Australian exports 1904-2004

Source : Gillitzer and Kearns (2005)

Figure 3. The transition from CSIR to CSIRO

In September 1948 there began in the Commonwealth Parliament an attack on CSIR, and on Sir David Rivett personally. The attack centred on secrecy relating to nuclear weaponry and paranoia driven by growing Cold War concerns. In Australia, this kind of thinking never got to the same levels as in the US, where it was driven by the notorious Senator McCarthy. However, it became quite bitter and hurtful.

Rivett was defended robustly by the Minister for Defence and for CSIR, John Dedman, and the Prime Minister, Ben Chifley. However, the then Labor government was embroiled in controversy over the nationalisation of banks and felt it needed to do something more than simply rebut the attacks. A primary concern for this review became the independence of CSIR in appointing staff and it was decided to refer the situation to two of the most senior servants of the Commonwealth government –William Dunk, chairman of the Public Service Board, and Herbert Coombs, chairman of the Commonwealth Bank. A further consideration was the outdated management structure for CSIR, as mandated in its legislation. In theory, CSIR was governed by its Council, a body of 21 members. In fact, it was governed by its much smaller Executive Committee of five. CSIR saw this arrangement as helpful in maintaining its independence but it was obviously just a fiction and had to go. Coombs had concluded: “in its rapid growth and because of the dominance of Rivett’s scientific stature and personality CSIR had become excessively centralised and that organisational weakness had developed”. (Coombs 1981, p.266)

The legislation creating CSIR in 1926 had given the Council power to appoint officers without reference to the Public Service Board, the body responsible for all other appointments to the public service. This provision had been supported by then Prime Minister Bruce in recognition of the need to preserve scientific freedom. Even before the attacks in Parliament, the government had begun thinking that this freedom could not be supported in the post-war environment of the late 1940s. The ministers were inclined to change the status of CSIR from a semi-independent statutory authority to a full “department”, under the Public Service Board. Dunk and Coombs were persuaded by Rivett and others that such an arrangement would be inimical to the performance of world-class scientific research. The Prime Minister, Ben Chifley, was sympathetic, as evidenced by his letter appointing Dunk and Coombs to report to him on measures which would enable the government ‘…to meet reasonable criticism … without affecting the efficiency of the work of CSIR or impairing the sense of free inquiry to which scientific workers justly attach such importance’.(Coombs, 1981 ,p.265). A compromise was reached and enacted in the Science and Industry Research Act 1949.

Under the compromise, the name of CSIR was changed, and the Public Service Board took over from the Minister all decisions about salaries and conditions of service, CSIRO staff would have to subscribe to an Oath of Allegiance and be subject to security checks, and a five-member Executive would be the governing body. An Advisory Council and State Committees would take over the advisory roles of the Council and its committees.

Rivett was disappointed in this outcome, fearing for the independence of CSIRO. However, it turned out that his fears would be unjustified in practice. For example, despite the introduction into legislation of sweeping powers for the government to transfer sections of CSIRO into the public service, this power has only been exercised adversely once. That happened in 1975 under the Whitlam government and was quickly reversed after a massive public outcry.

CSIR’s research program was transferred directly to CSIRO under the Science and Industry Research Act 1949. The primary function was restated as:

the initiation and carrying out of scientific researches and investigations in connexion with, or for the promotion of, primary or secondary industries in the Commonwealth or in any Territory of the Commonwealth or in connexion with any other matter referred to the Organization by the Minister.